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[
"History of Kazakhstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Location of Kazakhstan in the WorldKazakhstan, the largest country fully within the Eurasian Steppe, has been a historical crossroads and home to numerous different peoples, states and empires throughout history.",
"Throughout history, peoples on the territory of modern Kazakhstan had nomadic lifestyle, which developed and influenced Kazakh culture.Human activity in the region began with the extinct ''Pithecanthropus'' and ''Sinanthropus'' one million–800,000 years ago in the Karatau Mountains and the Caspian and Balkhash areas.",
"Neanderthals were present from 140,000 to 40,000 years ago in the Karatau Mountains and central Kazakhstan.",
"Modern ''Homo sapiens'' appeared from 40,000 to 12,000 years ago in southern, central and eastern Kazakhstan.",
"After the end of the last glacial period (12,500 to 5,000 years ago) human settlement spread across the country and led to the extinction of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros.",
"Hunter-gatherer communes invented bows and boats and used domesticated wolves and traps for hunting.The Neolithic Revolution was marked by the appearance of animal husbandry and agriculture, giving rise to the Atbasar, Kelteminar, Botai, and Ust-Narym cultures.",
"The Botai culture (3600–3100 BC) is credited with the first domestication of horses, and ceramics and polished-stone tools also appeared during this period.",
"The fourth and third millennia witnessed the beginning of metal production, the manufacture of copper tools and the use of casting molds.",
"In the second millennium BC ore mining developed in central Kazakhstan.The change in climate forced the massive relocation of populations in and out of the steppe belt.",
"The dry period that lasted from the end of the second millennium to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC caused the depopulation of the arid belts and river-valley oasis areas, the populations moving north to the forest steppe.Central Asia during the Iron Age when it was populated by Iranic peoples, inducing modern Kazakhstan.After the end of the arid period at the beginning of the first millennium BC nomadic populations migrated into Kazakhstan from the west and the east, repopulating abandoned areas.",
"They included several Indo-Iranians, often known collectively as the Saka.In the 13th century, Kazakhstan was conquered by the Mongol Empire and controlled by the Golden Horde.",
"After the Golden Horde declined, the Uzbek Khanate broke away from it.",
"In 1465, Kazakh Khanate gained its independence from Uzbeks.",
"Portions of the country began to be annexed by the Russian Empire in the 18th century, the remainder gradually being absorbed into Russian Turkestan beginning in 1867.The modern Republic of Kazakhstan became a political entity during the 1930s Soviet subdivision of Russian Turkestan."
],
[
"Prehistory",
"Humans have inhabited Kazakhstan since the Lower Paleolithic, generally pursuing the nomadic pastoralism for which the region's climate and terrain are suitable.",
"Prehistoric Bronze Age cultures that extended into the region include the Srubna, the Afanasevo and the Andronovo.",
"Between 500 BC and 500 AD Kazakhstan was home to the Saka and the Huns, early nomadic warrior cultures.According to the Journal of Archaeological Science, in July 2020 scientists from South Ural State University studied two Late Bronze Age horses with the aid of radiocarbon dating from Kurgan 5 of the Novoilinovsky 2 cemetery in the Lisakovsk city in the Kostanay region.",
"Researcher Igor Chechushkov indicated that the Andronovites were riding horses several centuries earlier than many researchers had previously assumed.",
"Among the horses investigated, the stallion was nearly 20 years old and the mare was 18 years old.",
"According to scientists, animals were buried with the person they accompanied throughout their lives, and they were used not only for food but also for harnessing vehicles and riding."
],
[
"Turkic people migrated into Kazakhstan{{anchor|1st century to 8th century}}",
"Cataphract-style parade armor of a royal Saka from the Issyk kurgan.|alt=The largest extent of Xiongnu's influence in the 2nd century BC.At the beginning of the first millennium the steppes east of the Caspian were inhabited and settled by a variety of peoples, mainly nomads speaking Indo-European and Uralic languages, including the Alans, Aorsi, Budini, Issedones/Wusun, Madjars, Massagetae and Sakas.",
"The names, relations between and constituents of these peoples were sometimes fluid and interchangeable.",
"Some of them formed states, including Yancai (northwest of the Aral Sea) and Kangju in the east.",
"Over the course of several centuries the area became dominated by Turkic and other exogenous languages, which arrived with nomad invaders and settlers from the east.Following the entry of the Huns many of the previous inhabitants migrated westward into Europe or were absorbed by the Huns.",
"The focus of the Hun Empire gradually moved westward from the steppes into Eastern Europe.For a few centuries events in the future Kazakhstan are unclear and frequently the subject of speculation based on mythic or apocryphal folk tales popular among various peoples that migrated westward through the steppes.From the middle of the 2nd century the Yueban – an offshoot of the Xiongnu and therefore possibly connected to the Huns – established a state in far-eastern Kazakhstan.Over the next few centuries peoples such as the Akatziri, Avars (known later as the Pannonian Avars; not to be confused with the Avars of the Caucasus), Sabirs and Bulgars migrated through the area and into the Caucasus and Eastern Europe.By the beginning of the 6th century the proto-Mongolian Rouran Khaganate had annexed areas that were later part of east Kazakhstan.First Turkic Khaganate in 570The Göktürks, a Turkic people formerly subject to the Rouran, migrated westward, pushing the remnants of the Huns west and southward.",
"By the mid-6th Century, the First Turkic Khaganate was established.A few decades later, a civil war resulted in the khaganate being split, and establishment of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and Western Turkic Khaganate.",
"In 630 and 659, the Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganate were invaded and conquered by the Tang China.",
"Towards the end of the 7th century, the two states were reunited in the Second Turkic Khaganate.",
"However, the khaganate began to fragment only a few generations later.In 766 the Oghuz Yabgu State (''Oguz il'') was founded, with its capital in Jankent, and came to occupy most of the later Kazakhstan.",
"It was founded by the Oghuz Turks refugees from the neighbouring Turgesh Kaganate.",
"The Oghuz lost a struggle with the Karluks for control of Turgesh, other Oguz clans migrated from the Turgesh-controlled Zhetysu to the Karatau Mountains and the Chu valley, in the Issyk Kul basin."
],
[
"Cuman-Kipchak period",
"Cuman–Kipchak confederation in Eurasia circa 1200In the eighth and ninth centuries, portions of southern Kazakhstan were conquered by Arabs who introduced Islam.",
"The Oghuz Turks controlled western Kazakhstan from the ninth through the 11th centuries; and Turkic peoples of Kipchaks and Kimaks, controlled the east at roughly the same time.",
"In turn the Cumans controlled western Kazakhstan from around the 12th century until the 1220s.",
"Since then, those vast lands are came to be known as Dashti-Kipchak, or the Kipchak Steppe.During the ninth century the Qarluq confederation formed the Qarakhanid state, which conquered Transoxiana (the area north and east of the Oxus River, the present-day Amu Darya).",
"Beginning in the early 11th century, the Qarakhanids fought constantly among themselves and with the Seljuk Turks to the south.",
"The Qarakhanids, who had converted to Islam, were conquered in the 1130s by the Kara-Khitan (moved west from North China).",
"In the mid-12th century an independent state of Khorazm along the Oxus River broke away from the weakening Karakitai, but the bulk of the Kara-Khitan lasted until the Mongol invasion of Genghis Khan from 1219 to 1221."
],
[
"Mongol Empire",
"Locator map of the Golden Horde, c. 1300During Mongol advancement into Desht-i-Kipchak lands, some Cuman-Kipchak leaders fought the advancing Mongols, but most joined them and came to constitute most of the military force of the Mongol Empire.After the partitioning of the empire in the latter 13th century, the western Mongol state called Golden Horde broke away from the unified empire.",
"Kazakhstan was controlled by Golden Horde for more than 200 years.During Uzbeg Khan's rule (1312–41), Islam was adopted as a state religion.According to the latest research of population genetics, mainly of autosomal markers and Y-chromosome polymorphism, it is believed that during the 13th to 15th centuries that the Kazakh ethnicity emerged."
],
[
"Kazakh Khanate (1465–1847)",
"After the dissolution of Golden Horde, on most of the territory of modern Kazakhstan, the Uzbek Khanate was formed.",
"Country under Abu'l-Khayr Khan, was weak and the government was corrupt.",
"Two children of Barak Khan, Janibek and Kerei Khan gathered Kazakh people to Jetysu, where they founded Independent Kazakh Khanate.During the reign of Kasym Khan (1511–1523), the khanate expanded considerably.",
"Numerous victories in wars against neighbouring countries made the Khanate's reputation and country well known even in Western Europe.",
"The first Kazakh code of laws, ''Qasym Khannyn Qasqa Zholy'' (Bright Road of Kasym Khan), was also established in 1520.Between 1522 and 1538, the Khanate experienced its first civil war.The khanate is described in historical texts such as the ''Tarikh-i-Rashidi'' (1541–1545) by Muhammad Haidar Dughlat and ''Zhamigi-at-Tavarikh'' (1598–1599) by Kadyrgali Kosynuli Zhalayir.In 1643, the Kazakh-Dzungar wars unfolded and became a disaster for the Kazakhs.",
"The Khanate's population was divided into three tribes, called juzes: senior, middle and junior.",
"During the reign of Ablai Khan (1771–1781), he united all Kazakhs to fight the Dzungars.In the 19th century, Russian Empire showed interest in Afghanistan and to reach it, Russia invades Kazakh lands.",
"To confront Russian invasion, the last Khan - Kenesary Khan organized riots, starting from 1837 and ending in 1847 due to the execution of Kenesary."
],
[
"{{anchor|In the Russian Empire 1822(1847)–1917}}Russian Empire (1731–1917)",
"Kirghiz envoys give a white horse to the Qianlong Emperor of China (1757), soon after the Qing expelled the Mongols from Xinjiang.",
"Soon trade began in Yining and Tacheng of Kazakh horses, sheep and goats for Chinese silk and cotton fabrics.Russian traders and soldiers began to appear on the northwestern edge of Kazakh territory in the 17th century, when Cossacks established forts which later became the cities of Yaitsk (modern Oral) and Guryev (modern Atyrau).",
"The Russians were able to seize Kazakh territory because the khanates were preoccupied by the Zunghar Oirats, who began to move into the region from the east in the late 16th century.",
"Forced westward, the Kazakhs were caught between the Kalmyks and the Russians.First half of the 1700s, was marked by the surge of conflicts and wars with Dzungars.",
"In 1730 Abul Khayr, a khan of the Lesser Horde, sought Russian assistance.",
"Although Khayr's intent was to form a temporary alliance against the stronger Kalmyks, the Russians gained control of the Lesser Horde.",
"They conquered the Middle Horde by 1798, but the Great Horde remained independent until the 1820s (when the expanding Kokand khanate to the south forced the Great Horde khans to accept Russian protection, which seemed to them the lesser of two evils).The Russian Empire started to integrate the Kazakh steppe.",
"Between 1822 and 1848, the three main Kazakh Khans of the Lesser, Middle and Great Horde were suspended.",
"Russians built many forts to control the conquered territories.",
"Moreover, Russian settlers were provided with land, whereas nomadic tribes had less area available to drive their herds and flocks.",
"Many of the nomadic tribes were forced to adopt poor and sedentary lifestyles.",
"Because of the Russian Empire policy, between 5 and 15 per cent of the population of Kazakh Steppe were immigrants.Nineteenth-century colonization of Kazakhstan by Russia was slowed by rebellions and wars, such as uprisings led by Isatay Taymanuly and Makhambet Utemisuly from 1836 to 1838 and the war led by Eset Kotibaruli from 1847 to 1858.In 1863, the Russian Empire announced a new policy asserting the right to annex troublesome areas on its borders.",
"This led immediately to the conquest of the remainder of Central Asia and the creation of two administrative districts: the ''General-Gubernatorstvo'' (Governor-Generalships) of Russian Turkestan and the Steppes.",
"Most of present-day Kazakhstan, including Almaty (Verny), was in the latter district.Russian conquest of Central AsiaDuring the nineteenth century, Kazakhs had remarkable numeracy level, which increased from approximately 72% in 1820 to approximately 88% in 1880.In the first part of the century, Kazakhs were even more numerate than Russians were.",
"However, in that century, Russia conquered many countries and experienced a human capital revolution, which led to a higher numeracy afterwards.",
"Nevertheless, the numeracy of Kazakhs was still higher than other Central Asian nations, which are nowadays referred to as Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.",
"There could be several reasons for this striking early numeracy level.",
"First and foremost, the settler share could explain part of this, albeit Russians were a minority in the Kazakh steppe.",
"Secondly, the relatively good nutritional situation in Kazakhstan.",
"Protein malnutrition that plagued many other populations of Central Asian nations was absent in Kazakhstan.",
"Moreover, Russian settlers of the 1870s and 1880s might have simulated so-called contact learning.",
"Kazakhs started to invest more in human capital because they observed that Russians were successful in that area.During the early 19th century, the Russian forts began to limit the area over which the nomadic tribes could drive their herds and flocks.",
"The final disruption of nomadism began in the 1890s, when many Russian settlers were introduced into the fertile lands of northern and eastern Kazakhstan.In 1906 the Trans-Aral Railway between Orenburg and Tashkent was completed, facilitating Russian colonisation of the fertile lands of Zhetysu.",
"Between 1906 and 1912, more than a half-million Russian farms were established as part of reforms by Russian Minister of the Interior Petr Stolypin; the farms pressured the traditional Kazakh way of life, occupying grazing land and using scarce water resources.",
"The administrator for Turkestan (current Kazakhstan), Vasile Balabanov, was responsible for Russian resettlement at this time.Starving and displaced, many Kazakhs joined in the Basmachi movement against conscription into the Russian imperial army ordered by the tsar in July 1916 as part of the war effort against Germany in World War I.",
"In late 1916, Russian forces suppressed the widespread armed resistance to the taking of land and conscription of Central Asians.",
"Thousands of Kazakhs were killed, and thousands more fled to China and Mongolia.",
"Many Kazakhs and Russians fought the Communist takeover, and resisted its control until 1920."
],
[
"Alash and Turkestan Autonomy",
"Flag of Alash-OrdaFlag of Turkestan Autonomy=== Alash orda 1917–1920 ===In the second half of the 20th century, Russia started building schools in Kazakhstan.",
"It led to the formation of elite in Kazakh society.",
"Most educated Kazakhs were members of Constitutional Democratic Party, but after it fractioned, Kazakh elite formed new party named after a legendary founder of the Kazakh people—Alash.",
"The party's goal was to found an independent democratic Kazakh state.",
"The party managed to form same-named Orda, which lasted until 1920, when Bolsheviks banned the party.The territory of Alash orda covered most of modern territories of Kazakhstan excluding southern regions.=== Turkestan orda ===The Turkestan orda or Kokand Autonomy, was an unrecognized state in Central Asia that existed at the beginning of the Russian Civil War.",
"It was formed on 27 November 1917 and existed until 22 February 1918.It was a secular republic, headed by a president."
],
[
"{{anchor|In the Soviet Union (1920–1991)}}Soviet Union (1920–1991)",
"The Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic, established in 1920, was renamed the Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic in 1925 when the Kazakhs were officially distinguished from the Kyrgyz by the Soviet government.",
"Although the Russian Empire recognized the ethnic difference between the groups, it called them both \"Kirghiz\" to avoid confusion between the terms \"Kazakhs\" and Cossacks (both names originating from the Turkic \"free man\").In 1925 the republic's original capital, Orenburg, was reincorporated into Russian territory and Kyzylorda became the capital until 1929.Almaty (known as Alma-Ata during the Soviet period), a provincial city in the far southeast, became the new capital in 1929.In 1936, the territory was officially separated from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and made a Soviet republic: the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic.",
"With an area of , the Kazakh SSR was the second-largest republic in the Soviet Union.=== Two famines ===First Kazakh famine started in 1919 during Russian Civil War.",
"Amount of livestock in Kazakhstan decreased from 30 million to 16 million, which left almost million people starving due to the civil war.",
"Apart from a famine, Kazakhstan suffered from stopping of all factories.From 1929 to 1934, when Joseph Stalin was trying to collectivize agriculture, Kazakhstan endured repeated famine called Asharshylyk similar to the Holodomor in Ukraine; in both republics and the Russian SFSR, peasants slaughtered their livestock in protest against Soviet agricultural policy.",
"During that period, over one million residents and 80 percent of the republic's livestock died.",
"Thousands more tried to escape to China, although most starved in the attempt.",
"According to Robert Conquest, \"The application of party theory to the Kazakhs, and to a lesser extent to the other nomad peoples, amounted economically to the imposition by force of an untried stereotype on a functioning social order, with disastrous results.",
"And in human terms it meant death and suffering proportionally even greater than in the Ukraine\".=== Repressions ===During the 1930s, the Soviet government built Gulags across the Union.",
"There were 11 concentration camps built in Kazakhstan, the most well known being ALZhIR.NKVD Order 00486 of 15 August 1937 marked the beginning of mass repression against ''ChSIR: members of the families of traitors to the Motherland'' ().",
"The order gave the right to arrest without evidence of guilt, and sent women political-prisoners to the camps for the first time.",
"In a few months, female \"traitors\" were arrested and sentenced to from five to eight years in prison.",
"More than 18,000 women were arrested, and about 8,000 served time in ALZhIR – the '''Akmolinsk Camp of Wives of Traitors to the Motherland''' ().",
"They included the wives of statesmen, politicians and public figures in the then Soviet Union, including the wives of the former members of the Alash movement.",
"After the closure of the prisons in 1953, it was reported that 1,507 of the women gave birth as a result of being raped by the guards.During Soviet rule most of former members of Alash started working on translating textbooks for newly building schools, since most Kazakhs still weren't educated.",
"Some of former members joined Communist Party, but still elite protested several politics of Soviet government, like collectivization which led to the artificial famine of 1930–33.The Soviet Government attempted to oppress and imprison many of the Kazakh elites.",
"Due to the harsh treatment and conditions in the Kazakh gulags, imprisoned former Alash members experienced accelerated aging over the span of just a few years.",
"This can be observed via photos taken of them before their imprisonment, and gulag mugshots taken before their executions.===World War II===Through the lens of the front lines and the home front, Roberto Carmack argues that World War II spurred Kazakhstan’s larger integration into the Soviet Union.",
"However the war experience simultaneously worsened and reinforced ethnic tensions and social disparities.",
"Even in the Soviet Union’s darkest hours ethnic chauvinism could overrule matters of national security.",
"The Kremlin's propaganda efforts dirfected at soldiers and civilians, combined with military service and exposure to other parts of the USSR, Sovietized the Kazakh populace and the Kazakh SSR.",
"The war made Kazakhstan more Soviet, but also strengthened its colonial status as a supplier of raw materials and manpower for the war effort, and solidified the hierarchy led by Russia in the USSR.=== Internal Soviet migration ===Many Soviet citizens from the western regions of the USSR and a great deal of Soviet industry relocated to the Kazakh SSR during World War II, when Axis armies captured or threatened to capture western Soviet industrial centres.",
"Groups of Soviet citizens including Crimean Tatars, German, and Muslims from the North Caucasus were deported to the Kazakh SSR during the war.",
"The Kremlin feared that they would collaborate with the Nazi invaders.",
"Many Poles from eastern Poland were also deported to the Kazakh SSR, and local people shared their food with the new arrivals.Many more non-Kazakhs arrived between 1953 and 1965, during the Virgin Lands Campaign of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev (in office 1958–1964).",
"That program saw huge tracts of Kazakh SSR grazing land cultivated for wheat and other cereal grains.",
"More settlement occurred in the late 1960s and 1970s, when the Soviet government paid bonuses to workers participating in a program to relocate Soviet industry closer to Central Asia's coal, gas, and oil deposits.",
"By the 1970s the Kazakh SSR was the only Soviet republic in which those of eponymous nationality was a minority, due to immigration and the decimation of the nomadic Kazakh population.The Kazakh SSR played industrial and agricultural roles in the centrally-controlled Soviet economic system, with coal deposits discovered during the 20th century promising to replace depleted fuel-reserves in the European territories of the USSR.",
"The distance between the European industrial centres and the Kazakh coal-fields posed a formidable problem – only partially solved by Soviet efforts to industrialize Central Asia.",
"This left the Republic of Kazakhstan a mixed legacy after 1991: a population of nearly as many Russians as Kazakhs; a class of Russian technocrats necessary to economic progress but ethnically unassimilated, and a coal- and oil-based energy industry whose efficiency is limited by inadequate infrastructure."
],
[
"Republic of Kazakhstan (1991–present)",
"Dinmukhamed Konayev (1964–1986)On 16 December 1986, the Soviet Politburo dismissed longtime General Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan Dinmukhamed Konayev.",
"His successor was the non-Kazakh Gennady Kolbin from Ulyanovsk, Russia, which triggered demonstrations protesting the move.",
"The protests were violently suppressed by the authorities, and \"between two and twenty people lost their lives, and between 763 and 1137 received injuries.",
"Between 2,212 and 2,336 demonstrators were arrested\".",
"When Kolbin prepared to purge the Communist Youth League he was halted by Moscow, and in September 1989 he was replaced with the Kazakh Nursultan Nazarbayev.In June 1990 Moscow declared the sovereignty of the central government over Kazakhstan, forcing Kazakhstan to make its own statement of sovereignty.",
"The exchange exacerbated tensions between the republic's two largest ethnic groups, who at that point were numerically about equal.",
"In mid-August, Kazakh and Russian nationalists began to demonstrate around Kazakhstan's parliament building in an attempt to influence the final statement of sovereignty being drafted; the statement was adopted in October.=== Nazarbayev Era ===Like other Soviet republics at that time, Parliament named Nazarbayev its chairman and converted his chairmanship to the presidency of the republic.",
"Unlike the leaders of the other Soviet republics (especially the independence-minded Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia), Nazarbayev remained committed to the Soviet Union during the spring and summer of 1991 largely because he considered parts of USSR too interdependent economically to be able to survive independently.",
"However, he also fought to control Kazakhstan's mineral wealth and industrial potential.This objective became particularly important after 1990, when it was learned that Mikhail Gorbachev had negotiated an agreement with the American Chevron Corporation to develop Kazakhstan's Tengiz oil field; Gorbachev did not consult Nazarbayev until the talks were nearly completed.",
"At Nazarbayev's insistence, Moscow surrendered control of the republic's mineral resources in June 1991 and Gorbachev's authority crumbled rapidly throughout the year.",
"Nazarbayev continued to support him, urging other republic leaders to sign a treaty creating the Union of Sovereign States which Gorbachev had drafted in a last attempt to hold the Soviet Union together.Because of the August 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt against Gorbachev, the union treaty was never implemented.",
"Ambivalent about Gorbachev's removal, Nazarbayev did not condemn the coup attempt until its second day.",
"However, he continued to support Gorbachev and some form of union largely because of his conviction that independence would be economic suicide.At the same time, Nazarbayev began preparing Kazakhstan for greater freedom or outright independence.",
"He appointed professional economists and managers to high positions, and sought advice from foreign development and business experts.",
"The outlawing of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan (CPK) which followed the attempted coup permitted Nazarbayev to take nearly complete control of the republic's economy, more than 90 percent of which had been under the partial (or complete) direction of the Soviet government until late 1991.He solidified his position by winning an uncontested election for president in December 1991.Nazarbayev (second from left) at the signing of the Alma-Ata Protocol, December 1991.A week after the election, Nazarbayev became the president of an independent state when the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus signed documents dissolving the Soviet Union.",
"He quickly convened a meeting of the leaders of the five Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), raising the possibility of a Turkic confederation of former republics as a counterweight to the Slavic states of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus in whatever federation might succeed the Soviet Union.",
"This move persuaded the three Slavic presidents to include Kazakhstan among the signatories of a recast document of dissolution.",
"Kazakhstan's capital lent its name to the Alma-Ata Protocol, the declaration of principles of the Commonwealth of Independent States.",
"On 16 December 1991, five days before the declaration, Kazakhstan became the last of the republics to proclaim its independence.The republic has followed the same general political pattern as the other four Central Asian states.",
"After declaring its independence from a political structure dominated by Moscow and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) until 1991, Kazakhstan retained the governmental structure and most of the leadership which had held power in 1990.Nazarbayev, elected president of the republic in 1991, remained in undisputed power five years later.He took several steps to ensure his position.",
"The constitution of 1993 made the prime minister and the Council of Ministers responsible solely to the president, and a new constitution two years later reinforced that relationship.",
"Opposition parties were limited by legal restrictions on their activities.",
"Within that framework, Nazarbayev gained substantial popularity by limiting the economic shock of separation from the Soviet Union and maintaining ethnic harmony in a diverse country with more than 100 different nationalities.In December 1994 Nazarbayev signed the Budapest Memorandum along with Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States acting as guarantors and thereby denuclearized the nation.",
"The leaders of Ukraine and Belarus also signed similar documents in a joint ceremonial event in Patria Hall at the Budapest Convention Center.In 1997 Kazakhstan's capital was moved from Almaty to Astana, and homosexuality was decriminalized the following year.=== After Nazarbayev ===In March 2019, President Nursultan Nazarbayev resigned 29 years after taking office.",
"However, he continued to lead the influential security council and held the formal title Leader of the Nation.",
"Kassym-Jomart Tokayev succeeded Nazarbayev as the President of Kazakhstan.",
"His first official act was to rename the capital from Astana to Nur-Sultan after his predecessor.",
"In June 2019, the new president, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, won Kazakhstan's presidential election.In January 2022, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev took over as head of the powerful Security Council, removing Nazarbayev from the post, after violent protests triggered by fuel price.",
"President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev later proposed constitutional amendments aimed at limiting his power and stripping Nazarbayev of his formal title Leader of the Nation.",
"Kazakhs later voted in the 2022 Kazakh constitutional referendum approving of the constitutional amendments.",
"In September 2022, the name of the country's capital was changed back to Astana from Nur-sultan.=== Relationship with Russia ===Stamp of Kazakhstan, 2013: Barack Obama, Nursultan Nazarbayev and Dmitry MedvedevDuring the mid-1990s, although Russia remained the most important sponsor of Kazakhstan in economic and national security matters Nazarbayev supported the strengthening of the CIS.",
"As sensitive ethnic, national-security and economic issues cooled relations with Russia during the decade, Nazarbayev cultivated relations with China, the other Central Asian nations, and the West; however, Kazakhstan remains principally dependent on Russia.",
"The Baikonur Cosmodrome, built during the 1950s for the Soviet space program, is near Tyuratam and the city of Baikonur was built to accommodate the spaceport.=== Relationship with the US ===Kazakhstan also maintains good relations with the United States.",
"The country is the US's 78th-largest trading partner, incurring $2.5 billion in two-way trade, and it was the first country to recognize Kazakhstan after independence.",
"In 1994 and 1995, the US worked with Kazakhstan to remove all nuclear warheads after the latter renounced its nuclear program and closed the Semipalatinsk Test Sites; the last nuclear sites and tunnels were closed by 1995.In 2010, US President Barack Obama met with Nazarbayev at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, DC and discussed intensifying their strategic relationship and bilateral cooperation to increase nuclear safety, regional stability, and economic prosperity."
],
[
"See also",
"* Central State Museum of Kazakhstan* Early medieval states in Kazakhstan* History of Asia* History of Central Asia* History of the Soviet Union* Indo-Aryan migration theory* List of Kazakhs* List of Kazakh khans* List of leaders of Kazakhstan* Politics of Kazakhstan* Turkic migration"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Abylkhozhin, Zhulduzbek, et al.",
"eds.",
"''Stalinism in Kazakhstan: History, Memory, and Representation'' (2021).",
"excerpt* Adams, Margarethe.",
"''Steppe Dreams: Time, Mediation, and Postsocialist Celebrations in Kazakhstan'' (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2020).",
"* Cameron, Sarah.",
"''The hungry steppe: Famine, violence, and the making of Soviet Kazakhstan'' (Cornell University Press, 2018).",
"online review* Carmack, Roberto J.",
"''Kazakhstan in World War II: Mobilization and Ethnicity in the Soviet Empire'' (University Press of Kansas, 2019) online review* Hiro, Dilip.",
"''Inside Central Asia : a political and cultural history of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Iran'' (2009) online* Kaşıkçı, Mekhmet Volkan.",
"\"Living under Stalin's Rule in Kazakhstan.\"",
"''Kritika'' 23.4 (2022): 905-923.excerpt* Kassenova, Togzhan.",
"''Atomic Steppe: How Kazakhstan Gave Up the Bomb'' (Stanford University Press, 2022).",
"* Pianciola, Niccolò.",
"\"Nomads and the State in Soviet Kazakhstan.\"",
"''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History'' (2019), online.",
"* Pianciola, Niccolò.",
"\"Sacrificing the Qazaqs: The Stalinist Hierarchy of Consumption and the Great Famine of 1931–33 in Kazakhstan.\"",
"''Journal of Central Asian History'' 1.2 (2022): 225-272.online* Ramsay, Rebekah.",
"\"Nomadic Hearths of Soviet Culture: ‘Women’s Red Yurt’ Campaigns in Kazakhstan, 1925–1935.\"",
"''Europe-Asia Studies'' 73.10 (2021): 1937-1961.",
"* Toimbek, Diana.",
"\"Problems and perspectives of transition to the knowledge-based economy in Kazakhstan.\"",
"''Journal of the Knowledge Economy'' 13.2 (2022): 1088-1125.",
"* Tredinnick, Jeremy.",
"''An illustrated history of Kazakhstan : Asia's heartland in context'' (2014), popular history.",
"online"
],
[
"External links",
"* History of Kazakhstan at expat.nursat.kz* at britannica.com* Origins of Kazakhs and Ozbeks* History of Kazakhstan"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Geography of Kazakhstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Detailed map of Kazakhstan'''Kazakhstan''' is located in Central Asia (with 4% of the country (108,996 km2) in Eastern Europe).",
"With an area of about Kazakhstan is more than twice the combined size of the other four Central Asian states and 60% larger than Alaska.",
"The country borders Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan to the south; Russia to the north; Russia and the Caspian Sea to the west; and China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region to the east."
],
[
"Borders, Lands and Waters",
"Source:===Borders===Russia (7,591 km)China (1,783 km)Kyrgyzstan (1,242 km)Uzbekistan (2,351 km) Turkmenistan (426 km)Total length: 13,200 km.===Lands===More than three-quarters (75%) of the country, including the entire west and most of the south, is either semidesert (33.2 percent) or desert (44 percent).Deserts: 44% (1,198,956 km2)Semi-Deserts: 14% (381,486 km2)Steppes: 26% (708,474 km2)Forests: only 5.5% (149,870 km2)Deserts + Semi-Deserts: 58% (1,580,442 km2) Deserts + Semi-Deserts + Steppes: 84% (2,288,916 km2)===Waters (Rivers and Lakes)===Northeastern of the Caspian SeaPart of Aral Sea48,000 large and small lakes such as Balkhash Lake, Lake Zaysan and Lake Alakol.8,500 rivers"
],
[
"Topography and drainage",
"In the steppes of Central Asia (Akmola Region)There is considerable topographical variation within Kazakhstan.",
"The highest point is the top of the mountain Khan Tengri, on the Kyrgyz border in the Tian Shan range, with an elevation of above sea level; the lowest point is the bottom of the Karagiye depression at below sea level, in the Mangystau province east of the Caspian Sea.",
"Most of the country lies at between above sea level, but Kazakhstan's Caspian shore includes some of the lowest elevations on Earth.",
"The peak Khan Tengri in the Tian Shan Mountains (and on the border with Kyrgyzstan and China) is Kazakhstan highest elevation at ( with ice cap).Many of the peaks of the Altay and Tien Shan ranges are covered with snow, year-round, and their runoff is the source for most of Kazakhstan's freshwater rivers, streams, and lakes.",
"Kazakhstan's Almaty region is also home to the Mynzhylky mountain plateau.Except for the Tobol, Ishim, and Irtysh rivers (the Kazakh names for which are, respectively, Tobyl, Esil, and Ertis), portions of which flow through Kazakhstan, all of Kazakhstan's rivers and streams are part of landlocked systems.",
"They either flow into isolated bodies of water such as the Caspian Sea or simply disappear into the steppes and deserts of central and southern Kazakhstan.",
"Many rivers, streams, and lakes are seasonal, evaporating in summer.",
"The three largest bodies of water are Lake Balkhash, a partially fresh, partially saline lake in the east, near Almaty, the Caspian Sea, and the Aral Sea, all of which lie partially within Kazakhstan.Some 9.4 percent of Kazakhstan's land is mixed prairie and forest or treeless prairie, primarily in the north or in the basin of the Ural River in the west.",
"More than three-quarters of the country, including the entire west and most of the south, is either semidesert (33.2 percent) or desert (44 percent).",
"The terrain in these regions is bare, eroded, broken uplands (Upland and lowland), with sand dunes in the Qizilqum (\"The Red Sands\"; in the Russian form, Kyzylkum), Moyunqum (in the Russian form, Muyunkum) and Barsuki deserts, which occupy south-central Kazakhstan."
],
[
"Climate",
"Kazakhstan map of Köppen climate classification.The climate in Kazakhstan is continental, maybe a little arid.",
"In summer the temperatures average more than and in winter average .The climatic charts seen below are some noteworthy examples of the country's differing climates, taken from two contrasting cities (with their respective tables) representing two different parts of the country; Aktau and the Caspian Sea shore on the country's west having a distinct cold desert climate and cold semi-arid climate, while Petropavl features a climate typical to the rest of the country; an extreme variation of the humid continental climate known for its uneven rainfall distribution and drastic temperature ranges between seasons.",
"Despite the nation's relatively low precipitation rates and arid geography (at most of its parts at least), spring floods that can occasionally be brought on by heavy rainfall and melting snow, are not unusual in the northern and central regions of the country.",
"In April 2017, following a winter which had left snow volumes exceeding the average by 60 percent, heavy rains wrought widespread damage and temporarily displaced thousands of people.+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for large cities in KazakhstanLocationJuly (°C)July (°F)January (°C)January (°F)Almaty 30/18 86/64 0/−8 33/17Shymkent 32/17 91/66 4/−4 39/23Karaganda 27/14 80/57 −8/−17 16/1Astana 27/15 80/59 −10/−18 14/−1Pavlodar 28/15 82/59 −11/−20 12/−5Aktobe 30/15 86/61 −8/−16 17/2"
],
[
"Environmental problems",
"Portions of Kazakhstan (top) and Kyrgyzstan at the bottom.",
"The lake at the top of the image is Lake Balkhash.The environment of Kazakhstan has been badly damaged by human activity.",
"Most of the water in Kazakhstan is polluted by industrial effluents, pesticide and fertilizer residue, and, in some places, radioactive elements.",
"The most visible damage has been to the Aral Sea, which as recently as the 1970s was larger than any of the Great Lakes of North America save Lake Superior.",
"The sea began to shrink rapidly when sharply increased irrigation and other demands on the only significant tributaries, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya (the latter reaching the Aral from neighboring Uzbekistan), all but eliminated inflow.",
"During the Soviet Era, Kazakhstan received water from Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan provided oil and gas for these two nations in return.",
"However, after the collapse of the USSR this system had collapsed and no plan to replace this system has been put in place.",
"According to research conducted by the International Crisis Group, there is little political will to solve this problem despite Central Asia's need for mutual resource-sharing.",
"By 1993 the Aral Sea had lost an estimated 60 percent of its volume, in the process breaking into three unconnected segments.",
"Increasing salinity and reduced habitat have killed the Aral Sea's fish, hence destroying its once-active fishing industry, and the receding shoreline has left the former port of Aral'sk more than seventy kilometers from the water's edge.",
"The depletion of this large body of water has increased temperature variations in the region, which in turn have affected agriculture.",
"A much greater agricultural impact, however, has come from the salt- and pesticide-laden soil that the wind is known to carry as far away as the Himalaya Mountains and the Pacific Ocean.",
"Deposition of this heavily saline soil on nearby fields effectively sterilizes them.",
"Evidence suggests that salts, pesticides, and residues of chemical fertilizers are also adversely affecting human life around the former Aral Sea; infant mortality in the region approaches 10 percent compared with the national rate of 2.7 percent in 1991.By contrast, the water level of the Caspian Sea has been rising steadily since 1978 for reasons that scientists have not been able to explain fully.",
"At the northern end of the sea, more than 10,000 square kilometres of land in Atyrau Province have been flooded.",
"Experts estimate that if current rates of increase persist, the coastal city of Atyrau, eighty-eight other population centers, and many of Kazakhstan's Caspian oil fields could be submerged soon.Wind erosion has also affected the northern and central parts of the republic because of the introduction of wide-scale dryland wheat farming.",
"During the 1950s and 1960s, much soil was lost when vast tracts of Kazakhstan's prairies were plowed under as part of Khrushchev's Virgin Lands agricultural project.",
"By the mid-1990s, an estimated 60 percent of the republic's pastureland was in various stages of desertification.Industrial pollution is a bigger concern in Kazakhstan's manufacturing cities, where aging factories pump huge quantities of unfiltered pollutants into the air and groundwater.",
"The former capital, Almaty, is particularly threatened, in part because of the postindependence boom in private automobile ownership.The gravest environmental threat to Kazakhstan comes from radiation, especially in the Semey (Semipalatinsk) region of the northeast, where the Soviet Union tested almost 500 nuclear weapons, 116 of them above ground.",
"Often, such tests were conducted without evacuating or even alerting the local population.",
"Although nuclear testing was halted in 1990, radiation poisoning, birth defects, severe anemia, and leukemia are thought to be very common in the area.With some conspicuous exceptions, lip service has been the primary official response to Kazakhstan's ecological problems.",
"In February 1989, opposition to Soviet nuclear testing and its ill effects in Kazakhstan led to the creation of one of the republic's largest and most influential grass-roots movements, Nevada-Semipalatinsk, which was founded by Kazak poet and public figure Olzhas Suleymenov.",
"In the first week of the movement's existence, Nevada-Semipalatinsk gathered more than two million signatures from Kazakhstanis of all ethnic groups on a petition to Mikhail Gorbachev demanding the end of nuclear testing in Kazakhstan.",
"After a year of demonstrations and protests, the test ban took effect in 1990.It remained in force in 1996, although in 1995 at least one unexploded device reportedly was still in position near Semey.Once its major ecological objective was achieved, Nevada-Semipalatinsk made various attempts to broaden into a more general political movement; it has not pursued a broad ecological or \"green\" agenda.",
"A very small green party, Tabigat, made common cause with the political opposition in the parliament of 1994.The government has established a Ministry of Ecology and Bioresources, with a separate administration for radioecology, but the ministry's programs are underfunded and given low priority.",
"In 1994 only 23 percent of budgeted funds were actually allotted to environmental programs.",
"Many official meetings and conferences are held (more than 300 have been devoted to the problem of the Aral Sea alone), but few practical programs have gone into operation.",
"In 1994 the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the United States Environmental Protection Agency agreed to give Kazakhstan $62 million to help the country overcome ecological problems.",
"; Natural hazards:: Earthquakes in the south, and mud slides around Almaty; Environment—current issues:: Radioactive or toxic chemical sites associated with its former defense industries and test ranges are found throughout the country and pose health risks for human beings and animals; industrial pollution is severe in some cities; because the two main rivers which flowed into the Aral Sea have been diverted for irrigation, it is drying up and leaving behind a harmful layer of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then picked up by the wind and blown into noxious dust storms; pollution in the Caspian Sea; soil pollution from overuse of agricultural chemicals and salination from poor infrastructure and wasteful irrigation practices; Environment—international agreements::* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78):* Signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol"
],
[
"Area and boundaries",
"With land area of 2.6 million km2, Kazakhstan is the largest country in Central AsiaAccording to CIA World Factbook estimates:; Area::* Total: :* Land: :* Water: ; Land boundaries::* Total: :* Border countries: the People's Republic of China (to the southeast) , Kyrgyzstan (to the southeast) , Russia (to the north) , Turkmenistan (to the southwest) , Uzbekistan (to the south) .",
"; Coastline:: 0 km (0 mi); the country is landlocked, but does border the Caspian Sea (1,894 km/1,176 mi).",
"; Maritime claims:: None (landlocked); Elevation extremes::* Lowest point: Vpadina Kaundy -132 m:* Highest point: Khan Tangiri Shyngy (Pik Khan-Tengri) 6,995 m"
],
[
"Land use",
"According to CIA World Factbook estimates:; Agricultural land 77.4% (2011)::*Arable land: 8.9%:*Permanent crops: 0%:*Permanent pastures: 68.5%:*Forest: 1.2%:*Other: 21.4%;Irrigated land (2012)::*20,660 km2"
],
[
"Water resources",
";Total renewable water resources::*107.5 km3 (2011);Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)::*Total: 21.14 km3/yr (4%/30%/66%):*Per capita: 1,304 m3/yr (2010)"
],
[
"Deserts",
"# Aral Karakum Desert 40,000 km2# Aralkum Desert# Barsuki Desert# Betpak-Dala 75,000 km2# Kyzylkum Desert 298,000 km2# Moiynkum Desert 37,500 km2# Ryn Desert 40,000 km2# Saryesik-Atyrau Desert# Taukum 10,000 km2# Ustyurt Plateau 200,000 km2"
],
[
"References",
"**"
],
[
"External links",
"* Geography of Kazakhstan* Geography and tourism of Kazakhstan"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Demographics of Kazakhstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
" The '''demographics of Kazakhstan''' enumerate the demographic features of the population of Kazakhstan, including population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population.",
"Some use the word Kazakh to refer to the Kazakh ethnic group and language (autochthonous to Kazakhstan as well as parts of China and Mongolia) and '''Kazakhstani''' to refer to Kazakhstan and its citizens regardless of ethnicity, but it is common to use Kazakh in both senses.",
"It is expected that by 2050, the population will range from 23.5 to 27.7 million people."
],
[
"Overview",
"Official estimates put the population of Kazakhstan at 18,137,300 as of December 2017, of which 44% is rural and 56% urban population.",
"The 2009 population estimate is 6.8% higher than the population reported in the last census from January 1999 (slightly less than 15 million).",
"These estimates have been confirmed by the 2009 population census, and this means that the decline in population that began after 1989 has been arrested and reversed.In a report released by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) in September 2021, the level of urbanization in Kazakhstan is estimated to reach 69.1% by 2050.The proportion of men makes up 48.3%, the proportion of women 51.7%.",
"The proportion of Kazakhs makes up 70.7%, Russians 15.2%, Uzbeks 2.9%, Ukrainians 2.1%, Uygur 1.4%, Tatars 1.3%, Germans 1.1%, others 3.9%.",
"Note that a large percentage of the population are of mixed ethnicity.The first census in Kazakhstan was conducted under Russian Imperial rule in 1897, which estimated population at round 4 million people.",
"Following censuses showed a growth until 1939, where numbers showed a decrease to 6,081 thousand relative to the previous census done 13 years earlier, due to famines of 1922 and 1933.But since 1939 population has steadily increased to 16.5 million in 1989, according to corresponding year census.",
"Official estimates indicate that the population continued to increase after 1989, peaking out at 17 million in 1993 and then declining to 15 million in the 1999 census.",
"The downward trend continued through 2002, when the estimated population bottomed out at 14.9 million, and then resumed its growth.",
"Significant numbers of Russians returned to Russia.",
"Kazakhstan underwent significant urbanization during the first 50 years of the Soviet era, as the share of the rural population declined from more than 90% in the 1920s to less than 50% since the 1970s.",
"The fertility rate declined to amongst the lower rates in the world in 1999 and increased to again amongst the higher rates in the world in 2021.Kazakhstanis on a Lake Jasybay beach, Pavlodar Region"
],
[
"Population size and structure",
"=== Population of Kazakhstan 1897–2018 ===Year (January)Population (thousands)Rural, %Urban, %Source18974,000n/an/acensus19266,198n/an/acensus19396,0817228census19599,2955644census197013,0015050census197914,6854654census198916,5374357census199914,9534357census200915,9824654census202320,1373961estimate:''Data sources'': Population 1897 from Russian Empire Census.",
"Population 1926 from First All-Union Census of the Soviet Union.",
"Population 1939–1999 from demoscope.ru, 2002–2008 from Kazakhstan Statistical Agency web site.",
"Rural/urban shares 1939–1993 from statistical yearbooks, print editions, 2002–2008 from Kazakhstan Statistical Agency web site.",
"2009–2014 from Kazakhstan Statistical Agency web site.As of 2003, there were discrepancies between Western sources regarding the population of Kazakhstan.",
"United States government sources, including the CIA World Fact Book and the US Census Bureau International Data Base, listed the population as 15,340,533, while the World Bank gave a 2002 estimate of 14,858,948.This discrepancy was presumably due to difficulties in measurement caused by the large migratory population in Kazakhstan, emigration, and low population density – only about 5.5 persons per km2 in an area the size of Western Europe.=== Structure of the population ===Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2021) (Data refer to resident population.",
"):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 9 223 589 9 777 399 19 000 988 100 0 223 552 209 539 433 090 2.28 1–4 818 257 766 788 1 585 045 8.34 5–9 982 270 927 108 1 909 377 10.05 10–14 857 617 811 696 1 669 313 8.76 15–19 643 879 610 943 1 254 821 6.60 20–24 568 174 544 634 1 112 808 5.86 25–29 699 428 680 033 1 379 461 7.26 30–34 793 785 815 781 1 609 566 8.47 35–39 690 052 709 580 1 399 631 7.37 40–44 586 612 615 237 1 201 849 6.33 45–49 525 164 576 347 1 101 510 5.80 50–54 475 079 532 077 1 007 156 5.30 55–59 449 996 534 713 984 709 5.18 60–64 375 734 486 204 861 938 4.54 65–69 241 436 361 664 603 099 3.17 70–74 149 026 263 406 412 432 2.17 75–79 60 581 122 881 183 462 0.97 80–84 57 026 141 863 198 889 1.05 85–89 17 029 47 320 64 348 0.34 90–94 5 915 15 747 21 662 0.11 95–99 1 980 3 013 4 993 0.03 100+ 1 002 831 1 832 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 2 881 696 2 715 129 5 596 825 29.46 15–64 5 807 898 6 105 548 11 913 446 62.70 65+ 533 995 956 722 1 490 717 7.84Structure of the population (01.01.2021) (Estimates):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 9 160 399 9 719 153 18 879 552 100 0–15 2 980 297 2 809 236 5 789 533 30.7 16–62(59) 5 524 137 5 485 235 11 009 372 58.3 63(60)+ 655 965 1 424 682 2 080 647 11.0The age group under 15 is considered below the working age, while the age group over 63(60) is above the working age (63 years for men, 60 for women)."
],
[
"Vital statistics",
"=== Births and deaths ===Average population Live births1Deaths1Natural change1Crude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Fertility rates 1950 6,703,000 254,169 79,005 175,164 37.9 11.8 26.1 1951 6,946,000 272,354 80,553 191,801 39.2 11.6 27.6 1952 7,133,000 265,235 85,241 179,994 37.2 12.0 25.2 1953 7,271,000 262,758 73,930 188,828 36.1 10.2 26.0 1954 7,528,000 278,420 76,092 202,328 37.0 10.1 26.9 1955 7,992,000 299,854 73,283 226,571 37.5 9.2 28.3 1956 8,426,000 305,430 64,807 240,623 36.3 7.7 28.6 1957 8,722,000 326,766 68,050 258,716 37.5 7.8 29.7 1958 9,077,000 336,020 62,680 273,340 37.0 6.9 30.1 1959 9,516,000 349,794 69,602 280,192 36.8 7.3 29.4 1960 9,996,000 372,595 65,667 306,928 37.2 6.6 30.7 1961 10,480,000 377,789 68,610 309,179 36.1 6.5 29.5 1962 10,958,000 369,002 70,952 298,050 33.7 6.5 27.2 1963 11,321,000 346,084 67,218 278,866 30.6 5.9 24.6 1964 11,610,000 324,412 66,197 258,215 27.9 5.7 22.2 1965 11,909,000 314,533 69,803 244,730 26.4 5.9 20.6 1966 12,185,000 307,905 69,402 238,503 25.3 5.7 19.6 1967 12,456,000 301,715 71,824 229,891 24.2 5.8 18.5 1968 12,694,000 296,882 73,496 223,386 23.4 5.8 17.6 1969 12,901,000 297,129 78,660 218,469 23.0 6.1 16.9 1970 13,106,000 301,451 77,619 223,832 23.0 5.9 17.1 1971 13,321,000 317,423 79,881 237,542 23.8 6.0 17.8 1972 13,534,000 318,551 85,122 233,429 23.5 6.3 17.2 1973 13,742,000 321,075 90,282 230,793 23.4 6.6 16.8 1974 13,955,000 338,291 93,582 244,709 24.2 6.7 17.5 1975 14,136,000 343,668 101,865 241,803 24.3 7.2 17.1 1976 14,279,000 350,362 103,892 246,470 24.5 7.3 17.3 1977 14,425,000 349,379 105,376 244,003 24.2 7.3 16.9 1978 14,589,000 355,337 107,293 248,044 24.4 7.4 17.0 1979 14,743,000 354,320 113,687 240,633 24.0 7.7 16.3 1980 14,884,000 356,013 119,078 236,935 23.9 8.0 15.9 1981 15,033,000 367,950 120,974 246,976 24.5 8.0 16.4 1982 15,185,000 373,416 120,165 253,251 24.6 7.9 16.7 1983 15,334,000 378,577 123,807 254,770 24.7 8.1 16.6 1984 15,481,000 399,403 129,796 269,607 25.8 8.4 17.4 3.04 1985 15,623,000 396,929 126,786 270,143 25.4 8.1 17.3 3.02 1986 15,776,000 410,846 119,149 291,697 26.0 7.6 18.5 3.13 1987 15,948,000 417,139 122,835 294,304 26.2 7.7 18.5 3.19 1988 16,188,000 407,116 126,898 280,218 25.3 7.9 17.4 3.13 1989 16,243,000 382,269 126,378 255,891 23.5 7.8 15.8 2.81 1990 16,328,000 362,081 128,576 233,505 22.2 7.9 14.3 2.72 1991 16,405,000 353,174 134,324 218,850 21.5 8.2 13.3 2.67 1992 16,439,000 337,612 137,518 200,094 20.5 8.4 12.2 2.62 1993 16,381,000 315,482 156,070 159,412 19.3 9.5 9.7 2.54 1994 16,146,000 305,624 160,339 145,285 18.9 9.9 9.0 2.43 1995 15,816,000 276,125 168,656 107,469 17.5 10.7 6.8 2.21 1996 15,578,000 253,175 166,028 87,147 16.3 10.7 5.6 2.02 1997 15,334,000 232,356 160,138 72,218 15.2 10.4 4.7 1.93 1998 15,072,000 222,380 154,314 68,066 14.8 10.2 4.5 1.81 1999 14,939,000 217,578 147,416 70,162 14.6 9.9 4.7 1.80 2000 14,915,000 222,054 149,778 72,276 14.9 10.0 4.8 1.88 2001 14,910,000 221,487 147,876 73,611 14.9 9.9 4.9 1.84 2002 14,931,000 227,171 149,381 77,790 15.2 10.0 5.2 1.88 2003 15,002,000 247,946 155,277 92,669 16.5 10.4 6.2 2.03 2004 15,126,000 273,028 152,250 120,778 18.0 10.1 8.0 2.21 2005 15,281,000 278,977 157,121 121,856 18.3 10.3 8.0 2.22 2006 15,463,000 301,756 157,210 144,546 19.5 10.2 9.3 2.36 2007 15,659,000 321,963 158,297 163,666 20.6 10.1 10.5 2.47 2008 15,870,000 356,575 152,706 203,869 22.5 9.6 12.8 2.68 2009 16,093,000 356,378 143,238 213,140 22.1 8.9 13.2 2.55 2010 16,322,000 367,942 146,370 221,572 22.5 8.9 13.6 2.59 2011 16,557,000 372,801 144,944 227,857 22.5 8.7 13.8 2.59 2012 16,791,000 381,005 142,880 238,125 22.7 8.5 14.2 2.62 2013 17,035,000 393,421 137,630 255,791 22.7 8.0 14.7 2.64 2014 17,289,000 401,066 132,236 268,830 23.1 7.6 15.5 2.73 2015 17,557,000 398,561 131,867 266,694 22.7 7.5 15.2 2.74 2016 17,818,000 400,940 132,373 277,567 22.5 7.4 15.6 2.77 2017 18,014,000 390,520 130,033 260,487 21.7 7.2 14.5 2.75 2018 18,137,000 397,947 130,515 267,432 21.8 7.1 14.7 2.84 2019 18,396,000 403,064 133,489 269,575 21.8 7.2 14.62.90 2020 18,632,000 425,625 162,613 263,012 22.4 8.6 13.83.13 202118,880,000 450,652 183,357 267,295 23.4 9.5 13.93.32 202219,765,004 403,500 134,709 268,791 20.3 6.8 13.53.05 202320,033,546 387,991 130,596 257,395 19.5 6.6 12.9 2.93(e)1 ===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase+ '''January — November 2022''' 369,140 122,996 +246,144+ '''January — November 2023''' 357,427 118,005 +239,422+ '''Difference''' -11,713 (-3.17%) -4,991 (-4.06%) -6,722=== Total fertility rate ===Total Fertility Rate of Kazakhstan by region (2021)Total fertility rate by regions of Kazakhstan: Mangystau – 3.80, South Kazakhstan – 3.71, Kyzylorda – 3.42, Atyrau – 3.29, Jambyl – 3.20, Aqtobe – 2.70, Almaty (province) – 2.65, Almaty (city) – 2.65, City of Astana – 2.44, West Kazakhstan – 2.29, Aqmola – 2.19, East Kazakhstan – 2.07, Qaragandy – 2.04, Pavlodar – 1.98, North Kazakhstan – 1.72, Qostanay – 1.70, Republic of Kazakhstan – 2.65.Thus it can be seen that fertility rate is higher in more traditionalist and religious south and west, and lower in the north and east, where the percentage of Slavic and German population is still relatively high.According to the Kazakhstan Demographic and Health Survey in 1999, the TFR for Kazakhs was 2.5 and that for Russians was 1.38.TFR in 1989 for Kazakhs & Russians were 3.58 and 2.24 respectively.",
"Total fertility rate per woman by ethnicity 1989 1995 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Kazakh women 3.58 3.11 2.50 2.12 2.11 2.14 2.30 2.52 2.54 2.73 Russian women 2.24 1.69 1.38 1.18 1.17 1.21 1.30 1.36 1.35 1.38 Ukrainian women 1.60 1.59 1.60 1.71 1.76 1.73 1.80 Uzbek women 2.90 2.92 2.88 3.10 3.39 3.32 3.43 === Life expectancy at birth ===Life expectancy in Kazakhstan since 1868Life expectancy in Kazakhstan since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195555.11985–199067.51955–196057.31990–199565.51960–196559.51995–200063.01965–197061.72000–200564.61970–197563.32005–201066.01975–198064.32010–201569.11980–198565.9Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''"
],
[
"Ethnic groups",
"Kazakhstan demographics 1897–1970.Major ethnic groups.",
"Famines marked in dark.Kazakhstan's dominant ethnic group, the Kazakhs, traces its origins to the 15th century, when after the disintegration of Golden Horde, numbers of Turkic and Turco-Mongol tribes united to establish the Kazakh Khanate.",
"With a cohesive culture and national identity, they constituted an absolute majority on the land until colonization by the Russian empire.Russian advances into the territory of Kazakhstan began in the late 18th century, when the Kazakhs nominally accepted Russian rule in exchange for protection against repeated attacks by the western Mongolian Kalmyks.",
"In the 1890s, Russian peasants began to settle on the fertile lands of northern Kazakhstan, causing many Kazakhs to move eastwards into Chinese territory in search of new grazing grounds.",
"The 1906 completion of the Trans-Aral Railway between Orenburg and Tashkent further facilitated Russian colonization.The first collective farms were formed in Kazakhstan in 1921, populated primarily by Russians and Soviet deportees.",
"In 1930, as part of the first Five Year Plan, the Kazakh Central Committee decreed the sedentarization of nomads and their incorporation into collectivized farms.",
"This movement resulted in devastating famines, claiming the lives of an estimated 40% of ethnic Kazakhs (1.5 million), between 1930 and 1933.Hundreds of thousands also fled to China, Iran and Afghanistan.",
"The famine made Kazakhs a minority of the population of Kazakhstan, and only after the republic gained independence in 1991 did Kazakhs have a slim demographic majority within Kazakhstan.Demographics did shift in the 1950s and 1960s, when, as part of Nikita Khrushchev's Virgin Lands Campaign, hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens relocated to the Kazakh steppes in order to farm.",
"As recognized in the 1959 census, the Kazaks became the second-largest ethnic group in Kazakhstan for the first time in recorded history, comprising just 30% of the total population of Kazakhstan.",
"Russians numbered 42.7%.Since the Soviet Union's collapse, the numbers of members of European ethnic groups has been falling and Asian groups have been continuously rising.",
"According to 2023 estimates, the ethnic composition of Kazakhstan was approximately: 70.7% Kazakh, 15.2% Russian, 3.3% Uzbek, 1.9% Ukrainian, 1.5% Uyghur, 1.1% Tatar, 1.1% German, and group census 18971 census 19262 census 19393 census 19594 census 19705 census 19796 census 19897 census 19998 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Kazakhs 3,392,751 82.9 3,627,612 58.5 2,327,625 37.8 2,794,966 30.0 4,161,164 32.4 5,289,349 36.0 6,534,616 39.7 8,011,452 53.5 Russians 454,402 11.1 1,275,055 20.6 2,458,687 40.0 3,974,229 42.7 5,499,826 42.8 5,991,205 40.8 6,227,549 37.8 4,480,675 29.9 Uzbeks 29,564 1.3 129,407 2.1 120,655 2.0 136,570 1.5 207,514 1.6 263,295 1.8 332,017 2.0 370,765 2.5 Ukrainians 860,201\t 13.9 658,319 10.7 762,131 8.2 930,158 7.2 897,964 6.1 896,240 5.4 547,065 3,7 Uygurs 11,631 0.2 35,409 0.6 59,840 0.6 120,784 0.9 147,943 1.0 185,301 1.1 210,377 1.4 Tatars 55,984 1.1 79,758 1.3 108,127 1.8 191,802 2.1 281,849 2.2 312,626 2.1 327,982 2.0 249,052 1,7 Germans 51,094 0.8 92,571 1.5 659,800 7.1 839,649 6.5 900,207 6.1 957,518 5.8 353,462 2,4 Koreans 42 0.0 96,453 1.6 74,019 0.8 78,078 0.6 91,984 0.6 103,315 0.6 99,944 0.7 Turks 46 0.0 523 0.0 9,916 0.1 18,397 0.1 25,820 0.2 49,567 0.3 75,950 0.5 Azerbaijanis 20 0.0 12,996 0.2 38,362 0.4 56,166 0.4 73,345 0.5 90,083 0.5 78,325 0.5 Belarusians 25,584 0.4 31,614 0.5 107,463 1.2 197,592 1.5 181,491 1.2 182,601 1.1 111,924 0.7 Poles 3,742 0.1 54,809 0.9 53,102 0.6 61,355 0.5 61,136 0.4 59,956 0.4 47,302 0.3 Chechens 3 0.0 2,639 0.0 130,232 1.4 34,492 0.3 38,256 0.3 49,507 0.3 31,802 0.2 Dungans 8,455 0.1 7,415 0.1 9,980 0.1 17,283 0.1 22,491 0.2 30,165 0.2 36,945 0.2 Tajiks 7,599 0.1 11,229 0.2 8,075 0.1 7,166 0.1 19,293 0.1 25,514 0.2 25,673 0.2 Kurds 2,387 0.0 6,109 0.1 12,299 0.1 17,692 0.1 25,425 0.2 32,764 0.2 Kyrgyz 10,200 0.2 5,033 0.1 6,810 0.1 9,474 0.1 9,352 0.1 14,112 0.1 10,925 0.1 Others 108,016 1.7 124,611 2.0 286,441 3.1 315,347 2.5 340,834 2.3 372,996 2.3 206,879 1,4 Total 6,198,465 6,151,102 9,309,847 12,848,573 14,684,283 16,464,464 14,981,281 1 Excluding the Kara-Kalpak AO; source: 2 Source:.",
"3 Source:.",
"4 Source:.",
"5 Source:.",
"6 Source:.",
"7 Source:+Population of Kazakhstan according to ethnic group 2009–2023 Ethnicgroup census 20098 census 20219 estimate 202310 Number % Number % Number % Kazakhs 10,096,763 63.1 13,497,891 70.413,965,95770.7 Russians 3,793,764 23.7 2,981,946 15.53,000,61115.2 Uzbeks 456,997 2.9 614,047 3.2643,3633.3 Ukrainians 333,031 2.1 387,327 2.0380,2261.9 Uygurs 224,713 1.4 290,337 1.5297,1381.5 Germans 178,409 1.1 226,092 1.2225,3451.1 Tatars 204,229 1.3 197,489 1.0219,1531.1 Azerbaijanis 85,292 0.5 145,615 0.8150,4400.8 Koreans 100,385 0.6 107,569 0.6119,8220.6 Turks 97,015 0.6 85,478 0.588,5050.4 Dungans 51,944 0.3 78,817 0.481,7380.4 Belarusians 66,476 0.4 76,484 0.475,6370.4 Tajiks 36,277 0.2 49,827 0.353,4800.3 Kurds 38,325 0.2 47,880 0.349,3550.2 Poles 34,057 0.2 35,319 0.234,9140.2 Kyrgyz 23,274 0.234,1840.236,9890.2 Chechens 31,431 0.2 33,557 0.234,3300.2 Others 157,215 1.0 285,275 1.5309,8041.6 Total 16,009,597 19,186,015'''19,766,807''' 8 Source: 9 Source: 10 Source:"
],
[
"Religion"
],
[
"See also",
"*Ethnic conflicts in Kazakhstan"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
" *."
],
[
"External links",
"For current data, use these sites.",
"* Population and social policy, Statistical Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan (kaz* World Bank Database* CIA World Fact Book page on Kazakhstan* US Census Bureau International Data Base* countrystudies.us* WESP population statistics * Russians left behind in Central Asia"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Politics of Kazakhstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''politics of Kazakhstan''' takes place in the framework of a semi-presidential republic, whereby the President of Kazakhstan is head of state and nominates the head of government.",
"Executive power is exercised by the government.",
"Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament.None of the elections held in Kazakhstan have been considered free or fair by Western standards with issues noted including ballot tampering, multiple voting, harassment of opposition candidates and press censorship."
],
[
"Executive branch",
" Image Post Name Party Term100x100pxPresidentKassym-Jomart TokayevAmanat20 March 2019100x100pxPrime MinisterÄlihan SmaiylovAmanat5 January 2022The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term.",
"The prime minister and first deputy prime minister are appointed by the president.",
"Council of Ministers is also appointed by the president.",
"President Nazarbayev expanded his presidential powers by decree: only he can initiate constitutional amendments, appoint and dismiss the government, dissolve Parliament, call referendums at his discretion, and appoint administrative heads of regions and cities.The president is the head of state.",
"He also is the commander in chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed by the Parliament.",
"President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who was in office since Kazakhstan became independent, won a new 7-year term in the 1999 election that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards.",
"A major political opponent, former prime minister Akezhan Kazhegeldin, was prohibited from running against the president because he had attended an unauthorized meeting of \"the movement for free elections\".",
"On top of this the election was unconstitutionally called two years ahead of schedule.",
"Free access to the media is also denied to opposing opinions.",
"In 2002 a law set very stringent requirements for the maintenance of legal status of a political party, which lowered the number of legal parties from 19 in 2002 to 8 in 2003.The prime minister, who serves at the pleasure of the president, chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government.",
"There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet.",
"Bakhytzhan Sagintayev became the Prime Minister in September 2016."
],
[
"Legislative branch",
"The legislature, known as the Parliament ('''Parliament'''), has two chambers.",
"The Lower House Assembly (''Mazhilis'') has 107 seats, elected for a four-year term, 98 seats are from party lists, 9 - from Assembly of People.",
"All MPs are elected for 5 years.",
"The Upper House Senate has 47 members, 40 of whom are elected for six-year terms in double-seat constituencies by the local assemblies, half renewed every two years, and 7 presidential appointees.",
"In addition, ex-presidents are ''ex officio'' senators for life.Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though most legislation considered by the Parliament is proposed by the government.",
"Several deputies are elected from the Assembly of People of Kazakhstan."
],
[
"Judicial branch",
"There are 65 judges on the Supreme Court of Kazakhstan.",
"There are seven members of the Constitutional Council.",
"Out of the 7 members, 3 are appointed by the president.There are local and oblast (regional) level courts, and a national-level Supreme Court.",
"Local level courts serve as courts of first instance for less serious crimes such as theft and vandalism.",
"Oblast level courts hear more serious criminal cases and also hear cases in rural areas where no local courts have been established.",
"A judgment by a local court may be appealed to the oblast level.",
"The Supreme Court is a cassation court that hears appeals from the oblast courts.The constitution establishes a seven-member Constitutional Council to determine the constitutionality of laws adopted by the legislature.",
"It also rules on challenges to elections and referendums and interprets the constitution.",
"The president appoints three of its members, including the chair.Under constitutional amendments of 1998, the president appoints a chairperson of a Higher Judicial Council, which nominates judges for the Supreme Court.",
"The Council consists of the chairperson of the Constitutional Council, the chairperson of the Supreme Court, the Prosecutor General, the Minister of Justice, senators, judges, and other persons appointed by the president.",
"The president recommends and the Senate (upper legislative chamber) approves these nominees for the Supreme Court.",
"Oblast judges (nominated by the Higher Judicial Council) are appointed by the president.",
"Lower level judges are appointed by the president from a list presented by the Higher Judicial Council.",
"Under legislation approved in 2000, judges serve for life."
],
[
"Political parties and elections",
"Early '''presidential elections''' were held in Kazakhstan on 9 June 2019 following the resignation of long-term president Nursultan Nazarbayev.",
"Originally scheduled for 2020, seven candidates were registered to participate in the elections, including incumbent president Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, who had assumed the presidency three months before the elections following the resignation of Nazarbayev.",
"Tokayev was subsequently re-elected with 71% of the vote.",
"His closest challenger, Amirjan Qosanov of the Ult Tagdyry party, received 16%."
],
[
"International organization participation",
"In 1999, Kazakhstan applied for observer status at the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly.",
"The official response of the Assembly was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at the Council until their democracy and human rights records improved.",
"Improvement in these areas has been made for in 2012, Kazakhstan was elected by United Nations members to serve on the UN Human Rights Council.",
"Despite this, Kazakhstan is still considered to have a very poor human rights record by analysts such as The Economist Intelligence Unit.AsDB, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS (associate), ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, SCO, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Government of Kazakhstan"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Will Kazakhstan Be Next?",
"- On Political Developments in Kazakhstan by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace* Central Asia Commerce"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Economy of Kazakhstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''economy of Kazakhstan''' is the largest in Central Asia in both absolute and per capita terms.",
"In 2021, Kazakhstan attracted more than US$370 billion of foreign investments since becoming an independent republic after the collapse of the former Soviet Union.It possesses oil reserves as well as minerals and metals.",
"It also has considerable agricultural potential, with its vast steppe lands accommodating both livestock and grain production.",
"The mountains in the south are important for apples and walnuts; both species grow wild there.",
"Kazakhstan's industrial sector rests on the extraction and processing of these natural resources.The Dissolution of the Soviet Union and the collapse of demand for Kazakhstan's traditional heavy industry products have resulted in a sharp decline of the economy since 1991, with the steepest annual decline occurring in 1994.In 1995–97 the pace of the government program of economic reform and privatization quickened, resulting in a substantial shifting of assets into the private sector.",
"Kazakhstan was granted \"market economy country\" status by the European Union and the United States, in 2000 and 2002 respectively.The December 1996 signing of the Caspian Pipeline Consortium agreement to build a new pipeline from western Kazakhstan's Tengiz Field through Russia to the Black Sea increased prospects for substantially larger oil exports until Putin took issue with the lukewarm support he experienced in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine from Kazakh President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev.",
"Kazakhstan's economy turned downward in 1998 with a 2.5% decline in GDP growth due to slumping oil prices and the August financial crisis in Russia.",
"A bright spot in 1999 was the recovery of international petroleum prices, which, combined with a well-timed tenge devaluation and a bumper grain harvest, pulled the economy out of recession.GDP per capita shrank by 26% in the 1990s.",
"In the 2000s, Kazakhstan's economy grew sharply, aided by increased prices on world markets for Kazakhstan's leading exports: oil, metals and grain.",
"GDP grew 9.6% in 2000, up from 1.7% in 1999.In 2006, extremely high GDP growth had been sustained, and grew by 10.6%.",
"Business with the booming economies of Russia and China, as well as neighboring Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) nations have helped to propel this growth.",
"The increased economic growth also led to a turn-around in government finances, with the budget moving from a cash deficit of 3.7% of GDP in 1999 to 0.1% surplus in 2000.The country experienced a slowdown in economic growth from 2014, sparked by falling oil prices and the effects of the Russo-Ukrainian War.",
"The country's currency was devalued by 19% in 2014 and by 22% in 2015.In 2017, the World Economic Forum compiled its Global Competitiveness Ranking, ranking Kazakhstan 57th out of 144 countries.",
"The ranking considers multiple macroeconomic and financial factors, such as market size, GDP, tax rates, infrastructure development, etc.",
"In 2012, the World Economic Forum listed corruption as the biggest problem in doing business in the country, while the World Bank listed Kazakhstan as a corruption hotspot, on a par with Angola, Bolivia, Kenya, Libya and Pakistan.",
"Kazakhstan scored 31 points out of 100 in Transparency International's 2018 edition of the Corruption Perceptions Index, indicating high levels of corruption.Cyril Muller, the World Bank Vice President for Europe and Central Asia, visited Astana in January 2017.He praised the country's progress, made during the 25-year partnership with the World Bank.",
"Muller also talked about Kazakhstan's improved positioning in the World Bank's Doing Business Report 2017, where Kazakhstan ranked 35th out of 190 countries worldwide.",
"After 2000, the government conducted several public sector reforms and adopted the New Public Management (NPM) approach, which was aimed at reducing costs and increasing the efficiency of the public service delivery.Kazakhstan secured the 3rd position in the Central and South Asia regional ranking of the 2018 Global Innovation Index (GII) released by World Intellectual Property Organization.The main producer of cotton pulp in Kazakhstan is Khlopkoprom.",
"Judging by a number of transactions, its products have been supplied to gunpowder manufacturers in the Russian Federation since 2022.Most of the factories that imported pulp from Kazakhstan for the manufacture of explosives are under US and Ukrainian sanctions.",
"According to OCCRP, Vlast, and iStories, a significant increase in Kazakhstan's exports of cotton pulp and derivatives to the Russian Federation after February 24, 2022, was identified.",
"Exported components are key in the manufacture of explosives and gunpowder.",
"There are contracts for the supply of raw materials to the Kazan Gunpowder Plant from Kazakhstan until 2026, and to the Aleksinsky Chemical Plant (which also produces gunpowder) until 2024."
],
[
"Macro-economic trend",
"GDP per capita development, since 1973In the 2014 Economic Freedom Index published by The Heritage Foundation in Washington, DC, Kazakhstan has gained 22 points over the past 17 years, which is noted by the authors as among the 20 best improvements recorded by any country.",
"Kazakhstan's economic freedom score is 69.1, equalling \"moderately free\".",
"Its overall score has increased by 0.1 point, with significant improvements in investment freedom and government integrity offsetting steep declines in fiscal health and monetary freedom.",
"Kazakhstan is ranked 11th among 43 countries in the Asia–Pacific region, and its overall score is above the regional and world averages.This chart shows trends in the gross domestic product of Kazakhstan at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund, with figures in millions of tenge.",
"Year Gross Domestic Product (millions ₸) US$ Exchange Rate Inflation Index (2000=100) Per Capita Income (as % of USA) 1995 78,014,200 T 61.11 64 3.81 2000 102,599,902 T 142.26 100 3.53 2005 147,453,000 T 132.88 140 9.012017159,406,930₸344.18The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Inflation under 5% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.",
"US$ PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.",
"US$ nominal) GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment (in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)1992122.77,1962.9n/an/an/an/a1993114.06,7485.2−9.2%1,662.3%n/an/a1994101.86,44411.9−12.6%1,402.0%10.1%n/a199595.46,08716.6−8.2%176.3%11.0%n/a199697.76,30821.00.5%39.1%13.0%n/a1997101.06,65122.21.7%17.4%13.0%n/a1998100.26,69822.1−1.9%7.3%13.1%n/a1999104.47,00916.92.7%8.4%13.5%n/a2000117.37,89018.39.8%13.3%12.8%n/a2001136.29,16822.213.5%8.4%10.4%n/a2002151.810,21124.69.8%5.9%9.3%17.6%2003169.211,31830.89.3%6.5%8.8%15.0%2004190.612,64243.29.6%6.9%8.4%11.4%2005215.814,17857.19.7%7.5%8.1%8.1%2006246.215,99181.010.7%8.6%7.8%6.7%2007275.317,677104.98.9%10.8%7.3%5.9%2008289.918,140133.43.3%17.1%6.6%6.8%2009295.618,245115.31.2%7.3%6.6%10.2%2010321.119,530148.07.3%7.1%5.8%10.7%2011352.321,129192.67.5%8.3%5.4%10.1%2012376.722,278208.05.0%5.1%5.3%12.1%2013405.823,644236.66.0%5.8%5.2%12.6%2014430.824,734221.44.3%6.7%5.0%14.5%2015440.724,940184.41.2%6.7%5.0%21.9%2016451.225,167137.31.1%14.6%5.0%21.0%2017477.626,252166.84.0%7.4%5.0%21.2%"
],
[
"Economic growth and GDP",
"Kazakhstan's GDP grew 4.1% in real terms during the period from January to September 2011.Kazakhstan's real GDP growth was projected to reach 4.3% in 2014, the main driving force of the economy in Kazakhstan in 2014 is the consumer sector; the consumption in Kazakhstan is mainly boosted by the retail lending.According to the Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan the country's GDP growth in the first quarter of 2014 was 3.8%.The country devalued its currency by 19% in February 2014.The country experienced a slowdown in economic growth from 2014 sparked by falling oil prices and the effects of the 2014 Russo-Ukrainian War.The Government of Kazakhstan signed a Framework Partnership Agreement with IBRD, IFC, MIGA on 1 May 2014; according to this Agreement the World Bank will allocate US$2.5 trillion to Kazakhstan, for the diversification of the economy and reaching the sustainable development.The World Bank report shows that Kazakhstan, as of 2015, reached the level of an upper-middle-income country with a GDP of US$170 billion.Another 22% devaluation occurred in August 2015.Foreign direct investment increased 30 percent in 2015 in Kazakhstan's agricultural industry and 80 percent in the country's petroleum products sector.In 2016 Kazakhstan's economy started to recover from the crisis caused by low oil prices and the tenge devaluation.",
"According to the Minister of National Economy of Kazakhstan, in nine months of 2016 the GDP growth reached 0.4%.",
"Sectors of economy that experienced the highest growth included construction (6.9%), agriculture (4.9%), and transport sector (4.0%).The GDP per capita in current US$ in Kazakhstan declined by about 40% between 2013 compared and 2017.Kazakhstan was ranked 25th out of 190 countries in the World Bank's Doing Business 2020 report.",
"The country improved its position by 3 points, from 28 to 25, in the 2020 ranking compared to the previous year.",
"This placed Kazakhstan ahead of countries such as Iceland (26th place), Austria (27th place), Russia (28th place), Japan (29th place), etc.Kazakhstan has prioritized the development of non-oil sectors of economy, which accounted for 85% of the country's economic growth in 2019.In the first seven months of 2020, Kazakhstan exported significantly more goods than the previous year, including a seven-fold increase in automobile exports.",
"The country's GDP decreased by 3 percent due to the decline in the service sector because of the COVID-19 pandemic, but the real sector of the economy grew significantly.",
"Agriculture, construction, and manufacturing all saw increases in production in the first eight months of the year.The biggest growth in 2020 occurred in the automotive industry (+53.6%), pharmaceuticals (+39.7%), processed metal products (+19.5%), mechanical engineering (+16.5%), as well as in light industry (+16.4%).",
"The industries in the service sector that demonstrated growth included construction (+10.7%) and information and communications (+8.2%)."
],
[
"Sectors of economy",
"===Primary=======Energy====Kazakhstan is the leading country in the world for uranium production volumes with 35% of global production, and it has the world's second biggest uranium reserves after Australia.====Oil and gas====Oil and gas is the leading economic sector.",
"In 2000, Kazakhstan produced 35,252,000 metric tons of oil (700,000 barrels per day), a 17.4% increase over 1999's 30,025,000 tons.",
"It exported 28,883,000 tons of oil in 2000, up 38.8% from 20,813,000 tons in 1999.Production in 2001 has been growing at roughly 20%, on target to meet the government's forecast of 40,100,000 tons of oil (800,000 barrels per day).",
"In 2000, production reached 11.5 km³ of natural gas, up from 8.2 km³ in 1999.Kazakhstan has the potential to be a world-class oil exporter in the medium term.",
"The landmark foreign investment in Kazakhstan is the TengizChevroil joint venture, owned 50% by ChevronTexaco, 25% by ExxonMobil, 20% by KazMunaiGas of Kazakhstan, and 5% by LukArco of Russia.",
"The Karachaganak natural gas and gas condensate field is being developed by BG, Agip, ChevronTexaco, and Lukoil.",
"The Agip-led Offshore Kazakhstan Consortium has discovered potentially huge Kashagan oil field in the northern Caspian.",
"Kazakhstan's economic future is linked to oil and gas development.",
"GDP growth will depend on the price of oil, as well as the ability to develop new deposits.January 2022 began with thousands of people returning to the streets of Kazakhstan to protest against the surging gas prices, recording four straight days of demonstrations, which is claimed to be the biggest protests to have taken place in the oil-rich country in decades.",
"Protesters invaded into government buildings and took over police vehicles despite a strict emergency led by the state being in place.====Mining====Kazakhstan is a leading producer of many mineral commodities, including salt, uranium, ferrochrome, titanium sponge, cadmium, potash, magnesium, rhenium, copper, bauxite, gallium and zinc.The country was the world's largest producer of uranium in 2018.In 2019, the country was the world's 10th largest producer of gold; 11th largest world producer of copper; 3rd largest worldwide producer of chromium; 9th largest world producer of bauxite; 9th largest world producer of zinc; 10th largest worldwide producer of antimony; 12th largest world producer of iron ore; 12th largest world producer of lead; 14th largest world producer of manganese; 17th largest world producer of phosphate; 6th largest world producer of bismuth, and the 7th largest world producer of sulfur.===Industry=======Motor cars====In June 2014 the CKD (Complete Knock-Down) assembly of Toyota Fortuner was launched in Kostanay, Kazakhstan.",
"The expected annual output makes around 3,000 cars.The Kazakhstan's car industry was developing rapidly in 2014 producing US$2 billion worth of products annually.",
"Unfortunately, the industry experienced a decline despite high hopes, with sales dwindling to only 46,000 in 2016.In 2020, the Kazakh economy observed the biggest growth in its automotive industry, which saw a 53.6% growth, despite the COVID-19 pandemic.====Rail====GE Transportation acquired 50% stake in Lokomotiv Kurastyru Zauyty in a joint venture with Kazakhstan's national railway company Temir Zholy.===Services=======Technology====On 22 December 2014 the World Bank approved a US$88 million loan that would support Kazakhstan's efforts to facilitate commercially and socially viable innovation in technology.",
"The Fostering Productive Innovation Project aims to improve the country in areas that are able to foster and support technological innovation.====Retail====According to A.T. Kearney's 2015 Global Retail Development Index, Kazakhstan ranked 13 out of 30.In the 2016th Index, Kazakhstan ranked as the 4th best developing country for retail investments, scoring 56.5 out of 100.Kazakhstan's market attracted large international retailers, such as French retail chains Carrefour and Leroy Merlin, as well as food giants McDonald's and KFC.====Tourism ========Gambling====Gambling in Kazakhstan was developing already during the day of Czarist Russia, then lotteries were organized.",
"In 1698, Czar Peter I signed a decree which allowed organized lotteries for the first time.",
"In later years lotteries were organized by the Ministry of Finance of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which included Kazakhstan.The Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Kazakhstan started issuing licenses for gambling activity in 1999.In 2007 the government of Kazakhstan has introduced a new law which ordered banning gambling on the territory of Kazakhstan besides 2 places which were to become the examples of Russia's special gambling zones.",
"Casinos existing outside these areas had to be closed or moved to places where they could operate legally.",
"The first legal casino opened after the introduction of new law was Casino Flamingo in Kapchagay, which was opened on 1 October 2008.In 2018, the income of gambling companies in Kazakhstan amounted to ₸19.5 billion.",
"This is 16.1% more than in 2017.Then this amount was at the level of ₸16.8 billion.==== Housing market ====As of 2016, the total housing area in Kazakhstan was , an average of per person.",
"The housing area per person increased by 20% in the period from 2005 to 2016, but remained below the UN's recommended standard of per person."
],
[
"External trade and investment",
"===Trade===Kazakh export destinations, 2013Kazakhstan has 11 transcontinental routes, including rail and road routes, and many oil and gas pipelines.",
"The country's geographic position allows for the transporting of goods from China to Europe three to four times faster than other routes.Sherin Suzhikova, Counselor of Kazakhstan's Chamber of Commerce and Industry and Chao Yon-chuan, Secretary-General of the Taiwan External Trade Development Council (TAITRA), signed an agreement on 13 October 2006 in Taipei to improve economic relations through \"exchanges of market information and visits by trade professionals.\"",
"TAITRA has an office in Almaty, Kazakhstan.In 2006, North Dakota's then Lieutenant Governor Jack Dalrymple led an 18-member delegation of the North Dakota Trade Office representing seven North Dakota companies and Dickinson State University on a trip to Kazakhstan, Ukraine and Russia.",
"North Dakota exports mostly machinery to Kazakhstan, the eighth largest destination for North Dakotan exports; machinery exports increased from US$22,000 to US$25 million between 2000 and 2005.The percentage of high-tech exports (as a share of manufactured exports) from Kazakhstan has grown from just 4.46% in 1995 to 37.17% in 2014.One of the main factors that triggered this growth was the Technology Commercialization Project developed and implemented by the World Bank Group and the Kazakh Government.",
"Through this project, 65 Kazakh tech startups received funding and training helping them get their innovations into markets.China is Kazakhstan's important trade partner.",
"In late March 2015 the two countries signed 33 deals worth US$23.6 billion.",
"The deals cover different industries, such as oil refining, cars, steel.Kazakhstan's foreign trade turnover in 2018 comprised $93.5bn that is 19.7% more compared to 2017.The volume of export in the reporting period made $67bn (+25.7%) and import was $32.5bn (+9.9%).The Government of Kazakhstan has been supporting Kazakhstani exporters operating in foreign markets through their QazTrade incubator.",
"Since September 2019, the program selects businesses and assists them with navigating bureaucracy and connecting to foreign markets the government deems a priority, including Germany, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, and China.===National investment strategy===The Kazakh government approved in August 2017 a national investment strategy, which seeks to increase foreign investments by 26% in five years and create a more favorable investment climate.",
"The strategy also identified 27 countries as the most important sources investments.",
"These countries include the US, UK, China, Russia, Germany, France, Italy, Turkey, Japan, the UAE, South Korea and others.",
"The Ministry for Investment and Development works with Ministry of Foreign Affairs to develop individual plans of actions for each country.In order to achieve the 26% growth of FDI, Kazakhstan executes economic diplomacy.",
"Key actors of Kazakhstan's foreign economic policy are the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Trade and Integration of Kazakhstan, KazakhInvest and Qaztrade.=== Bond market ===In October 2014, Kazakhstan introduced its first overseas dollar bonds in 14 years.",
"Kazakhstan issued $2.5 billion of 10- and 30-year bonds on 5 October 2014, in what was the nation's first dollar-denominated overseas sale since 2000.Kazakhstan sold $1.5 billion of 10-year dollar bonds to yield 1.5 percentage points above midswaps and $1 billion of 30-year debt at two percentage points over midswaps.",
"The country drew bids for $11 billion.===Foreign direct investment===Kazakhstan is the largest recipient of total and annual foreign direct investment of all CIS countries.The OECD has recognized the strides the government has made in opening the country to international investment and in improving the policy framework for investment as part of their efforts to diversify the economy.",
"In 2017 Kazakhstan was invited by OECD to become Adherent to the OECD Declaration on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises.In June 2014 Kazakhstan's president, Nursultan Nazarbayev, signed into law tax concessions to promote foreign investment, including a 10-year exemption from corporation tax, an 8-year exemption from property tax, and a 10-year freeze on most other taxes.",
"Other measures include a refund on capital investments of up to 30 percent once a production facility is in operation.",
"In order to attract investment, Kazakhstan lowered the tax burden for foreign investors.",
"The corporate income tax rate dropped from 30% to 20%.",
"The government also gradually reduced VAT from 16% in 2006 to 12% in 2009.As of 30 September 2014, total foreign investment in Kazakhstan reached US$211.5 billion.",
"Of that total, net foreign Direct Investment constituted US$129.3 billion, with portfolio and other investments comprising the remaining US$82.2 billion.Reflecting Kazakhstan's ambitious FDI roadmap, a three-year goal to increase FDI by US$30 billion by 2025 was announced.As of July 2015, Kazakhstan attracted US$16 billion in the manufacturing industry over the past five years, which is 2.5 times more than over the previous five years.",
"Kazakhstan put into operation four hundred new products, such as car industry, railway engineering, manufacture of basic chemical products, uranium industry, the industry of rare earth metals.",
"The volume of new enterprises amounted to ₸580 billion.In June 2015 – June 2016 the total number of enterprises owned by foreign investors in Kazakhstan increased by 2.3 percent and reached 9,000.8,691 foreign companies operating in the Kazakhstan are small businesses.As of the beginning of 2016, the World Bank invested over US$6.8 billion in Kazakhstan since 1992.These funds were invested in development of roads and social infrastructure, increasing of competitiveness of SME's, education, healthcare, environment protection, etc.In 2012, Kazakhstan conducted the first review of the OECD investment standards, which resulted in 12 recommendations on how to improve the investment climate of the country.",
"After adopting Law on public – private partnership that extends the use of the mechanism and revising standards of intellectual property protection and the rules of attracting foreign labor, Kazakhstan started a second review of the OECD in 2016.According to Ministry of Investment and Development of Kazakhstan, as of May 2016, attraction of foreign investment in oil refining increased by 80%, food industry – 30%, in engineering – by 7 times.",
"The Ministry also reported that there were 200 investment projects in country worth more than $40 billion.In mid-2016 a group of companies led by Chevron announced a US$36.8 billion investment in Kazakhstan's Tengiz oil field.In the first quarter of 2016, Kazakhstan attracted US$2.7 billion in foreign direct investment.",
"The largest investor in the Kazakh economy is the Netherlands ($66 billion), followed by the United States (US$26 billion) and Switzerland (US$15 billion).",
"According to the Chairman of Kazakhstan National Bank, a key factor triggering the increased inflow of foreign investment is implementation of the Nurly Zhol state programme that provides for the creation of favourable conditions.",
"As of September 2016, foreign investments in the Kazakh economy totalled US$5.7 billion, which is 4,8% more than during the same period of the previous year.Summarizing 2016, Kazakhstan's Foreign Minister Erlan Idrissov noted that Kazakhstan attracted US$20 billion of foreign direct investment during the year.",
"The gross inflow of foreign direct investment in 2016 grew by 40% compared to 2015 and surpassed the previous record of 2008.The number of foreign businesses operating in Kazakhstan increased 25% in 2016 compared to 2015.The main recipients of foreign direct investment were the mining industry, geological exploration and processing.",
"The top four investors include the Netherlands, the United States, Switzerland and France.Kazakhstan introduced a visa-free regime for citizens of EAEU, OECD, Monaco, Malaysia, United Arab Emirates, and Singapore starting from 2017.The visa-free entry is expected to increase cooperation with investors and businesses of these countries.Agriculture is one of Kazakhstan's most important sectors where the country seeks to attract foreign investments to boost the competitiveness of this sector of economy.",
"To that end, in 2017 KazAgro negotiated with the European Investment Bank (EIB) a €200 million loan for a period of 15 years.Kazakhstan attracted $330 billion in foreign direct investment from more than 120 countries since 1991 until 2019.More than 50% of FDI in Kazakhstan was directed from the European Union (EU).",
"15%, or $48.4 billion, of FDI originated from the United States, and 5% from the United Kingdom and China each.",
"President Tokayev set foreign investment attraction as a priority in his 2 September 2019 state-of-the-nation address.",
"In 2018, Kazakhstan attracted $24 billion of foreign direct investments.",
"The Foreign Ministry of Kazakhstan plays an important role in attracting foreign investors to the country.In 2019, gross FDI inflow to Kazakhstan amounted to US$24.1 billion.",
"In 2019, mining and metallurgy accounted for the largest volume of foreign investment – 56.3%.",
"The industry attracted record US$13.586 billion in foreign investment.",
"Manufacturing and trade were second and third most attractive sectors for investors.",
"US$3.5 billion of FDI was directed into the manufacturing industry, while trade attracted $3 billion in 2019.The top five countries investing the most into the economy of Kazakhstan remained unchanged in 2019.The Netherlands invested $7.3 billion in Kazakhstan (30.2%), followed by the USA — $5.5 billion (23.0%) and Switzerland — $2.2 billion.",
"China outran the Russian Federation in terms of investments and took 4th place with $1.7 billion (7.0%), while the Russian Federation closed the top five with $1.4 billion (5.8%) invested in Kazakhstan.Noteworthy that Kazakhstan's gross inflow of FDI increased 15.8 percent per year in 2018 and remained at the level of US$24 billion from 2019, even though world economies saw a decrease in investment during that time period.13 Kazakhstan's regions out of 14 saw investment growth in 2020, despite the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"High growth of investment was in the construction sector, specifically in Turkestan region and Zhambyl region as well as Shymkent city.===Investor support===Kazakhstan's investment environment is defined by the government's support for foreign investors.",
"To increase the FDI inflow, the country established the Kazakh Invest National Company, or Kazakh Invest for short.",
"It is a one-stop shop for investors that facilitates investment projects' implementation process from an idea to implementation, as well as ensures aftercare services.",
"In 2018, Kazakh Invest helped develop more than 70 investment proposals in a variety of industries: metallurgy, petrochemistry, food industry, tourism and other.",
"It included creating a business plan, financial model and teaser development.In order to facilitate foreign investment, Kazakhstan launched in 2020 an online portal elicense.kz, which allows to conclude investment contracts online reducing red tape.",
"The first agreement that was concluded via the portal was between Kaz Solar 50 and the German company Solarnet Investment GmbH for a renewable energy project worth ₸5 billion.===Intellectual property===In 2015 Kazakhstan passed a law to regulate Intellectual Property, patent law, and copyright protections and bring its legislation into line with the European Patent Convention (1994 revision) and the 2006 Singapore Treaty."
],
[
"Public policy",
"===2015 \"Nurly Zhol\" economic policy===On 11 November 2014 in his address to the nation for 2015, Nazarbayev proclaimed Kazakhstan's New Economic Policy – The Path to the Future (Nurly Zhol).",
"The new economic policy implies large-scale state investment in infrastructure over the next several years.",
"In the short term, the program \"Nurly Zhol\" will apply the anti-crisis measures to overcome the turbulence in the global economy.",
"The long-term measures of the state program of infrastructure development will help to create a strong platform for new growth.Kazakhstan has identified five priorities for modernization of the state and the economy to maintain competitiveness in the Fourth Industrial Revolution.Kazakhstan was ranked 36th in the Ease of Doing Business report released by the World Bank Group in 2018.The report's rankings rate ease of regulations for businesses and strength of property rights.The Heritage Foundation, a Washington DC – based research center, ranked Kazakhstan 41st in its Index of Economic Freedom 2018.Its overall score has increased by 0.1 point, still being only \"moderately free\" with significant improvements in investment freedom and government integrity offsetting steep declines in fiscal health and monetary freedom.Kazakhstan aimed in 2017 to boost its economy by attracting private investors interested in developing national companies.",
"This is the main goal of privatization that is expected to decrease the share of public property to 15% of GDP.",
"Such companies as Kazakhstan Railways, Samruk-Energo, Kazatomprom, Kaspost, KazMunayGas and Air Astana are expected to be sold through IPO.Kazakhstan fell from 32nd to the 38th place in the 2018 IMD World Competitiveness ranking.",
"The report evaluates business efficiency, public finance and domestic economy.===Privatisation 2016–2020===In December 2015, Kazakhstan Government approved new privatization plan for 2016 – 2020.It is a large-scale privatization program that continues the privatization of 2014 and includes 60 major state-owned companies.",
"According to Kazakh Finance ministry, the state budget got ₸6.99 billion (US$20.6 million) from the deals reached within the 2014–2016 privatization program as of 20 Sept. 2016.Kazakhstan's privatization program aims to reduce the state participation in the economy to 15 percent, which is the level set for countries of the OECD.===Special Economic Zones===A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a part of Kazakhstan's territory, which has a special legal regime, with all the necessary infrastructure, to carry out priority activities.On the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan, there are 12 special economic zones with different sectoral orientations:# SEZ \"Astana – New City\"# SEZ \"Saryarka\"# SEZ \"National Industrial Petrochemical Technopark\"# SEZ \"Seaport Aktau\"# SEZ \"Ontustik\"# SEZ \"Chemical Park Taraz\"# SEZ \"Khorgos – East Gate\"# SEZ \"Park of Innovative Technologies\"# SEZ \"Pavlodar\"# SEZ \"Astana – Technopolis\"# SEZ \"Turkistan\"# SEZ \"ICBC\" Khorgos\"===Small and medium-sized enterprises===A new program to support small businesses was launched in Kazakhstan in February 2015.2015 is expected to be a pilot period of the program.",
"During that period the initiative will be focused on three major areas, notably agribusiness, machinery building and production of construction materials, and is to be further extended to other industries.In May 2015 the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) agreed to provide €41 million for technical cooperation projects, advisory support to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and to introduce a Women in Business program.In 2016 the number of Kazakhstan's telecom start-ups increased by 10% compared to 2015.Around 9,400 small telecom companies are currently registered in the country.The Kazakh Government provides extensive support to businesses, especially SMEs.",
"The development of SMEs is an integral part of Kazakhstan's ''Business Road Map 2020'' state programme.",
"The share of SMEs in Kazakhstan's GDP increased from 24.9% in 2015 to 28.4% in 2018.Kazakhstan plans to raise this indicator to 50% by 2050."
],
[
"Recent miscellany",
"Kazakhstan was ranked 54th 2017 Economic Freedom of the World report published by Fraser Institute, but ranks 12 places below on place 66 when adjusted by the Gender Disparity Index, which captures the degree to which women around the world have the same legal rights as men and adjusts the economic freedom score accordingly.",
"This shows a large disadvantage of women in business.In recent years a trade route has been established between Kazakhstan and the United States.",
"It now makes up 54% of the World's salt imports and exports by volume (350,000 tonnes per year).In 2021, 14 products developed by Kazakh scientists began being exported to China, Russia, Turkey, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and the Czech Republic.",
"These products include, but are not limited to, food & drinks based on milk whey; probiotics; an anti-fungal drug; biological sanitation products.In 2021, it was reported that the number of young female entrepreneurs in Kazakhstan has increased by 15 percent."
],
[
"See also",
"*KazKuat (2005), state-owned organization for domestic hydro-electric sector*Yerbolat Dosayev, Minister of National Economy*Vladimir Shkolnik, Minister of Energy"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Kazakhstan* U.S. Department of Energy Country Analysis Brief* Kazakhstan Plans to Build Highway Connecting China and Europe* Kazakh central bank misspells 'bank' on money* International Business; China Pays Dearly for Kazakhstan Oil* Kazakh President's Daughter Chides Steel Baron Mittal* Commercial gold and copper discoveries in Kazakhstan* Kazakhstan Changes Energy Strategy on the Way to WTO* Kazakhstan to be top oil producer by 2011: Nazarbayev* \"Agriculture in Kazakhstan\"* Tariffs applied by Kazakhstan as provided by ITC's ITC Market Access Map, an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Telecommunications in Kazakhstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Telecommunications in Kazakhstan include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the internet.The largest telecommunications company in Kazakhstan is Kazakhtelecom, which is responsible for infrastructure such as cables and exchanges, and provides internet, television and telephone connections to individuals and businesses.",
"The state of Kazakhstan is a major shareholder in Kazakhtelekom."
],
[
"Telephones",
"===Telephone numbers===Kazakhstan's international calling code is +7, used in combination with the zone codes 6xx and 7xx.",
"It is the only former Soviet country except Russia not yet to have transitioned away from +7.In 2021, the number +997 was allocated by the ITU, but as of 2023 had not been implemented.",
"In early 2023, the country applied instead for the number +77.Telephone numbers, both fixed and mobile, are 10 digits long.===Fixed-line===Telephone density of fixed telephone subscriptions is decreasing, standing at 16 per 100 people in 2021, compared to its peak of 26 per 100 in 2012.===Mobile===As of 2021, there were estimated to be over 24 million cellular subscriptions; 127 per 100 inhabitants of Kazakhstan.",
"Rank Operator Technology Subscribers(in millions) Ownership 1 Beeline (including izi) GSM-900 MHz (GPRS, EDGE) 900/2100 MHz UMTS, HSDPA, HSUPA, HSPA, HSPA+, DC-HSPA+800/1800/2100 MHz LTE, LTE-A n78 5G NR 9.8 (October 2021) VEON 2 Kcell (including activ) GSM-900 MHz (GPRS, EDGE) 900/2100 MHz UMTS, HSDPA, HSUPA, HSPA, HSPA+, DC-HSPA+800/1800/2100 MHz LTE, LTE-A 7.957 (Sep 2021) KazakhTelecom (51%), Jysan Bank (24%), free float (25%) 3 Tele2 Kazakhstan (including Altel, Fmobile) GSM-900 MHz (GPRS, EDGE) 900 MHz UMTS, HSDPA, HSUPA, HSPA, HSPA+, DC-HSPA+ 1800 MHz LTE, LTE-An78 5G NR 7.255 (Dec 2019) KazakhTelecomKazakhstan has 4G mobile internet and has begun work on 5G as of 2021.===Satellite===Kazakhstan's national DAMA satellite communication network was established in 1999 in order to provide communication services to sparsely populated areas with poor road access."
],
[
"Broadcast transmission",
"* '''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 60, FM 17, shortwave 9 (1998)* '''Radios:''' 6.47 million (1997); 12 million (2009);* '''Television broadcast stations:''' 12 (plus 9 repeaters) (1998); 149 (2009);"
],
[
"Internet",
"*'''Top level domain''' (country code): .kz* '''Internet Service Providers''' (ISPs): 10 (with their own international channels) (2001); 22 (2009);* '''Internet hosts:''' 33,217 (2007); 80,000 (2009);*'''Internet users:''' 100,000 (2002); 400,000 (2005); 1,247,000 (2006); 3,130,000 (2008); 4,700,000 (2009); 15,160,000 (2019)It is estimated that as of 2021, 91% of Kazakhstan residents have access to the internet.In 2023, Kazakhstan will begin the construction on the joint Trans Caspian Fiber Optic (TCFO) project.The government of Kazakhstan carries out surveillance of telecommunications and internet traffic in the country and, as of 2010, was found to filter content related to social and political issues, as well as preparing list twice per year of websites to be blocked.",
"ISPs are required to prohibit users from disseminating materials or information not in accordance with the country’s laws, including pornography.",
"Since 2015 it is an imprisonable offense to spread unverified information online.",
"Kazakhstan has also throttled or shut down the internet as a response to political dissent, such as during country-wide political unrest in January 2022."
],
[
"See also",
"*Kazakhtelecom*Kaznet*Kazpost*.kz"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Transport in Kazakhstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The vast territory of Kazakhstan spans across .",
"The population density is low in Kazakhstan, and the centers of industry and agriculture are spread out and remote from world markets."
],
[
"Railways",
"Railways provide 68% of all cargo and passenger traffic to over 57% of the country.",
"There are in common carrier service, excluding industrial lines.",
"All railway lines in Kazakhstan are built in gauge, of which is electrified (2012).Kazakhstan Temir Zholy (KTZ) is the national railway company.",
"KTZ cooperates with French loco manufacturer Alstom in developing Kazakhstan's railway infrastructure.",
"Alstom has more than 600 staff and two joint ventures with KTZ and its subsidiary in Kazakhstan.",
"In July 2017, Alstom opened its first locomotive repairing center in Kazakhstan.",
"It is the only repairing center in Central Asia and the Caucasus.As the Kazakhstani rail system was designed during the Soviet era, rail routes were designed ignoring inter-Soviet borders, based on the needs of Soviet planning.",
"This has caused anomalies, such as the route from Oral to Aktobe passing briefly through Russian territory.",
"It also means that routes might not suit modern-day Kazakhstani needs.Kazakhstan's developed railway system promotes international and regional trade connecting Asia and Europe.",
"In 2019, the transit of goods through Kazakhstan increased 23% to 664,000 containers.=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===* Russia - same gauge (former Soviet Union railway system)* China - break of gauge /; ** Border station at Druzhba, KZ - Alashankou, CN, connection between the Turkestan–Siberia Railway and the Northern Xinjiang Railway (no electrification on them).",
"** Another connection exist from Altynkol railway station near Khorgas to the Jinghe–Yining–Khorgos Railway towards Ürümqi.",
"* Kyrgyzstan - same gauge (former Soviet Union railway system)* Uzbekistan - same gauge (former Soviet Union railway system)* Turkmenistan - same gauge (former Soviet Union railway system) (railway link opened in 2013, presently for freight)* Caspian Sea - railhead The strategy of transport development in Kazakhstan until 2015 is to build of new electrified and of existing railway stations.In 2006, a standard gauge rail link from China to Europe was proposed.In 2007, it was proposed to eliminate break of gauge at Druzhba-Alashankou by converting the Kazakhstan main line to European gauge.In 2008, BOOT line from Zhetigen to Khorgos on the China border.",
"The line would branch off the existing railway near Shaquanzi.=== Maps ===* UN Map* reliefweb map=== Towns served by rail ==="
],
[
"Rapid transit and tram systems",
"Metro station in Almaty.=== Almaty ===Tram in AlmatyThere is a small () metro system in Almaty, the former capital and the largest city in the country.",
"Second and third metro lines are planned in the future.",
"The second line would intersect with the first line at Alatau and Zhibek Zholy stations.In May 2011, the construction of the second phase of the Almaty Metro line 1 began.",
"The general contractor is Almatymetrokurylys.",
"The extension includes five new stations, and will connect the downtown area of Almaty with Kalkaman in the suburbs.",
"Its length will be .The construction is divided into three phases.",
"The first phase, the addition of the two stations Sairan and Moscow with a length of opened in 2015.There was a tram system of 10 lines which operated from 1937 to 2015.=== Astana ===A metro system is currently under construction in Astana , the capital city.The metro line had been a long time coming and the project was abandoned at one point in 2013, but an agreement was signed on 7 May 2015 for the project to go ahead.=== Oskemen ===In Oskemen, a tram system was operated until 2018.Opened between 1959 and 1978, the tram was a popular form of transport in Oskemen/Ust-Kamenogorsk.",
"At its peak, it had six routes, but in the end it had four routes in operation.",
"It had a fleet of 50 working tram cars.=== Pavlodar ===Trams in PavlodarIn Pavlodar, there is a tram network which began service in 1965., the network has 20 regular and three special routes.",
"The network has a 60% share of the local public transport market.",
"Its fleet of 115 trams are due to be replaced and in 2012, with the city announcing plans to purchase 100 new trams.=== Temirtau ===Trams in TemirtauThere are two tram lines in Temirtau."
],
[
"Highways",
"Al-Farabi street, Almaty, Esentai TowerKazakhstan has a road network stretching over , most of which is in need of modernization and repair.",
"It is, however, notable for containing the easterly terminus of European route E40, which contains the most easterly section of the Euroroute network.",
"* ''Total:'' (2002)* ''Paved:'' (2002)* ''Unpaved:'' (2002)It is stated in the ''CIA Factbook'' that Kazakhstan has a total road network of which is made up of paved and unpaved roads (2008)., there were 3,845,301 registered cars and a total of 4,425,770 units of autotransport.Five international routes pass through Kazakhstan, totaling .",
"These highways are:* M-36 Highway: Almaty – Nur-Sultan – Kostanay (continues to Chelyabinsk)* Almaty – Petropavl to Omsk with the release of* M-38 Highway: Almaty - Semey - Pavlodar (continues to Omsk)* M-39 Highway: Almaty - Shymkent (continues to Tashkent)* M-32 Highway: Shymkent - Aktobe - Oral (continues to Samara)In 2009, the country began the construction of the \"Western Europe - Western China\" highway, which will be completed .",
"The total length of the road will be , of which will be in Kazakhstan (Aktobe, Kyzylorda, South Kazakhstan, Zhambyl and Almaty oblasts).",
"The thickness of the asphalt and concrete pavement will be , and the expected lifespan of the highway will be 25 years, without a major overhaul, and the maximum speed limit .",
"The project includes a number of bridges over rivers, road maintenance facilities, bus stop areas, ''avtopavilony'', cattle trails, and electronic signage.",
"Simultaneously with the construction of this highway, roads will be repaired and built in areas along its route.===Motorways===The motorway network in Kazakhstan is rather underdeveloped, mainly due to the low population density in the country, which doesn't require wider roads on long distances.",
"There is a total of 490 km of motorways.",
"The following are the only existing multi-lane, double carriage roads in Kazakhstan:* A1 - Runs from Nur-Sultan to Shchuchinsk.",
"It further continues as the A1 two-lane highway to Kokshetau.",
"Motorway length: .",
"* A2 - Runs from Almaty to a point past Uzynagash.",
"It further continues as the A2 two-lane highway to Shymkent.",
"Motorway length: .",
"* A2 - Other four-lane portion runs from Shymkent to Zhibek Zholy, on the border with Uzbekistan.",
"Length: .",
"* A3 - Runs from Almaty to Kapshagay.",
"It further continues as the A3 two-lane highway to Oskemen.",
"Motorway length: ."
],
[
"Pipelines",
"As of 2010, pipelines in Kazakhstan consist of:* Condensate: * Gas: * Oil: * Refined products: * Water,"
],
[
"Waterways and waterborne transportation",
"There are of waterways on the Syrdariya (Syr Darya), 80%, and Ertis (Irtysh) rivers, (2010)"
],
[
"Ports and harbors",
"=== Caspian Sea ===* Aqtau (Shevchenko) - railhead * Atyrau (Gur'yev) - railhead === On rivers ===* Oskemen (Ust-Kamenogorsk)* Pavlodar* Semey (Semipalatinsk)=== Merchant Marine ===The merchant marine has a total of 119 vessels consisting of four general cargo vessels, ten petroleum tankers, and 105 other vessels."
],
[
"Airports",
"Kazakhstan has a total of 97 airports.",
"(2012) However, it is quoted as having a total of 449 airports in 2001.",
"''''The large area of the country and the associated long distances makes air travel a very important component in domestic travel.=== Airports - with paved runways ===total: 64* over : 10* : 25* : 16* : 5* under : 8 (2012)=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===total: 33* over : 5* : 7* : 3* : 5* under : 13 (2012)=== Open Sky regime ===11 airports of Kazakhstan are part of the open sky regime, which allows more foreign carriers and more flights to operate at Kazakh airports.",
"They include the airports of Nur-Sultan, Almaty, Shymkent, Aktau, Karaganda, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Pavlodar, Kokshetau, Taraz, Petropavlovsk, and Semey.=== Heliports ===Total: 3 (2012)"
],
[
"Airlines",
"Air Astana Airbus-320 aircraft at Aktau Airport.The European Commission blacklisted all Kazakh carriers in 2009, with the sole exception of Air Astana.",
"Since then, Kazakhstan had consistently been taking measures to modernize and revamp its air safety oversight.",
"Thus, in 2016, the European Aviation Safety Agency removed all Kazakh airlines from its blacklist citing “sufficient evidence of compliance” with international standards by Kazakh airlines and its Civil Aviation Committee.In December 2021, it was announced that Kazakhstan’s aviation safety record increased to 84%, which is 15% higher than the global average.",
"These statistics were reported from an audit conducted by the ICAO Coordinated Validation Mission.",
"* '''Air Astana''' - Air Astana (Эйр Астана) is the principal airline and the flag carrier of the Republic of Kazakhstan, based in Almaty, Kazakhstan.",
"It operates scheduled domestic and international services on 56 routes from its main hub, Almaty International Airport, and from its 2 secondary hubs, Astana International Airport and Atyrau Airport.",
"It is a joint venture between Kazakhstan's sovereign wealth fund Samruk-Kazyna (51%), and BAE Systems PLC (49%).",
"It was incorporated in October 2001, and started commercial flights on 15 May 2002.At the 2012 World Airline Awards held at Farnborough Airshow in the UK, Air Astana was named the ''Best Airline in Central Asia & India''.",
"* '''FlyArystan''' - low-cost subsidiary of Air Astana* '''SCAT Airlines'''* '''Sunday Airlines''' - charter subsidiary of SCAT Airlines* '''Qazaq Air'''* '''Caspiy'''* '''Kaz TransAir'''* '''Sigma Airlines'''* '''Sunkar Air'''"
],
[
"The New Silk Road",
"Kazakhstan is actively involved in the New Silk Road initiative, which is an infrastructure project expected to significantly accelerate and reduce the cost of goods delivery from China to Europe through Central Asia."
],
[
"External links",
"* Kazakhstan, South Korea to set up bus-assembling JV* Air Astana website* Kazakhstan Railways website in English* Almaty airport details* Official website for Astana Airport in English* Unofficial website for Astana Airport in English"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan''' (, , ) is the unified armed forces of Kazakhstan.",
"It consists of three branches (Ground Forces, Air Defense Forces, Naval Forces) as well as four independent formations (Air Assault Forces, Special Forces, Rocket and Artillery Forces, Territorial Troops).",
"The National Guard, Civil Defense, Border Service and the State Security Service serve as militarized affiliates of the armed forces.",
"The national defence policy aims are based on the Constitution of Kazakhstan.",
"They guarantee the preservation of the independence and sovereignty of the state and the integrity of its land area, territorial waters and airspace and its constitutional order.",
"The armed forces of Kazakhstan act under the authority of the Kazakhstan Ministry of Defence."
],
[
"General composition",
"The facade of the defence ministry.The branches and subordinate bodies of the armed forces include:* Ministry of Defense* Branches**Ground Forces** Air Defense Forces** Naval Forces* Independent formations** Air Assault Forces** Special Forces** Rocket and Artillery Forces** Territorial Troops* Affiliated forces**National Guard** Civil Defense of EMERCOM** Border Service of the National Security Committee** State Security Service=== Manpower ===The ''Military Balance 2013'' reported the armed forces' strength as; Army, 20,000, Navy, 3,000, Air Force, 12,000, and MoD, 4,000.It also reported 31,000 paramilitary personnel.=== General Staff ===The General Staff is the main body for the management of the armed forces of the state in peacetime and wartime, coordinates the development of plans for the construction and development of the Armed Forces, other troops and military formations, their operational, combat and mobilization training, organizes and carries out strategic planning application and interaction of the Armed Forces, other troops and military formations, and also develops a plan for the operational equipment of the country's territory in defense.==== Units ====* Troops of Radiation, Chemical and Biological Protection*Department of Engineering Troops"
],
[
"History",
"On May 7, 1992, the president of Kazakhstan took a number of actions regarding defence.",
"He signed a decree on the 'establishment of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan', the transformation of the State Committee of Defence of the Republic of Kazakhstan into the Ministry of Defence, on the attribution of Sagadat Nurmagambetov the military rank of Colonel General, and the appointment of General-Colonel Sagadat Nurmagambetov as Defence Minister of Kazakhstan.",
"Mukhtar Altynbayev served as the Minister of Defence twice, most recently from December 2001 to 10 January 2007.On June 30, 1992, the Soviet Armed Forces' Turkestan Military District disbanded, following the collapse of the Soviet Union.",
"The most powerful grouping of forces from the Turkestan Military District then became the core of Kazakhstan's new military.",
"Kazakhstan acquired all the units of the 40th Army (the former 32nd Army) and part of the 17th Army Corps, including 6 land force divisions, storage bases, the 14th and 35th air-landing brigades, 2 rocket brigades, 2 artillery regiments and a large amount of equipment which had been withdrawn from over the Urals after the signing of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe.On July 6, 2000, a presidential decree returned the armed forces returned to a dual structure (general-purpose forces and air defense forces).",
"The Airmobile Forces were also created, and it transitioned to a new military-territorial structure of established military districts.",
"In February 2001, a decree divided the functions of the Ministry of Defence and General Staff.",
"From 2000 to 2003, the transition of the Armed Forces to the brigade structure of troops was fully implemented.Kazakhstan had its first military parade in its history at Otar Military Base on May 7, 2013, celebrating the Defender of the Fatherland Day as the national holiday for the first time ever.",
"During the ceremony, the first woman was promoted to the rank of General.",
"Kazakhstan is a founding member of CSTO and SCO.",
"Kazakhstan also has an Individual Partnership Action Plan with NATO & strategic cooperation with the Turkish Armed Forces.=== Deployments ======= Peacekeeping in Tajikistan ====During the civil war in Tajikistan, in accordance with the decision of the CIS countries, peacekeepers were sent to Tajikistan.",
"The participants were Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.",
"At the initial stage, on September 10, 1992, one 300 man airborne assault battalion from the 35th Guards Air Assault Brigade was sent to Tajikistan.",
"Later, in the spring of 1993, a consolidated battalion of three rifle companies was formed from three agencies: the Ministry of Defense, the Interior Ministry, and the Border Troops of the KNB.",
"The combat task of the Kazakh military during the civil war in Tajikistan was to strengthen the checkpoints and outposts of the Russian border detachment in Kalai-Khumb.",
"On April 7, 1995, in the Pshikhavr Gorge of the Pamirs, a company was ambushed, during which 17 people were killed, 33 were injured.",
"Over the entire period of peacekeeping missions in Tajikistan, during the hostilities, the combined Kazakh battalion lost 54 soldiers killed and missing.",
"The mission formally ended in 2000, and the peacekeepers left in 2001.==== UN Peacekeeping ====Kazakhstan has one of the most extensive peacekeeping operations in the Commonwealth of Independent States.",
"The KAZBAT is the main Kazakh peacekeeping military unit, falling under the 38th Air Assault Brigade (KAZBRIG) of the Airmobile Forces.",
"It was formed on 31 January 2000 by decree of President Nursultan Nazarbayev.",
"They are trained in accordance with NATO and United Nations standards and are therefore authorized to wear blue helmets while on duty and during parades.==== Covid-19 ====Since the COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan broke out, volunteer military personnel have been called to serve to combat the virus.",
"The volunteers are stationed at checkpoints and city facilities as well as patrolled the streets to enforce lockdowns."
],
[
"Budget",
"In 2012, a quarter of the budget allocated for the MoD was allocated for modernization, restoration, overhaul and the acquisition of weapons.",
"From 2012 to 2014, defense spending amounted to 12 billion tenge."
],
[
"Branches",
"===Ground Forces===Regional Commands of KazakhstanThe 32nd Army had been serving in Kazakhstan for many years.",
"The 32nd Army had been redesignated initially the 1st Army Corps (1988), then the 40th Army (June 1991).",
"It came under Kazakh control in May 1992.On November 1, 1992, on the basis of units of the former Soviet 40th Army of the Turkestan Military District, the First Army Corps was created, with its headquarters in Semipalatinsk.",
"Later, at its base was established the Eastern Military District, retitled on 13 November 2003 as Regional Command East.Today the Ground Forces include four regional commands:* Regional Command \"Astana\" (Headquarters Karaganda)* Regional Command \"East\" (Headquarters Semipalatinsk) * Regional Command \"West\" (Headquarters Atyrau)* Regional Command \"South\" (Headquarters Taraz)There are also the Airmobile Forces with four brigades, and the Artillery and Missile Forces (formed as a separate branch on 7 May 2003).===Air and air defence forces===Air Force bases of Kazakhstan.At the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the 24th Fighter-Bomber Aviation Division with three aviation regiments and three separate regiments was stationed in Kazakhstan.",
"By late 1993 the Kazakhstan Air Force comprised a total of six regiments, with a further air defence fighter regiment.",
"The 11th Division included the 129th Fighter-Bomber Regiment based at Taldy Kurgan, with MiG-27 'Flogger' aircraft and the 134th Fighter-Bomber Regiment at Zhangiz-tobe with MiG-27s.",
"There was also the 149th Bomber Regiment at Zhetigen/Nikolayevka, with Sukhoi Su-24 'Fencers'.",
"Independent elements comprised the 715th Fighter Regiment at Lugovaya, with MiG-29s and MiG-23 'Floggers'; the 39th Reconnaissance Regiment at Balkhash, with MiG-25RBs and Su-24MR \"Fencer\" aircraft, and the 486th Helicopter Regiment based at Ucharal with Mi-24 'Hind'.",
"The sole air defence fighter aviation regiment was the 356th Fighter Aviation Regiment at Semipalatinsk with Mikoyan MiG-31 \"Foxhound\" air defence fighters, which had been part of the 56th Air Defence Corps of the 14th Independent Air Defence Army.",
"The Air Force was under the command of Major General Aliy Petrovich Volkov.Today the Kazakh Air and Air Defence Force has four fast jet bases:* 600th Guards Air Base, Zhetigen, Nikolayevka, Almaty, with MiG-29,* 602nd Air Base, Shymkent, with MiG-29,* 604th Air Base, Taldykorgan Airport, with MiG-27 and Su-27 (previously the 129th Fighter-Bomber Regiment)* 610th Air Base, Sary-Arka Airport, Karaganda, with MiG-31.On 28 October 2010, two strategic agreements signed today establish the framework for Eurocopter's creation of a 50/50 joint venture with Kazakhstan Engineering Kazakhstan to assemble EC145 helicopters, along with the sale of 45 of these locally assembled aircraft for government missions in the country.",
"On 28 November 2011, Eurocopter delivered the first of six EC145s ordered to date by the Kazakh Ministries of Defence and Emergencies.",
"Deliveries are to continue through 2017.On 3 January 2012, Airbus Military signed a firm contract with Kazspetsexport, a state company belonging to the Ministry of Defence of Kazakhstan, to supply two EADS CASA C-295 military transport aircraft plus the related service support package for spare parts and ground support equipment.",
"Additionally, a memorandum of understanding has been signed for a further six C295 aircraft, for which separate firm contracts will be signed progressively over the next few years.",
"The first two aircraft will be delivered by April 2013 and for the remaining six aircraft a delivery schedule will be defined over the following years.",
"This purchase likely represents a quid pro quo.",
"In 2008, EADS made titanium sourcing agreements with Kazakh suppliers.In May 2012, Kazakhstan signed a letter of intent to acquire 20 Eurocopter EC725 helicopters.",
"They were to be assembled in Astana by Kazakhstan Engineering.",
"These Eurocoptors will be fitted with modern systems made by the Turkish firm Aselsan.===Naval Forces===Kazakhstan's Naval Forces were established by presidential decree on 7 May 2003 in spite of being the largest landlocked country on earth.",
"They operate on the Caspian Sea, based at Aktau.",
"The Kazakh Naval Force has a strength of 3,000 personnel and is equipped with fourteen inshore patrol craft."
],
[
"Personnel",
"=== Educational institutions ===National Defense University featuring national symbols as well as a photo of its patron, Nursultan Nazarbayev, in full dress uniform.Cadets of the Military Institute of the Kazakh Ground Forces march in the 2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade.The following higher educational institutions are the main military academies in Kazakhstan:* National Defense University* Talgat Bigeldinov Military Institute of the Air Defence Forces * Military Institute of the Kazakh Ground Forces* Military Engineering Institute of Radio Electronics and CommunicationsOther militarized educational institutions:*The Academy of the Border Service of the National Security Committee was founded on December 26, 1931, and was renamed April 1938 to the school Kharkiv Military School of the Border and Internal Troops of the NKVD.",
"On April 2, 1957, the institution was transferred from the authority of the Interior Ministry to the KGB.",
"In July 1960, the school was transformed into a four-year school which would be known as the Alma-Ata Higher Frontier Command School.",
"In 1993, at the base of the newly formed border troops, the Military Institute of the National Security Committee of Kazakhstan was established and introduced a higher legal education program for graduates, which would continue until 1997.The next 20 years would be marred with name changes until it was given its current name in March 2012.Secondary schools:* Cadet Corps*Zhas Ulan (\"Young Guard\") Republican Schools - There are currently four secondary schools that take the name of \"Zhas Ulan Republican School\".",
"The Astana branch was the first to be founded, being established on 4 November 1999 in the presence of President Nazarbayev and Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko.",
"A four schools have educated about 1700 students in the 10-11 grades.",
"** Astana Zhas Ulan Republican School** Almaty Zhas Ulan Republican School** Shymkent Zhas Ulan Republican School** Karaganda Zhas Ulan Republican School*Republican Military Boarding School **Semey Republican Military Boarding School**Pavlodar Republican Military Boarding School**Aktobe Republican Military Boarding School=== Women in the military ===There are approximately 8,000-8,500 women serving in the Kazakh army.",
"Of those women, 750 are officers.",
"The Ministry of Defence has been working to promote women in the military through educational programs and career advancement opportunities.",
"Only 2.1% of leadership positions within the Ministry of Defence are held by women.",
"The Ministry of Defence also hosts ''Batyr Arular'', which is a nationwide competition for service men and women, showcasing their combat skills, combat readiness and overall physical ability.",
"''Batyr Arular'' gives awards for the best service women.=== Conscription ===Every year, all men aged 18 to 27 are called up for military service in Kazakhstan.",
"There are a number of circumstances due to which one can be released from military service both on a temporary and permanent basis."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of equipment of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan"
],
[
"References",
"* CIA World Factbook, 2003 edition.",
"* Abai TASBULATOV, \"The Kazakhstani Republican Guard: Its Record and Development Prospects\", Military Thought, No.",
"4, 2009, pp.",
"136–142"
],
[
"External links",
"* Asker.kz* Journal of Power Institutions in Post-Soviet Societies, Issue 11, 2010, Security and Defense Reform in Post Soviet Central Asia* Building National Armies – Kazakhstan * Kazakh armored forces parade* https://proza.ru/2022/01/07/238 - unit list, 2022(?)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Foreign relations of Kazakhstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Foreign relations of Kazakhstan''' are primarily based on economic and political security consideration.",
"The Nazarbayev administration has tried to balance relations with Russia and the United States by sending petroleum and natural gas to its northern neighbor at artificially low prices while assisting the U.S. in the War on Terror.",
"Kazakhstan is a member of the United Nations, Collective Security Treaty Organization, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (which it chaired in 2010), North Atlantic Cooperation Council, Commonwealth of Independent States, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and NATO's Partnership for Peace program.",
"Kazakhstan established a customs union with Russia and Belarus which eventually became the Eurasian Economic Union.",
"President Nazarbayev has prioritized economic diplomacy into Kazakhstan's foreign policy.Kazakhstan has a \"multi-vector\" foreign policy, i.e.",
"a triangulation between Russia, China and the West (E.U.",
"and the U.S.).",
"Kazakhstan has called for “intra-regional integration in Central Asia” and international integration of the region.In December 2010, Kazakhstan held its first OSCE summit since 1999."
],
[
"Multilateral agreements",
"In 2015 Kazakhstan joined the Inter-American Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters.",
"In September the Kazakh Senate ratified the Convention, which unites 26 countries, including the United States, South Korea, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela and other countries."
],
[
"Foreign policy 2014–2020",
"Kazakhstan's main foreign policy efforts are focused on achieving the following goals:# Measures that will ensure national security, defense capacity, sovereignty and territorial unity of the country;# Strengthening peace through regional and global security;# Sustainable international position and positive global image of Kazakhstan;# Establishment of fair and democratic world order under the guiding and coordinating role of the United Nations Organization (UN);# Further integration into the system of regional and international trade-economic relations;# Creation of favorable external conditions for the successful implementation of the Strategy 2050; providing high living standards for the population; strengthening unity of the multi-national society; reinforcing rule of law and democratic institutions; protection of human rights and freedoms;# Diversification, industrial-technological development and increased competitiveness of the national economy;# Focusing the country onto the green development path and bringing it to the list of the 30 top-developed nations of the world;# Saving the national-cultural uniqueness and following the own original way of the state development;# Protection of the rights of personal, family and business interests of citizens and legal entities of the Republic of Kazakhstan;# Support to Kazakh diaspora and Kazakh language nationally"
],
[
"Economic diplomacy",
"The Foreign Ministry of Kazakhstan assumed the new function of attracting investments to Kazakhstan in December 2018.As part of the new responsibilities, the Ministry oversees activities in attracting foreign investment and promoting Kazakh exports abroad, taking away these responsibilities from the reformed Ministry for Investment and Development.",
"Two main objectives of Kazakhstan's economic diplomacy include comprehensive support of Kazakh business abroad and promotion of non-resource export.",
"These objectives are set to help achieve the goals of diversifying the economy, creating new jobs, promoting innovative technologies and attracting foreign investors.As part of economic diplomacy, Kazakhstan compiled a list of 40 countries its Foreign Ministry is to target in a bid to attract more foreign investment.",
"Coordinated by the Foreign Ministry, Kazakhstan's diplomatic missions also address issues of strategic interest to Kazakhstan's business community in their receiving states."
],
[
"Border issues",
"Not until 2005 did Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan agree to begin demarcating their shared borders.",
"No seabed boundary with Turkmenistan in the Caspian Sea has been agreed on and the usage of Caspian Sea water is a matter that remains unsettled by international agreement.According to Bakhytzhan Sagintaev, first deputy prime minister, in 2015 Kazakhstan and China will sign an intergovernmental agreement on water allocation of the 24 transboundary rivers."
],
[
"Nuclear weapons non-proliferation",
"When the Soviet Union collapsed in December 1991, Kazakhstan inherited 1,410 nuclear warheads and the Semipalatinsk nuclear-weapon test site.",
"By April 1995, Kazakhstan had returned the warheads to Russia and, by July 2000, had destroyed the nuclear testing infrastructure at Semipalatinsk.On December 2, 2009, UN secretary general Ban Ki-moon and the Republic of Kazakhstan designated August 29 as International Day against Nuclear Tests, the anniversary of the date that Kazakhstan closed the Semipalatinsk test site in 1991.The contribution of Kazakhstan's President Nazarbayev to nuclear non-proliferation was highly recognized by Japan.",
"During his visit to Japan in November 2016, Nursultan Nazarbayev was awarded the title of special honorary citizen of Hiroshima for his non-proliferation efforts."
],
[
"Illicit drugs",
"Illegal cannabis and, to a lesser extent, opium production in Kazakhstan is an international issue since much of the crop ends up being sold in other countries, particularly in other member-states of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).",
"In 1998, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that a \"minimum of 1,517 tons of cannabis was harvested\" in Kazakhstan.With the fall of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan became a major transit country for narcotics produced in Southwest Asia, primarily from Afghanistan.",
"In 2001, Kazakh authorities reported 1,320 cases of drug trafficking and seized 18 metric tons of narcotics.",
"However, this is viewed as a fraction of the actual total volume trafficked and widespread corruption continues to hamper government anti-drug efforts; Transparency International gave Kazakhstan a score of 2.2, on a scale of 0–10 with 0 indicating a \"highly corrupt\" state.",
"Russia and other parts of Europe are the main markets for these drugs although drug use is growing in Kazakhstan as well."
],
[
"KazAID",
"In November 2014 Kazakh Foreign Minister and Resident Representative of UNDP in Kazakhstan signed a project document supporting Kazakhstan's Foreign Affairs Ministry in forming KazAID, a system of Official Development Assistance (ODA).",
"KazAID is the first ODA programme among the Central Asian states.",
"The KazAID program implies technical assistance and humanitarian aid to Afghanistan.",
"As of 2016, Kazakhstan provided Afghanistan with 20,000 tons of food products valued at some $20 million.Kazakhstan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs with assistance of the UNDP and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) leads ODA titled \"Promoting Kazakhstan's ODA Cooperation with Afghanistan.\"",
"The ODA is aimed at expanding economic independence and rights of Afghan women.",
"The project marks Kazakhstan's first international cooperation for Afghanistan in the framework of national system of ODA.As of 2017, Kazakhstan provided ODA worth approximately $450 million.",
"Countries of Central Asia and Afghanistan are a priority for Kazakhstan's ODA."
],
[
"Diplomatic relations",
"425x425px#CountryDate12345625 January 19927891011121314—151617181920212223242526272829—3031323334353637383940414243444546474849505129 52535455565758596061626364656667686970717273747576777879808182—83848520 April 1993868788899091929322 September 199394959697989910010110210310410510610710810911011111211311411511611711811912012112212312412512612712812913013113213313413513613713813914014114214314414514614714814915015115215315415515615715815916016116216316416516616716816917017117217317417517617717817918018118218318424 March 2023Kazakhstan has not established diplomatic relations with Botswana, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, East Timor, Malawi, Nauru, Somalia, and South Sudan.==Bilateral relations== ===Multilateral=== Organization Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Kazakhstan–European Union relations See Kazakhstan–NATO relations===Africa===Kazakhstan has proactively worked to establish ties with African nations.",
"Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs Askar Mussinov participated in the 25th Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the African Union in Johannesburg, South Africa June 12–15.Responding to an international call to help ease the suffering that Ebola is causing in West Africa, Kazakhstan transferred $50,000 to the UN Ebola Trust Fund in late 2014.After that Astana expressed its intention to provide $300,000 to the African Union's special project to fight Ebola.The 1st day of the VIII Astana Economic Forum held on May 21, 2015, was dedicated to Africa and was titled \"Africa – the Next Driver of the Global Economy\".",
"The Foreign Minister of Kazakhstan Erlan Idrissov noted: \"We recognise that Africa is a continent with huge potential.",
"It has enormous human capital and a large, young population.” More than 20 permanent representatives to the United Nations (UN) from Africa participated in the session.On September 28, 2015, Kazakhstan and the UNDP signed a $2 million cost-sharing agreement launching a new program to help 45 African countries implement the UN's Sustainable Development Goals.",
"Country Formal Relations BeganNotes* Egypt has an embassy in Astana* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Cairo.13 March 1992See Kazakhstan–Libya relations* Libya has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan is accredited to Libya from its embassy in Cairo.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Pretoria.",
"* South Africa has an embassy in Astana.===Americas===Kazakhstan's Deputy Foreign Minister Yerzhan Ashikbayev said that Kazakhstan is seeking \"new perspectives\" and boosting its relations with Latin American nations via a series of diplomatic visits.Ashikbayev attended the 44th General Assembly of the Organization of American States in Asuncion, Paraguay on June 4.Kazakhstan was the largest delegation among the conference's 39 observer nations.The Secretary General of the Organization of American States (OAS), José Miguel Insulza, on June 3 met with the Deputy Foreign Minister, Yerzhan Ashikbayev, in Asunción, Paraguay, for the 44th OAS General Assembly where Ashikbayev presented a contribution to help fund important OAS programs.Foreign Minister Erlan Idrissov conducted a four-day visit to Mexico on September 17–20, 2014.During his visit Idrissov met with Mexican Economy Secretary Ildefonso Guajardo, Foreign Secretary Jose Antonio Meade, former President Vincente Fox, other senior officials and business leaders.",
"The Minister and his delegation will view the future site of Kazakhstan's embassy in Mexico City.Idrissov said that the main objective of his visit was to build a bridge between Latin America and Eurasia.",
"The Foreign Minister underlined that economic and trade collaboration with Kazakhstan will allow investors to reach neighboring markets, such as Russia and China.",
"Idrissov also said that Kazakhstan seeks to expand its presence in Latin America and considers Mexico as a strategic ally in building these relations, while Kazakhstan can offer the same support to Mexico in the Eurasian region.",
"Country Formal Relations BeganNotes* Argentina is accredited to Kazakhstan from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.",
"* Kazakhstan is accredited to Argentina from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.September 22, 1993See Brazil–Kazakhstan relations* Brazil has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Brasília.See Canada–Kazakhstan relationsThe countries established diplomatic relations with each other in 1992.Canada has an embassy in Astana.",
"Kazakhstan has an embassy in Ottawa and a consulate in Toronto.",
"Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.",
"The President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, made an official visit to Canada in May 2003.",
"* Kazakhstan and Chile signed an agreement on mining and energy as well as citizens can visit visa free* Chile is accredited to Kazakhstan from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.",
"* Kazakhstan is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasilia, Brazil.",
"* Cuba has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has a consulate in Havana.January 14, 1992 See Kazakhstan–Mexico relations* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Mexico City.",
"* Mexico is accredited to Kazakhstan from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey and maintains an honorary consulate in Almaty.December 16, 1991 See Kazakhstan–United States relations* Former Vice President Dick Cheney visited Kazakhstan on May 5, 2006.The bedrock of U.S. – Kazakhstan cooperation is on nuclear nonproliferation and security.The United States and Kazakhstan have a platform for bilateral communication called the U.S.-Kazakhstan Strategic Partnership Dialogue.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and a consulate general in New York City.",
"* United States has an embassy in Astana and a consulate-general in Almaty.===Asia=== Country Formal relations beganNotesFebruary 1992See Afghanistan–Kazakhstan relations* Afghanistan has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Kabul.See Armenia–Kazakhstan relations* Since 1992, Armenia has had an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Yerevan.",
"* Both countries are full members of the Collective Security Treaty Organisation, of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Commonwealth of Independent States.",
"* There are 25,000 people of Armenian descent living in Kazakhstan.",
"* Between September 1 and 2, 1999, Armenian president Robert Kocharyan made an official visit to Kazakhstan.",
"* In May 2001, Kazakh president Nursultan Nazarbayev made an official visit to Armenia.",
"* Kazakh Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia27 August 1992See Azerbaijan–Kazakhstan relations* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has had an embassy in Baku.",
"*Both countries are full members of the Turkic Council, the International Organization of Turkic Culture, and Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.",
"*There are over 85,000 people of Azerbaijani descent living in Kazakhstan.",
"See Azerbaijanis in Kazakhstan.President Nursultan Nazarbayev welcomed Sheikh Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa, King of the Kingdom of Bahrain, on his first ever trip and the first by an Arab leader to the Republic.",
"He has stressed Bahrain as a key partner in the Arab world at a press conference and has ensured that this visit has led to a new page in the relations between bonding the two nations The Kazakh Government has created the Bahraini-Kazakh Business Council, unveiling plans to sign an agreement on encouraging and protecting investment, avoiding taxation and fiscal evasion.See Bangladesh–Kazakhstan relationsBoth Bangladesh and Kazakhstan are keen to expand the bilateral trade and have been undertaking various measures in this regard.",
"Bangladeshi products including jute, jute goods, tea, medicine and garments have been identified as products with high potential in Kazakhstani market.",
"In 2008, the two countries formed joint economic commission to increase the economic activities between the two countries.",
"In 2012, Bangladesh was granted duty-free access to Kazakhstan's market.",
"In 2013, a high level business delegation from Bangladesh, led by former commerce secretary Mahbub Ahmed, paid a visit to Kazakhstan to explore ways for increasing bilateral trade.25 February 1994*Cambodia is accredited Kazakhstan through its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.",
"*Kazakhstan is accredited Cambodia through its embassy in Hanoi, Vietnam.",
"1992-01-03 See China–Kazakhstan relations* The two nations signed their first boundary agreement in April 1994, and their second supplementary boundary agreement in July 1998 to mark their 1,700 km shared border.",
"*Georgia has an embassy in Astana and an honorary consulate in Almaty.",
"*Kazakhstan has an embassy in Tbilisi.",
"*Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.",
"* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Kazakhstan* Kazakh Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Georgia See India–Kazakhstan relationsDiplomatic relations have increased in importance in the 21st century after initially remaining passive in the 1990s.",
"Both nations seek to develop an extensive commercial and strategic partnership in the Central Asia region.2 June 1993 See Indonesia–Kazakhstan relations*Indonesia has an embassy in Astana.",
"*Kazakhstan has an embassy in Jakarta.",
"*Both nations are member of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.",
"See Israel–Kazakhstan relationsNotwithstanding its membership in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Kazakhstan has good relations with Israel.",
"Diplomatic relations were established in 1992 and President Nazarbayev paid official visits to Israel in 1995 and 2000.In 2006, during a state visit by Kazakh Deputy Prime Minister Karim Masimov, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert remarked, \"Kazakhstan can show a beautiful face of Islam ...",
"Contemporary, ever-developing Kazakhstan is a perfect example of both economic development and interethnic accord that should be followed by more Muslim states.\"",
"Bilateral trade between the two countries amounted to $724 million in 2005.In 2008, Kazkahstan and Israel began to embark on joint military developments which include Self-Propelled Guns and Multiple Launch Rocket Systems.",
"1992* Kazakhstan is part of the Central Asia plus Japan dialogue.",
"Kazakhstan and Japan have similar positions on topical issues on the global agenda.",
"Japan became the only developed country that co-authored the UN General Assembly resolution proclaiming August 29 as the International Day Against Nuclear Tests.See Kazakhstan–Kyrgyzstan relationsBilateral relationships between the countries are very strong and Kyrgyz and Kazakh are very close in terms of language, culture and religion.",
"Kyrgyz-Kazakh relationships have always been at a very high level and economic and other formal unification of two countries have been greeted with strong appreciation by both nations since the two share a lot in common.",
"On April 26, 2007, the presidents of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan signed an agreement to create an \"International Supreme Council\" between the two states.",
"This historic event took place during an official visit of the Kazakh president to the Kyrgyzstan capital, Bishkek.March 16, 1992 See Kazakhstan–Malaysia relationsKazakhstan has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur while Malaysia has an embassy in Almaty.",
"Both are members of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).",
"See Kazakhstan–Pakistan relationsRelations between the two countries began when Pakistan recognized Kazakhstan on December 20, 1991.On February 24, 1992, diplomatic and consular relations were established during an official visit by Kazakhstani president Nursultan Nazarbayev to Pakistan.",
"Kazakhstan is an emerging market for Pakistani goods.",
"1992-03-19 Diplomatic relations between the Kazakhstan and the Philippines were formally established on March 19, 1992.The Philippines maintains relations with Kazakhstan through its embassy in Moscow in Russia.",
"Kazakhstan has an honorary consulate in Manila.Trade between Kazakhstan and the Philippines amounted to 7.3 million during January to November 2010.In 2009, about 1,500 Kazakh tourists visited the Philippines.",
"As of 2009, there are about 7,000 Overseas Filipino Workers are working in Western Kazakhstan, mostly in the oil and gas sector.",
"Kazakhstan is attracting Philippine companies to invest in the country.On 2011, Kazakhstan is planning to put up a Kazakhstan house in the Philippines either in the Bonifacio Global City or Makati to showcase Kazakh products and promote its tourist destinations.",
"There is also plans to put up a Philippine House in Kazakhstan for the same purpose and there is also plans to put Filipino art exhibits in KazakhstanKazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev, and his 27 delegates arrived in the Philippines for a three-day state visit on November 10, 2003, at the Villamor Airbase in Pasay.",
"The Kazakh officials met with their Filipino counterparts and conducted meetings.",
"Former Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo met with Nazarbayev to finalize the Philippine's intent to import oil and coal from Kazakhstan and discussed possible infrastructure projects in the Central Asian country.The Philippines also supported Kazakhstan bid to become a member of the ASEAN Regional Forum on security.July 1, 1993See Kazakhstan–Qatar relationsJanuary 28, 1992 See Kazakhstan–South Korea relations * The establishment of diplomatic relations between South Korea and Kazakhstan began on January 28, 1992.",
"* The South Korea has an embassy in Astana.",
"* The Kazakhstan of has an embassy in Seoul.",
"* Number of the South Korean living in Kazakhstan as of in 2013 is about 2,500.",
"* Bilateral Trade in 2013 about US$1,323 million** Exports 1,074million US dollars** Imports 249 million US dollars* The Republic of Korea's Investment in Kazakhstan of in 2013 about US$3,246 million (Largest Investment in Asia)Bilateral relations have grown steadily since that time.",
"Cooperation between the two nations has grown in political, economic, and educational spheres.",
"The presence of 100,000 ethnic Koreans living in Kazakhstan (known as Koryo-saram) creates an additional link between the two countries.Syria faces the largest humanitarian crisis as a civil war has been raging in the country since 2011.Kazakhstan donated funds to help Syrian refugees fleeing the country.",
"In 2012, about $400,000 were allocated by the country through the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, to the governments of Jordan and Lebanon to provide assistance to Syrians residing in refugee camps.",
"Also, in 2015 Kazakhstan allocated 300,000 euros to Syrian refugees for the supply of medicine, food and construction materials.Kazakhstan sent its next humanitarian aid to Syria in January 2017.The 500 tonnes of supply of food and medications were delivered to Tartus Port on the Mediterranean coast of Syria.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Dushanbe.",
"* Tajikistan has an embassy in Astana.March 2, 1992See Kazakhstan–Turkey relations* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate general in Istanbul.",
"* Turkey has an embassy in Astana and a consulate-general in Almaty.",
"*Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Economic Cooperation Organization, International Organization of Turkic Culture, OIC, TAKM, Turkic Council, TURKPA, OSCE and WTO.",
"*Trade volume between the two countries was US$3.9 billion in 2019 (Kazakh exports/imports: 3/0.9 billion USD).",
"*Turkey became the first state to recognize the Republic of Kazakhstan.",
"*Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Ashgabat.",
"* Turkmenistan has an embassy in Astana.See Kazakhstan–Uzbekistan relations* Kazakhstan–Uzbekistan relations have always been sincere and strong.",
"Since the rapid development of Kazakhstan the president of Uzbekistan Mr. Karimov has visited Kazakhstan several times.===Europe======= European Free Trade Association ====Delegations from the EFTA States, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland met with Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan for a first round of negotiations on a broad-based Free Trade Agreement on January 11–13, 2011 in Geneva.The launching of EFTA-Russia/Belarus/Kazakhstan free trade negotiations had been announced in November 2010 by Ministers from the seven participating States, following a preparatory process including a Joint Feasibility Study.The 11th round of free trade negotiations was conducted from January 27 to 30, 2014 in Astana, Kazakhstan.",
"A 12th round of negotiations scheduled for April 2014 has been postponed.",
"No new dates have been set yet.====European Union====The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Kazakhstan has been the legal framework for European Union-Kazakhstan bilateral relations since it entered into force in 1999.In November 2006 a Memorandum of Understanding on cooperation in the field of energy between the EU and Kazakhstan has been signed establishing the basis for enhanced cooperation.The future European Commission assistance will focus on the following priority areas: promotion of the ongoing reform process at political, economic, judiciary and social level, infrastructure building, and cooperation in the energy sector.The overall EU co-operation objectives, policy responses and priority fields for Central Asia can be found in the EC Regional Strategy Paper for Central Asia 2007–2013.In addition to the assistance under the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI), Kazakhstan participates in several ongoing regional programs.On January 20, 2015 Kazakhstan and the EU initialed the EU-Kazakhstan Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement.",
"This agreement will greatly facilitate stronger political and economic relations between Kazakhstan and the EU.",
"It will increase the flow of trade, services and investment between the parties and will contribute to Kazakhstan's political and social development.Bilateral relations received a post-pandemic refocus with the EU visit by Kazakhstan's president in November 2021.The visit was the first to Europe by Tokayev since becoming president in 2019.====European countries==== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes* Albania is represented in Kazakhstan through its embassy in Moscow, (Russia).",
"* Kazakhstan is represented in Albania through its embassy in Ankara, (Turkey).See Austria–Kazakhstan relations* Austria has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Vienna.",
"1992-07-05 * Since 1994, Bulgaria has had an embassy in Astana.",
"* Since November 2004, Kazakhstan has had an embassy and an honorary consulate in Sofia.See Croatia–Kazakhstan relations* Relations between two countries are very close.",
"Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev made a state visits to Croatia in 2001,2006 and is expected to visit Croatia in summer of 2015.Croatian President Stjepan Mesić visited Kazakhstan several times.",
"Croatian Foreign Minister Vesna Pusić visited Kazakhstan in 2014, while Prime Minister Zoran Milanović visited that country on May 27, 2015.1992-05-06See Denmark–Kazakhstan relations See Finland–Kazakhstan relations* Finland has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Helsinki.25 January 1992See France–Kazakhstan relations* Kazakhstan and France formed bilateral relation in 1993 under President Mitterrand.",
"* President Nazarbayev has visited the country ten times since its independence.",
"* President Nicolas Sarkozy visited Kazakhstan in 2009.",
"* The Franco-Kazakh relationship has become stronger from #Kazakhstan hosting the 2017 World Expo.",
"* Kazakhstan and France implemented 11 technology projects focusing on aerospace.",
"* President François Hollande visited Kazakhstan in December 2014.See Germany–Kazakhstan relations* Germany has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Berlin.1 October 1992See Greece–Kazakhstan relations * Greece has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Athens.",
"1992-03-23* Hungary opened an embassy in Astana in March 1992.",
"* Kazakhstan opened an embassy in Budapest in September 1993.",
"* Foreign Minister Erlan Idrisov made his first state visit to Hungary on November 20, 2013* Hungarian Foreign Minister Viktor Orbán has intensified the bilateral relationship with \"progress of the brotherly people.",
"\"* Kazakhstan Embassy in Hungary 1992-12-30* Kazakhstan recognised Latvia's independence on December 23, 1991.",
"* Latvia recognised the independence of Kazakhstan on January 8, 1992.",
"* Kazakhstan is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania) and through an honorary consulate in Riga.",
"* Latvia has an embassy in Astana and an honorary consulate in Almaty.",
"* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Kazakhstan* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Vilnius.",
"* Lithuania has an embassy in Astana and an honorary consulate in Almaty.",
"* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Kazakhstan (in Lithuanian only) * Foreign Minister Idrissov and Foreign Minister Linas Linkevicius signed an action plan for 2014–2015.",
"* Kazakhstan and Monaco signed a tourism cooperation agreement on September 27, 2013* Kazakhstan and Monaco signed a trade and investment agreement worth $73 billion in 2013 See Kazakhstan–Netherlands relations* Kazakhstan has an embassy in The Hague.",
"* Netherlands has an embassy in Astana.",
"* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Oslo.",
"*President Nazarbayev visited Oslo for the first time in April 2001.See Kazakhstan–Poland relations* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Warsaw.",
"* Poland has an embassy in Astana.1992-07-15* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Bucharest and an honorary consulate in Cluj-Napoca.",
"* Romania has an embassy in Astana.",
"* There are around 20,000 Romanians living in Kazakhstan.",
"* Kazakh Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Romania See Kazakhstan–Russia relationsKazakhstan has an Embassy of Kazakhstan in Moscow, consulate-general in Saint Petersburg, Astrakhan and Omsk.",
"Russia has an embassy in Astana and consulates in Almaty and Oral.Diplomatic relations between Russia and Kazakhstan have fluctuated since the fall of the Soviet Union but both nations remain particularly strong partners in regional affairs and major supporters of the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and Eurasian Economic Union.",
"Kazakhstani-Russian relations have been strained at times by Astana's military and economic cooperation with the United States as well as negotiations over Russia's continued use of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, however the two nations retain high-level military and economic cooperation perhaps second among former Soviet states only to that between Russia and Belarus.",
"Kazakhstan sells oil and gas to Russia at a significantly reduced rate and Russian businesses are heavily invested in Kazakhstan's economy.11 February 1992See Kazakhstan–Spain relations* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Madrid.",
"* Spain has an embassy in Astana.",
"Rakhat Aliyev, the First Vice Foreign Minister of Kazakhstan met with Anton Tahlmann, the Vice Foreign Minister of Switzerland, in Bern, Switzerland from November 13–14, 2006.Tahlmann announced that the Swiss Federal Council is considering opening an embassy in Kazakhstan, saying, \"Switzerland is interested in comprehensive development of relations with your country because of its dynamic development and the growing role in the region.",
"In relation with this Bern regards an increase of its diplomatic presence in this country, an opening of the Swiss embassy in perspective.\"",
"He confirmed his government's support for Kazakhstan's candidacy for the Chairmanship of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe in 2009.The two ministers also discussed trade, migration, and the environment.1991 See Kazakhstan–Ukraine relations* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Kyiv and an honorary consulate in Odesa.",
"* Ukraine has an embassy in Astana and a consulate-general in Almaty.Kazakhstan provided Ukraine with humanitarian aid after the beginning of military conflict in southeast Ukraine in 2014.In October 2014, Kazakhstan donated $30,000 to the International Committee of the Red Cross's humanitarian effort in Ukraine.",
"In January 2015 Kazakhstan sent $400,000 worth of aid to Ukraine's southeastern regions to help ease the humanitarian crisis.",
"1992-02-19 See Kazakhstan–United Kingdom relations* The United Kingdom opened an embassy in Astana in October 1992.",
"* Kazakhstan opened an embassy in London in February 1996.",
"* David Cameron was the first acting Prime Minister to visit Kazakhstan.===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Australia–Kazakhstan relations* Australia is accredited to Kazakhstan from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.",
"* Kazakhstan is accredited to Australia from its embassy in Singapore and maintains a consulate-general in Sydney."
],
[
"NATO",
"Kazakhstan has been a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace since May 27, 1994.In October 2014 Kazakhstan and NATO marked 20 years of cooperation within the Partnership for Peace.",
"To that end, from October 6 to 10, 2014 a NATO delegation visited Kazakhstan to take part in a series of public diplomacy events.",
"Among meetings with Kazakhstan's officials, the delegates also visited the Nazarbayev and the Gumilyov Eurasian National universities in Astana, where they delivered lectures explaining NATO's engagement with partners in the Central Asian region and briefed audiences on the key outcomes of the recent NATO Wales Summit, with particular focus on NATO's partnership policy and Afghanistan.A NATO delegation also plans to visit Astana in the first half of 2015 and hold a joint event with the Kazakh side in the second half of 2015.The future NATO-Kazakhstan joint activities will be held in the framework of the Partnership for Peace program, which centres on the development and exchange of experience for peacekeeping forces."
],
[
"Visa regimes",
"At the 27th meeting of the Foreign Investors' Council, President Nazarbayev announced visa-free entry for citizens of the United States, the Netherlands, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, the UAE, South Korea, and Japan.",
"Currently Kazakhstan and the United States issue 5-year visas to citizens of each other.This will fulfill a goal of diversifying the economy while also helping the world become more acquainted with Kazakhstan's cultural patrimony.",
"Since 2001 to 2012, Kazakhstan has doubled its tourism earnings.",
"Experts expect that Kazakhstan will continue to benefit from tourism from the eased visa regime.On July 15, 2014, Kazakhstan launched a pilot project of visa-free regime for 10 countries: UK, USA, Germany, France, Italy, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Malaysia, the Netherlands, South Korea and Japan.",
"Citizens of these countries can enter, exit and transit through Kazakhstan without a visa for visits of up to 15 calendar days at a time.On June 26, 2015, Kazakhstan issued a resolution expanding the number of countries included in a trial visa-free regime and extended that regime until December 31, 2017.The list now includes 19 countries, including Australia, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UAE, the U. K. and the U.S.Starting from January 1, 2017, Kazakhstan introduced visa-free access for 20 developed countries.",
"These countries include the OECD members, Malaysia, Monaco, the UAE and Singapore."
],
[
"United Nations",
"Kazakhstan became a member of the United Nations on March 2, 1992, nearly three months after gaining independence.During the General Assembly on November 12, 2012, Kazakhstan was elected to a seat on the United Nations Human Rights Council for the first time.",
"Their seat is with the Asian Group and their term will expire in 2015.At United Nations Day 2013, Foreign Minister Erlan Idrisov addressed the UN General Assembly saying the UN should develop a regional center in Almaty.",
"Since the United Nations has no regional offices between Vienna and Bangkok, Almaty is home to 18 international organization's regional offices and would be vital to the development of Central Asia and its neighbors.At the 68th Assembly of the United Nations, Foreign Minister Idrisov announced Kazakhstan's bid for a non-permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council for 2017–2018.So far they and Thailand have announced their bids.In February 2015 the United Nations' specialized agency World Health Organization opened a new geographically dispersed office (GDO) for primary health care in Kazakhstan at the Kazakh National Medical University of S.Asfendiyarov in Almaty.",
"According to the head the Kazakh Medical University, the GDO of the WHO's European Bureau in Almaty will be financed by the UN.In July 2015 Kazakhstan was accepted to the Executive Council of the World Federation of UNESCO (WCF) Clubs at the ninth WCF World Congress, UNESCO Centres and Associations.On May 6, 2016, Kazakh Foreign Minister Erlan Idrissov spoke at two high level meetings at the U.N. headquarters in New York.",
"The Foreign Minister said that Kazakhstan was calling for a nuclear free world by 2045, the 100th anniversary of the United Nations.Kazakhstan signed the Paris Climate Change Agreement on Aug 2 at UN Headquarters in New York.",
"The Kazakh Senate ratified the Paris Agreement on October 27, 2016.Under the Paris Agreement, Kazakhstan has committed to cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 15-20% by 2030 up to the level observed in 1990.In March 2017, Kazakhstan marked 25 years of its membership in the United Nations.",
"To celebrate this anniversary, Kazakhstan opened the “Kazakhstan and the United Nations: Interaction for Peace” exhibition in the Museum of the Library of the First President of Kazakhstan.",
"During 25 years of cooperation, the UN opened 15 representative offices in Kazakhstan, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), among others.Astana is a host city of the Eighth International Forum on Energy for Sustainable Development that is planned to be held in June 2017.The Forum is co-organized through collaboration by Kazakhstan with the UN Regional Commissions, as well as UNDP, IEA, IAEA, IRENA, the World Bank, UNID, the Copenhagen Centre on Energy Efficiency, and the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century.===United Nations Security Council===Kazakhstan, along with Sweden, Bolivia and Ethiopia, were elected to serve on Security Council for a two-year term, starting from January 1, 2017.Kazakhstan became the first Central Asian country to be elected as a non-permanent member of the UNSC.",
"Kazakhstan assumed the chairmanship of UNSC on January 1, 2018.According to Kazakhstan's Foreign Minister Kairat Abdrakhmanov, during this period Kazakhstan will focus on drawing attention on international community to the issues of Central Asia and Afghanistan.Kazakhstan outlined priorities during its UNSC tenure.",
"They included nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation, fight against terrorism and extremism, promotion of peacemaking and peace-building, as well as security and development issues in the Central Asian region.President Nazarbayev's address to the UNSC was presented by the Foreign Minister of Kazakhstan at the ministerial-level open debate of the UNSC held on January 10, 2017.The address was based on the principles of the Kazakh President's earlier Manifesto “The World.",
"The 21st Century.” It declares Kazakhstan's commitment to building a world free of nuclear weapons and to rid humanity of wars and conflicts.President Nazarbayev chaired the January 18 UN Security Council briefing on WMD non-proliferation and related measures to better provide security for Central Asia.",
"It was the first time a president of a Central Asian country chaired a UNSC briefing."
],
[
"Peacekeeping",
"On October 31, 2018, Kazakhstan deployed 120 Kazakh peacekeepers to serve with the UN mission in furthering peace in south Lebanon.",
"It was the first time Kazakh troops were serving with UNIFIL in the Mission's 40-year history.",
"On August 20, 2020, Kazakhstan deployed a second group of 60 peacekeepers to the UNIFIL."
],
[
"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation",
"Kazakhstan is one of the original founding members of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, known as the Shanghai Five.",
"They formally began the organization on April 26, 1996, with the signing of the ''Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions'' in Shanghai.",
"Since then, Kazakhstan has become a very active member in global politics within the organization.At the SCO Summit in Bishkek, Kyrygyzstan on September 20, 2013, Kazakhstan met with leaders to discuss many issues.",
"One of the main issues discussed was the focus on regional stability for Afghanistan after the United States withdraws its troop.",
"Kazakhstan also signed the Bishkek Declaration along with members and observers to find diplomatic solutions for Iran and Syria.",
"On Syria, Kazakhstan wanted to help find a diplomatic solution that would not involve direct intervention due to the need of UN authorization.",
"On Iran, Kazakhstan wanted to see a diplomatic solution between Iran and the P5+1 group for Iran to enrich uranium at levels for energy consumption.In November 2016, Kazakhstan chaired first ever SCO human rights consultations.",
"The meetings were held in Beijing and aimed at further consolidation of the SCO member states cooperation in human rights.Astana hosted the 17th Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) summit June 8–9, 2017.The summit featured the ceremony of accession of India and Pakistan to the organization.",
"Therefore, the total number of member states increased to eight: China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India, and Pakistan."
],
[
"Other international organizations",
"===Antarctic treaty===Kazakhstan joined the Antarctic Treaty in November 2014 being the 51st country to ratify it.Kazakhstan had shown an interest in the Antarctic before, with officials even identifying it as a potential source of drinking water for the arid steppe nation.",
"The country staged its first expedition to the South Pole in 2011.===Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)===On January 23 in Davos at the World Economic Forum, Prime Minister of Kazakhstan Karim Massimov and Secretary General of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Angel Gurria signed a Memorandum of Understanding between Kazakhstan and the OECD on the implementation of the Country Program of Cooperation for 2015–2016.In July 2016, it was announced that Kazakhstan was admitted to the OECD Competition Committee that aims to promote antitrust reforms.",
"Kazakhstan is the first Central Asian country to join the committee.Kazakhstan joined the Declaration on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises of the OECD and became an associated participant of the OECD Investment Committee in June 2017.OECD Investment Committee is the leading government forum for cooperation on international investment issues.===World Trade Organization===Kazakhstan applied for WTO accession on January 29, 1996.The accession negotiations between Kazakhstan and the WTO lasted 20 years and on November 30, 2015, the organization welcomed Kazakhstan as its 162nd Member.In April 2017, the General Council of the WTO announced that Kazakhstan's Ambassador to Switzerland and Permanent Representative of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the UN structures Zhanar Aitzhanova would be the Chairperson of the WTO Committee for Trade and Environment in 2017."
],
[
"World Anti-Crisis Conference",
"The 21st World Anti Crisis Conference was conducted with the support of the UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/67/19International financial sistem and development from December 21, 2012, on May 23, 2013, within the framework of the VI Astana Economic Forum.",
"Main outcome of the WAC I was the Astana Declaration and the guidelines of the World Anti-Crisis Plan developed using the contributions from the international expert community, the UN member states and the UN Secretariat.The concept of the WAC Plan, based on democratic principles and the interests of all UN member states aims at developing effective measures to overcome the economic and financial crisis, preventing future recessions and ensuring long-term balanced growth of the global economy."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of diplomatic missions in Kazakhstan* List of diplomatic missions of Kazakhstan* Terrorism in Kazakhstan"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Ministry of Foreign Affairs** Overview of Kazakhstan's foreign policy"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"History of Kenya"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A part of Eastern Africa, the territory of what is known as Kenya has seen human habitation since the beginning of the Lower Paleolithic.",
"The Bantu expansion from a West African centre of dispersal reached the area by the 1st millennium AD.",
"With the borders of the modern state at the crossroads of the Bantu, Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic ethno-linguistic areas of Africa, Kenya is a truly multi-ethnic state.",
"The Wanga Kingdom was formally established in the late 17th century.",
"The kingdom covered from the Jinja in Uganda to Naivasha in the East of Kenya.",
"This is the first time the Wanga people and Luhya tribe were united and led by a centralized leader, a king, known as the Nabongo.The European and Arab presence in Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, but European exploration of the interior began in the 19th century.",
"The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, from 1920 known as the Kenya Colony.During the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, Kenya gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1963, had Elizabeth II as its first head of state, and Jomo Kenyatta as its Prime Minister.",
"It became a republic in 1964, and was ruled as a ''de facto'' one-party state by the Kenya African National Union (KANU), led by Kenyatta from 1964 to 1978.Kenyatta was succeeded by Daniel arap Moi, who ruled until 2002.Moi attempted to transform the ''de facto'' one-party status of Kenya into a ''de jure'' status during the 1980s, but with the end of the Cold War, the practices of political repression and torture which had been \"overlooked\" by the Western powers as necessary evils in the effort to contain communism were no longer tolerated in Kenya.Moi came under pressure, notably by US ambassador Smith Hempstone, to restore a multi-party system, which he did by 1991.Moi won elections in 1992 and 1997, which were overshadowed by politically motivated killings on both sides.",
"During the 1990s, evidence of Moi's involvement in human rights abuses and corruption, such as the Goldenberg scandal, was uncovered.",
"He was constitutionally barred from running in the 2002 election, which was won by Mwai Kibaki.",
"Widely reported electoral fraud on Kibaki's side in the 2007 elections resulted in the 2007–2008 Kenyan crisis.",
"Kibaki was succeeded by Uhuru Kenyatta in the 2013 general election.",
"There were allegations that his rival Raila Odinga actually won the contest, however, the Supreme Court through a thorough review of evidence adduced found no malpractice during the conduct of the 2013 general election both from the IEBC and the Jubilee Party of Uhuru Kenyatta.",
"Uhuru was re-elected in office five years later in 2017.His victory was however controversial.",
"The supreme court had vitiated Uhuru win after Raila Odinga disputed the result through a constitutionally allowed supreme court petition.",
"Raila Odinga would later boycott a repeat election ordered by the court, allowing Uhuru Kenyatta sail through almost unopposed with 98% of the vote."
],
[
"Paleolithic",
"Fossils found in Kenya have shown that primates inhabited the area for more than 20 million years.",
"In 1929, the first evidence of the presence of ancient early human ancestors in Kenya was discovered when Louis Leakey unearthed one million year old Acheulian handaxes at the Kariandusi Prehistoric Site in southwest Kenya.",
"Subsequently, many species of early hominid have been discovered in Kenya.",
"The oldest, found by Martin Pickford in the year 2000, is the six million year old ''Orrorin tugenensis'', named after the Tugen Hills where it was unearthed.",
"It is the second oldest fossil hominid in the world after ''Sahelanthropus tchadensis''.In 1995 Meave Leakey named a new species of hominid ''Australopithecus anamensis'' following a series of fossil discoveries near Lake Turkana in 1965, 1987 and 1994.It is around 4.1 million years old.In 2011, 3.2 million year old stone tools were discovered at Lomekwi near Lake Turkana - these are the oldest stone tools found anywhere in the world and pre-date the emergence of ''Homo''.One of the most famous and complete hominid skeletons ever discovered was the 1.6-million-year-old ''Homo erectus'' known as Nariokotome Boy, which was found by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984 on an excavation led by Richard Leakey.The oldest Acheulean tools ever discovered anywhere in the world are from West Turkana, and were dated in 2011 through the method of magnetostratigraphy to about 1.76 million years old.East Africa, including Kenya, is one of the earliest regions where modern humans (''Homo sapiens'') are believed to have lived.",
"Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of Olorgesailie, of the early emergence of modern behaviors including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points.",
"It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known ''Homo sapiens'' fossil remains from Africa (such as at Jebel Irhoud and Florisbad), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of the emergence of ''Homo sapiens''.",
"Further evidence of modern behaviour was found in 2021 when evidence of Africa's earliest funeral was found.",
"A 78,000 year old Middle Stone Age grave of a three-year-old child was discovered in Panga ya Saidi cave.",
"Researchers said the child's head appeared to have been laid on a pillow.",
"The body had been laid in a fetal position.",
"Michael Petraglia, a professor of human evolution and prehistory at the Max Planck Institute said, “It is the oldest human burial in Africa.",
"It tells us something about our cognition, our sociality and our behaviours and they are all very familiar to us today.”"
],
[
"Neolithic",
"The first inhabitants of present-day Kenya were hunter-gatherer groups, akin to the modern Khoisan speakers.",
"The Kansyore culture, dating from the mid 5th millennium BCE to the 1st millennium BCE was one of East Africa's earliest ceramic producing group of hunter-gatherers.",
"This culture was located at Gogo falls in Migori county near Lake Victoria.",
"Kenya's rock art sites date between 2000BCE and 1000 CE.",
"This tradition thrived at Mfangano Island, Chelelemuk hills, Namoratunga and Lewa Downs.",
"The rock paintings are attributed to the Twa people, a hunter-gatherer group that was once widespread in East Africa.",
"For the most part, these communities were assimilated into various food-producing societies that began moving into Kenya from the 3rd millennium BCE.Linguistic evidence points to a relative sequence of population movements into Kenya that begins with the entry into northern Kenya of a possibly Southern Cushitic speaking population around the 3rd millennium BCE.",
"They were pastoralists who kept domestic stock, including cattle, sheep, goat, and donkeys.",
"Remarkable megalithic sites from this time period include the possibly archaeoastronomical site Namoratunga on the west side of Lake Turkana.",
"One of these megalithic sites, Lothagam North Pillar Site, is East Africa's earliest and largest monumental cemetery.",
"At least 580 bodies are found in this well planned cemetery.",
"By 1000 BCE and even earlier, pastoralism had spread into central Kenya and northern Tanzania.",
"Eburran hunter gatherers, who had lived in the Ol Doinyo Eburru volcano complex near Lake Nakuru for thousands of years, start adopting livestock around this period.In present times the descendants of the Southern Cushitic speakers are located in north central Tanzania near Lake Eyasi.",
"Their past distribution, as determined by the presence of loanwords in other languages, encompasses the known distribution of the Highland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture.Beginning around 700 BCE, Southern Nilotic speaking communities whose homelands lay somewhere near the common border between Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia moved south into the western highlands and Rift Valley region of Kenya.The arrival of the Southern Nilotes in Kenya occurred shortly before the introduction of iron to East Africa.",
"The past distribution of the Southern Nilotic speakers, as inferred from place names, loan words and oral traditions includes the known distribution of Elmenteitan sites."
],
[
"Iron Age",
"Evidence suggests that autochthonous Iron production developed in West Africa as early as 3000–2500BCE.",
"The ancestors of Bantu speakers migrated in waves from west/central Africa to populate much of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa from the first millennium BC.",
"They brought with them iron forging technology and novel farming techniques as they migrated and integrated with the societies they encountered.",
"The Bantu expansion is thought to have reached western Kenya around 1000 BCE.The Urewe culture is one of Africa's oldest iron smelting centres.",
"Dating from 550BCE to 650BCE, this culture dominated the Great Lakes region including Kenya.",
"Sites in Kenya include Urewe, Yala and Uyoma in northern Nyanza.",
"By the first century BC, Bantu speaking communities in the great lakes region developed iron forging techniques that enabled them to produce carbon steel.Later migrations through Tanzania led to settlement on the Kenyan coast.",
"Archaeological findings have shown that by 100 BCE to 300 AD, Bantu speaking communities were present at the coastal areas of Misasa in Tanzania, Kwale in Kenya and Ras Hafun in Somalia.",
"These communities also integrated and intermarried with the communities already present at the coast.",
"Between 300 AD-1000 AD, through participation in the long existing Indian Ocean trade route, these communities established links with Arabian and Indian traders leading to the development of the Swahili culture.Historians estimate that in the 15th century, Southern Luo speakers started migrating into Western Kenya.",
"The Luo descend from migrants closely related to other Nilotic Luo Peoples (especially the Acholi and Padhola people) who moved from South Sudan through Uganda into western Kenya in a slow and multi-generational manner between the 15th and 20th centuries.",
"As they moved into Kenya and Tanzania, they underwent significant genetic and cultural admixture as they encountered other communities that were long established in the region.",
"The walled settlement of Thimlich Ohinga is the largest and best preserved of 138 sites containing 521 stone structures that were built around the Lake Victoria region in Nyanza Province.",
"Carbon dating and linguistic evidence suggest that the site is at least 550 years old.",
"Archaeological and ethnographic analysis of the site taken with historical, linguistic and genetic evidence suggests that the populations that built, maintained and inhabited the site at various phases had significant ethnic admixture."
],
[
"Swahili culture and trade",
"Swahili people inhabit the '''Swahili coast''' which is the coastal area of the Indian Ocean in Southeast Africa.",
"It includes the coastal areas of Southern Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Northern Mozambique with numerous islands, cities and towns including Sofala, Kilwa, Zanzibar, Comoros, Mombasa, Gede, Malindi, Pate Island and Lamu.",
"The Swahili coast was historically known as Azania in the Greco-Roman era and as Zanj or Zinj in Middle Eastern, Chinese and Indian literature from the 7th to the 14th century.",
"The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea is a Graeco-Roman manuscript that was written in the first century AD.",
"It describes the East African coast (Azania) and a long existing Indian Ocean Trade route.",
"The East African Coast was long inhabited by hunter-gatherer and Cushitic groups since at least 3000BC.",
"Evidence of indigenous pottery and agriculture dating as far back as this period has been found along the coast and offshore islands.",
"International trade goods including Graeco-Roman pottery, Syrian glass vessels, Sassanian pottery from Persia and glass beads dating to 600BC have been found at the Rufiji River delta in Tanzania.Bantu Groups had migrated to the Great Lakes Region by 1000BCE.",
"Some Bantu speakers continued to migrate further southeast towards the East African Coast.",
"These Bantu speakers mixed with the local inhabitants they encountered at the coast.",
"The earliest settlements in the Swahili coast to appear on the archaeological record are found at Kwale in Kenya, Misasa in Tanzania and Ras Hafun in Somalia.",
"The Kenyan coast had hosted communities of ironworkers and communities of Eastern Bantu subsistence-farmers, hunters and fishers who supported the economy with agriculture, fishing, metal production and trade with outside areas.",
"Between 300AD – 1000AD Azanian and Zanj settlements in the Swahili coast continued to expand with local industry and international trade flourishing.",
"Between 500 and 800 A.D. they shifted to a sea-based trading economy and began to migrate south by ship.",
"In the following centuries, trade in goods from the African interior, such as gold, ivory, and slaves stimulated the development of market towns such as Mogadishu, Shanga, Kilwa, and Mombasa.",
"These communities formed the earliest city-states in the region which were collectively known to the Roman Empire as \"Azania\".By the 1st century CE, many of the settlements such as those in Mombasa, Malindi, and Zanzibar - began to establish trade relations with Arabs.",
"This led ultimately to the increased economic growth of the Swahili, the introduction of Islam, Arabic influences on the Swahili Bantu language, and cultural diffusion.",
"Islam rapidly spread across Africa between 614AD – 900AD.",
"Starting with the first Hijrah (migration) of Prophet Muhammad's followers to Ethiopia, Islam spread across Eastern, Northern and Western Africa.",
"The Swahili city-states became part of a larger trade network.",
"Many historians long believed that Arab or Persian traders established the city-states, but archeological evidence has led scholars to recognize the city-states as an indigenous development which, though subjected to foreign influence due to trade, retained a Bantu cultural core.The Azanian and Zanj communities had a high degree of intercultural exchange and admixture.",
"This fact is reflected in the language, culture and technology present at the coast.",
"For instance, between 630AD - 890AD, Archaeological evidence indicates that crucible steel was manufactured at Galu, south of Mombasa.",
"Metallurgical analysis of iron artefacts indicates that the techniques used by the inhabitants of the Swahili coast combined techniques used in other African sites as well as those in West and South Asian sites.",
"The Swahili City States begin to emerge from pre-existing settlements between 1000AD and 1500AD.",
"The earliest gravestone found at Gedi Ruins dates to the earlier part of this period.",
"The oldest Swahili texts in existence also date to this period.",
"They were written in old Swahili script (Swahili-Arabic alphabet) based on Arabic letters.",
"This is the script found on the earliest gravestones.One of the most travelled people of the ancient world, Moroccan explorer Ibn Battuta, visited Mombasa on his way to Kilwa in 1331.He describes Mombasa as a large island with banana, lemon and citron trees.",
"The local residents were Sunni Muslims who he described as “religious people, trustworthy and righteous.” He noted that their mosques were made of wood and were expertly built.",
"Another ancient traveller, Chinese Admiral Zheng He visited Malindi in 1418.Some of his ships are reported to have sunk near Lamu Island.",
"Recent genetic tests done on local inhabitants confirmed that some residents had Chinese ancestry.Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic loan words, developed as a ''lingua franca'' for trade between the different peoples.",
"A Swahili culture developed in the towns, notably in Pate, Malindi, and Mombasa.",
"The impact of Arabic and Persian traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture remains controversial.",
"During the Middle Ages,the East African Swahili coast including Zanzibar was a wealthy and advanced region, which consisted of many autonomous merchant cities.",
"Wealth flowed into the cities via the Africans' roles as intermediaries and facilitators of Indian, Persian, Arab, Indonesian, Malaysian, African and Chinese merchants.",
"All of these peoples enriched the Swahili culture to some degree.",
"The Swahili culture developed its own written language; the language incorporated elements from different civilisations, with Arabic as its strongest quality.",
"Some Arab settlers were rich merchants who, because of their wealth, gained power—sometimes as rulers of coastal cities."
],
[
"Portuguese and Omani influences",
"Portuguese explorers appeared on the East African coast at the end of the 15th century.",
"The Portuguese did not intend to found settlements, but to establish naval bases that would give Portugal control over the Indian Ocean.",
"After decades of small-scale conflict, Arabs from Oman defeated the Portuguese in Kenya.",
"The Portuguese became the first Europeans to explore the region of current-day Kenya: Vasco da Gama visited Mombasa in April 1498.Da Gama's voyage successfully reached India (May 1498), and this initiated direct maritime Portuguese trade links with South Asia, thus challenging older trading networks over mixed land and sea routes, such as the spice-trade routes that utilised the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean.",
"(The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade between Europe and Asia.",
"Especially after the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453, Turkish control of the eastern Mediterranean inhibited the use of traditional land-routes between Europe and India.",
"Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by da Gama to bypass political, monopolistic and tariff barriers.",
")Portuguese rule in East Africa focused mainly on a coastal strip centred in Mombasa.",
"The Portuguese presence in East Africa officially began after 1505, when a naval force under the command of Dom Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, an island located in the south-east of present-day Tanzania.The Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purpose of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean and securing the sea routes linking Europe and Asia.",
"Portuguese naval vessels disrupted the commerce of Portugal's enemies within the western Indian Ocean, and the Portuguese demanded high tariffs on items transported through the area, given their strategic control of ports and of shipping lanes.",
"The construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 aimed to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region.",
"The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in East Africa, besieging Portuguese fortresses.",
"Omani forces captured Fort Jesus in 1698, only to lose it in a revolt (1728), but by 1730 the Omanis had expelled the remaining Portuguese from the coasts of present-day Kenya and Tanzania.",
"By this time the Portuguese Empire had already lost interest in the spice-trade sea-route because of the decreasing profitability of that traffic.",
"(Portuguese-ruled territories, ports and settlements remained active to the south, in Mozambique, until 1975.",
")Under Seyyid Said (ruled 1807–1856), the Omani sultan who moved his capital to Zanzibar in 1840, the Arabs set up long-distance trade-routes into the African interior.",
"The dry reaches of the north were lightly inhabited by semi-nomadic pastoralists.",
"In the south, pastoralists and cultivators bartered goods and competed for land as long-distance caravan routes linked them to the Kenyan coast on the east and to the kingdoms of Uganda on the west.",
"Arab, Shirazi and coastal African cultures produced an Islamic Swahili people trading in a variety of up-country commodities, including slaves."
],
[
"19th century history",
"Omani Arab colonisation of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city-states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period.",
"Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior.",
"However, the creation of plantations, intensification of the slave trade and movement of the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region.",
"The slave trade had begun to grow exponentially starting at the end of the 17th Century with a large slave market based at Zanzibar.",
"When Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar, the already large clove and spice plantations continued to grow, driving demand for slaves.",
"Slaves were sourced from the hinterland.",
"Slave caravan routes into the interior of Kenya reached as far as the foothills of Mount Kenya, Lake Victoria and past Lake Baringo into Samburu country.Arab governance of all the major ports along the East African coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at securing their 'Indian Jewel' and creation of a system of trade among individuals began to put pressure on Omani rule.",
"By the late 19th century, the slave trade on the open seas had been completely strangled by the British.",
"The Omani Arabs had no interest in resisting the Royal Navy's efforts to enforce anti-slavery directives.",
"As the Moresby Treaty demonstrated, whilst Oman sought sovereignty over its waters, Seyyid Said saw no reason to intervene in the slave trade, as the main customers for the slaves were Europeans.",
"As Farquhar in a letter made note, only with the intervention of Said would the European Trade in slaves in the Western Indian Ocean be abolished.",
"As the Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and Pemba until the 1964 revolution, but the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in the 1880s.",
"Nevertheless, the Omani Arab legacy in East Africa is currently found through their numerous descendants found along the coast that can directly trace ancestry to Oman and are typically the wealthiest and most politically influential members of the Kenyan coastal community.The first Christian mission was founded on 25 August 1846, by Dr. Johann Ludwig Krapf, a German sponsored by the Church Missionary Society of England.",
"He established a station among the Mijikenda at Rabai on the coast.",
"He later translated the Bible into Swahili.",
"Many freed slaves rescued by the British Navy are settled here.",
"The peak of the slave plantation economy in East Africa was between 1875 – 1884.It is estimated that between 43,000 – 47,000 slaves were present on the Kenyan coast, which made up 44 percent of the local population.",
"In 1874, Frere Town settlement in Mombasa was established.",
"This was another settlement for freed slaves rescued by the British Navy.",
"Despite pressure from the British to stop the East African slave trade, it continued to persist into the early 20th century.By 1850 European explorers had begun mapping the interior.",
"Three developments encouraged European interest in East Africa in the first half of the 19th century.",
"First, was the emergence of the island of Zanzibar, located off the east coast of Africa.",
"Zanzibar became a base from which trade and exploration of the African mainland could be mounted.",
"By 1840, to protect the interests of the various nationals doing business in Zanzibar, consul offices had been opened by the British, French, Germans and Americans.",
"In 1859, the tonnage of foreign shipping calling at Zanzibar had reached 19,000 tons.",
"By 1879, the tonnage of this shipping had reached 89,000 tons.",
"The second development spurring European interest in Africa was the growing European demand for products of Africa including ivory and cloves.",
"Thirdly, British interest in East Africa was first stimulated by their desire to abolish the slave trade.",
"Later in the century, British interest in East Africa would be stimulated by German competition."
],
[
"British rule (1895–1963)",
"===East Africa Protectorate===In 1895 the British government took over and claimed the interior as far west as Lake Naivasha; it set up the '''East Africa Protectorate'''.",
"The border was extended to Uganda in 1902, and in 1920 the enlarged protectorate, except for the original coastal strip, which remained a protectorate, became a crown colony.",
"With the beginning of colonial rule in 1895, the Rift Valley and the surrounding Highlands became reserved for whites.",
"In the 1920s Indians objected to the reservation of the Highlands for Europeans, especially British war veterans.",
"The whites engaged in large-scale coffee farming dependent on mostly Kikuyu labour.",
"Bitterness grew between the Indians and the Europeans.This area's fertile land has always made it the site of migration and conflict.",
"There were no significant mineral resources—none of the gold or diamonds that attracted so many to South Africa.Imperial Germany set up a protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar's coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of Sir William Mackinnon's British East Africa Company (BEAC) in 1888, after the company had received a royal charter and concessionary rights to the Kenya coast from the Sultan of Zanzibar for a 50-year period.",
"Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890, in exchange for German control over the coast of Tanganyika.",
"The colonial takeover met occasionally with some strong local resistance: Waiyaki Wa Hinga, a Kikuyu chief who ruled Dagoretti who had signed a treaty with Frederick Lugard of the BEAC, having been subject to considerable harassment, burnt down Lugard's fort in 1890.Waiyaki was abducted two years later by the British and killed.Following severe financial difficulties of the British East Africa Company, the British government on 1 July 1895 established direct rule through the East African Protectorate, subsequently opening (1902) the fertile highlands to white settlers.",
"1911 mapA key to the development of Kenya's interior was the construction, started in 1895, of a railway from Mombasa to Kisumu, on Lake Victoria, completed in 1901.This was to be the first piece of the Uganda Railway.",
"The British government had decided, primarily for strategic reasons, to build a railway linking Mombasa with the British protectorate of Uganda.",
"A major feat of engineering, the \"Uganda railway\" (that is the railway inside Kenya leading to Uganda) was completed in 1903 and was a decisive event in modernising the area.",
"As governor of Kenya, Sir Percy Girouard was instrumental in initiating railway extension policy that led to construction of the Nairobi-Thika and Konza-Magadi railways.",
"Some 32,000 workers were imported from British India to do the manual labour.",
"Many stayed, as did most of the Indian traders and small businessmen who saw opportunity in the opening up of the interior of Kenya.",
"Rapid economic development was seen as necessary to make the railway pay, and since the African population was accustomed to subsistence rather than export agriculture, the government decided to encourage European settlement in the fertile highlands, which had small African populations.",
"The railway opened up the interior, not only to the European farmers, missionaries and administrators, but also to systematic government programmes to attack slavery, witchcraft, disease and famine.",
"The Africans saw witchcraft as a powerful influence on their lives and frequently took violent action against suspected witches.",
"To control this, the British colonial administration passed laws, beginning in 1909, which made the practice of witchcraft illegal.",
"These laws gave the local population a legal, nonviolent way to stem the activities of witches.By the time the railway was built, military resistance by the African population to the original British takeover had petered out.",
"However new grievances were being generated by the process of European settlement.",
"Governor Percy Girouard is associated with the debacle of the Second Maasai Agreement of 1911, which led to their forceful removal from the fertile Laikipia plateau to semi-arid Ngong.",
"To make way for the Europeans (largely Britons and whites from South Africa), the Maasai were restricted to the southern Loieta plains in 1913.The Kikuyu claimed some of the land reserved for Europeans and continued to feel that they had been deprived of their inheritance.In the initial stage of colonial rule, the administration relied on traditional communicators, usually chiefs.",
"When colonial rule was established and efficiency was sought, partly because of settler pressure, newly educated younger men were associated with old chiefs in local Native Councils.In building the railway the British had to confront strong local opposition, especially from Koitalel Arap Samoei, a diviner and Nandi leader who prophesied that a black snake would tear through Nandi land spitting fire, which was seen later as the railway line.",
"For ten years he fought against the builders of the railway line and train.",
"The settlers were partly allowed in 1907 a voice in government through the legislative council, a European organisation to which some were appointed and others elected.",
"But since most of the powers remained in the hands of the Governor, the settlers started lobbying to transform Kenya in a Crown Colony, which meant more powers for the settlers.",
"They obtained this goal in 1920, making the Council more representative of European settlers; but Africans were excluded from direct political participation until 1944, when the first of them was admitted in the council.====First World War====Kenya became a military base for the British in the First World War (1914–1918), as efforts to subdue the German colony to the south were frustrated.",
"At the outbreak of war in August 1914, the governors of British East Africa (as the Protectorate was generally known) and German East Africa agreed a truce in an attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities.",
"However Lt Col Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck took command of the German military forces, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible.",
"Completely cut off from Germany, von Lettow conducted an effective guerilla warfare campaign, living off the land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated.",
"He eventually surrendered in Zambia eleven days after the Armistice was signed in 1918.To chase von Lettow the British deployed Indian Army troops from India and then needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting supplies far into the interior by foot.",
"The Carrier Corps was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000 Africans, contributing to their long-term politicisation.===Kenya Colony===An early anti-colonial movement opposed to British rule known as Mumboism took root in South Nyanza in the early 20th century.",
"Colonial authorities classified it as a millennialist cult.",
"It has since been recognised as an anti-colonial movement.",
"In 1913, Onyango Dunde of central Kavirondo proclaimed to have been sent by the serpent god of Lake Victoria, Mumbo to spread his teachings.",
"The colonial government recognised this movement as a threat to their authority because of the Mumbo creed.",
"Mumbo pledged to drive out the colonialists and their supporters and condemned their religion.",
"Violent resistance against the British had proven to be futile as the Africans were outmatched technologically.",
"This movement therefore focused on anticipating the end of colonialism, rather than actively inducing it.",
"Mumboism spread amongst Luo people and Kisii people.",
"The Colonial authorities suppressed the movement by deporting and imprisoning adherents in the 1920s and 1930s.",
"It was officially banned in 1954 following the Mau Mau rebellion.The first stirrings of modern African political organisation in Kenya Colony sought to protest pro-settler policies, increased taxes on Africans and the despised ''kipande'' (Identifying metal band worn around the neck).",
"Before the war, African political focus was diffuse.",
"But after the war, problems caused by new taxes and reduced wages and new settlers threatening African land led to new movements.",
"The experiences gained by Africans in the war coupled with the creation of the white-settler-dominated '''Kenya Crown Colony''', gave rise to considerable political activity.",
"Ishmael Ithongo called the first mass meeting in May 1921 to protest African wage reductions.",
"Harry Thuku formed the Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) and started a publication called ''Tangazo'' which criticised the colonial administration and missions.",
"The YKA gave a sense of nationalism to many Kikuyu and advocated civil disobedience.",
"The YKA gave way to the Kikuyu Association (KA) which was the officially recognised tribal body with Harry Thuku as its secretary.",
"Through the KA, Thuku advocated for African suffrage.",
"Deeming it unwise to base a nationalist movement around one tribe, Thuku renamed his organisation the East African Association and strived for multi-ethnic membership by including the local Indian community and reaching out to other tribes.",
"The colonial government accused Thuku of sedition, arrested him and detained him until 1930.In Kavirondo (later Nyanza province), a strike at a mission school, organised by Daudi Basudde, raised concerns about the damaging implications on African land ownership by switching from the East African Protectorate to the Kenyan Colony.",
"A series of meetings dubbed ''‘Piny Owacho’'' (Voice of the People) culminated in a large mass meeting held in December 1921 advocating for individual title deeds, getting rid of the kipande system and a fairer tax system.",
"Archdeacon W. E. Owen, an Anglican missionary and prominent advocate for African affairs, formalised and canalised this movement as the president of the Kavirondo Taxpayers Welfare Association.",
"Bound by the same concerns, James Beauttah initiated an alliance between the Kikuyu and Luo communities.",
"In the mid-1920s, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) was formed.",
"Led by Joseph Keng’ethe and Jesse Kariuki, it picked up from Harry Thuku's East African Association except that it represented the Kikuyu almost exclusively.",
"Johnstone Kenyatta was the secretary and editor of the associations’ publication ''Mugwithania'' (The unifier).",
"The KCA focused on unifying the Kikuyu into one geographic polity, but its project was undermined by controversies over ritual tribute, land allocation and the ban on female circumcision.",
"They also fought for the release of Harry Thuku from detention.",
"Upon Thuku's release, he was elected president of the KCA.",
"The government banned the KCA after World War II began when Jesse Kariuki compared the compulsory relocation of Kikuyus who lived near white owned land to Nazi policies on compulsory relocation of people.Most political activity between the wars was local, and this succeeded most among the Luo of Kenya, where progressive young leaders became senior chiefs.",
"By the later 1930s government began to intrude on ordinary Africans through marketing controls, stricter educational supervision and land changes.",
"Traditional chiefs became irrelevant and younger men became communicators by training in the missionary churches and civil service.",
"Pressure on ordinary Kenyans by governments in a hurry to modernise in the 1930s to 1950s enabled the mass political parties to acquire support for \"centrally\" focused movements, but even these often relied on local communicators.During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee and tea.",
"By the 1930s, approximately 15,000 white settlers lived in the area and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market economy.",
"The area was already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu tribe, most of whom had no land claims in European terms, and lived as itinerant farmers.",
"To protect their interests, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour.",
"A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled.====Representation====Kenya became a focus of resettlement of young, upper class British officers after the war, giving a strong aristocratic tone to the white settlers.",
"If they had £1,000 in assets they could get a free ; the goal of the government was to speed up modernisation and economic growth.",
"They set up coffee plantations, which required expensive machinery, a stable labour force, and four years to start growing crops.",
"The veterans did escape democracy and taxation in Britain, but they failed in their efforts to gain control of the colony.",
"The upper class bias in migration policy meant that whites would always be a small minority.",
"Many of them left after independence.Power remained concentrated in the governor's hands; weak legislative and executive councils made up of official appointees were created in 1906.The European settlers were allowed to elect representatives to the Legislative Council in 1920, when the colony was established.",
"The white settlers, 30,000 strong, sought \"responsible government,\" in which they would have a voice.",
"They opposed similar demands by the far more numerous Indian community.",
"The European settlers gained representation for themselves and minimised representation on the Legislative Council for Indians and Arabs.",
"The government appointed a European to represent African interests on the council.",
"In the \"Devonshire declaration\" of 1923 the Colonial Office declared that the interests of the Africans (comprising over 95% of the population) must be paramount—achieving that goal took four decades.",
"Historian Charles Mowat explained the issues::The Colonial Office in London ruled that native interests should come first; but this proved difficult to apply in Kenya ... where some 10,000 white settlers, many of them ex-officers of the war, insisted that their interests came before those of the three million natives and 23,000 Indians in the colony, and demanded 'responsible government', provided that they alone bore the responsibility.",
"After three years of bitter dispute, provoked not by the natives but by the Indians, vigorously backed by the Government of India, the Colonial Office gave judgment: the interest of the natives was 'paramount', and responsible government out of the question, but no drastic change was contemplated – thus in effect preserving the ascendancy of the settlers.====Second World War====In the Second World War (1939–45) Kenya became an important British military base for successful campaigns against Italy in the Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia.",
"The war brought money and an opportunity for military service for 98,000 men, called \"askaris\".",
"The war stimulated African nationalism.",
"After the war, African ex-servicemen sought to maintain the socioeconomic gains they had accrued through service in the King's African Rifles (KAR).",
"Looking for middle class employment and social privileges, they challenged existing relationships within the colonial state.",
"For the most part, veterans did not participate in national politics, believing that their aspirations could best be achieved within the confines of colonial society.",
"The social and economic connotations of KAR service, combined with the massive wartime expansion of Kenyan defence forces, created a new class of modernised Africans with distinctive characteristics and interests.",
"These socioeconomic perceptions proved powerful after the war.====Rural trends====British officials sought to modernise Kikuyu farming in the Murang'a District 1920–1945.Relying on concepts of trusteeship and scientific management, they imposed a number of changes in crop production and agrarian techniques, claiming to promote conservation and \"betterment\" of farming in the colonial tribal reserves.",
"While criticised as backward by British officials and white settlers, African farming proved resilient and Kikuyu farmers engaged in widespread resistance to the colonial state's agrarian reforms.Modernisation was accelerated by the Second World War.",
"Among the Luo the larger agricultural production unit was the patriarch's extended family, mainly divided into a special assignment team led by the patriarch, and the teams of his wives, who, together with their children, worked their own lots on a regular basis.",
"This stage of development was no longer strictly traditional, but still largely self-sufficient with little contact with the broader market.",
"Pressures of overpopulation and the prospects of cash crops, already in evidence by 1945, made this subsistence economic system increasingly obsolete and accelerated a movement to commercial agriculture and emigration to cities.",
"The Limitation of Action Act in 1968 sought to modernise traditional land ownership and use; the act has produced unintended consequences, with new conflicts raised over land ownership and social status.As Kenya modernized after the war, the role of the British religious missions changed their roles, despite the efforts of the leadership of the Church Missionary Society to maintain the traditional religious focus.",
"However the social and educational needs were increasingly obvious, and the threat of the Mau Mau uprisings pushed the missions to emphasize medical, humanitarian and especially educational programs.",
"Fundraising efforts in Britain increasingly stressed the non-religious components.",
"Furthermore, the imminent transfer of control to the local population became a high priority.====Kenya African Union====As a reaction to their exclusion from political representation, the Kikuyu people, the most subject to pressure by the settlers, founded in 1921 Kenya's first African political protest movement, the Young Kikuyu Association, led by Harry Thuku.",
"After the Young Kikuyu Association was banned by the government, it was replaced by the Kikuyu Central Association in 1924.In 1944 Thuku founded and was the first chairman of the multi-tribal Kenya African Study Union (KASU), which in 1946 became the Kenya African Union (KAU).",
"It was an African nationalist organization that demanded access to white-owned land.",
"KAU acted as a constituency association for the first black member of Kenya's legislative council, Eliud Mathu, who had been nominated in 1944 by the governor after consulting élite African opinion.",
"The KAU remained dominated by the Kikuyu ethnic group.",
"However, the leadership of KAU was multitribal.",
"Wycliff Awori was the first vice president followed by Tom Mbotela.",
"In 1947 Jomo Kenyatta, former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for Africans.",
"In an effort to gain nationwide support of KAU, Jomo Kenyatta visited Kisumu in 1952.His effort to build up support for KAU in Nyanza inspired Oginga Odinga, the ''Ker'' (chief) of the Luo Union (an organisation that represented members of the Luo community in East Africa) to join KAU and delve into politics.In response to the rising pressures, the British Colonial Office broadened the membership of the Legislative Council and increased its role.",
"By 1952 a multiracial pattern of quotas allowed for 14 European, 1 Arab, and 6 Asian elected members, together with an additional 6 Africans and 1 Arab member chosen by the governor.",
"The council of ministers became the principal instrument of government in 1954.In 1952, Princess Elizabeth and her husband Prince Philip were on holiday at the Treetops Hotel in Kenya when her father, King George VI, died in his sleep.",
"Elizabeth cut short her trip and returned home immediately to assume the throne.",
"She was crowned Queen Elizabeth II at Westminster Abbey in 1953 and as British hunter and conservationist Jim Corbett (who accompanied the royal couple) put it, she went up a tree in Africa a princess and came down a queen.====Mau-Mau Uprising====A key watershed came from 1952 to 1956, during the Mau Mau Uprising, an armed local movement directed principally against the colonial government and the European settlers.",
"It was the largest and most successful such movement in British Africa.",
"Members of the forty group, World War II(WW2) veterans, including Stanley Mathenge, Bildad Kaggia and Fred Kubai became core leaders in the rebellion.",
"Their experiences during the WW2 awakened their political consciousness, giving them determination and confidence to change the system.",
"Key leaders of KAU known as the Kapenguria six were arrested on the 21st of October.",
"They include Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kungu Karumba, Bildad Kaggia, Fred Kubai and Achieng Oneko.",
"Kenyatta denied he was a leader of the Mau Mau but was convicted at trial and was sent to prison in 1953, gaining his freedom in 1961.An intense propaganda campaign by the colonial government effectively discouraged other Kenyan communities, settlers and the international community from sympathising with the movement by emphasising on real and perceived acts of barbarism perpetrated by the Mau Mau.",
"Although a much smaller number of Europeans died compared to Africans during the uprising, each individual European loss of life was publicised in disturbing detail, emphasising elements of betrayal and bestiality.",
"As a result, the protest was supported almost exclusively by the Kikuyu, despite issues of land rights and anti-European, anti-Western appeals designed to attract other groups.",
"The Mau Mau movement was also a bitter internal struggle among the Kikuyu.",
"Harry Thuku said in 1952, \"To-day we, the Kikuyu, stand ashamed and looked upon as hopeless people in the eyes of other races and before the Government.",
"Why?",
"Because of the crimes perpetrated by Mau Mau and because the Kikuyu have made themselves Mau Mau.\"",
"That said, other Kenyans directly or indirectly supported the movement.",
"Notably, Pio Gama Pinto, a Kenyan of Goan descent, facilitated the provision of firearms to forest fighters.",
"He was arrested in 1954 and detained until 1959.Another notable example was the pioneering lawyer Argwings Kodhek, the first East African to obtain a law degree.",
"He became known as the Mau Mau lawyer as he would successfully defend Africans accused of Mau Mau crimes pro bono.",
"12,000 militants were killed during the suppression of the rebellion, and the British colonial authorities also implemented policies involving the incarceration of over 150,000 suspected Mau Mau members and sympathizers (mostly from the Kikuyu people) into concentration camps.",
"In these camps, the colonial authorities also used various forms of torture to attempt information from the detainees.",
"In 2011, after decades of waiting, thousands of secret documents from the British Foreign Office were declassified.",
"They show that the Mau Mau rebels were systematically tortured and subjected to the most brutal practices, men were castrated and sand introduced into their anus, women were raped after introducing boiling water into their vaginas.",
"The Foreign Office archives also reveal that this was not the initiative of soldiers or colonial administrators but a policy orchestrated from London.The Mau Mau uprising set in play a series of events that expedited the road to Kenya's Independence.",
"A Royal Commission on Land and Population condemned the reservation of land on a racial basis.",
"To support its military campaign of counter-insurgency the colonial government embarked on agrarian reforms that stripped white settlers of many of their former protections; for example, Africans were for the first time allowed to grow coffee, the major cash crop.",
"Thuku was one of the first Kikuyu to win a coffee licence, and in 1959 he became the first African board member of the Kenya Planters Coffee Union.",
"The East African Salaries Commission put forth a recommendation – 'equal pay for equal work' – that was immediately accepted.",
"Racist policies in public places and hotels were eased.",
"John David Drummond, 17th Earl of Perth and Minister of State for Colonial affairs stated: \"The effort required to suppress Mau Mau destroyed any settlers illusions that they could go it alone; the British Government was not prepared for the shedding of more blood in order to preserve colonial rule.",
"\"====Trade Unionism and the struggle for independence====The pioneers of the trade union movement were Makhan Singh, Fred Kubai and Bildad Kaggia.",
"In 1935, Makhan Singh started the Labour trade union of Kenya.",
"In the 1940s, Fred Kubai started the Transport and Allied Workers Union and Bildad Kaggia founded the Clerks and Commercial Workers Union.",
"In 1949, Makhan Singh and Fred Kubai started the East Africa Trade Union Congress.",
"They organised strikes including the railway workers strike in 1939 and the protest against granting of a Royal Charter to Nairobi in 1950.These pioneering trade union leaders were imprisoned during the crackdown on Mau Mau.",
"Following this crackdown, all national African political activity was banned.",
"This ban was in place even when the first African members of the legislative council (MLCs) were elected.",
"To manage and control African political activity, the colonial government permitted district parties starting in 1955.This effectively prevented African unity by encouraging ethnic affiliation.",
"Trade unions led by younger Africans filled the vacuum created by the crackdown as the only organisations that could mobilise the masses when political parties were banned.The Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU) was started by Aggrey Minya in 1952 but was largely ineffective.",
"Tom Mboya was one of the young leaders who stepped into the limelight.",
"His intelligence, discipline, oratory and organisational skills set him apart.",
"After the colonial government declared a state of emergency on account of Mau Mau, at age 22, Mboya became the Director of Information of KAU.",
"After KAU was banned, Mboya used the KFRTU to represent African political issues as its Secretary General at 26 years of age.",
"The KFRTU was backed by the western leaning International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU).",
"Tom Mboya then started the Kenya Federation of Labour (KFL) in place of KFRTU, which quickly became the most active political body in Kenya, representing all the trade unions.",
"Mboya's successes in trade unionism earned him respect and admiration.",
"Mboya established international connections, particularly with labour leaders in the United States of America through the ICFTU.",
"He used these connections and his international renown to counter moves by the colonial government.Several trade union leaders who were actively involved in the independence struggle through KFL would go on to join active politics becoming members of parliament and cabinet ministers.",
"These include Arthur Aggrey Ochwada, Dennis Akumu, Clement Lubembe and Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo.",
"The trade union movement would later become a major battlefront in the proxy cold war that would engulf Kenyan politics in the 1960s.====Constitutional Debates and the Path to Independence====After the suppression of the Mau Mau rising, the British provided for the election of the six African members to the Legislative Council (MLC) under a weighted franchise based on education.",
"Mboya successfully stood for office in the first election for African MLCs in 1957, beating the previously nominated incumbent, Argwings Kodhek.",
"Daniel Arap Moi was the only previously nominated African MLC who kept his seat.",
"Oginga Odinga was also elected and shortly afterwards nominated as the first chairman of the African elected members.",
"Mboya's party, the Nairobi People's Convention Party (NPCP), was inspired by Kwame Nkurumah's People's Convention Party.",
"It became the most organised and effective political party in the country.",
"The NPCP was used to effectively mobilise the masses in Nairobi in the struggle for greater African representation on the council.",
"The new colonial constitution of 1958 increased African representation, but African nationalists began to demand a democratic franchise on the principle of \"one man, one vote.\"",
"However, Europeans and Asians, because of their minority position, feared the effects of universal suffrage.In June 1958, Oginga Odinga called for the release of Jomo Kenyatta.",
"This call built momentum and was taken up by the NPCP.",
"Agitation for African suffrage and self-rule picked up in pace.",
"One major hindrance to self-rule was the lack of African human capital.",
"Poor education, economic development and a lack of African technocrats were a real problem.",
"This inspired Tom Mboya to begin a programme conceptualised by a close confidante Dr. Blasio Vincent Oriedo, funded by Americans, of sending talented youth to the United States for higher education.",
"There was no university in Kenya at the time, but colonial officials opposed the programme anyway.",
"The next year Senator John F. Kennedy helped fund the programme, hence its popular name – The Kennedy Airlift.",
"This scholarship program trained some 70% of the top leaders of the new nation, including the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, environmentalist Wangari Maathai and Barack Obama's father, Barack Obama Sr.At a conference held in 1960 in London, agreement was reached between the African members and the British settlers of the New Kenya Group, led by Michael Blundell.",
"However many whites rejected the New Kenya Group and condemned the London agreement, because it moved away from racial quotas and toward independence.",
"Following the agreement a new African party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), with the slogan \"Uhuru,\" or \"Freedom,\" was formed under the leadership of Kikuyu leader James S. Gichuru and labour leader Tom Mboya.",
"KANU was formed in May 1960 when the Kenya African Union (KAU) merged with the Kenya Independence Movement (KIM) and Nairobi People's Convention Party (NPCP).",
"Mboya was a major figure from 1951 until his death in 1969.He was praised as nonethnic or antitribal, and attacked as an instrument of Western capitalism.",
"Mboya as General Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labour and a leader in the Kenya African National Union before and after independence skilfully managed the tribal factor in Kenyan economic and political life to succeed as a Luo in a predominantly Kikuyu movement.",
"A split in KANU produced the breakaway rival party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), led by Ronald Ngala and Masinde Muliro.",
"In the elections of February 1961, KANU won 19 of the 33 African seats while KADU won 11 (twenty seats were reserved by quota for Europeans, Asians and Arabs).",
"Kenyatta was finally released in August and became president of KANU in October."
],
[
"Independence",
"In 1962, a KANU-KADU coalition government, including both Kenyatta and Ngala, was formed.",
"The 1962 constitution established a bicameral legislature consisting of a 117-member House of Representatives and a 41-member Senate.",
"The country was divided into 7 semi-autonomous regions, each with its own regional assembly.",
"The quota principle of reserved seats for non-Africans was abandoned, and open elections were held in May 1963.KADU gained control of the assemblies in the Rift Valley, Coast and Western regions.",
"KANU won majorities in the Senate and House of Representatives, and in the assemblies in the Central, Eastern and Nyanza regions.",
"Kenya now achieved internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as its first president.",
"The British and KANU agreed, over KADU protests, to constitutional changes in October 1963 strengthening the central government, ensuring that Kenya would be a ''de facto'' single-party state.",
"Kenya attained independence on 12 December 1963 as the Commonwealth realm of Kenya and was declared a republic on 12 December 1964 with Jomo Kenyatta as Head of State.",
"In 1964 constitutional changes further centralised the government and various state organs were formed.",
"One of the key state organs was the Central Bank of Kenya which was established in 1966.The British government bought out the white settlers and they mostly left Kenya.",
"The Indian minority dominated retail business in the cities and most towns, but was deeply distrusted by the Africans.",
"As a result, 120,000 of the 176,000 Indians kept their old British passports rather than become citizens of an independent Kenya; large numbers left Kenya, most of them headed to Britain.===Kenyatta tenure (1963–1978)===1973 newsreel about Kenyatta's rule Once in power Kenyatta swerved from radical nationalism to conservative bourgeois politics.",
"The plantations formerly owned by white settlers were broken up and given to farmers, with the Kikuyu the favoured recipients, along with their allies the Embu and the Meru.",
"By 1978 most of the country's wealth and power was in the hands of the organisation which grouped these three tribes: the Kikuyu-Embu-Meru Association (GEMA), together comprising 30% of the population.",
"At the same time the Kikuyu, with Kenyatta's support, spread beyond their traditional territorial homelands and repossessed lands \"stolen by the whites\" – even when these had previously belonged to other groups.",
"The other groups, a 70% majority, were outraged, setting up long-term ethnic animosities.The minority party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and former members joined KANU.",
"KANU was the only party 1964–66 when a faction broke away as the Kenya People's Union (KPU).",
"It was led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice-president and Luo elder.",
"KPU advocated a more \"scientific\" route to socialism—criticising the slow progress in land redistribution and employment opportunities—as well as a realignment of foreign policy in favour of the Soviet Union.",
"On 25 February 1965, Pio Gama Pinto, a Kenyan of Goan descent and freedom fighter who was detained during the colonial period was assassinated in what is recognised as Kenya's first political assassination.",
"He was also Oginga Odinga's chief tactician and link to the eastern bloc.",
"His death dealt a severe blow to the Oginga Odinga's organisational efforts.The government used a variety of political and economic measures to harass the KPU and its prospective and actual members.",
"KPU branches were unable to register, KPU meetings were prevented and civil servants and politicians suffered severe economic and political consequences for joining the KPU.",
"A security Act was passed in Parliament in July 1966 and granted the government powers to carry out detention without trial, which was used against KPU members.",
"In a series of dawn raids in August 1966, several KPU party members were arrested and detained without trial.",
"They included Ochola Mak'Anyengo (the secretary general of the Kenya Petroleum Oil Workers Union), Oluande Koduol (Oginga Odinga's private secretary) and Peter Ooko (the general secretary of the East African Common Services Civil Servants Union).In June 1969, Tom Mboya, a Luo member of the government considered a potential successor to Kenyatta, was assassinated.",
"Hostility between Kikuyu and Luo was heightened, and after riots broke out in Luo country the KPU was banned.",
"The specific riots that led to the banning of the KPU resulted in the incident referred to as the Kisumu massacre.",
"Kenya thereby became a one-party state under KANU.Ignoring his suppression of the opposition and continued factionalism within KANU the imposition of one-party rule allowed Mzee (\"Old Man\") Kenyatta, who had led the country since independence, to claim he had achieved \"political stability.\"",
"Underlying social tensions were evident, however.",
"Kenya's very rapid population growth and considerable rural to urban migration were in large part responsible for high unemployment and disorder in the cities.",
"There also was much resentment by blacks at the privileged economic position held by Asians and Europeans in the country.At Kenyatta's death (22 August 1978), Vice-president Daniel arap Moi became interim President.",
"On 14 October, Moi formally became president after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee.",
"In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one-party state.",
"On 1 August members of the Kenyan Air Force launched an attempted coup, which was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) – paramilitary wing of the police – and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties.====Foreign policies====Independent Kenya, although officially non-aligned, adopted a pro-Western stance.",
"Kenya worked unsuccessfully for East African union; the proposal to unite Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda did not win approval.",
"However, the three nations did form a loose East African Community (EAC) in 1967, that maintained the customs union and some common services that they had shared under British rule.",
"The EAC collapsed in 1977 and was officially dissolved in 1984.Kenya's relations with Somalia deteriorated over the problem of Somalis in the North Eastern Province who tried to secede and were supported by Somalia.",
"In 1968, however, Kenya and Somalia agreed to restore normal relations, and the Somali rebellion effectively ended.===Moi regime (1978–2002)===Kenyatta died in 1978 and was succeeded by Daniel Arap Moi (b.",
"1924, d. 2020) who ruled as President 1978–2002.Moi, a member of the Kalenjin ethnic group, quickly consolidated his position and governed in an authoritarian and corrupt manner.",
"By 1986, Moi had concentrated all the power – and most of its attendant economic benefits – into the hands of his Kalenjin tribe and of a handful of allies from minority groups.On 1 August 1982, lower-level air force personnel, led by Senior Private Grade-I Hezekiah Ochuka and backed by university students, attempted a coup d'état to oust Moi.",
"The putsch was quickly suppressed by forces commanded by Army Commander Mahamoud Mohamed, a veteran Somali military official.",
"In the coup's aftermath, some of Nairobi's poor Kenyans attacked and looted stores owned by Asians.",
"Robert Ouko, the senior Luo in Moi's cabinet, was appointed to expose corruption at high levels, but was murdered a few months later.",
"Moi's closest associate was implicated in Ouko's murder; Moi dismissed him but not before his remaining Luo support had evaporated.",
"Germany recalled its ambassador to protest the \"increasing brutality\" of the regime and foreign donors pressed Moi to allow other parties, which was done in December 1991 through a constitutional amendment.On the heels of the Garissa massacre of 1980, Kenyan troops committed the Wagalla massacre in 1984 against thousands of civilians in the North Eastern Province.",
"An official probe into the atrocities was later ordered in 2011.====Multi-party politics====President Daniel arap Moi in 1979After local and foreign pressure, in December 1991, parliament repealed the one-party section of the constitution.",
"The first multiparty elections were held in 1992.The Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) emerged as the leading opposition to KANU, and dozens of leading KANU figures switched parties.",
"But FORD, led by Oginga Odinga (1911–1994), a Luo, and Kenneth Matiba, a Kikuyu, split into two ethnically based factions.",
"In the first open presidential elections in a quarter century, in December 1992, Moi won with 37% of the vote, Matiba received 26%, Mwai Kibaki (of the mostly Kikuyu Democratic Party) 19%, and Odinga 18%.",
"In the Assembly, KANU won 97 of the 188 seats at stake.",
"Moi's government in 1993 agreed to economic reforms long urged by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, which restored enough aid for Kenya to service its $7.5 billion foreign debt.Obstructing the press both before and after the 1992 elections, Moi continually maintained that multiparty politics would only promote tribal conflict.",
"His own regime depended upon exploitation of inter-group hatreds.",
"Under Moi, the apparatus of clientage and control was underpinned by the system of powerful provincial commissioners, each with a bureaucratic hierarchy based on chiefs (and their police) that was more powerful than the elected members of parliament.",
"Elected local councils lost most of their power, and the provincial bosses were answerable only to the central government, which in turn was dominated by the president.",
"The emergence of mass opposition in 1990–91 and demands for constitutional reform were met by rallies against pluralism.",
"The regime leaned on the support of the Kalenjin and incited the Maasai against the Kikuyu.",
"Government politicians denounced the Kikuyu as traitors, obstructed their registration as voters and threatened them with dispossession.",
"In 1993 and after, mass evictions of Kikuyu took place, often with the direct involvement of army, police and game rangers.",
"Armed clashes and many casualties, including deaths, resulted.Further liberalisation in November 1997 allowed the expansion of political parties from 11 to 26.President Moi won re-election as president in the December 1997 elections, and his KANU Party narrowly retained its parliamentary majority.Moi ruled using a strategic mixture of ethnic favouritism, state repression and marginalisation of opposition forces.",
"He utilised detention and torture, looted public finances and appropriated land and other property.",
"Moi sponsored irregular army units that attacked the Luo, Luhya and Kikuyu communities, and he denied his responsibility by attributing the violence to ethnic clashes arising from land dispute.",
"Beginning in 1998, Moi engaged in a carefully calculated strategy to manage the presidential succession in his and his party's favour.",
"Faced with the challenge of a new, multiethnic political coalition, Moi shifted the axis of the 2002 electoral contest from ethnicity to the politics of generational conflict.",
"The strategy backfired, ripping his party wide open and resulting in the humiliating defeat of its candidate, Kenyatta's son, in the December 2002 general elections.===Recent history (2002 to present)=======2002 elections====Mwai Kibaki and (the late) Mrs. Lucy Kibaki with US President George W. Bush and Mrs. Laura Bush at the White House during a state visit in 2003.Constitutionally barred from running in the December 2002 presidential elections, Moi unsuccessfully promoted Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of Kenya's first President, as his successor.",
"A rainbow coalition of opposition parties routed the ruling KANU party, and its leader, Moi's former vice-president Mwai Kibaki, was elected president by a large majority.On 27 December 2002, by 62% the voters overwhelmingly elected members of the National Rainbow Coalition (NaRC) to parliament and NaRC candidate Mwai Kibaki (b.",
"1931) to the presidency.",
"Voters rejected the Kenya African National Union's (KANU) presidential candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta, the handpicked candidate of outgoing president Moi.",
"International and local observers reported the 2002 elections to be generally more fair and less violent than those of both 1992 and 1997.His strong showing allowed Kibaki to choose a cabinet, to seek international support and to balance power within the NaRC.====Economic trends====Kenya witnessed a spectacular economic recovery, helped by a favourable international environment.",
"The annual rate of growth improved from −1.6% in 2002 to 2.6% by 2004, 3.4% in 2005, and 5.5% in 2007.However, social inequalities also increased; the economic benefits went disproportionately to the already well-off (especially to the Kikuyu); corruption reached new depths, matching some of the excesses of the Moi years.",
"Social conditions deteriorated for ordinary Kenyans, who faced a growing wave of routine crime in urban areas; pitched battles between ethnic groups fighting for land; and a feud between the police and the Mungiki sect, which left over 120 people dead in May–November 2007 alone.====2007 elections and ethnic violence====Orange Democratic Movement leader Prime Minister Omolo Odinga speaking with the Kenyan media.Once regarded as the world's \"most optimistic,\" Kibaki's regime quickly lost much of its power because it became too closely linked with the discredited Moi forces.",
"The continuity between Kibaki and Moi set the stage for the self-destruction of Kibaki's National Rainbow Coalition, which was dominated by Kikuyus.",
"The western Luo and Kalenjin groups, demanding greater autonomy, backed Raila Amolo Odinga (1945– ) and his Orange Democratic Movement (ODM).In the December 2007 elections, Odinga, the candidate of the ODM, attacked the failures of the Kibaki regime.",
"The ODM charged the Kikuyu with having grabbed everything and all the other tribes having lost; that Kibaki had betrayed his promises for change; that crime and violence were out of control, and that economic growth was not bringing any benefits to the ordinary citizen.",
"In the December 2007 elections the ODM won majority seats in Parliament, but the presidential elections votes were marred by claims of rigging by both sides.",
"It may never be clear who won the elections, but it was roughly 50:50 before the rigging started.",
"\"Majimboism\" was a philosophy that emerged in the 1950s, meaning federalism or regionalism in Swahili, and it was intended to protect local rights, especially regarding land ownership.",
"Today \"majimboism\" is code for certain areas of the country to be reserved for specific ethnic groups, fuelling the kind of ethnic cleansing that has swept the country since the election.",
"Majimboism has always had a strong following in the Rift Valley, the epicenter of the recent violence, where many locals have long believed that their land was stolen by outsiders.",
"The December 2007 election was in part a referendum on majimboism.",
"It pitted today's majimboists, represented by Odinga, who campaigned for regionalism, against Kibaki, who stood for the status quo of a highly centralised government that has delivered considerable economic growth but has repeatedly displayed the problems of too much power concentrated in too few hands – corruption, aloofness, favouritism and its flip side, marginalisation.",
"In the town of Londiani in the Rift Valley, Kikuyu traders settled decades ago.",
"In February 2008, hundreds of Kalenjin raiders poured down from the nearby scruffy hills and burned a Kikuyu school.",
"Three hundred thousand members of the Kikuyu community were displaced from Rift Valley province.",
"Kikuyus quickly took revenge, organising into gangs armed with iron bars and table legs and hunting down Luos and Kalenjins in Kikuyu-dominated areas like Nakuru.",
"\"We are achieving our own perverse version of majimboism,\" wrote one of Kenya's leading columnists, Macharia Gaitho.The Luo population of the southwest had enjoyed an advantageous position during the late colonial and early independence periods of the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s, particularly in terms of the prominence of its modern elite compared to those of other groups.",
"However the Luo lost prominence due to the success of Kikuyu and related groups (Embu and Meru) in gaining and exercising political power during the Jomo Kenyatta era (1963–1978).",
"While measurements of poverty and health by the early 2000s showed the Luo disadvantaged relative to other Kenyans, the growing presence of non-Luo in the professions reflected a dilution of Luo professionals due to the arrival of others rather than an absolute decline in the Luo numbers.====Demographic trends====Kenya demography (1961–2003)Between 1980 and 2000 total fecundity in Kenya fell by about 40%, from some eight births per woman to around five.",
"During the same period, fertility in Uganda declined by less than 10%.",
"The difference was due primarily to greater contraceptive use in Kenya, though in Uganda there was also a reduction in pathological sterility.",
"The Demographic and Health Surveys carried out every five years show that women in Kenya wanted fewer children than those in Uganda and that in Uganda there was also a greater unmet need for contraception.",
"These differences may be attributed, in part at least, to the divergent paths of economic development followed by the two countries since independence and to the Kenya government's active promotion of family planning, which the Uganda government did not promote until 1995.==== Presidency of Uhuru Kenyatta (2013-2022) ====The 3rd President of Kenya Mwai Kibaki ruled since 2002 until 2013.After his tenure Kenya held its first general elections after the new constitution had been passed in 2010.Uhuru Kenyatta (son of the first president Jomo Kenyatta) won in a disputed election result, leading to a petition by the opposition leader, Raila Odinga.",
"The supreme court upheld the election results and President Kenyatta began his term with William Ruto as the deputy president.",
"Despite the outcome of this ruling, the Supreme Court and the head of the Supreme Court were seen as powerful institutions that could carry out their role of checking the powers of the president.",
"In 2017, Uhuru Kenyatta won a second term in office in another disputed election.",
"Following the defeat, Raila Odinga again petitioned the results in the Supreme Court, accusing the electoral commission of mismanagement of the elections and Uhuru Kenyatta and his party of rigging.",
"The Supreme Court overturned the election results in what became a landmark ruling in Africa and one of the very few in the world in which the results of a presidential elections were annulled.",
"This ruling solidified the position of the Supreme Court as an independent body.",
"Consequently, Kenya had a second round of elections for the presidential position, in which Uhuru emerged the winner after Raila refused to participate, citing irregularities.The historical handshake in March 2018 between president Uhuru Kenyatta and his long-time opponent Raila Odinga meant reconciliation followed by economic growth and increased stability.==== Presidency of William Ruto (2022-) ====In August 2022, Deputy President William Ruto narrowly won the presidential election.",
"He took 50.5% of the vote.",
"His main rival, Raila Odinga, got 48.8% of the vote.",
"According to the Afrobarometer survey 67.9% of Kenyan citizens participated in the last election( 2022) and 17.6% did not vote in the presidential election.",
"On 13 September 2022, William Ruto was sworn in as Kenya's fifth president."
],
[
"See also",
"*Timeline of Kenya* Leaders:**Colonial Heads of Kenya**Heads of Government of Kenya (12 December 1963 to 12 December 1964)**Heads of State of Kenya (12 December 1964 to today)*Politics of Kenya* History of cities in Kenya:** Mombasa history and timeline** Nairobi history and timeline*History of Africa*History of Uganda*History of Tanzania*List of human evolution fossils"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"****** ===History===*** Branch, Daniel, and Nicholas Cheeseman.",
"\"The politics of control in Kenya: Understanding the bureaucratic-executive state, 1952–78.\"",
"''Review of African Political Economy'' 33.107 (2006): 11-31.Branch, Daniel, and Nicholas Cheeseman.",
"\"The politics of control in Kenya: Understanding the bureaucratic-executive state, 1952–78.\"",
"Review of African Political Economy 33.107 (2006): 11-31.online******************************* Compares Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.",
"******* Argues that the chiefs' tyranny in early colonial Kenya had its roots in the British administrative style since the Government needed strong-handed local leaders to enforce its unpopular laws and regulations.",
"**"
],
[
"Primary sources",
"***"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Geography of Kenya"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A United Nations map of KenyaLocation of KenyaThe '''Geography of Kenya''' is diverse, varying amongst its 47 counties.",
"Kenya has a coastline on the Indian Ocean, which contains swamps of East African mangroves.",
"Inland are broad plains and numerous hills.",
"Kenya borders South Sudan to the northwest, Uganda to the west, Somalia to the east, Tanzania to the south, and Ethiopia to the north.",
"Kenya currently faces border disputes with South Sudan over the Ilemi Triangle and with Somalia over Jubbaland where, if the Somalian Government gives it up, it could be a new part of Kenya, which would bring the total land area of Kenya to approximately 692,939 sq km.Central and Western Kenya is characterized by the Kenyan Rift Valley and central Province home to the highest mountain, Mount Kenya and Mount Elgon on the border between Kenya and Uganda.",
"The Kakamega Forest in western Kenya is a relic of an East African rainforest.",
"Much bigger is Mau Forest, the largest forest complex in East Africa."
],
[
"Geography",
"=== Location ===* Eastern Africa on the Indian Ocean coast between Somalia and Tanzania* Geographic coordinates: === Area ===* Total: * Land: * Water: === Land boundaries ===* Total: * Border countries: Ethiopia , Somalia , South Sudan , Tanzania , Uganda"
],
[
"Coastline",
"* 490 km (300 mi) along the Indian Ocean.===Maritime claims===* Territorial sea: * Exclusive economic zone: and * Continental shelf: 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation"
],
[
"Geology",
"Much of the western two-thirds of the country consists of the Pliocene–Pleistocene volcanics deposited on Precambrian basement rocks.",
"The southeast corner of the country is underlain by sediments of the Karoo System of Permian to Late Triassic age and a strip of Jurassic age sediments along the coast in the Mombasa area.",
"The Anza trough is a NW–SE trending Jurassic rift extending from the Indian Ocean coast to the Sudan northwest of Lake Turkana.",
"The Anza Rift resulted from the break–up of Gondwana."
],
[
"Climate",
"Köppen climate classification map of KenyaThe climate of Kenya varies by location, from mostly cool every day, to always warm/hot by mid afternoon.",
"The climate along the coast is tropical.",
"This means rainfall and temperatures are higher than inland throughout the year.",
"At the coastal cities, Mombasa, Lamu and Malindi, the air temperature changes from cool to hot, almost every day.",
"(''See chart below'').The further inland one is in Kenya, the more arid the climate becomes.",
"An extremely arid climate is nearly devoid of rainfall, and temperature varies widely according to the general time of the day/night.",
"For many areas of Kenya, the daytime temperature rises about 12 °C (corresponding to a rise of about 22 °F), almost every day.Transportation problems during the rainy season (March 2020)Elevation is the major factor in temperature levels, with the higher areas, on average, about 11 °C (20 °F) cooler, day or night.",
"The many cities over a kilometre in elevation have temperature swings from roughly .",
"Nairobi, at , ranges from , and Kitale, at , ranges from .",
"At night, heavy clothes or blankets are needed, in the highlands, when the temperature drops to about every night.At lower altitudes, the increased temperature is like day and night, literally: like starting the morning at the highland daytime high, and then adding the heat of the day, again.",
"Hence, the overnight low temperatures near sea level are nearly the same as the high temperatures of the elevated Kenyan highlands.",
"However, locations along the Indian Ocean have more moderate temperatures, as a few degrees cooler in the daytime, such as at Mombasa (''see chart below'').There are slight seasonal variations in temperature, of , cooler in the winter months.",
"Although Kenya is centred at the equator, it shares the seasons of the Southern Hemisphere: with the warmest summer months in December–March and the coolest winter months in June–August, again with differences in temperature varying by location within the country.On the high mountains, such as Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon and Kilimanjaro, the weather can become bitterly cold for most of the year.",
"Some snowfall occurs on the highest mountains.Climate data for Mombasa (at Indian Ocean)NOAA CodeStatisticJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecAvg0101TemperatureAverage F81.782.682.981.779.276.675.275.276.578.380.481.379.30201TemperatureHigh value F91.892.792.790.587.684.983.783.885.586.988.99188.30301TemperatureLow value F71.672.573.272.970.968.266.766.767.569.671.871.670.30615Precipitationin inches1.40.62.36.3 9.73.62.92.82.84.24.33.13.70101TemperatureAverage C27.628.128.327.6 26.224.824.024.024.725.726.927.426.270201TemperatureHigh value C33.233.733.732.5 30.929.428.728.829.730.531.632.831.290301TemperatureLow value C22.022.522.922.7 21.620.119.319.319.720.922.122.021.260615Precipitationin mm33.914.055.6154.3 24688.371.868.267.2103.4104.775.889.391109HumidityMaximum %76.076.078.082.0 85.084.086.085.082.081.080.078.081.081110HumidityMinimum %62.059.061.066.0 70.067.067.066.065.066.068.065.065.17=== Climate change ==="
],
[
"Terrain",
"The topography of Kenya.Kenya's terrain is composed of low plains that rise into central highlands that are, in turn, bisected by the Great Rift Valley.",
"There is also a fertile plateau in the west of the country.===Elevation extremes===The lowest point on Kenya is at sea level on the Indian Ocean.",
"The highest point on Kenya is 5,197 meters above sea level at Mount Kenya.===Rivers===The notable rivers in Kenya are the Athi-Galana-Sabaki River, which at a total length of about 390 kilometers while draining an area of about 70,000 square kilometers, is the second longest river in the country, the Tana River, the longest river in the country at a total length of just over 1000 kilometers, covering a catchment area of over 100,000 square kilometers, and the Nzoia River, which is a river, rising from Mount Elgon, which flows so===Natural resources===Natural resources that are found in Kenya include: limestone, soda ash, salt, gemstones, fluorite, zinc, diatomite, oil, titanium, gas, gold, gypsum, wildlife and hydropower.===Land use===9.8% of the land is arable; permanent crops occupy 0.9% of the land, permanent pasture occupies 37.4% of the land; forest occupies 6.1% of the land.",
"Other uses make up the rest of Kenya's land.",
"This is as of 2011.1,032 km2 of Kenyan land was irrigated in 2003.===Total renewable water resources===30.7 km3 (2011)===Freshwater withdrawal===* Total: 2.74 km3/yr (17%/4%/79%)* Per capita: 72.96 m3/yr (2003)===Gallery===File:Pt Thomson Batian Nelion Mt Kenya.JPG|Thompson (4955 m), Batian (5199 m) and Nelion (5188 m) on Mt KenyaFile:Africa6_006.jpg|The Great Rift Valley as it is visible near Eldoret, KenyaFile:Lake turkana.jpg|Lake TurkanaFile:Fourteen_falls_Thika,Kenya.JPG|The Fourteen Falls near Thika"
],
[
"Natural hazards",
"Natural hazards include recurring drought and flooding during the rainy seasons.There is limited volcanic activity in the country.",
"Barrier Volcano (elev.",
"1,032 m) last erupted in 1921.Several others have been historically active (see List of volcanoes in Kenya).===Environmental issues=======Current issues====Current issues that threaten the environment at the moment include water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from the increased use of pesticides and fertilisers; deforestation; water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria; soil erosion; desertification; and poaching.====International agreements====* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), Wetlands, Whaling."
],
[
"Extreme points",
"This is a list of the extreme points of Kenya, the points that are further north, south, east or west than any other location.",
"* Northernmost point – Kalukwakerith Mountain, Turkana County* Easternmost point – the tripoint with Ethiopia and Somalia, Mandera County* Southernmost point – the point where the border with Tanzania enters the Indian Ocean, Kwale County* Westernmost point – unnamed land west of Port Victoria, Busia County** ''Note: Kalukwakerith Mountain is in the disputed Ilemi Triangle region.",
"If this area is excluded then Kenya does not have a northernmost point, the northern border being a straight line.''"
],
[
"See also",
"* Environmental issues in Kenya* List of national parks of Kenya* Ilemi Triangle* Mandera triangle"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Demographics of Kenya"
],
[
"Introduction",
" The '''demography of Kenya''' is monitored by the Kenyan National Bureau of Statistics.",
"Kenya is a multi-ethnic state in East Africa.",
"Its total population was at 47,558,296 as of the 2019 census.A national census was conducted in 1999, although the results were never released.",
"A new census was undertaken in 2009, but turned out to be controversial, as the questions about ethnic affiliation seemed inappropriate after the ethnic violence of the previous year.",
"Preliminary results of the census were published in 2010.Kenya's population was reported as 47.6 million during the 2019 census compared to 38.6 million inhabitants 2009, 30.7 million in 1999, 21.4 million in 1989, and 15.3 million in 1979.This was an increase of a factor of 2.5 over 30 years, or an average growth rate of more than 3 percent per year.",
"The population growth rate has been reported as reduced during the 2000s, and was estimated at 2.7 percent (as of 2010), resulting in an estimate of 46.5 million in 2016."
],
[
"History"
],
[
"Ethnic groups",
"MaasaiKenya has a very diverse population that includes most major ethnic, racial and linguistic groups found in Africa.",
"Bantu and Nilotic populations together constitute around 92% of the nation's inhabitants.",
"People from Asian or European heritage living in Kenya are estimated at around 200,000.Kenya's largest ethnic group is the Kikuyu.",
"They make up less than a fifth of the population.",
"Since Kenyan independence in 1963, Kenyan politics have been characterized by ethnic tensions and rivalry between the larger groups.",
"This devolved into ethnic violence in the 2007–2008 Kenyan crisis.In Kenya's last colonial census of 1962, population groups residing in the territory included European, African and Asian individuals.",
"According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Kenya had a population of 47,564,296 by 2019.The largest native ethnic groups were the Kikuyu (8,148,668), Luhya (6,823,842), Kalenjin (6,358,113), Luo (5,066,966), Kamba (4,663,910), Somalis (2,780,502), Kisii (2,703,235), Mijikenda (2,488,691), Meru (1,975,869), Maasai (1,189,522), and Turkana (1,016,174).",
"Foreign-rooted populations included Asians (90,527), Europeans (42,868) with Kenyan citizenship, 26,753 without, and Kenyan Arabs (59,021).",
"The number of ethnic categories and sub-categories recorded in the census has changed significantly over time, expanding from 42 in 1969 to more than 120 in 2019.===Bantu peoples===Bantus are the single largest population division in Kenya.",
"The term ''Bantu'' denotes widely dispersed but related peoples that speak south-central Niger–Congo languages.",
"Originally from Cameroon-Nigeria border regions, Bantus began a millennium-long series of migrations referred to as the Bantu expansion that first brought them south into East Africa about 2,000 years ago.Most Bantu are farmers.",
"Some of the prominent Bantu groups in Kenya include the Kikuyu, the Kamba, the Luhya, the Kisii, the Meru, and the Mijikenda.",
"The Swahili people are descended from Wangozi Bantu peoples that intermarried with Arab immigrants.The Kikuyu, who are one of the biggest tribes in Kenya, seem to have assimilated a significant number of Cushitic speakers.",
"Evidence from their Y DNA shows that 18% of Kikuyu carry the E1b1b Y DNA.===Nilotic peoples===Nilotes are the second-largest group of peoples in Kenya.",
"They speak Nilo-Saharan languages and went south into East Africa from Western Asia and North Africa by way of South Sudan.",
"Most Nilotes in Kenya are historically pastoralists.",
"The most prominent of these groups include the Luo, the Maasai, the Samburu,the Iteso, the Turkana, and the Kalenjin.",
"As with the Bantu, some Nilotic systems of governance (such as Ibinda of the Nandi) bear similarities with those of their Cushitic neighbors (such as the Gada system of the Oromo).===Cushitic peoples===Cushitic peoples form a small minority of Kenya's population.",
"They speak languages belonging to the Afroasiatic family and originally came from Ethiopia and Somalia.",
"However, some large ethnic Somali clans are native to the area that used be known as NFD in Kenya.",
"These people are not from Somalia but share the same ethnicity as the majority in Somalia.",
"Most are herdsmen and have almost entirely adopted Islam.",
"Cushites are concentrated in the northernmost North Eastern Province, which borders Somalia.The Cushitic peoples are divided into two groups: the Southern Cushites and the Eastern Cushites.",
"*The Southern Cushites were the second-earliest inhabitants of Kenya after the indigenous hunter-gatherer groups, and the first of the Cushitic-speaking peoples to migrate from their homeland in the Horn of Africa about 2,000 years ago.",
"They were progressively displaced in a southerly direction or absorbed, or both, by the incoming Nilotic and Bantu groups until they wound up in Tanzania.",
"There are no longer any Southern Cushites left in Kenya.",
"(The Dahalo were originally pre-Cushitic peoples who adopted the language of their dominant Southern Cushitic neighbors sometime toward the last millennium BC.).",
"*The Eastern Cushites include the Oromo and the Somali.",
"After the Northern Frontier District (North Eastern Province) was handed over to Kenyan nationalists at the end of British colonial rule in Kenya, Somalis in the region fought the Shifta War against Kenyan troops to join their kin in the Somali Republic to the north.",
"Although the war ended in a cease-fire, Somalis in the region still identify and maintain close ties with their kin in Somalia and see themselves as one people, since like most borders in Africa and Asia, national borders were arbitrarily drawn in colonial European countries, especially during the Scramble for AfricaAn entrepreneurial community, they established themselves in the business sector, particularly in Eastleigh, Nairobi.===Indians===Asians living in Kenya are descended from South Asian migrants.",
"Significant Asian migration to Kenya began between 1896 and 1901 when some 32,000 indentured labourers were recruited from British India to build the Kenya-Uganda Railway.",
"The majority of Kenyan Asians hail from the Gujarat and Punjab regions.",
"The community grew significantly during the colonial period, and in the 1962 census Asians made up a third of the population of Nairobi and consisted of 176,613 people across the country.Since Kenyan independence large numbers have emigrated due to race-related tensions with the Bantu and Nilotic majority.",
"Those that remain are principally concentrated in the business sector, and Asians continue to form one of the more prosperous communities in the region.",
"According to the 2019 Census, Kenyan Asians number 47,555 people, while Asians without Kenyan citizenship number 42,972 individuals.",
"In 2017, they were officially recognised as the 44th tribe of Kenya.===Europeans===Europeans in Kenya are primarily the descendants of British migrants during the colonial period, there is also a significant expat population of Europeans living in Kenya.",
"Economically, virtually all Europeans in Kenya belong to the middle- and upper-middle-class.",
"Nowadays, only a small minority of them are landowners (livestock and game ranchers, horticulturists and farmers), with the majority working in the tertiary sector: in air transport, finance, import, and hospitality.",
"Apart from isolated individuals such as anthropologist and conservationist Richard Leakey, F.R.S., who died in 2022, Kenyan white people have virtually completely retreated from Kenyan politics, and are no longer represented in public service and parastatals, from which the last remaining staff from colonial times retired in the 1970s.",
"According to the 2019 Census, Kenyan Europeans number 42,868 people, while Europeans without Kenyan citizenship number 26,753 individuals.",
"0.3% of the population of Kenya is from Asia or Europe.===Arabs===Arabs form a small but historically important minority ethnic group in Kenya.",
"They are principally concentrated along the coast in cities such as Mombasa, Malindi, Lamu, and Nairobi.",
"A Muslim community, they primarily came from Oman and Hadhramaut in Yemen, and are engaged in trade.",
"Arabs are locally referred to as ''Washihiri'' or, less commonly, as simply ''Shihiri'' in the Bantu Swahili language, Kenya's lingua franca.",
"According to the 2019 Census, Kenyan Arabs number 59,021 people."
],
[
"Languages",
"Lord's Prayer in Swahili, a Bantu language that alongside English serves as a lingua franca for many in Kenya.Kenya's various ethnic groups typically speak their mother tongues within their own communities.",
"The two official languages, English and Swahili, serve as the main lingua franca between the various ethnic groups.",
"English is widely spoken in commerce, schooling and government.",
"Peri-urban and rural dwellers are less multilingual, with many in rural areas speaking only their native languages.According to ''Ethnologue'', there are a total of 69 languages spoken in Kenya.",
"Most belong to two broad language families: Niger-Congo (Bantu branch) and Nilo-Saharan (Nilotic branch), which are spoken by the country's Bantu and Nilotic populations, respectively.",
"The Cushitic and Arab ethnic minorities speak languages belonging to the separate Afro-Asiatic family, with the Indian and European residents speaking languages from the Indo-European family."
],
[
"Population",
"According to , the total population was in compared to 6,077,000 in 1950, and around 1,700,000 in 1900.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 42.5%, 54.9% between the ages of 15 and 65, and 2.7% was 65 years or older.",
"Worldometers estimates the total population at 48,466,928 inhabitants, a 29th global rank.YearTotal populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 19506 077 00039.856.33.9 19556 980 00042.853.43.8 19608 105 00046.449.93.7 19659 505 00048.448.03.6 197011 252 00049.147.53.4 197513 486 00049.647.13.3 198016 268 00050.047.13.0 198519 655 00050.047.22.8 199023 447 00049.048.32.7 199527 426 00046.550.82.7 200031 254 00044.352.92.8 200535 615 00042.754.52.8 201040 513 00042.554.92.7201947 564 29639.057.13.9Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 24.VIII.2009):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 19 192 458 19 417 639 38 610 097 100 0–4 3 000 439 2 938 867 5 939 306 15.38 5–9 2 832 669 2 765 047 5 597 716 14.50 10–14 2 565 313 2 469 542 5 034 855 13.04 15–19 2 123 653 2 045 890 4 169 543 10.80 20–24 1 754 105 2 020 998 3 775 103 9.78 25–29 1 529 116 1 672 110 3 201 226 8.29 30–34 1 257 035 1 262 471 2 519 506 6.53 35–39 1 004 361 1 004 271 2 008 632 5.20 40–44 743 594 732 575 1 476 169 3.82 45–49 635 276 637 469 1 272 745 3.30 50–54 478 346 477 860 956 206 2.48 55–59 359 466 352 497 711 953 1.84 60–64 295 197 298 581 593 778 1.54 65-69 183 151 207 612 390 763 1.01 70-74 160 301 179 000 339 301 0.88 75-79 99 833 118 675 218 508 0.57 80+ 159 125 224 576 383 701 0.99Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 8 398 421 8 173 456 16 571 877 42.92 15–64 10 191 627 10 514 320 20 705 947 53.63 65+ 602 410 729 863 1 332 273 3.45 Unknown 11 478 9 608 21 086 0.05Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 24.VIII.2019) (The figure for both sexes includes intersex persons.",
"):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 23 544 372 24 011 270 47 557 157 100 0–4 3 005 496 2 985 484 5 991 128 12.60 5–9 3 116 101 3 084 445 6 200 719 13.04 10–14 3 209 544 3 136 149 6 345 864 13.34 15–19 2 686 476 2 599 905 5 286 535 11.12 20–24 2 112 777 2 335 052 4 448 037 9.35 25–29 1 839 256 2 014 546 3 853 955 8.10 30–34 1 698 354 1 871 625 3 570 133 7.51 35–39 1 347 962 1 301 624 2 649 679 5.57 40–44 1 156 932 1 101 867 2 258 861 4.75 45–49 916 166 869 740 1 785 957 3.76 50–54 662 864 645 463 1 308 371 2.75 55–59 546 852 571 000 1 117 878 2.35 60–64 419 362 450 447 869 837 1.83 65-69 311 281 346 756 658 052 1.38 70-74 235 929 278 507 514 453 1.08 75-79 119 265 163 799 283 071 0.60 80-84 82 909 120 944 203 856 0.43 85-89 43 948 69 635 113 587 0.24 90-94 19 225 35 866 55 095 0.12 95-99 9 768 18 233 28 001 0.06 100+ 3 905 10 183 14 088 0.03Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 9 331 141 9 206 078 18 537 711 38.98 15–64 13 387 001 13 761 269 27 149 243 57.09 65+ 826 230 1 043 923 1 870 203 3.93===Population by province in 2019 census===A map of Kenya.Province2019 Kenya (country total) 47,564,296 Nairobi (capital city) 4,397,073 Central 5,482,239 Coast 4,329,474 Eastern 6,821,049 North Eastern 2,490,073 Nyanza 6,269,579 Rift Valley 12,752,966 Western 5,021,843===Population by census year======Fertility and Births (Demographic and Health Surveys)===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR Total TFR Total CBR Urban TFR Urban CBR Rural TFR Rural 1977 8.1 1984 7.7 1989 6.7 4.5 7.1 1993 35.8 5.40 (3.4) 35.1 3.44 (2.5) 35.9 5.80 (3.7) 1998 34.6 4.70 (3.5) 33.6 3.12 (2.6) 34.7 5.16 (3.8) 2003 37.5 4.9 (3.6) 35.3 3.3 (2.6) 38.1 5.4 (3.9) 2008–2009 (census) 34,8 4.6 (3.4) 32.5 2.9 (2.5) 35.3 5.2 (3.7) 2014 30.5 3.9 (3.0) 31.0 3.1 (2.6) 30.3 4.5 (3.4) 2022 27.7 3.4 (2.9) 30.1 2.7 (2.5) 26.6 4.0 (3.3)Fertility data as of 2014 (DHS Program): Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15–49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 Coast 4.3 6.6 5.5 North Eastern 6.4 12.0 7.1 Eastern 3.4 4.6 4.7 Central 2.8 4.8 3.7 Rift Valley 4.5 7.0 5.5 Western 4.7 6.7 6.1 Nyanza 4.3 5.9 5.8 Nairobi 2.7 6.8 3.1===UN population projections===Numbers are in thousands.",
"UN medium variant projections*2015\t46,332*2020\t52,563*2025\t59,054*2030\t65,928*2035\t73,257*2040\t80,975*2045\t88,907*2050\t96,887===Vital statistics===Life expectancy at birth in KenyaRegistration of vital events is in Kenya not complete.",
"The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.PeriodPopulation per yearLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBR*CDR*NC*TFR*IMR*Life expectancy(in years)19505 712 000 285,000 167,000 118,000 49.528.920.67.33162.238.9019515 836 000 299,000 166,000 133,000 50.728.122.67.36161.239.0919525 975 000 313,000 168,000 146,000 51.827.824.17.39159.438.9519536 122 000 328,000 163,000 165,000 52.826.326.57.42152.240.3219546 282 000 342,000 159,000 183,000 53.725.028.77.45145.341.6919556 461 000 356,000 156,000 200,000 54.323.830.57.48138.942.9619566 657 000 372,000 154,000 219,000 55.022.732.37.53132.944.1219576 871 000 388,000 149,000 239,000 55.521.334.27.59127.345.8319587 104 000 403,000 148,000 255,000 55.620.435.27.60122.246.8819597 343 000 414,000 146,000 268,000 55.419.535.87.62117.547.7719607 609 000 428,000 145,000 283,000 55.218.636.57.63113.248.6819617 894 000 446,000 144,000 302,000 55.517.937.67.72109.449.5319628 201 000 465,000 144,000 321,000 55.617.238.47.80106.050.2219638 526 000 482,000 145,000 338,000 55.516.638.87.86103.150.8119648 868 000 500,000 146,000 354,000 55.216.139.17.92100.651.3319659 227 000 521,000 148,000 373,000 55.315.739.68.0398.751.7019669 608 000 539,000 150,000 388,000 54.915.339.68.0697.052.1019679 997 000 555,000 153,000 402,000 54.415.039.48.0595.552.46196810 405 000 572,000 155,000 417,000 53.814.639.38.0494.052.78196910 823 000 589,000 157,000 433,000 53.414.239.28.0392.453.17197011 256 000 606,000 158,000 447,000 52.713.838.98.0290.853.58197111 690 000 625,000 159,000 466,000 52.413.339.18.0089.154.26197212 107 000 639,000 158,000 481,000 51.712.838.97.9887.255.01197312 539 000 652,000 158,000 495,000 51.012.338.77.9485.355.68197412 982 000 668,000 160,000 507,000 50.412.138.37.9183.355.63197513 426 000 685,000 162,000 523,000 50.011.838.27.8881.255.83197613 878 000 704,000 164,000 540,000 49.811.638.27.8479.055.90197714 327 000 722,000 164,000 559,000 49.411.238.27.8076.756.49197814 828 000 744,000 164,000 580,000 49.210.838.47.7574.456.94197915 347 000 766,000 163,000 604,000 49.010.438.67.6872.157.72198015 894 000 787,000 162,000 626,000 48.610.038.67.6070.158.50198116 480 000 816,000 151,000 665,000 48.59.039.57.5168.261.17198217 092 000 838,000 156,000 683,000 48.18.939.17.4066.560.95198317 731 000 860,000 159,000 701,000 47.58.838.77.2664.961.01198418 408 000 888,000 164,000 724,000 47.38.838.67.1263.760.80198519 099 000 913,000 170,000 743,000 46.98.838.16.9862.860.58198619 806 000 941,000 178,000 763,000 46.68.837.86.8562.460.22198720 516 000 966,000 185,000 781,000 46.28.837.36.6862.460.04198821 248 000 982,000 195,000 788,000 45.49.036.46.5162.959.54198922 004 000 998,000 205,000 793,000 44.59.235.46.3263.959.04199022 772 000 1,008,000 216,000 793,000 43.59.334.26.1365.258.61199123 553 000 1,019,000 228,000 791,000 42.59.533.05.9466.858.01199224 284 000 1,029,000 242,000 787,000 41.79.831.95.7568.357.26199325 028 000 1,044,000 255,000 789,000 41.110.031.05.5769.456.62199425 756 000 1,062,000 266,000 796,000 40.610.230.45.4570.156.27199526 512 000 1,088,000 280,000 809,000 40.410.430.05.3770.155.62199627 245 000 1,112,000 292,000 821,000 40.210.529.75.3169.755.16199727 987 000 1,139,000 303,000 836,000 40.110.729.45.2668.754.82199828 742 000 1,174,000 313,000 861,000 40.210.729.55.2567.454.53199929 533 000 1,199,000 321,000 878,000 40.010.729.35.1865.654.50200030 398 000 1,232,000 329,000 903,000 39.910.729.35.1463.654.41200131 306 000 1,271,000 336,000 934,000 40.010.629.45.0961.354.51200232 295 000 1,298,000 339,000 959,000 39.610.329.35.0258.954.99200333 265 000 1,318,000 337,000 981,000 39.010.029.14.9156.555.60200434 270 000 1,347,000 334,000 1,013,000 38.79.629.14.8354.056.36200535 314 000 1,380,000 328,000 1,052,000 38.59.129.44.7851.357.34200636 372 000 1,414,000 323,000 1,091,000 38.38.729.54.7548.858.22200737 479 000 1,450,000 322,000 1,128,000 38.18.529.64.7246.558.87200838 595 000 1,471,000 317,000 1,154,000 37.58.129.54.6543.859.61200939 779 000 1,476,000 312,000 1,164,000 36.67.728.84.5141.760.37201040 950 000 1,471,000 314,000 1,157,000 35.47.627.94.3740.260.65201142 086 000 1,461,000 317,000 1,144,000 34.27.426.84.2239.061.05201243 185 000 1,451,000 326,000 1,125,000 33.27.525.74.0938.161.12201344 267 000 1,440,000 332,000 1,008,00032.17.424.73.9537.061.39201445 318 000 1,436,000 335,000 1,101,000 31.37.324.03.8436.061.82201546 346 000 1,452,000 345,000 1,107,000 31.07.423.63.8034.961.89201647 357 000 1,457,000 352,000 1,105,000 30.47.323.13.7233.862.16201748 432 000 1,458,000 357,000 1,100,000 29.87.322.53.6433.062.48201849 464 000 1,460,000 365,000 1,094,000 29.27.321.93.5832.062.68201950 443 000 1,451,000 372,000 1,079,000 28.57.321.23.4731.162.94202051 460 000 1,456,000 388,000 1,068,000 28.07.520.53.4030.462.68202152 511 000 1,468,000 427,000 1,041,000 27.78.119.63.3429.861.43202254 027 000 1,488,000 423,000 1,065,000 27.57.819.73.3028.062.10 * CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)"
],
[
"Other population statistics",
"Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.",
"*One birth every 21 seconds\t*One death every 2 minutes\t*One net migrant every 53 minutes\t*Net gain of one person every 26 secondsThe following demographic are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated.===Population===:55,864,955 (2022 est.",
"):47,564,296 (2019 census )===Age structure===:''0-14 years:'' 38.71% (male 10,412,321/female 10,310,908):''15-24 years:'' 20.45% (male 5,486,641/female 5,460,372):''25-54 years:'' 33.75% (male 9,046,946/female 9,021,207):''55-64 years:'' 4.01% (male 1,053,202/female 1,093,305):''65 years and over:'' 3.07% (2020 est.)",
"(male 750,988/female 892,046):''0-14 years:'' 39.03% (male 9,474,968 /female 9,416,609):''15-24 years:'' 19.61% (male 4,737,647 /female 4,752,896):''25-54 years:'' 34.27% (male 8,393,673 /female 8,193,800):''55-64 years:'' 4% (male 894,371 /female 1,040,883):''65 years and over:'' 3.08% (male 640,005 /female 852,675) (2019 est.",
")===Population growth rate===:2.12% (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 38th:1.57% (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 67th===Birth rate===:26.39 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 43rd:22.6 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 66th===Death rate===:5.01 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 196th:6.7 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 137th===Total fertility rate===:3.29 children born/woman (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 44th:2.81 children born/woman (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 59th===Median age===:total: 20 years.",
"Country comparison to the world: 195th:male: 19.9 years:female: 20.1 years (2020 est.",
"):total: 20 years.",
"Country comparison to the world: 191st:male: 19.9 years :female: 20.2 years (2018 est.",
")===Mother's mean age at first birth===:20.3 years (2014 est.",
"):note: median age at first birth among women 25-29===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:59.7% (2019):61.6% (2016)===Net migration rate===:-0.19 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 111st:-0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 109th===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 78.3 (2015 est.",
"):youth dependency ratio: 73.7 (2015 est.",
"):elderly dependency ratio: 4.6 (2015 est.",
"):potential support ratio: 21.7 (2015 est.",
")===Urbanization===:urban population: 29% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 4.09% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.",
"):urban population: 27% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 4.23% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.",
")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 69.69 years.",
"Country comparison to the world: 175th:male: 67.98 years:female: 71.43 years (2022 est.",
"):total population: 64.6 years (2018 est.",
"):male: 63.1 years (2018 est.",
"):female: 66.1 years (2018 est.",
")===Education expenditures===:5.1% of GDP (2020) Country comparison to the world: 60th===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.",
"):total population: 81.5%:male: 85%:female: 78.2% (2018):total population: 78% (2015 est.",
"):male: 81.1% (2015 est.",
"):female: 74.9% (2015 est.",
")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 5 years (1970) to 11 years (2009):male: 11 years (2009):female: 11 years (2009)===Health===Like the demographics of Africa in general, Kenya is plagued by high infant mortality, low life expectancy, malnourishment (32% of population) and HIV/AIDS.While these concerns remain grave, a trend towards improvement is reported in the period of 2006 to 2010: Infant mortality was at estimated at 59.26 deaths/1,000 live births as of 2006, decreasing to 54.7 deaths/1,000 live births as of 2010.Life expectancy was estimated at 48.9 years as of 2006, and has risen to 64 years in 2012.According to 2008–09 Kenyan government survey, total fertility was 4.6, contraception usage among married women was 46 percent.Total fertility rate has decreased 4.91 children per woman (2006 estimate), to 4.38 (2010 estimate).Literacy (age 7 and over) was estimated at 85.1% in 2003 (male: 90.6%, female: 79.7%).===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: very high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria, dengue fever, and Rift Valley fever:water contact diseases: schistosomiasis:animal contact diseases: rabies"
],
[
"Religion",
"CIA World Factbook estimate:*Christian 85.5%**Protestant 33.4%**Roman Catholic 20.6%**Evangelical 20.4%**African Instituted Churches 7%**Other Christian 4.1%*Islam 10.9%*Other 1.8%*None 1.6%*Unspecified 0.2%"
],
[
"See also",
"*Geography of Kenya"
],
[
"References",
"'''Attribution:'''*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"**)"
],
[
"External links",
"* Population and Housing Census – Ethnic Affiliation"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Politics of Kenya"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''politics of Kenya''' take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the president is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system in accordance with a new constitution passed in 2010.Executive power is exercised by the executive branch of government, headed by the President, who chairs the cabinet, which is composed of people chosen from outside parliament.",
"Legislative power is vested exclusively in Parliament.",
"The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.",
"In Kenyan politics, the executive wields considerable power and other institutions have limited means of checking that power.",
"The Political terror scale gave the country a rating of 4 meaning that civil and political rights violations had expanded to large numbers of the population.",
"Murders, disappearances, and torture were common parts of life."
],
[
"Executive branch",
"|PresidentWilliam RutoUnited Democratic Alliance 13 September 2022Deputy PresidentRigathi GachaguaUnited Democratic Alliance 13 September 2022The president is elected for a five-year term by the people.",
"As of the 2013 March general election, the Constitution of Kenya has two requirements for any candidate to be declared winner:*to win at least 25% of the vote in a majority of Kenya's forty-seven counties*to garner 50% + 1 vote of the total valid votes.If none of the candidates fulfills these requirements there is to be a runoff between the two contenders with the highest number of votes.The Deputy President is the running mate of the candidate that wins the presidential election whilst other cabinet members will be appointed, with the approval from the National Assembly, from outside Parliament.Between 2008 and 2013 Kenya was governed by a Grand coalition, established by a power-sharing agreement, signed by then President Mwai Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga of the Orange Democratic Movement.",
"That government was semi-presidential in form, with the executive headed by a President and a Prime Minister, and ministers were appointed to reflect political parties' relative strength in Kenya's 10th Parliament in which Raila Odinga's party, the Orange Democratic Movement was the largest party.",
"Under the power-sharing agreement, each of the two major parties also nominated a deputy prime minister.",
"The post of the Prime Minister was abolished after 2013, returning Kenya to a presidential system of government."
],
[
"Legislative branch",
"The National Assembly of Kenya is based at Parliament Buildings in Nairobi.The Bicameral Parliament consists of a National Assembly and Senate.",
"The National Assembly, or ''Bunge'', has 349 members, 290 members elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies, 47 women elected from each county, 12 members nominated by political parties in proportion to their share of seats won in the single-member constituencies, and an ex officio member: the speaker.There is also a Senate with 67 members.",
"47 elected from counties acting as single-member constituencies, 16 women nominated by political parties, a man and a woman representing youths and a man and woman representing people with disabilities.",
"The speaker is an ex-officio member."
],
[
"Political parties and elections"
],
[
"Judicial branch",
"The Kenyan judiciary is divided into Superior Courts and Subordinate Courts.",
"Superior Courts consist of the Chief Justice who is also the president of the Supreme Court, the Deputy Chief Justice (who are members of the Supreme Court), Supreme Court judges, High Court judges, and judges of the Court of Appeal (no associate judges) appointed by an independent Judicial Service Commission.",
"The Chief Justice and his or her deputy are nominated by the President from names selected by the Judicial Service Commission and voted by the National Assembly.",
"Subordinates Courts are Magistrates' Courts, Kadhi Courts and Courts-Martial.",
"The current chief justice is Martha Koome.",
"Then the Tribunal are bodies which are established by Acts of Parliament to exercise judicial or quasi-judicial functions and these supplement ordinary courts in the administration of justice but do not have penal jurisdiction."
],
[
"Administrative divisions",
"Under the 2010 Constitution, Kenya is divided into 47 counties (including the Cities of Nairobi and Mombasa), each comprising a whole number of Parliamentary constituencies.",
"Each county has an elected Assembly, whose members are elected from single-member wards.There are provisions for additional Assembly members to be appointed to improve the gender balance and to represent special groups such as persons with disabilities and youth.",
"Each county is administered by an elected County Governor and Deputy Governor, backed by an Executive Committee."
],
[
"Political conditions",
"A political parade in Lamu, held in July 2001Since independence in 1963, Kenya has maintained remarkable stability, despite changes in its political system and crises in neighboring countries.",
"Particularly since the re-emergence of multiparty democracy, Kenyans have enjoyed an increased degree of freedom.A cross-party parliamentary reform initiative in the fall of 1997 revised some oppressive laws inherited from the colonial era that had been used to limit freedom of speech and assembly.",
"This improved public freedoms and contributed to generally credible national elections in December 1997.In December 2002, Kenya held democratic and open elections and elected Mwai Kibaki as their new president.",
"The elections, which were judged free and fair by local and international observers, marked an important turning point in Kenya's democratic evolution.",
"President Kibaki campaigned on a policy of generating economic growth, improving education, combating corruption, and implementing a new constitution, the draft of which was produced by Professor Ghai under the Moi regime.",
"Considerable success has been achieved in the first two policy areas, the constitutional process had become mired (see below) and the fight against corruption has been a disaster.There have been major scandals (including Anglo-Leasing), which the government has failed to investigate.",
"John Githongo, then Permanent Secretary to the President on Ethics and Governance, resigned in protest, and donor nations, in particular the British, have made public criticisms of the lack of progress.Following disagreements between the partners in the then-government coalition, constitutional reform proceeded slower than anticipated.",
"The NAK faction (allied to President Kibaki) favored a centralized presidential system, while the LDP faction—which had fewer parliamentary seats in that coalition than NAK—demanded a federal, parliamentary system, referred to in some circles as Majimbo.A Kenyan private security officer.Prior to the 2002 election, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was agreed between NAK and LDP, which laid the basis for the two groups to contest the election under the NARC (Rainbow Alliance) banner.",
"The MoU agreed that a new constitution would be established shortly after the election, which provided for the new role of a strong Prime Minister while weakening the role of the President.",
"Raila Odinga, then leader of LDP, maintained aspirations to become Prime Minister.",
"However, that draft constitution was modified by the government from what was written by Professor Ghai and amended by the Bomas committee.This maintained a strong President, who controls a weaker Prime Minister.",
"This led to a split between NAK and LDP, with the former campaigning for a 'Yes' vote in a 2005 referendum on the constitution and the latter a 'No'.",
"Also supporting a 'No' vote was the majority of Uhuru Kenyatta's KANU party, the sole party of government from independence to 2002.The outcome of that referendum, in which the draft constitution was rejected, signalled a wider re-alignment before the 2007 elections, in which the No team reorganised itself as the Orange Democratic Movement with Raila Odinga as their presidential flag bearer whilst those in the Yes team ended up in several political parties including the Party of National Unity.Internal wrangling within that governing coalition also negatively affected other crucial areas of governance, notably the planned large-scale privatisation of government-owned enterprises.",
"The 2007 presidential elections were largely believed to have been flawed with international observers stating that they did not meet regional or international standards.",
"Most observers suggest that the tallying process for the presidential results was rigged to the advantage of the incumbent president, Mwai Kibaki, despite overwhelming indications that his rival and the subsequent Prime Minister of Kenya, Raila Odinga, won the election.",
"In July 2008, exit polls commissioned by the US government were released, revealing that Odinga had won the election by a comfortable margin of 6%, well outside of the poll's 1.3% margin of error.There was significant and widespread violence in Kenya—2007–2008 Kenyan crisis—following the unprecedented announcement of Kibaki as the winner of the 2007 presidential elections.",
"The violence led to the death of almost 1,000 people and the displacement of almost 600,000 people.",
"Some researchers note it allowed the violent settlement of land disputes between ethnic groups over controversial concepts of 'ancestral homelands'.A diplomatic solution was achieved, as the two rivals were later united in a grand coalition government following international mediation, led by former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, under a power-sharing National Accord on Reconciliation Act, entrenched in the constitution.",
"Following the agreement, power was shared between President Mwai Kibaki and Prime Minister, Raila Odinga.Several steps were recommended to ensure stability and peace for the Nation during the negotiations that led to the formation of the Coalition government.",
"One of these reforms was the famous Agenda 4 which deals with reforms in various sectors.",
"A new constitution was identified as a key area in fulfilling Agenda 4.A draft constitution was published and Kenyans adopted it in a vote on 4 August 2010.In 2013 the coalition government was rendered ineffective due to the constitution.",
"General elections were held and the Jubilee coalition with President, Uhuru Kenyatta and Deputy President, William Samoei Ruto clinched victory.",
"The new constitution also provided for a bicameral house, the Senate and the National Assembly.",
"These were duly filled up with elected candidates.",
"The nation was also divided into counties headed by governors and represented in the Senate by senators.",
"Women in these counties were also represented by electing women Representatives.",
"The five-year term ended on 2017 and the country went in for the elections.",
"The President Uhuru Kenyatta and Deputy William Samoei Ruto were re-elected on 30 October 2017.This will run up to 2022 when the next elections will be conducted.",
"The historical handshake in March 2018 between President Uhuru Kenyatta and his long-time opponent Raila Odinga meant reconciliation followed by economic growth and increased stability.",
"William Ruto was declared the winner of the 2022 Kenyan general election On 13 September 2022, William Ruto was sworn in as Kenya's fifth president."
],
[
"References",
"* Notes from Nairobi Blog about Kenyan politics for The Walrus magazine,* BBC News – Kenya rivals agree to share power 28 February 2008.",
"* Photojournalist's Account – Images of Kenya's last presidential election* CIA World Factbook Entry* Kenyan politics"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Hassan, Mai.",
"2020.",
"''Regime Threats and State Solutions: Bureaucratic Loyalty and Embeddedness in Kenya''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"*Michaela Wrong (1986), ''It's Our Turn to Eat: the Story of a Kenyan Whistle Blower'', Fourth Estate, Reviewed in ''The Daily Telegraph''."
],
[
"External links",
"; News* Daily Nation* The Standard* Coastweek* Kenyan Issues* Kenyan Stuff; Others** * (Full text of book at link.",
")* Strengthening U.S. Ties With Kenya, Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation, 24 April 1990.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Economy of Kenya"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''economy of Kenya''' is market-based with a few state enterprises.",
"Kenya has an emerging market and is an averagely industrialised nation ahead of its East African peers.",
"Currently a lower middle income nation, it plans to be a newly industrialised nation by 2030.Major industries include financial services, agriculture, real estate, manufacturing, logistics, tourism, retail and energy.",
"As of 2020, Kenya had the third largest economy in Sub-Saharan Africa, behind Nigeria and South Africa.",
"By 2023, the country had become Africa's largest start-up hub by both funds invested and number of projects.The government of Kenya is generally investment-friendly and has enacted several regulatory reforms to simplify foreign and local investment, including the creation of an export processing zone.",
"An increasingly significant portion of Kenya's foreign financial inflows are remittances by non-resident Kenyans who work in the United States, the Middle East, Europe and Asia.As of September 2018, economic prospects were positive, with above 6% gross domestic product (GDP) growth expected.",
"This growth was attributed largely to expansions in the telecommunications, transport, and construction sectors; a recovery in agriculture; and the rise of small businesses helping to pull the economy.",
"These improvements are supported by a large pool of highly educated professional workers.",
"There is a high level of IT literacy and innovation, especially among young Kenyans.In 2020, Kenya ranked 56th in the World Bank ease of doing business rating, up from 61st in 2019 (of 190 countries).",
"Compared to its neighbours, Kenya has a well-developed social and physical infrastructure."
],
[
"History",
"Between 70 AD and 1500 AD, trade routes — spanning Africa, Asia and Europe — integrated the Kenyan coastal strip into the world economy.",
"Foreign merchants would bring their merchandise to the Kenyan coast and leave with African goods.In 1499 AD, Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, returned to Europe after discovering the sea route to India through South Africa.",
"This new route allowed European nations to dominate the trade economy of the East African coast, with the Portuguese entrenching themselves in the 16th and 17th centuries.",
"In the 18th century, the Portuguese were replaced in this East African economic corridor by Omani Arabs.",
"Eventually, the British replaced the Omani Arabs.",
"In 1895 they dominated the coastal strip; by 1920, they had followed the interior trade routes all the way to the Buganda Kingdom.",
"To make this ancient economic trade route more profitable, the British used Indian labourers to build a railway from Mombasa at the coast to Kampala, the capital of Buganda kingdom, following old trade routes.",
"Major towns were founded along the railway line, backed by European settler farming communities.",
"The Indian labourers who did not return to India after railway construction ended were the first to establish shops (dukawallahs) in these towns.During the colonial period, the European settler farming community and the Indian dukawallahs established the foundations of the modern formal Kenyan economy.",
"Prominent examples of Asian-Kenyan business owners whose businesses started as dukawallahs include Manu Chandaria and Madatally Manji.",
"While Europeans and Indians enjoyed strong economic growth between 1920 and 1963, Africans were deprived of their land, dehumanised, and forced to work for minimal pay under extremely poor working conditions through a well-established system of racial segregation.Kenya gained its independence in 1963.Under President Jomo Kenyatta, the Kenyan government promoted africanisation of the Kenyan economy, generating rapid economic growth through public investment, encouragement of smallholder agricultural production, and incentives for private, often foreign, industrial investments.",
"An influential sessional paper authored by Tom Mboya and Mwai Kibaki in 1965 stressed the need for Kenya to avoid both the capitalistic economy of the West and the communism of the East.",
"The paper argued that Kenya should instead concentrate on African socialism, while avoiding linking Kenya's economic fortunes to any country or group of countries.",
"From 1963 to 1973, GDP grew at an annual average rate of 6.6%; during the 1970s, it grew at an average rate of 7.2%.",
"Agricultural production grew by 4.7% annually in the same period, stimulated by redistributing estates, distributing new crop strains, and opening new areas to cultivation.",
"However, the rate of GDP growth declined to 4.2% per year in the 1980s, and 2.2% a year in the 1990s.Kenya's policy of import substitution, which started in 1946 with European and Asian enterprises, did not achieve the desired result of transforming Kenya's industrial base.",
"In the late 1970s, rising oil prices began to make Kenya's manufacturing sector noncompetitive.",
"In response, the government began a massive intervention in the private sector.",
"Lack of export incentives, tight import controls, and foreign exchange controls made the domestic environment for investment even less attractive.In the 1980s and 1990s, Kenya signed structural adjustment loans with the World Bank and IMF, the loans were to be given on the condition that Kenya adopts government reforms, a liberal trade and interest rate regime, and an outward-oriented industrial policy, among other reforms .",
"The Kenyan economy performed very poorly during this era of World Bank and IMF-driven liberalisation at the height of Daniel Arap Moi administration.From 1991 to 1993, Kenya had its worst economic performance since independence.",
"Growth in GDP stagnated, and agricultural production shrank at an annual rate of 3.9%.",
"Inflation reached a record of 100% in August 1993, and the government's budget deficit was over 10% of GDP.",
"As a result of these issues, bilateral and multilateral donors suspended their aid programmes in Kenya in 1991.In 1993, the Kenyan government began a major programme of economic reform and liberalisation.",
"A new minister of finance and a new governor of the central bank undertook a series of economic measures with the assistance of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).",
"The government eliminated price controls and import licensing, removed foreign exchange controls, privatised a number of publicly owned companies, reduced the number of civil servants, and introduced conservative fiscal and monetary policies.",
"From 1994 to 1996, Kenya's real GDP growth rate averaged just over 4% a year.leftIn 1997, however, the economy entered a period of slowing growth, due in part to adverse weather conditions and reduced economic activity before the general elections in December 1997.In July 1997, the Government of Kenya refused to meet earlier commitments to the IMF on governance reforms.",
"As a result, the IMF suspended lending for three years, and the World Bank put a $90 million structural adjustment credit on hold.The Kenyan government subsequently took positive steps on reform, including the establishment of the Kenya Anti-Corruption Authority in 1997.The state also implemented measures to improve the transparency of government procurement and reduce the government payroll.",
"In July 2000, the IMF signed a $150 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility, and the World Bank followed shortly after with a $157 million Economic and Public Sector Reform credit.",
"However, both were eventually suspended.",
"Despite setbacks, the process of reform established Kenya as East Africa's economic powerhouse and the region's business hub.Economic growth improved between 2003 and 2008, under the Mwai Kibaki administration.",
"When Kibaki took power in 2003, he immediately established the National Debt Management Department at the treasury, reformed the Kenya Revenue Authority (KRA) to increase government revenue, reformed financial laws on banking, wrote off the debts of strategic public enterprises, and ensured that 30% of government tax revenue was invested in economic development projects.",
"With these reforms, driven by the National Rainbow Coalition government, the KRA collected more tax revenue in 2004 than was anticipated.",
"The government then initiated investments in infrastructure.",
"By 2005, the Kenyan public debt had reduced from highs of 80% of GDP in 2002 to 27% of GDP in 2005.The financial sector greatly improved, and Equity Bank Kenya became one of the largest banks in East Africa.",
"Economic growth improved from 2% in 2003 to 7% in 2007.In 2008, the growth slumped to 1% due to post-election violence before returning to an average of 5% between 2009 and 2013.However, in 2009, due to drought and the global financial crisis, high input costs as well as a fall in demand for some of the country's exports caused the agriculture sector to contract by 2.7%.Between 2013 and 2018, under the Jubilee Party government led by Uhuru Kenyatta, GDP growth averaged above 5%.",
"Growth in small businesses is credited with some of the improvement.",
"Real GDP growth (annualised) was 5.7% in Q1 of 2018, 6.0% in Q2 2018 and 6.2% in Q3 2018.Despite this robust growth, concerns remained about Kenya's debt sustainability, current account deficit, fiscal consolidation and revenue growth.The table below shows the GDP of Kenya estimated by the International Monetary Fund, with exchange rates for Kenyan shillings.",
"Year Nominal GDP(USD) US Dollar Exchange 1980 7.265 billion 7.42 shillings 1985 6.135 billion 16.43 shillings 1990 8.591 billion 22.86 shillings 1995 9.046 billion 50.42 shillings 2000 12.71 billion 78.58 shillings 2005 18.74 billion 75.55 shillings 2010 40 billion 78.90 shillings 2015 63.77 billion 96.85 shillings 2020 101.1 billion 107 shillings"
],
[
"Vision 2030 plan",
"Vision 2030 is Kenya's current blueprint for its exonomic future, with the goal of creating a prosperous, globally-competitive nation with a high quality of life by 2030.The plan aims to transform Kenyan industry and environment in three pillars: economic, social, and political.===Economic pillar===Vision 2030 seeks economic growth averaging greater than 10% for 23 years, beginning in the year 2007.Economic areas targeted are tourism, agriculture, wholesale and retail trade, manufacturing, IT-enabled services, and financial services.===Social pillar===To improve the quality of life for Kenyans, Vision 2030 aims to improve human and social welfare programmes, specifically education and training, health, environment, housing and urbanisation, children and social development, and youth and sports.",
"In 2018, President Uhuru Kenyatta established the Big Four Agenda, focusing on universal healthcare, manufacturing, affordable housing and food security.===Political pillar===The political pillar envisions a \"democratic system that is issue-based, transparent, people-centred, results-oriented, and accountable to the public\".",
"It targets five main areas: the rule of law under the Constitution of Kenya, electoral and political processes, democracy and public service delivery, transparency and accountability, and security, peace building, and conflict management.The current Constitution of Kenya was inaugurated on 27 August 2010 to drive this pillar."
],
[
"Currency, exchange rate, and inflation",
"Kenya's currency is printed by mandate of the Central Bank of Kenya.",
"The bank began printing banknotes in 1996.Several versions of Kenya's banknotes and coinage have been circulated since then.",
"The most recent redesign of Kenya's currency was in 2019.The exchange rate of the Kenyan Shilling between 2003 and 2010 averaged about KSh74-78 per US Dollar.The average inflation between 2005 and July 2015 was 8.5%.",
"In July 2015 Kenya's inflation rate was estimated to be 6.62%."
],
[
"Government finances",
"=== Revenue and spending ===In 2006, Kenyan government revenue totalled US$4.448B and its estimated expenditures totalled US$5.377B.",
"The government budget balance as a percentage of the gross domestic product improved to −2.1% in 2006 from −5.5% in 2004.In 2012, Kenya set a budget of US$14.59B with a government revenue of approximately US$12B.The 2018 budget policy report set a budget of US$30B.",
"The government revenue was approximately US$29.5B, and a deficit of US$5B was borrowed.In the financial year that ended in June 2020, the Kenya Revenue Authority collected a tax revenue that amounted to approximately US$15B.=== Government debt ===From 1982, Kenya key public debt indicators rose above critical levels, both measured as a percentage of GDP and as a percentage of government revenue.In 2002, the last year of Daniel arap Moi's administration, Kenya' s public debt stood at almost 80% of GDP.",
"In the last 10 years of the Moi regime, the government was spending 94% of all its revenue on salaries and debt servicing to the IMF, World Bank and other western countries.In 2003, Mwai Kibaki's administration instituted a public debt management department within the treasury department to bring Kenya's debt down to sustainable levels.In 2006, Kenya had a current account deficit of US$1.5B.",
"This figure was a significant increase over 2005, when the current account had a deficit of US$495 million.",
"In 2006, the current account balance as a percentage of gross domestic product was −4.2.In 2006, Kenya's external debt totalled US$6.7B.",
"With a GDP of US$25.83B in 2006, the public debt level stood at 27% of GDP.In 2011, the national treasury noted that the debt was rising, growing to 40% of GDP in 2009 and to 54% of GDP by 2012.In 2019, Kenya's debt had risen to an absolute amount of US$50B against a GDP of US$98B.",
"The public debt level was 51% of GDP in 2019.In 2021, Kenya's debt had risen to an absolute amount of US$65B against a GDP of US$101B.The public debt level was 65% of GDP in 2021.Kenya's largest bilateral lender since 2011 has been China, and the largest multilateral lender since 1963 has been the World Bank.===Economic Stimulus Programme===The Kenya Economic Stimulus Programme was introduced in the 2010–2011 budget plan.",
"The initiative aimed to stimulate economic activity in Kenya through investment in long-term solutions to food insecurity, rural unemployment and underdevelopment.",
"Stated improvement objectives included regional development for equity and social stability, infrastructure, education, affordable health-care, environmental conservation, information and communications technology capacity, and access to IT.===Integrated Financial Management Information System===The Integrated Financial Management Information System (IFMIS) was launched in 2003 as a digital platform for Kenya's financial information and services, and was later re-engineered by the Ministry of Finance to curb fraud and other malpractices.",
"IFMIS enables integrated budget planning, being linked to planning policy objectives and budget allocation.===Funds for the Inclusion of Informal Sector===The Fund for the Inclusion of Informal Sector (FIIS) is a fund that allows businesses in the informal economy to access credit financing and other facilities, including financial and banking services.===Investor compensation fund===The Investor Compensation Fund compensates investors who suffer losses from breaches of duty by a licensed stockbroker or dealer, up to a maximum of Sh.50,000 per investor."
],
[
"Foreign economic relations",
"Kenyan exports in 2006.Since independence, Kenya has received substantial foreign investment and significant amounts of development aid.",
"Total aid was $943 million in 2006, 4% of gross national income.Investments come from China, Japan, Russia, the United States, and the United Kingdom, among others.",
"Kenya hosts a large number of foreign multinational companies and international organisations such as the United Nations Environment Programme.",
"China's investments have been increasing, while those of western countries such as the United Kingdom has fallen significantly.",
"Investments from multilateral agencies, particularly the World Bank and the European Development Fund, have also increased.",
"The most active investors currently are the Chinese.Kenya is active within regional trade blocs such as the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa and the East African Community, a partnership of Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan.",
"The aim of the latter is to create a common market of its member states modelled on the European Union.",
"Among the early steps toward integration is the bloc's customs union, which has eliminated duties on goods and non-tariff trade barriers among members.=== Exports ===Kenya's chief exports are horticultural products and tea.",
"In 2005, the combined value of these commodities was US$1,150 million, about 10 times the value of Kenya's third most valuable export, coffee.",
"Kenya's other significant exports are petroleum products, fish, cement, pyrethrum, and sisal.",
"The leading imports are crude petroleum, chemicals, manufactured goods, machinery, and transportation equipment.",
"Africa is Kenya's largest export market, followed by the European Union.The major destinations for exports are Uganda, Tanzania, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands.",
"Major suppliers are China, India, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and South Africa.",
"Kenya's main exports to the United States are garments traded under the terms of the African Growth and Opportunity Act.",
"Notwithstanding this, Kenya's apparel industry is struggling to hold its ground against Asian competition and runs a trade deficit with the United States.",
"Many of Kenya's problems relating to the export of goods are believed by economists to be caused by the fact that Kenya's exports are inexpensive items that do not bring substantial amounts of money into the country.Kenya is the dominant trade partner for Uganda (12.3% exports, 15.6% imports) and Rwanda (30.5% exports, 17.3% imports).=== Balance of trade ===Kenya typically has a substantial trade deficit.",
"The trade balance fluctuates widely because Kenya's main exports are primary commodities subject to the effects of both world prices and weather.",
"In 2005 Kenya's income from exports was about US$3.2 billion.",
"The payment for imports was about US$5.7B, yielding a trade deficit of about US$2.5B.=== Foreign investment policies ===Kenyan policies on foreign investment generally have been favourable since independence, with occasional tightening of restrictions to promote the africanisation of enterprises.",
"Foreign investors have been guaranteed ownership and the right to remit dividends, royalties, and capital.Kenya is currently the most important source of foreign direct investments in Uganda and Rwanda.",
"Uganda and its neighbouring regions are the main export destinations for Kenyan products.",
"Kenya has had more success in growing its economy and quality of life levels than many of its neighbours in sub-Saharan Africa."
],
[
"Industries",
"===Agriculture===Flower productionTea farm, Kericho CountyKenya produced in 2018:* 5.2 million tons of sugarcane;* 4 million tons of maize;* 1.8 million tons of potato;* 1.4 million tons of banana;* 946 thousand tons of cassava;* 871 thousand tons of sweet potato;* 775 thousand tons of mango (including mangosteen and guava);* 765 thousand tons of beans;* 599 thousand tons of tomato;* 674 thousand tons of cabbage;* 492 thousand tons of tea (3rd largest producer in the world, losing only to China and India);* 349 thousand tons of pineapple;* 336 thousand tons of wheat;* 239 thousand tons of carrot;* 233 thousand tons of avocado;* 206 thousand tons of sorghum;* 188 thousand tons of watermelon;* 179 thousand tons of cowpea;* 169 thousand tons of spinach;* 131 thousand tons of papaya; * 92 thousand tons of coconut; * and 41 thousand tons of coffee.Agriculture is the second largest contributor to Kenya's GDP, after the service sector, although only 15% of Kenya's total land area has sufficient fertility and rainfall to be farmed, and only 7 or 8% can be classified as first-class land.",
"In 2006, almost 75% of working Kenyans made their living on the land, compared with 80% in 1980.About half of total agricultural output is non-marketed subsistence production.In 2005, agriculture, including forestry and fishing, accounted for about 24% of GDP, as well as for 18% of wage employment and 50% of revenue from exports.",
"That same year, horticulture accounted for 23% and tea for 22% of total export earnings.",
"The principal cash crops in Kenyan agriculture are tea, horticultural produce, and coffee.",
"Coffee has declined in importance with depressed world prices, accounting for just 5% of export receipts in 2005.The production of major food staples such as corn is subject to sharp weather-related fluctuations.",
"Production downturns also periodically necessitate food aid.",
"In 2004, aid was needed for 1.8 million people because of Kenya's intermittent droughts.",
"However, the expansion of credit to the agricultural sector has enabled farmers to better deal with environmental and pricing risks.Tea, coffee, sisal, pyrethrum, corn, and wheat are grown in the fertile highlands, one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa.",
"Livestock predominates in the semi-arid savanna to the north and east.",
"Coconuts, pineapples, cashew nuts, cotton, sugarcane, sisal, and corn are grown in the lower-lying areas.===Forestry and fishing===Resource degradation has reduced output from forestry.",
"In 2004, roundwood removals came to 22,162,000 cubic meters.",
"Fisheries are of local importance around Lake Victoria and have potential at Lake Turkana.",
"Kenya's total catch in 2004 was 128,000 metric tons.",
"However, output from fishing has been declining because of ecological disruption.",
"Pollution, overfishing, and the use of unauthorised fishing equipment have led to falling catches and have endangered local fish species.===Mining and minerals===Soda Ash train, Lake Magadi, Kajiado CountyKenya has no significant mineral endowment.",
"The mining and quarrying sector makes a negligible contribution to the economy, accounting for less than 1% of GDP.",
"The majority of this is contributed by the soda ash operation at Lake Magadi in south-central Kenya.",
"Thanks largely to rising soda ash output, Kenya's mineral production in 2005 reached more than 1 million tons.",
"One of Kenya's largest foreign-investment projects in recent years is the planned expansion of Magadi Soda.",
"Apart from soda ash, the chief minerals produced are limestone, gold, salt, large quantities of niobium, fluorspar, and fossil fuel.All unextracted minerals are government property, under the Mining Act.",
"The Department of Mines and Geology, under the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, controls exploration and exploitation of minerals.===Industry and manufacturing===Although Kenya is the most industrially developed country in East Africa, manufacturing still accounts for only 14% of GDP.",
"This represents only a slight increase since independence.",
"The rapid expansion of the sector immediately after independence stagnated in the 1980s, hampered by shortages in hydroelectric power, high energy costs, dilapidated transport infrastructure, and the dumping of cheap imports.",
"However, due to urbanisation, the industry and manufacturing sectors have become increasingly important to the Kenyan economy, and this has been reflected by an increasing GDP per capita.",
"Industrial activity, concentrated around the three largest urban centres, Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu, is dominated by food-processing industries such as grain milling, beer production, sugarcane crushing, and the fabrication of consumer goods.",
"Kenya also has an oil refinery that processes imported crude petroleum into petroleum products, mainly for the domestic market.",
"In addition, a substantial and expanding informal sector engages in small-scale manufacturing of household goods, motor-vehicle parts, and farm implements.Kenya's inclusion among the beneficiaries of the US Government's African Growth and Opportunity Act gave a boost to manufacturing.",
"Since the Act took effect in 2000, Kenya's clothing sales to the United States increased from US$44 million to US$270M in 2006.Other initiatives to strengthen manufacturing include favourable tax measures, including the absence of duties for capital equipment and other raw materials.=== Energy===The largest segment of Kenya's electricity supply comes from hydroelectric stations at dams along the upper Tana River, as well as the Turkwel Gorge Dam in the west.",
"A petroleum-fired plant on the coast, geothermal facilities at Olkaria, and electricity imported from Uganda make up the balance.",
"Kenya's installed capacity stood at 1,142 megawatts a year between 2001 and 2003.The state-owned Kenya Electricity Generating Company, established in 1997 under the name Kenya Power Company, handles the generation of electricity, while the Kenya Power and Lighting Company handles transmission and distribution.",
"Shortfalls of electricity occur periodically when drought reduces water flow.",
"In 1997 and 2000, for example, drought prompted severe power rationing, with economically-damaging 12-hour blackouts.",
"Frequent outages and high costs of power remain serious obstacles to economic activity.",
"Tax and other concessions are planned to encourage investment in hydroelectricity and in geothermal energy, which Kenya has been a pioneer in adopting.Kenya currently imports all crude petroleum requirements, with petroleum accounting for 20% to 25% of the national import bill.",
"Hydrocarbon reserves have been found in Kenya's semi-arid northern region of Turkana after several decades of intermittent exploration.",
"Offshore prospecting also continues.",
"Kenya Petroleum Refineries, a 50:50 joint venture between the government and several oil majors, operates the country's sole oil refinery in Mombasa.",
"The refinery's production is transported via Kenya's Mombasa–Nairobi pipeline.",
"However, the refinery is currently non-operational.",
"In 2004, oil consumption was estimated at a day.===Tourism===Guided tours.WaterLovers Beach Resort, Diani Beach.Kenya's dependence on tourism has greatly reduced over the years.",
"In 2019, foreign tourist revenues stood at $1.76 billion, accounting for only 1.6% of Kenya's GDP and approximately 12% of all international tourism receipts in Eastern Africa.The growing middle class in Kenya has also led to a significant growth in local tourism over the years, diversifying the sources of revenue for the sector.",
"In 2018, domestic tourists’ occupancy accounted for 52.9% of the total bed occupancy in the country.Kenya offers numerous large national parks in a wide variety of landscapes.",
"Besides the coast, there are large deserts, steppes and mountains.",
"The national parks and nature reserves contain the natural habitats of many animal species.===Financial services===Kenya is East Africa's hub for financial services.",
"The Nairobi Stock Exchange (NSE) is ranked 4th in Africa in terms of market capitalisation.The banking sector in Kenya is regulated by The Central Bank Of Kenya.",
"Kenya's banking sector is mainly dominated by local commercial banks, namely Equity Bank, Kenya Commercial Bank, NCBA Bank, Diamond Trust Bank, Cooperative Bank, and National Bank.",
"The Kenya Commercial Bank is the largest bank in Kenya by asset size and branch network as of 2023.Kenya enjoys the presence of a number of high-profile accounting firms.",
"The Big Four firms, Mazars, Grant Thornton International, and PKF International actively operate within the financial system, and are often responsible for the audit of Nairobi Stock Exchange firms.===Shipbuilding===Kenya’s first commercial-sized ship to be built from scratch—not only in Kenya but also in the whole of East Africa—was launched in October 2023.The 1800-ton vessel, the MV Uhuru II, will ferry goods and petroleum across Lake Victoria."
],
[
"Labour",
"In 2022, Kenya's labour force was estimated to include about 24 million workers.",
"In recent years, much of Kenya's labour force has moved from the countryside to cities such as Nairobi, as Kenya becomes increasingly urbanised.The labour force participation rate in Kenya has been constant from 1997 to 2010 for both women and men.",
"In 1997, 65% of women were employed in some type of labour and 76% of men were employed.",
"In 2005, 60% of women and 70% of men were in the labour force, increasing slightly to 61% of women and 72% of men in 2010.In the past 20 years, many Kenyans have moved away from family farming towards wage labour, small business entrepreneurship, and informal work.",
"In 1989, 4.5 million Kenyans out of a total working population of 7.3M worked on family farms.",
"In 2009, only 6.5M Kenyans out of a total working population of 14.3M worked on family farms.",
"Of these, 3.8M were women and 2.7M were men.According to the World Bank 2012 Kenya Economic Update, modern wage jobs include being an \"engineer, telecommunication specialist, cut flower worker, teacher, construction worker, housekeepers, professionals, any industrial and manufacturing job, and port and dock workers.\"",
"In 1989, there were only 1.9M Kenyans employed in wage work.",
"In 2009, this number increased to 5.1M, with 3.4M men and 1.3M women were employed in wage jobs.===Informal economy (\"Jua Kali\")===In Kenya, the \"Jua Kali\" sector is another name for the informal economy, also described as non-farming self-employment.",
"Jua Kali is Swahili for \"hot sun\" and refers to the idea that the workers in the informal economy work under the fierce sun.",
"The informal sector consists of legally unrecognised and unregulated self-employment and wage employment.",
"As a result, informal sector employment does not contribute to Kenya's GDP.",
"Non-farm self-employment has risen from 1989 to 2009.The World Bank characterises non-farm self-employment to include jobs such as \"street vendor, shop owner, dressmaker, assistant, fishmonger, caterer, etc.\"",
"Non-farm self-employment has risen from a total of 0.9 million workers in 1989 to a total of 2.7 million in 2009.Men make up 1.4 million workers, and women workers number 1.3 million.As of 2009, Kenya's informal economy accounts for about 80% of the total employment for the country.",
"Most informal workers are self-employed, with few entrepreneurs employing others.",
"The informal sector contributes economic activity equal to 35% of the total GDP in Kenya, and has its own informal finance structure in the form of rotating savings and credit associations.",
"This sector provides an income mainly for those in lower socioeconomic groups.Drawbacks of the informal economy include the promotion of smuggling and tax evasion and the lack of social and legal protection.",
"Most members of the informal sector have low educational attainment.",
"Rising costs of education and uncertainty about future employment have caused many workers to enter the informal economy, due to lower entry fees as well as shorter and practical training and apprenticeships.===Child labour==="
],
[
"Challenges",
"The economy's heavy dependence on rain for its agriculture and the tourism sectors leaves it vulnerable to cycles of boom and bust.",
"The agricultural sector employs nearly 75% of the country's 38 million people.",
"Half of the sector's output remains subsistence production.Kenya's economic performance had for a long time been hampered by various factors: heavy dependence on a few agricultural exports vulnerable to global price fluctuations; population growth which has outstripped economic growth; prolonged droughts requiring power rationing; deteriorating infrastructure; and extreme income inequality.",
"Some of these factors have been addressed by policies, with GDP growth increasing, population growth slowing, rapid infrastructural improvements being made and increased electrification rates with more stable power supplies.Poor governance and corruption also have had a negative impact on growth, making it expensive to do business in Kenya.",
"Increased levels of insecurity brought on from terrorism have become one of the largest impediments to sustainable growth.",
"According to Transparency International, Kenya ranks among the world's six most corrupt countries.",
"Bribery and fraud cost Kenya as much as US$1 billion a year.",
"The average Kenyan pay some 16 bribes a month, for two in every three encounters with public officials, even though 23% of them live on less than US$1 per day.Despite these challenges, two thirds of Kenyans expect living conditions to improve in the coming decades."
],
[
"See also",
"* :Category: Companies of Kenya*List of counties of Kenya by GDP*List of counties of Kenya by poverty rate* Eco-Pesa* Vision 2030* Central Bank of Kenya* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa* Kenya Trade Data"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* CBIK – the Center for Business Information in Kenya, a division of the Kenya Export Promotion Council* KenInvest; the Kenya Investment Authority, formed by the government of Kenya in 2004* * Kenya latest trade data on ITC Trade Map* Bio Jane Kiringai* About Johannes Zutt; News* Business Daily* Sisal export in Kenya* Daily Nation Business* The Standard Business;Trade* Kenya Export, Import, Trade Balance"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Telecommunications in Kenya"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Telecommunications in Kenya''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet."
],
[
"Radio and television",
"'''Radio stations:'''* state-owned radio broadcaster operates 2 national radio channels and provides regional and local radio services in multiple languages; a large number of private radio stations, including provincial stations broadcasting in local languages; transmissions of several international broadcasters are available (2007);* 24 AM, 8 FM, and 6 shortwave (2001).",
"'''Radios:'''3.07 million (1997).",
"'''Television stations:''' * roughly a half-dozen privately owned TV stations and a state-owned TV broadcaster that operates 2 channels; satellite and cable TV subscription services available (2007);* 8 stations (2002).",
"'''Television sets:'''730,000 (1997).Television is the main news source in cities and towns.",
"TV in rural areas is limited by lack of reliable electricity and radio listening dominates in rural areas, where most Kenyans live.",
"A switchover to digital TV is under way.",
"Satellite pay-TV is offered by the Wananchi Group, which operates Zuku TV, and by South Africa's MultiChoice.",
"Entertainment, music and phone-ins dominate the radio scene, which includes Islamic stations and stations broadcasting in local languages.The BBC World Service is available in Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu.The state-run Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) is funded from advertising revenue and from the government.===Most viewed channels=== Position Channel Share of total viewing (%) 1 Citizen TV 24.0 2 NTV 9.4 3 KTN 8.7 4 KTN News 7.9 5 K24 6.8 6 Maisha Magic East 6.1 7 Inooro TV 4.9 8 KBC 4.2 9 Al Jazeera 3.9 10 Kass TV 3.3"
],
[
"Telephones",
"SEACOM-Network Map.",
"Click on map to enlarge.",
"'''Calling code:''' +254'''International call prefix:''' 000'''Main lines:'''* 251,600 lines in use, 124th in the world (2012);* 320,000 lines in use (2007).",
"'''Mobile Cellular:'''* 59.8 million lines as at September 2020 '''Telephone system:''' inadequate; fixed-line telephone system is small and inefficient; trunks are primarily microwave radio relay; business data commonly transferred by a very small aperture terminal (VSAT) system; sole fixed-line provider, Telkom Kenya, is slated for privatization; multiple providers in the mobile-cellular segment of the market fostering a boom in mobile-cellular telephone usage with teledensity reaching 65 per 100 persons (2011).",
"'''Communications cables:''' landing point for the Eastern Africa Submarine Cable System (EASSy), The East African Marine System (TEAMS), and SEACOM fiber-optic submarine cable systems (2011).",
"'''Satellite earth stations:''' 4 Intelsat (2011)."
],
[
"Internet",
"'''Top-level domain:''' .ke'''Internet users:'''* 13.8 million users, 35th in the world; 32.1% of the population, 129th in the world (2012);* 4.0 million users, 59th in the world (2009);* 3.0 million users (2008);* 500,000 users (2002).",
"'''Fixed broadband:''' 43,013 subscriptions, 115th in the world; 0.1% of the population, 167th in the world (2012).",
"'''Wireless broadband:''' 954,896 subscriptions, 72nd in the world; 2.2% of the population, 124th in the world (2012).",
"'''Internet hosts:''' 71,018 hosts, 88th in the world (2012).",
"'''IPv4:''' 1.7 million addresses allocated, 68th in the world, less than 0.05% of the world total, 38.5 addresses per 1000 people (2012).",
"'''Internet Service Providers:'''66 ISPs (2014).===Internet censorship and surveillance===Kenya was rated as \"partly free\" in the 2009 and 2011 ''Freedom on the Net'' reports from Freedom House with scores of 34 and 32 which is much closer to the \"free\" rating that ends at 30 then it is to the \"not free\" rating that starts at 60.In 2012 and 2013 the rating improved to \"free\" with scores of 29 and 28.The government does not employ technical filtering or any administrative censorship system to restrict access to political or other content.",
"Citizens engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail, and are able to access a wide range of viewpoints, with the websites of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), the U.S.-based Cable News Network (CNN), and Kenya's Daily Nation newspaper the most commonly accessed.",
"There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet, but Internet services are limited in rural areas due to lack of infrastructure.The constitution protects freedom of expression and the \"freedom to communicate ideas and information.\"",
"However, it also grants the government the authority to punish defamation, protect privileged information, and restrict state employees’ \"freedom of expression in the interest of defense, public safety, public order, public morality or public health.\"",
"In January 2009, the government passed a controversial Communications Amendment Act that established that any person who publishes, transmits, or causes to be published in electronic form obscene information commits an offense.",
"The Act also outlines other forms of illegality associated with the use of information and communication technologies.",
"At the end of 2010, the measure had not been used to prosecute anyone for online expression.",
"Under the Act, the Communications Commission of Kenya (CCK), rather than the independent Media Council of Kenya, is responsible for regulating both traditional and online media.",
"The CCK is also independent, but because the CCK has yet to make any decisions affecting the internet, its autonomy and professionalism in making determinations remain to be seen.In July 2009 the government announced that all cell phone users had to provide the government with their name and identification number.",
"This regulation applies to citizens who access the Internet through cell phone-based services as well.On 18 May 2018, the Kenya Film Classification Board issued a warning stating that any video intended for public exhibition, including video published online, falls under the Films and Stage Plays Act, and that the creators of such videos must obtain a licence from the KFCB or be subject to fines or imprisonment."
],
[
"See also",
"* Kenya Internet Exchange (KIXP).",
"* Media of Kenya* Terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Kenya"
],
[
"References",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Communications Commission of Kenya* Kenya Broadcasting Corporation, government corporation and leading media company.",
"* Postal Corporation of Kenya"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Transport in Kenya"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Transport in Kenya''' refers to the transportation structure in Kenya.",
"The country has an extensive network of paved and unpaved roads.Kenya's railway system links the nation's ports and major cities and connects Kenya with neighbouring Uganda.",
"There are 15 airports with paved runways.A map of Kenya showing main roads as of 2013."
],
[
"Roads",
"According to the Kenya Roads Board, Kenya has of roads.Several paving projects are underway.===Classification===They are currently classified into the following categories:ClassDescriptionPurposeRoadsPavedUnpavedTotal (in km)AInternational Trunk RoadsLink centres of international importance and cross international boundaries or terminate at international ports or airports.A1, A2, A3, A4, A14, A23, A104, A1092,7728163,588BNational Trunk RoadsLink nationally important centres (e.g.",
"Provincial headquarters).B1, B3, B81,4891,1562,645CPrimary RoadsLink provincially important centres to each other or to higher class roads (e.g.",
"District headquarters).C107, C111, C115 2,6935,1647,857DSecondary RoadsLink locally important centres to each other, or to more important centres or to a higher class road (e.g.",
"divisional headquarters).",
"1,2389,48310,721EMinor RoadsAny link to a minor centre.",
"57726,07126,649SPRSpecial Purpose RoadsGovernment Roads (G)Settlement Roads (L)Rural Access Roads (R)Sugar Roads (S)Tea Roads (T)Wheat Roads (W) 10010,37610,476UUnclassified RoadsAll other public roads and streets 2,31896,62398,941AllTotalAll public roads and streets 11,187149,689160,876===Bus transport===Kenya Bus Services, Nairobi.There are around 100,000 matatus (minibuses), which constitute the bulk of the country's public transport system.Once the largest bus company in Kenya, Kenya Bus Services, ran into financial difficulties, forcing them to reduce the number of buses operated.",
"They are currently operating minibuses within Nairobi city, although new, smaller, city buses offering passengers higher standards of comfort and safety have been introduced on some inner-city routes.Coast Bus, the oldest bus operator in Kenya, runs a day and night service between Nairobi and the coastal city of Mombasa.",
"Ascott operates minivans offering shuttle service between Nairobi and Kisii; they offer snacks on board.",
"The Guardian bus co. Ltd, a private company which runs the Guardian Bus service, operates day and night passenger bus and courier services to a number of destinations in Western Kenya.Other bus companies in Kenya include Modern Coast, Nyamira Express, Otange, MASH, Vanga, Simba coach, Xenon dreamline, Messina, MAslah, Amani coaches, west coaches, Horizon, 2nk sacco, Chania Comfort, chania genesis, parrot line, x calibur and Crown Bus but there are a number of other companies which offer inter-city services such as Eldoret Express,Kawere, Climax, Greenline, Western Express, Mbukinya, Kalita Coaches and Palmdam.There also number of shuttle companies operating van to western Kenya such as Sasaline, Blueline, Classic, Khukhu, Royal Rift, Transline msafiri, Transline classic, Premium shuttles, Nyanza shuttle, North Rift, Molo Line and Mash Poa.Taxedo===Regulation and Enforcement===In February 2004 the Ministry of Transport '''in Kenya''' introduced new regulations governing the operation of Matatus.",
"These regulations (famously referred to as \"Michuki Rules\") include: the compulsory fitting of safety belts and speed governors.",
"In addition, standing on matatus was banned.",
"As a result of these regulations, many matatus were taken off the road, which caused great disruption to public transport, forcing many people to walk to work.",
"Now the situation has stabilised, and the new regulations have resulted in a great reduction of the number of people killed and injured in accidents.",
"Due to lax enforcement after the initial push, the number of deaths in road accidents had increased in recent years.On 1 December 2012 the government will begin to enforce the recently amended traffic act which has significantly increased the penalties for offences.",
"Matatu operators have protested the move through strike action.=== International highways ===Two routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass through Kenya and the capital, Nairobi:* The Cairo-Cape Town Highway, Trans-African Highway 4, linking North Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa.",
"From Nairobi southwards this is one of the most heavily used routes in the network, and includes one of the longest complete paved sections.",
"However, it still has missing links to the north and it is not practical to travel to Cairo without off-road vehicles.",
"This part will be completed as part of the LAPSSET project.",
"* The Lagos-Mombasa Highway, Trans-African Highway 8, links East Africa and West Africa.",
"It is only complete between the Ugandan–DR Congo border and Mombasa, linking the African Great Lakes region to the sea.",
"It is also named the 'Trans-African Highway'."
],
[
"Airports",
"Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, located in NairobiSunset at Moi International Airport, Mombasa=== Airports – with paved runways ===''total:'' 16''over 3,047 m:'' 5''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 2''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2''914 to 1,523 m:'' 6''under 914 m:'' 1 (2013)Jomo Kenyatta International Airport in Nairobi, is Kenya's largest airport and serves the most destinations.",
"Some international flights go to Moi International Airport in Mombasa.",
"Kisumu Airport was upgraded to an international airport in 2011 and a second phase of expansion is under way.",
"In 2012, US Navy Seebees built a major new tarmac runway at Wajir Airport that can take heavy aircraft.=== Airports – with unpaved runways ===''total:'' 181''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 14''914 to 1,523 m:'' 107''under 914 m:'' 60 (2013)Many airports with unpaved runways serve private purposes, such as private game parks and safari lodges, but are still serviced by airlines like AirKenya"
],
[
"Railways",
"''Total:'' '':'' 2,066 kmThe former Uganda Railway, was run by the company East African Railways.",
"It jointly served the present countries of Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya.",
"Since the dissolution of the EAR corporation in 1977, the national company Kenya Railways Corporation runs the former Uganda Railway and its branches in Kenya.",
"The most important line in the country runs between the port of Mombasa and Nairobi, sleeping car accommodation is offered for tourists.In 2006, the Rift Valley Railways Consortium led by South African companies took over the operation of the Kenyan and Ugandan railway network on a contract lasting 25 years, with the opportunity of renewal.",
"After criticism from the Kenya Railways Corporation, RVR doubled the frequency of service, and also imposed restrictions to reduce train derailments caused by the ageing infrastructure.RVR run passenger trains within Kenya only, primarily from Nairobi to Mombasa but also to local towns such as Kisumu.",
"Passenger services on these lines are offered on peak periods only.",
"Freight services are the bulk of RVR's operations.In 2008, agreements were made with Uganda about gauge standardisation.In 2011, Kenya signed a memorandum of understanding with the China Road and Bridge Corporation to build the Mombasa–Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway (SGR).",
"Financing for the project was finalised in May 2014, with the Exim Bank of China extending a loan for 90% of the project cost, and the remaining 10% coming from the Kenyan government.",
"Passenger service on the SGR was inaugurated on 31 May 2017.Work to extend the SGR to Suswa is complete.",
"The SGR program is intended to replace the old, inefficient metre-gauge railway system.The first segment of the SGR, between Mombasa and Nairobi, opened passenger rail service in June 2017, and freight rail service in January 2018.=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===;African Great Lakes* South Sudan – none – proposed link to Juba (2005) break-of-gauge /* Tanzania – same gauge – maybe defunct* Uganda – yes – same gauge –"
],
[
"Waterways",
"Part of the Lake Victoria system is within the boundaries of Kenya.",
"Kenya has a major international port at Mombasa, serving both Kenya and Uganda.",
"Kisumu on Lake Victoria is also another major port, which has ferry connections to Uganda and Tanzania.=== Merchant Marine ===''Total:'' 3 ships (with a volume of or over) /''By type:'' passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 1''Registered in other countries:'' 6 (2006)=== Ports and harbours ===Overloaded ferry in MombasaMombasa has the only commercial port that reaches international standards.",
"Mombasa's commercial port is called Kilindini Harbour and is run by the Kenya Ports Authority, it lies on the Indian Ocean.There are plans to build another international port in Lamu to the north east of Mombasa.There is an inland port at Kisumu which serves Lake Victoria.",
"In 2015 a new ferry was delivered to Kisumu by road."
],
[
"See also",
"* East African Railway Master Plan* Lake Victoria ferries* Matatu"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Getting around in Kenya from Lonely Planet* ** Kenya on maplandia.com'''Regulators''':The following Kenyan state corporations are involved in the regulation of transport:* Air Accident Investigation Unit* Kenya Airports Authority* Kenya Civil Aviation Authority* Kenya Ferry Services Limited* Kenya Maritime Authority* Kenya National Highways Authority (KeNHA)* Kenya National Shipping Line* Kenya Pipeline Company* Kenya Ports Authority* Kenya Railways Corporation* Kenya Roads Board* National Transport and Safety Authority (NTSA)* Kenya Rural Roads Authority (KeRRA)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kenya Defence Forces"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Kenya Defence Forces''' ('''KDF''') (, stylized as \"KENYA ARMED FORCES\" capitalized on its coat of arms) are the armed forces of the Republic of Kenya.",
"They are made up of the Kenya Army, Kenya Navy, and Kenya Air Force.",
"The current KDF was established, and its composition stipulated, in Article 241 of the 2010 Constitution of Kenya; it is governed by the KDF Act of 2012.Its main mission is the defence and protection of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Kenya, recruitment to the KDF is done on yearly basis.",
"The President of Kenya is the commander-in-chief of the KDF, and the Chief of Defence Forces is the highest-ranking military officer, and the principal military adviser to the President of Kenya.The Defence Forces, like many Kenyan government institutions, has been tainted by corruption allegations.",
"Because the operations of the military have been traditionally cloaked by the ubiquitous blanket of \"state security\", the corruption has been less in public view, and thus less subject to public scrutiny and notoriety.",
"But in 2010, credible claims of corruption were made with regard to recruitment, and procurement of Armoured Personnel Carriers.",
"The decision on the Northrop F-5 \"Tiger\" aircraft procurement have been publicly questioned.",
"In 2015, credible allegations were made that the KDF is involved with sugar smuggling from southern Somalia into Kenya, to avoid import dues.The KDF is regularly deployed in peacekeeping and warfighting missions, for example the counter-insurgency fight against Al-Shabaab in Somalia since 2011."
],
[
"History",
"The United Kingdom raised and maintained forces in Kenya Colony after it was established, eventually to become the King's African Rifles (KAR).",
"The KAR fought during the two World Wars and in the Mau Mau Uprising.",
"On the other side of the Mau Mau Uprising was the first Kenyan force raised by African themselves, the Kenya Land and Freedom Army.===Jomo Kenyatta Administration===Kenya's independence on the midnight of 12 December 1963 was an enormous milestone.",
"On independence, the Kenyan Parliament created the Kenya Military Forces (KMF) through the KMF Act 1963.Thus 3 KAR, 5 KAR, and 11 KAR became 3 Kenya Rifles, 5 Kenya Rifles, and 11 Kenya Rifles respectively.",
"The new independence government retained senior British military officers as advisers and trainers to the new Kenyan army.",
"They stayed on, administering the former KAR units as they developed more Kenyan characteristics.",
"The Kenya Regiment composed of British settlers was disbanded.Between 1963 and 1967, Kenya fought the Shifta War against Somali residents who sought union with their kin in the Somali Republic to the north.On the evening of 24 January 1964, the failure of the Kenyan Prime Minister to appear on television, where 11th Kenya Rifles junior soldiers had been expecting a televised speech and hoping for a pay rise announcement, caused the men to mutiny.",
"Parsons says it is possible that the speech was only broadcast on the radio in the Nakuru area where Lanet Barracks, home of the battalion, was located.",
"Kenyatta's government held two separate courts-martial for 43 soldiers.In the aftermath of the mutiny and following courts-martial, the 11th Kenya Rifles was disbanded.",
"A new battalion, 1st Kenya Rifles, was created entirely from 340 Lanet soldiers who had been cleared of participation in the mutiny by the Kenyan Criminal Investigations Division (CID).",
"Hornsby writes that after the mutiny, 'Kenyatta improved conditions, announced pay rises to the military, speeded Africanisation, and instructed the intelligence services to infiltrate and watch the army for signs of disaffection.",
"'Discussions began in March 1964 between Kenya and Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations Duncan Sandys on defence, and a formal agreement was signed on 3 June 1964.All British troops would leave by 12 December 1964, the British would assist the army, resource and train a new Kenya Air Force, and create a new Kenya Navy.",
"They would also provide RAF and Army units to support internal security in the north-east.",
"Significant military loans would be cancelled, and much military property made over to the Kenyan Government.",
"In return, British aircraft would be able to transit through Kenya, RN ships of the Far East Fleet and other units could visit Mombasa, communications facilities could be used until 1966, and troops could exercise in Kenya twice a year.",
"Army training deployments have continued up until 2015, as of 2015 supervised by British Army Training Unit Kenya.Timothy Parsons wrote in 2002–03:'..Kenyatta did not have to worry about the political reliability of the Kenyan Army because expatriate senior British military advisors ran it along KAR lines throughout the 1960s.",
"Following the lessons of the Lanet protects, African officers assumed operational command of all major units, but a British training team still oversaw the Kenyan Army for most of the decade.",
"More significantly, an informal defence arrangement with Britain reassured Kenyatta that he could rely on direct British military support in the event of an army mutiny or attempted coup.",
"'Within months of British Brigadier A.J.",
"Hardy leaving the post of Commander Kenya Army and handing over to Brigadier Joseph Ndolo on 1 December 1966, British influence was underlined with the appointment of Major General Bernard Penfold as Chief of the General Staff, a new position as senior officer of the entire armed forces.",
"Ndolo succeeded Penfold as Chief of General Staff in 1969, but was retired on 24 June 1971 after being implicated in a coup plot allegedly organised by Joseph Owino.",
"The service chiefs thereafter reported directly to the Minister of Defence, James Gichuru.",
"The post of Chief of the General Staff was only filled again seven years later when Daniel arap Moi moved Lieutenant General Jackson Mulinge from Army Commander to CGS in November 1978.Mahamoud Mohamed succeeded Mulinge in 1986, and was CGS until 1996.Mohamed was succeeded by General Daudi Tonje, CGS 1996–2000.Women were first recruited into the armed forces in 1971, with the establishment of the Women's Service Corps.",
"The corps was initially made up of 150 women under Major Patricia Ineson of the British Women's Royal Army Corps, before she was replaced by Phyllis Ikua, formerly of the Kenya Prisons Service.",
"Fatumah Ahmed joined the WSC in 1983.===Moi Administration===Organization of the Kenyan Armed Forces, 1975.The South African Institute for Security Studies wrote when Moi was still in power: \"the Kenyan armed forces' reputation as a politically neutral establishment has been undermined by irrefutable evidence of tribal favouritism in the appointment of key posts.",
"In the military (and also the Police and GSU), there is a virtual monopoly of President Moi's ethnic group, the Kalenjin, in the top brass.",
"Of 18 military generals, at least a third are Kalenjin; of 20 brigadiers, 7 are Kalenjin—an ethnic group that accounts for only a tenth of Kenya's population.",
"This obviously works to the disadvantage, especially, of the Kikuyu and the Luo.",
"\"From the 1990s the Kenya Army became involved in United Nations peacekeeping operations, which, Hornsby says, 'offered both experience and a source of income for the army and its soldiers.'",
"(The United Nations reimburses troop contributing countries for each soldier contributed.)",
"Kenya's first peacekeeping deployment was to the United Nations Iran–Iraq Military Observer Group to supervise the ceasefire; then UNTAG in Namibia.",
"From 1989 to 2001, Kenyan troops took part in UNTAG, UNOSOM, UNPROFOR, UNCRO (Croatia), UNTAES, UNOMIL, UNPREDEP in Macedonia (1996–1999), MONUA in Angola (1997–1999), and UNTAET in East Timor (1999–2001).",
"In 1999–2000, women were integrated into the regular units of the military, and the Women's Service Corps disbanded.Kenyan Army Brig.",
"Gen. Leonard Ngondi, Natural Fire Commanding Officer, left, greets U.S. Marine Lt. Col. Steve Nichols, left, at Camp Lonestar in Kenya, 2006.In the early 21st century, the Ministry of State for Defence, just like that of Internal Security and Provincial Administration, is part of the presidential machinery.",
"All but senior military officers are appointed, promoted, and, if necessary, removed by the military's personnel system.",
"The president appoints and retires senior military officers.",
"Under the authority of the president as Commander-in-Chief, the Minister of Defence presides over the National Defence Council.",
"The Chief of General Staff is the tactical, operational and administrative head of the military.",
"Under the 2010 constitution, the defence forces can no longer be deployed for combat operations within Kenya without the approval of Parliament.===Kibaki Administration===In the aftermath of the national elections of December 2007 and the violence that subsequently engulfed the country, a commission of inquiry, the Waki Commission, commended its readiness and adjudged it to \"have performed its duty well.\"",
"Nevertheless, there have been serious allegations of human rights violations, most recently while conducting counter-insurgency operations in the Mt Elgon area and also in the district of Mandera central.In October 2011, following a weekend preparatory meeting between Kenyan and Somali military officials in the town of Dhobley, Kenya Army units crossed the border to begin Operation Linda Nchi attacking the Al-Shabaab insurgents in southern Somalia.",
"Kenya had coordinated with the transitional government in Mogadishu, and with the Somali militias in the border areas, but the drive on Kismayu was run by the KDF.",
"In early June 2012, Kenyan forces were formally integrated into AMISOM.As of August 2012 Major General Maurice Oyugi was the army vice commander."
],
[
"Service Branches",
"The Kenya Defence Forces is composed of Kenya Army, Kenya Air-force and Kenya Navy.=== Kenya Army ===An MD 500 Defender helicopter over the Westgate Shopping Mall during the siege, 2013.As of 2006, the Kenya Army had five brigades: two infantry, one with three battalions and one with two battalions; the Kenya Army Armoured Brigade with three battalions; the Kenya Army Artillery Brigade with two battalions; and the Engineer Brigade with two battalions.",
"In addition, the army included an air defense artillery, 20 Parachute Battalion, independent infantry, and the independent 50 Air Cavalry Battalion with 35 armed helicopters at Embakasi.In February 2014, the official Ministry of State for Defence listed the following Army formations and services:*Kenya Army Infantry*Kenya Army Paratroopers – Ranger D Company of 20 Parachute Battalion is the only commando unit in the Kenyan Army trained to fight terrorist activities by the US through Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) and its predecessors.",
"Main tasks include reconnaissance, raids, ambushes, infiltration and border patrol in joint operations.",
"The unit was deployed for counter insurgency operations in the Mt Elgon area in 2008 amid accusations of torture and illegal detention.",
"*Kenya Army Armoured Brigade (includes one armoured reconnaissance battalion (76th), 78 Tank Battalion, Isiolo)*Kenya Army Artillery Brigade (includes 77 Artillery Battalion, 88 Artillery Battalion.",
"88 Artillery Battalion was established at Larisoro, Isiolo County, 27 April 2018.",
")*Kenya Army Engineers Brigade*50 Air Cavalry Battalion*Kenya Army Ordnance Corps*Kenya Army Corps of Transport*Kenya Army Electrical and Mechanical Engineering*Kenya Army Corps of Signals*Military Police Corps*Kenya Army Education Corps*Medical Battalion*Defence Forces Constabulary (DFC)The Kenya Ranger Strike Force initiative began in 2006 with a request from the Ministry of Defence; creation of KRSF highlighted extensively in KMOD White Paper on Military Cooperation for 2011–2016.The total U.S. investment was $40M.",
"Leveraged IMET courses for Ranger and Ranger Instructor courses, Section 1206 funding to secure training and equipment, multiple Joint Combined Exchange and Training (JCET) events, and East African Regional Security Initiative (EARSI now PREACT) to fund training and equipment.",
"The first class taught by all Kenya Army Ranger Instructors graduated on 18 March 2011.Kenya formed a Special Operations Regiment (Kenya) composed of 20th Parachute Battalion, 30th Special Operations Battalion and 40th Kenya Ranger Strike Force Battalion.",
"Kabete Barracks off Waiyaki Way in Nairobi is reported to house forces which are 'special'.By 2019–2020, the International Institute for Strategic Studies listed the army's formations as including one armoured brigade (one armoured reconnaissance battalion, two armoured battalions); one special operations battalion; one ranger battalion; one infantry brigade with three infantry battalions, and another infantry brigade with two infantry battalions; one independent infantry battalion; one air cavalry battalion 50 Air Cavalry Battalion; one airborne battalion; one artillery brigade with two artillery battalions and a mortar battery; one air defence battalion; and one engineer brigade with two engineer battalions (IISS MB 2020, p. 483).===Kenya Air Force===Soldiers near a turboprop utility aircraft of Kenya Air ForceThe Kenya Air Force was formed on 1 June 1964, soon after independence, with the assistance of the United Kingdom.After a failed coup by a group of Air Force officers on 1 August 1982, the Air Force was disbanded.",
"Air Force activity was reconstituted and placed under tighter army control as the 82 Air Force.",
"The Air Force regained its independent status in 1994.The main airbase operating fighters is Laikipia Air Base in Nanyuki, while Moi Air Base in Eastleigh, Nairobi is the headquarters.",
"Other bases include Wajir Air Base, Forward Operating Base (FOB) Mombasa (Moi International Airport), FOB Mandera, & FOB Nyeri (mainly helicopters/small planes).===Kenya Navy===The Kenya Navy is the naval branch of the Kenyan Defence Forces.",
"The Navy was established on 12 December 1964, exactly one year after Kenya gained independence.",
"It was preceded by the colonial Royal East African Navy.The Navy operates several bases, Mtongwe base in Mombasa, Shimoni, Msambweni, Malindi, Kilifi and since 1995 another base located in Manda (part of Lamu Archipelago)."
],
[
"See also",
"* Kenya Police* Kenya Coast Guard Service* Law enforcement in Kenya"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Boubacar N'Diaye, The Challenge of Institutionalizing Civilian Control: Botswana, Ivory Coast, and Kenya in Comparative Perspective, Lexington Books, January 2001* Donovan C. Chau, Global Security Watch: Kenya, Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010.",
"* Irving Kaplan, Area Handbook for Kenya, American University (Washington, D.C.).",
"Foreign Area Studies, United States.",
"Dept.",
"of the Army, for sale by the Supt.",
"of Docs., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.",
"*NLM Special Correspondent, \"Cartels win fight for forces cash stash,\" ''Nairobi Law Monthly,'' October 2011, pp46–50.",
"*David A. Percox, Britain, Kenya and the cold war: imperial defence, colonial security and decolonisation, Volume 13 of International library of African studies, Tauris Academic Studies, I.B.Tauris, 2004, ,"
],
[
"External links",
"* Kenya Ministry of Defence* Kenya Security Information – Institute for Security Studies retrieved on 28 May 2007* BBC News report: Kenya police probes army, dated 31 January 2003* United States Embassy Nairobi via United States diplomatic cables leak, 1976NAIROBI08089 MOD Key Personnel, August 2, 1976.",
"\"DEFMIN GICHURU IS RARELY IN HIS OFFICE, DRINKS HEAVILY, AND IS NOT ALWAYS INVOLVED IN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS.",
"DUE TO HIS CLOSE ASSOCIATION WITH PRESIDENT KENYATTA OVER THE YEARS, GICHURU WILL PROBABLY REMAIN IN THIS OR ANOTHER COMFORTABLE POSITION AS LONG AS HE LIVES AND KENYATTA REMAINS IN POWER.",
"..BRIGADIER PETER KAKENYI IS CHIEF OF STAFF, MOD.",
"THE POSITION TITLE \"CHIEF OF DEFENSE STAFF\" IS NO LONGER USED.\""
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Foreign relations of Kenya"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Kenya maintains relations with various countries around the world.",
"Its closest ties are with its fellow Swahili-speaking neighbors in the African Great Lakes region.",
"Swahili speaking neighbours mainly include countries in the East African Community such as Burundi, the DRC, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.Kenya's relations with other states vary.",
"The government of Ethiopia established political links in the colonial period with Kenya's then British administration, and today it is one of several national bodies with a diplomatic presence in Nairobi.",
"Relations with Somalia have historically been tense, although there has been some military co-ordination against insurgents.Elsewhere, the Kenyan government has political ties with China, India, Pakistan, Russia, United Arab Emirates, and Brazil.",
"It also maintains relations with Western countries, particularly the United Kingdom, although political and economic instabilities are often blamed on Western activities (e.g.",
"colonialism, paternalistic engagement, and post-colonial resource exploitation)."
],
[
"Diplomatic relations",
"List of countries which Kenya maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212221 March 196423242526272829303132333435—36373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125—126—127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166Unknown167Unknown168Unknown169Unknown170Unknown171Unknown172Unknown173Unknown—Unknown174Unknown175Unknown"
],
[
"Bilateral relations",
"=== Africa ======East African Community=== Country Formal relations established Notes Burundi is a partner of Kenya in many areas, particularly trade, security (military), education, agriculture and energy.",
"In 2011, both countries signed a comprehensive bilateral agreement to promote development and technology transfer in agriculture, livestock and fisheries development between them.During the Burundian ethnic clashes, a significant number of Burundians took up refuge in Kenya.",
"Burundi, along with Kenya, is one of the Swahili-speaking states in the African Great Lakes region.",
"* Burundi has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Bujumbura.",
"The DRC is a strategic partner of Kenya in many areas, particularly trade and security.The peace deal between the Government of the DRC and leaders of the M23 rebellion was brokered by multiple parties and was signed in Nairobi in late 2013.M23 was routed in a UN-backed offensive by government troops.",
"Under the deal there would be no amnesty for those wanted for war crimes.",
"The deal was hosted by Uhuru Kenyatta, the President of Kenya.By the end of 2014 both countries were to sign a Joint Commission for Cooperation.",
"Under the agreement Kenya was to establish a consulate in Goma and DRC in Mombasa The deal would help deepen trade and investment between both countries.Both countries are inhabited by significant Swahili speaking populations, Swahili is the national language in both countries.",
"Kenya and the DRC share some cultural similarities.",
"* DR Congo has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Kinshasa.11 June 1965 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 June 1965 when first Ambassador of Rwanda to Kenya (resident in Kampala) Mr. Malahie Musabyimana presented his credentials to President Kenyatta.Kenya is a partner of Rwanda in many areas, particularly trade, security (military), education, agriculture and energy.It is estimated that there are about 100,000 Rwandese immigrants in Kenya.Both countries have on multiple occasions signed various memoranda of understanding.",
"These MOUs involve co-operative technical assistance and development between the two countries.Kenya has a significant expat community in Rwanda.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Kigali.",
"* Rwanda has a high commission in Nairobi.",
"South Sudan is a strategic partner of Kenya in many areas.",
"Both countries have cultural similarities as many people from South Sudan lived in Kenya before independence.Kenya is said to have contributed a to South Sudan's independence.",
"The Machakos Protocol signed in Kenya in 2002 saw a ceasefire signed between Sudan and the Southern Sudanese.",
"It was the first of many agreements that led to the creation of Southern Sudan autonomous region which later on led to the independence of South Sudan in 2011.During the independence movement leaders of the freedom movement lived in Kenya.",
"At the peak of the second Sudanese civil war Kenya hosted about 100,000 South Sudanese people.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Juba.",
"* South Sudan has an embassy in Nairobi.13 December 1983 Both countries established full diplomatic relations on 13 December 1983Tanzania is a partner of Kenya in many areas, particularly trade, security (military), education, agriculture and energy.The first high commissions of Kenya in Tanzania and vice versa were opened after the independence of Kenya.",
"However, after the breakup of the EAC in 1977, both countries severed diplomatic ties.",
"The breakup of the first EAC which was founded in 1967 was brought about by ideological differences between Tanzania and Kenya.",
"As it was during the cold war African countries were making decisions on whether to become socialist or capitalist.",
"Kenya's leader Kenyatta was intent on making sure that Kenya wouldn't become socialist and Kenya stuck to capitalism.",
"Tanzania on the other hand championed for Ujamaa, a major African socialist policy.Tanzania and Kenya resumed diplomatic ties in 1983.By that time, a lot of factors were slowing the idea of Ujamaa in Tanzania among them the war with Uganda and many other social factors.Today both countries enjoy healthy relations.",
"Both countries are inhabited by the world's largest Swahili speaking populations, Swahili is the official and national language in both countries.",
"Kenya and Tanzania share a lot of cultural similarities.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Dar-es-Salaam.",
"* Tanzania has a high commission in Nairobi and a consulate-general in Mombasa.8 February 1978 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 February 1978The two East African Community countries are partners in many areas, particularly in the trade, infrastructure, security (military), education, agriculture and energy sectors.From 1961 to 1965, the two states along with Tanzania were united in the East African Common Services Organisation, a common market with a loose federal structure.",
"Kenya and Uganda were also founding members of the original East African Community (EAC), which later collapsed due to ideological differences and territorial disputes within itself.On 7 July 2000, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania reestablished the EAC.",
"It has contributed a great deal in improving trade and overall relations between Kenya and Uganda.The countries are both inhabited by significant Swahili-speaking populations, and share significant cultural similarities.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Kampala.",
"* Uganda has a high commission in Nairobi.===Rest of Africa=== Country Formal relations established Notes23 June 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 June 1964 when the Algerian ambassador to Kenya, Mr. Nouredien Djoudi, presented his credentials to the Governor-General.",
"* Algeria has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Algiers.22 July 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 July 1985 when Kenya's Ambassador to Angola Mr. John Kaumau Kimani presented his credentials.",
"* Angola has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Luanda.12 March 1982Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 March 1982 when first ambassador of Kenya to Benin Alfred Imbahale Machayo presented his credentials to Head of State of Benin Mr. Mathieu Kérékou.30 October 1967 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 October 1967.",
"* Botswana has a high commission in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Gaborone.5 September 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 September 197210 September 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 September 1964 when Mr. Honore Polneau, the Ivory Coast's Ambassador in Tanzania, has been nominated in addition as Ambassador to Kenya.13 March 1984 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 March 1984.",
"* Djibouti has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Djibouti City.",
"* Egypt has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Cairo.14 September 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 September 1993 when Beyene Russom presented his credentials as Eritrea first ambassador of Kenya to President Moi18 May 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 1970 when first High Commissioner of Swaziland to Kenya Mr. Martin Buya Ndiniso, has presented his credentials to President Kenyatta.26 June 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 June 1964 and opened Ethiopian Embassy in Nairobi.Relations between Kenya and Ethiopia date back to 1954, when the Ethiopian authorities under Haile Selassie I established an honorary consulate general in the British Kenya Colony.",
"In 1961, prior to Kenya's independence, Ethiopia appointed its first ambassador to Kenya, and six years later Kenya opened an embassy in Addis Ababa.The border between the two countries is based on a treaty signed by Ethiopia and Kenya on 9 June 1970, which determines the present-day boundary, abrogating all previous boundary treaties.",
"This border has been subjected to demarcation.",
"* Ethiopia has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Addis Ababa.10 July 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 July 1976 when first Ambassador of Gabon to Kenya Mr. Pierre Mebaley presented his credentials to President Kenyatta.16 December 1963 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 December 1963* Ghana has a high commission in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Accra.7 November 1978Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 November 1978* Kenya is accredited to Madagascar from its high commission in Maputo, Mozambique.",
"* Madagascar is accredited to Kenya from its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.28 September 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 September 19655 November 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 November 1976 when Ambassador of Kenya Hon.",
"Kiyinda Nincola, has presented his credentials to President of Mozambique Samora Moises Machel.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Maputo.",
"* Mozambique has a high commission in Nairobi.22 March 1990 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 March 1990 when was officially opened the Kenya High Commission in Windhoek.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Windhoek.",
"* Namibia is accredited to Kenya from its high commission in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.12 May 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 May 1981 when Ambassador of Niger to Kenya presented his credentials to President Daniel Arap Moi.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Abuja.",
"* Nigeria has a high commission in Nairobi.",
"Relations between Kenya and Somalia have historically been tense.",
"Agitations over self-determination in the Somali-inhabited Northern Frontier District culminated in the Shifta War during the 1960s.",
"Although the conflict ended in a cease-fire, Somalis in the region still identify and maintain close ties with their kin in Somalia.In October 2011, a coordinated operation between the Somali military and the Kenyan military began against the Al-Shabaab group of insurgents in southern Somalia.",
"The mission was officially led by the Somali army, with the Kenyan forces providing a support role.",
"In early June 2012, Kenyan troops were formally integrated into AMISOM.",
"* Kenya is accredited to Somalia from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs based in Nairobi.",
"* Somalia has an embassy in Nairobi.12 April 1994 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 April 1994* Kenya has a high commission in Pretoria.",
"* South Africa has a high commission in Nairobi.28 January 1965 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 January 1965 when was accredited first ambassador of Sudan to Kenya Sayed Mohammed Mirghani* Kenya has an embassy in Khartoum.",
"* Sudan has an embassy in Nairobi.9 April 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 April 1985 when Ambassador of Kenya Mr. Kefa Onyoni presented letters of credentials to President of Togo, general Gnassingbe Eyadema.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Lusaka.",
"* Zambia has a high commission in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Harare.",
"* Zimbabwe has an embassy in Nairobi.=== Americas === Country Formal relations established Notes3 September 2014 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 September 2014* During Prime Minister's Mottley's visit in late 2019 she opened the CARICOM office in Nairobi, Kenya which will be a joint diplomatic mission for Caribbean countries.4 July 1967 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 July 1967* Brazil has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Brasília.5 May 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 May 1964* Canada has a high commission in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Ottawa.September 1975 Both countries established diplomatic relations in September 1975* Chile has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.27 January 1975 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 January 1975* Colombia has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.13 November 1982 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 November 1982 when first ambassador of Costa Rica to Kenya Mr. Miguel Yamuni presented his credentials to Kenyan President Daniel Arap Moi.",
"* Costa Rica has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya does not have an accreditation to Costa Rica.19 October 1995 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 October 1995* Cuba has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Havana.19 March 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 March 1976President Kenyatta made a state visit in August 2019.He met and held talks with Prime Minister Holness.Kenyatta was the main guest for the celebration of the 57th Independence Day Jamaica.",
"Both leaders (Holness and Kenyatta) also launched the celebrations to mark the International Decade for People of African Descent.",
"* Jamaica is accredited to Kenya from its high commission in Pretoria, South Africa.",
"* Kenya is accredited to Jamaica from its embassy in Havana, Cuba.15 March 1977 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 March 1977* Kenya is represented in Mexico from its embassy in Washington, DC.",
"* Mexico has an embassy in Nairobi.25 February 1976 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 February 1976* Peru has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya is accredited to Peru from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.12 December 1963 After Kenya's independence on 12 December 1963, the United States immediately recognized the new nation and moved to establish diplomatic relations.",
"The embassy in Nairobi was opened on 12 December 1963* Kenya has an embassy in Washington, DC and consulates-general in Los Angeles and New York City.",
"* United States has an embassy in Nairobi.20 July 1982Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 July 198230 April 1970 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 1970* Kenya is accredited to Venezuela from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.",
"* Venezuela has an embassy in Nairobi.=== Asia === Country Formal relations established Notes28 May 2004''Main Article: Azerbaijan-Kenya relations''* Diplomatic relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Kenya were established on 28 May 2004* Cooperation between the two countries covers such areas as tourism, science, education, and so on.23 November 1976 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 November 1976 when the first Bangladesh Ambassador to Kenya Mr. Muhammad Sultan, presented his credentials to President Kenyatta14 December 1963 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 December 1963Chinese-Kenyan relations date back to 14 December 1963, two days after the formal establishment of Kenyan independence, when China became the fourth country to open an embassy in Nairobi.",
"Military exchange between the two countries has been increasing in the past decade.",
"General Liu Jingsong, commander of the Lanzhou Military Region, led China's first military delegation to Kenya in December 1996; Major General Nick Leshan, commander of the Kenyan air force, paid a return visit in 1997.Kenyan president Mwai Kibaki visited Beijing in August 2005.",
"* China has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Beijing.July 1979 Both countries established diplomatic relations in * Indonesia has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Jakarta.14 December 1963 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 December 1963* India has a High Commission in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has a High Commission in New Delhi.3 October 1971 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1971.",
"* Iran has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Tehran.12 December 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 December 1963 and opened Embassy of Israel in Nairobi.",
"Kenya broken diplomatic relations with Israel on 1 November 1973.Diplomatic relations were re-established on 23 December 1988.",
"* Israel has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Tel Aviv.",
"* Japan has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Tokyo.23 April 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 April 1968 when has been accredited first Ambassador of Kuwait to Kenya with residence in Nairobi Mr. Mohammad A. Al-Mishari.1965 Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1965* Kenya has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur.",
"* Malaysia has a high commission in Nairobi.4 March 1976 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 March 1976* Kenya has an embassy in Muscat.",
"* Oman has an embassy in Nairobi.31 January 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 January 1964 when Mr. K.K.Panni, High Commissioner of Pakistan to Kenya presented his credentials.Relations between Pakistan and Kenya were established in the 1960s, when Pakistan expressed its support for Kenya in obtaining independence from British rule.",
"Ever since, relations between the two nations have been warm; with both countries having had discussed previously in the Pakistan-Kenya Joint Ministerial Commission session which was hosted in Nairobi in 2004, about boosting bilateral trade and economic relations.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Islamabad.",
"* Pakistan has a high commission in Nairobi.Both countries maintain diplomatic relations as the State of Palestine maintains an embassy in Nairobi.20 May 1975 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 May 1975The Philippines and Kenya have forged a historic agreement to strengthen ties between both countries.",
"Under aJoint Commission on Bilateral Cooperation(JCBC) * Kenya is accredited to the Philippines from its embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia.",
"* The Philippines has an embassy in Nairobi.28 December 2003 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 December 2003.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Doha.",
"* Qatar has an embassy in Nairobi.12 May 1969 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 May 1969 when Kenya's Ambassador to Saudi Arabia, Japheth Kimanzi Ilako, has presented his credentials to King Faisal.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Riyadh.",
"* Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"7 February 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 February 1964 4 September 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 September 1970 when Mr. Fonseca has been appointed the first Ceylonese High Commissioner to Kenya.30 March 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 March 1968* Kenya has an embassy in Ankara.",
"*Turkey has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"*Trade volume between the two countries was US$234 million in 2019.",
"*There are direct flights from Istanbul to Nairobi since 20 February 2009.5 June 1982 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 June 1982* Kenya has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai.",
"* United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Nairobi."
],
[
"Europe",
" Country Formal relations established Notes15 December 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 December 1964 when established Austrian Embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Austria has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Vienna.29 April 1964 Diplomatic relations were established on 29 April 1964 when Mr. A. Bullens, Belgian Ambassador to Kenya, presented his credentials to the Governor-General.",
"* Belgium has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Brussels.23 October 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 October 1964 when was accredited first Denmark's ambassador to Kenya Birger Abrahamson* Denmark has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.14 June 1965 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 June 1965* Finland has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.12 December 1963 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 December 1963* France has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Paris.18 December 1963 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 December 1963* Germany has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Berlin.8 December 1966 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 December 1966 when accredited first ambassador of Greece to Kenya with residence in Nairobi Mr. George C.",
"Papadopoulos.",
"* Greece has an embassy in Nairobi and an honorary consulate in Mombasa.",
"* Kenya is accredited to Greece from its embassy in Rome, Italy and maintains an honorary consulate in Athens.",
"Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Kenya Consulate of the Republic of Kenya in Hellenic Republic4 April 1979 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 April 1979 when the first Irish Ambassador to Kenya, Mr. Michael Christopher Green presented his credentials to President Moi.",
"* Ireland has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Dublin.",
"* Italy has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Rome.",
"3 February 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 February 1964 when Mr. W. P. L. G. de Boer, the first Ambassador of the Netherlands to Kenya presented his credentials.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in The Hague.",
"* Netherlands has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"22 February 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 February 1964* Kenya is accredited to Norway from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.",
"* Norway has an embassy in Nairobi.10 January 1977 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1977* Portugal has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya is represented in Portugal through its embassy in Paris .13 December 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 December 1963* Kenya is accredited to Poland from its embassy in Rome, Italy.",
"* Poland has an embassy in Nairobi.14 December 1963 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 December 1963* Russia has an embassy in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Moscow.27 April 1967 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 April 1967* Kenya has an embassy in Madrid.",
"* Spain has an embassy in Nairobi.January 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1964* Kenya has an embassy in Stockholm.",
"* Sweden has an embassy in Nairobi.28 February 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 February 1964 when appointed first Ambassador of Switzerland to Kenya (resident in Addis Ababa) Mr. Roger Dürr* Kenya has an embassy in Bern.",
"* Switzerland has an embassy in Nairobi12 December 1963 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 December 1963 when Sir Geoffrey de Freitas became an first British High Commissioner to Kenya.In 1895, Britain established the East Africa Protectorate (British East Africa), centred in present-day Kenya and the larger African Great Lakes region.",
"Four years later, the British founded the settlement of Nairobi as a simple rail depot on the railway linking Mombasa to Uganda.",
"The town quickly grew to become the capital of British East Africa in 1905, with Lieutenant Colonel J. Hayes Sadler as the first governor and commander in chief.In 1920, the East Africa Protectorate was transformed into a British crown colony, the Kenya Colony.",
"In 1952, Elizabeth II, ascended the throne while visiting Kenya on her and the Duke of Edinburgh's tour of the British Empire and Commonwealth.",
"Two years later, Britain founded the Nairobi Securities Exchange as a voluntary association of stockbrokers in the European community registered under the Societies Act.Kenya was granted independence in 1963, and relations with Britain have remained constant.",
"Kenya is a part of the Commonwealth of Nations, a successor to the empire which aims to promote mutual co-operation, democracy and other cultural values and ties with each member state.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in London.",
"* the United Kingdom has a high commission in Nairobi."
],
[
"Oceania",
" Country Formal relations established Notes23 August 1965 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 August 1965* Australia has a high commission in Nairobi.",
"* Kenya has a high commission in Canberra.9 June 1982 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 June 1982 when New Zealand's first High Commissioner to Kenya (resident in Athens) Mr. Paul Cotton presented his credentials to President Daniel T. Moi in Nairobi* Kenya is accredited to New Zealand from its high commission in Canberra.",
"* New Zealand is accredited to Kenya from its embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."
],
[
"Kenya and the Commonwealth of Nations",
"Kenya has been a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1963, when it became independent.",
"The nation became a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations in 1964.Kenya is also a member of the UN and hosts the UN Office in Nairobi, which is the UN Headquarters in Africa.",
"The office was established in 1996."
],
[
"International trips made by presidents of Kenya",
"=== Uhuru Kenyatta ===Countries visited by Kenyatta during his presidency 2013-2022Uhuru Kenyatta made a 119 International trips to 52 countries during his presidency.",
"The president served two full 5-year terms and made more international official visits than any of his predecessors.",
"Kenyatta mainly made a majority of his visits within Africa and also attended various business forums and multi-lateral international events around the world.",
"=== William Ruto===Countries visited by William Ruto during his presidencyWilliam Ruto made his first international trip in September of 2022 since he began his presidency on 13 September 2022."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of diplomatic missions of Kenya*List of diplomatic missions in Kenya"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Ministry of Foreign Affairs* Permanent Mission of Kenya to the United Nations"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kingman Reef"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kingman Reef''' is a largely submerged, uninhabited, triangle-shaped reef, geologically an atoll, east-west and north-south, in the North Pacific Ocean, roughly halfway between the Hawaiian Islands and American Samoa.",
"It has an area of 3 hectares (0.03 km2; 7.4 acres) and is a unincorporated territory of the United States in Oceania.",
"The reef is administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service as the '''Kingman Reef National Wildlife Refuge'''.",
"It was claimed by the US in 1859, and later used briefly as stopover for commercial Pacific flying boat routes in the 1930s going to New Zealand, however the route was changed with a different stopover.",
"It was administered by the Navy from 1934 to 2000, and thereafter the Fish and Wildlife service.",
"It has since become a marine protected area.",
"In the 19th century it was noted as maritime hazard, earning the name Hazard Rocks, and is known to have been hit once in 1876.In the 21st century it has been noted for is marine biodiversity and remote nature.",
"There are hundreds of species of fish and coral on and around the reef."
],
[
"History",
"Scuba diver explores corals at Kingman ReefThe shallow reef with wave breaking overheadThe edge of reef as a slope down to the depths of 30 to 40 degreesA derelict shipwreck at Kingman ReefKingman Reef was discovered on June 14, 1798, by the American captain Edmund Fanning, of the ship ''Betsey''.",
"It was first described by Captain W. E. Kingman (whose name the island bears) of the ship ''Shooting Star'' on November 29, 1853.It was claimed in 1859 by the United States Guano Company, under the name \"Dangers Rock,\" along with a number of other islands.",
"The claim was made under the U.S.",
"Guano Islands Act of 1856, although there is no evidence that guano existed or was ever mined on Kingman Reef.",
"The British steamship ''Tarta'' struck the reef in June 1874, and it was later surveyed by in 1897, establishing that Kingman Reef was the same hazard previously charted as Caldew Reef and Maria Shoal, among other names.On May 10, 1922, Lorrin A. Thurston became the first person to raise the American flag on the atoll and read a proclamation of annexation.",
"The Palmyra Copra Co. intended to use Kingman as a fishing base, as demand for copra had declined after World War I and Palmyra Island lacked a suitable anchorage.",
"Thurston formally claimed Kingman for the United States by reading the following declaration while standing on its shore:Be it known to all people: That on the tenth of May, A.D. 1922, the undersigned agent of the Island of Palmyra Copra Co., Ltd., landed from the motorship Palmyra doth, on this tenth day of May, A.D. 1922, take formal possession of this island, called Kingman Reef, situated in longitude 162 degrees 18' west and 6 degrees 23' north, on behalf of the United States of America and claim the same for said company.",
"A copy of the declaration, along with a U.S. flag and clippings from ''The Honolulu Advertiser'' newspaper, were left on Kingman to document the claim.On December 29, 1934, the U.S. Navy assumed jurisdiction over Kingman Reef.",
"In 1935, the reef was visited by William T. Miller, representing the U.S. Bureau of Air Commerce.In 1935, Pan American Airways wanted to expand its routes to the Pacific and include Australia and New Zealand in its \"Clipper\" air routes, with a stopover in Pago Pago, American Samoa.",
"An additional stopover point was sought, however.",
"It had been decided that the Kingman Reef lagoon, located north of Samoa, would be suitable for overnight stops for planes en route from the U.S. to New Zealand.",
"A supply ship, the ''North Wind,'' was stationed at Kingman Reef to provide fuel, lodging, and meals.",
"On March 23, 1937, the S42B Pan American Clipper II, named ''Samoan Clipper'' and piloted by Captain Ed Musick, en route from Hawaii to American Samoa, became the first flight to land in Kingman Reef's lagoon.During the next several months, Pan Am successfully used the lagoon several times as a halfway station for its flying boats (Sikorsky S-42B) when they traveled between those two points.",
"However, a Clipper flight on January 11, 1938, ended in tragedy.",
"Shortly after the early-morning takeoff from Pago Pago, as it was bound for New Zealand, the plane exploded.",
"The right outboard engine had developed an oil leak, and the plane burst into flames while dumping fuel; there were no survivors.",
"As a result of the tragedy, Pan Am ended flights to New Zealand via Kingman Reef and Pago Pago.",
"It established a new route in July 1940 that used Canton Island and New Caledonia as stopovers instead.On February 14, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8682 to create naval defenses areas in the central Pacific territories.",
"The proclamation established \"Kingman Reef Naval Defensive Sea Area\" which encompassed the territorial waters between the extreme high-water marks and the three-mile marine boundaries surrounding the atoll.",
"\"Kingman Naval Airspace Reservation\" was also established to restrict access to the airspace over the naval defense sea area.",
"Only U.S. government ships and aircraft were permitted to enter the naval defense areas at Kingman Reef unless authorized by the Secretary of the Navy.In 2012, Kingman Reef Atoll Development LLC, which was owned by descendants of the owners of the Palmyra Copra Co., Ltd., sued the U.S. government over its designation as a national wildlife refuge.",
"The plaintiff sought $54.5 million in compensation for the loss of fishing rights, ecotourism, and other economic activity.",
"However, in 2014, the federal court ruled that any such claim had expired by 1950 at the latest.In 2016, the ARRL Awards Committee of the American Radio Relay League removed Kingman Reef from its DXCC list, with the reef now considered part of the Palmyra Island / Jarvis Island DXCC Entity."
],
[
"Geography",
"NASA Landsat 8 true-color photo of Kingman ReefOrthographic projection over Kingman ReefNOAA nautical chart of Kingman ReefIt is the northernmost of the Northern Line Islands and lies northwest of the next closest island (Palmyra Atoll), and south of Honolulu.The reef encloses a lagoon up to deep in its eastern part near the northeastern spit of land.",
"The total area within the outer rim of the reef is .",
"There are two small strips (spits) of dry land composed of coral rubble and giant clamshells on the eastern rim with areas of having a coastline of , a short spit on the northeast side of the lagoon and a spit twice as long but thinner on its south side.The highest point on the reef is less than above sea level, which is wet or awash most of the time, making Kingman Reef a maritime hazard.",
"It has no natural resources and supports no economic activity.",
"In the 1930s it was used as stopover along with Palu Palu for flying boats crossing the Pacific, for commercial airline route."
],
[
"Political status",
"Kingman Reef has the status of an unincorporated territory of the United States, administered from Washington, D.C., by the U.S. Department of Interior.",
"The atoll is closed to the public.",
"For statistical purposes, Kingman Reef is grouped as part of the United States Minor Outlying Islands.",
"In January 2009, Kingman Reef was designated a marine national monument.The pre-20th century names Danger Rock, Caldew Reef, Maria Shoal and Crane Shoal refer to this atoll, which at the time was entirely submerged at high tide.",
"Thomas Hale Streets described its state in the 1870s, when it had:... hardly, as yet, assumed the distinctive features of an island.",
"It is entirely under water at high tide, and but a few coral heads project here and there above the surface at low water.",
"In the course of time, however, it will undoubtedly be added to the northern Line Islands.Kingman Reef is considered to be a county-equivalent by the U.S. Census Bureau.",
"With only 0.01 square miles (0.03 square kilometers) of land, Kingman Reef is the smallest county or county-equivalent by land area in the United States."
],
[
"Ecology",
"Dry strip of land on Kingman Reef with a coconut palm seedling; October 2003Kingman Reef supports a vast variety of marine life.",
"Giant clams are abundant in the shallows, and there are approximately 38 genera and 130 species of stony corals present on the reef.",
"This is more than three times the species diversity of corals found in the main Hawaiian Islands.",
"The ecosystem of the reef and its subsequent food chain are known for the distinct quality of being primarily predator-based.",
"Sharks comprised 74% of the top predator biomass (329 g·m) at Kingman Reef and 57% at Palmyra Atoll (97 g·m), and low shark numbers have been observed at Tabuaeran and Kiritimati.The percentage of the total fish biomass on the reef is made up of 85% apex predators, creating a high level of competition for food and nutrients among local organisms – particularly sharks, jacks, and other carnivores.",
"The threatened green sea turtles that frequent nearby Palmyra Atoll travel to Kingman Reef to forage and bask on the coral rubble spits at low tide.However, above sea level, the reef is usually barren of macroorganisms.",
"Mainly constructed of dead and dried coral skeletons, providing only calcite as a source of nutrients, the small and narrow strips of dry land are only habitable by a handful of species for short periods of time.",
"Most flora which begin to grow above water – primarily coconut palms – die out quickly due to the fierce tides and lack of resources necessary to sustain plant life."
],
[
"National Wildlife Refuge",
"NOAA scuba diver studying the reefs in 2008On September 1, 2000, the Navy relinquished its control over Kingman Reef to the U.S.",
"Fish and Wildlife Service.",
"On January 18, 2001, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt created the Kingman Reef National Wildlife Refuge during his final days in office with Secretary's Order 3223.It is composed of the emergent coral rubble spits and all waters out to .",
"While there are only of land, of water area is included in the Refuge.",
"Along with six other islands, the reef was administered as part of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex.",
"In January 2009, that entity was upgraded to the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument by President George W. Bush."
],
[
"Amateur radio expeditions",
"Since the early 1940s, Kingman Reef has had very little human contact, though amateur radio operators from around the world have occasionally visited the reef to put it \"on the air\" in what is known as a DX-pedition.",
"In 1974, a group of amateurs using the callsign KP6KR sailed to the reef and set up a temporary radio station and antenna.",
"Other groups visited the island in subsequent years, including 1977, 1980, 1981, 1988 and 1993.More recently, a group of 15 amateur radio operators from the ''Palmyra DX'' Group visited the reef in October 2000.Using the FCC-issued special event callsign ''K5K'', the group made more than 80,000 individual contacts with amateurs around the world over a period of 10 days.Between November 15, 1945, and March 28, 2016, Kingman Reef was considered a discrete entity for the purpose of earning awards such as the DX Century Club.",
"A video shot by amateur radio operators traveling to the K5P DX-pedition on Palmyra in January 2016 appears to show Kingman Reef mostly awash, raising questions as to whether a future activation of Kingman Reef would be possible.On March 28, 2016, the ARRL DXCC desk deleted Kingman Reef from the list of collectable entities effective March 29, 2016, and deeming Kingman a part of the Palmyra and Jarvis entity due to proximity of the islands and common administration of the islands by the Fish and Wildlife Service."
],
[
"See also",
"* Dependent territory* Insular area* List of Guano Island claims"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Kingman Reef history by Jane Resture* Kingman Reef National Wildlife Refuge* K5K Amateur Radio Expedition to Kingman Reef* Kennedy Warne: \"An Uneasy Eden\" — National Geographic Magazine, July 2008"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kiribati"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kiribati''' ( ), officially the '''Republic of Kiribati''' (), is an island country in the Micronesia subregion of Oceania in the central Pacific Ocean.",
"Its permanent population is over 119,000 as of the 2020 census, with more than half living on Tarawa atoll.",
"The state comprises 32 atolls and one remote raised coral island, Banaba.",
"Its total land area is dispersed over of ocean.The islands' spread straddles the equator and the 180th meridian, although the International Date Line goes around Kiribati and swings far to the east, almost reaching 150°W.",
"This brings Kiribati's easternmost islands, the southern Line Islands south of Hawaii, into the same day as the Gilbert Islands and places them in the most advanced time zone on Earth: UTC+14.Kiribati gained its independence from the United Kingdom, becoming a sovereign state in 1979.The capital, South Tarawa, now the most populated area, consists of a number of islets, connected by a series of causeways.",
"These comprise about half the area of Tarawa Atoll.",
"Prior to its independence, the country had exported phosphate, but those mines are no longer viable with fisheries and export of copra driving much of the economy.",
"Kiribati is one of the least developed countries in the world and is highly dependent on international aid for its economy.Kiribati is a member of the Pacific Community, Commonwealth of Nations, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States, and became a full member of the United Nations in 1999.As an island nation, the islands are vulnerable to climate change and tsunamis.",
"Addressing climate change has been a central part of its international policy, as a member of the Alliance of Small Island States."
],
[
"Etymology and pronunciation",
"The name is pronounced , ''Kiribass'', as ''-ti'' in the Gilbertese language represents an ''s'' sound.",
"Similarly, the name of its people, the I-Kiribati, is pronounced as ''e-Kiribass''.Map of the Gilbert or Kingsmill Islands, 1890The name \"Kiribati\" was adopted in 1979 at independence.",
"It is the Gilbertese rendition of Gilberts, the plural of the English name of the nation's main archipelago, the Gilbert Islands.",
"It was named ''îles Gilbert'' (French for ''Gilbert Islands'') in about 1820 by Russian admiral Adam von Krusenstern and French captain Louis Duperrey, after the British captain Thomas Gilbert.",
"Gilbert and captain John Marshall sighted some of the islands in 1788, while crossing the \"outer passage\" route from Port Jackson to Canton.",
"Both von Krusenstern's and Duperrey's maps, published in 1824, were written in French.In French, the Northern Islands were until then called ''îles Mulgrave'' and Byron Island was not part of them.",
"In English, the archipelago, particularly the southern part, was often referred to as the Kingsmills in the 19th century, although the name Gilbert Islands was used increasingly, including in the Western Pacific Order in Council of 1877 and in the Pacific Order of 1893.The name Gilbert, already in the name of the British protectorate since 1892, was incorporated into the name of the entire Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (GEIC) from 1916 and was retained after the Ellice Islands became the separate nation of Tuvalu in 1976.The spelling of Gilberts in the Gilbertese language as Kiribati may be found in books in Gilbertese prepared by missionaries, but with the meaning of Gilbertese (demonym and language) (see e.g., Hawaiian Board of Missionaries, 1895).",
"The first mention as a dictionary entry of the word ''Kiribati'' as the native name of the country was written down in 1952 by Ernest Sabatier in his comprehensive ''Dictionnaire gilbertin-français''.The indigenous name often suggested for the Gilbert Islands proper is ''Tungaru'' (see e.g., Ernest Sabatier, 1952–1953, or Arthur Grimble, 1989).",
"The rendition Kiribati for Gilberts was chosen as the official name of the new independent nation by the chief minister, Sir Ieremia Tabai and his cabinet, on such grounds that it was modern, and to comprehend the inclusion of outer islands (e.g., the Phoenix Group and Line Islands), which were not considered part of the Tungaru (or Gilberts) chain."
],
[
"History",
"Gilbertese warriors of Tabiteuea, with shark's teeth weapons, === Early history ===The area now called Kiribati, mainly the 16 Gilbert Islands, has been inhabited by Austronesian peoples speaking the same Oceanic language, from north to south, including the southernmost Nui, since sometime between 3000 BCE and 1300 CE.",
"The area was not completely isolated; later, voyagers from Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji introduced some Polynesian and Melanesian cultural aspects, respectively.",
"Intermarriage and intense navigation between the islands tended to blur cultural differences and resulted in a significant degree of cultural homogenization.",
"Local oral historians chiefly in the form of lore keepers suggest that the area was first inhabited by a group of seafaring people from Melanesia, who were described as being dark-skinned, frizzy-haired, and short in stature.",
"These indigenous peoples were then visited by early Austronesian seafarers from the west, a place called Matang, orally described as being tall and fair-skinned.",
"Eventually, both groups intermittently clashed and intermingled until they slowly became a uniform population.Makin Islands, drawn by Alfred Thomas Agate (1841)Around 1300 CE, a mass departure occurred from Samoa leading to the addition of Polynesian ancestry into the mix of most Gilbertese people.",
"These Samoans later brought strong features of Polynesian languages and culture, creating clans based on their own Samoan traditions and slowly intertwining with the indigenous clans and powers already dominant in Kiribati.",
"Around the 15th century, starkly contrasting systems of governance arose between the northern islands, primarily under chiefly rule (''uea''), and the central and southern islands, primarily under the rule of their council of elders (''unimwaane'').",
"Tabiteuea could be an exception as the sole island that is known as maintaining a traditional egalitarian society.",
"The name Tabiteuea stems from the root phrase ''Tabu-te-Uea'', meaning \"chiefs are forbidden\".",
"Civil war soon became a factor, with acquisition of land being the main form of conquest.",
"Clans and chiefs began fighting over resources, fueled by hatred and reignited blood feuds, which may have started months, years, or even decades before.The turmoil lasted well into the European visitation and colonial era, which led to certain islands decimating their foes with the help of guns and cannon-equipped ships that Europeans provided to some I-Kiribati leaders.",
"The typical military arms of the I-Kiribati at this time were shark tooth-embedded wooden spears, knives, and swords, and garbs of armour fashioned from dense coconut fibre.",
"They chiefly used these instead of the gunpowder and weapons of steel available at the time, because of the strong sentimental value of the equipment handed down through generations.",
"Ranged weapons, such as bows, slings, and javelins, were seldom used; hand-to-hand combat was a prominent skill still practised today, though seldom mentioned because of various taboos associated with it, secrecy being the primary one.",
"Abemama's High Chief Tembinok' was the last of the dozens of expansionist chiefs of Gilbert Islands of this period, despite Abemama historically conforming to the traditional southern islands' governance of their respective ''unimwaane''.",
"He was immortalised in Robert Louis Stevenson's book ''In the South Seas'', which delved into the high chief's character and method of rule during Stevenson's stay in Abemama.",
"The 90th anniversary of his arrival in the Gilbert Islands was chosen to celebrate the independence of Kiribati on 12 July 1979.===Colonial era===Chance visits by European ships occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries, while those ships attempted circumnavigations of the world, or sought sailing routes from the south to north Pacific Ocean.",
"A passing trade, whaling the On-The-Line grounds, and labour ships associated with blackbirding of Kanakas workers, visited the islands in large numbers during the 19th century, with social, economic, political, religious and cultural consequences.",
"More than 9,000 workers were sent abroad from 1845 to 1895, most of them not returning.The passing trade gave rise to European, Indian, Chinese, Samoan, and other residents from the 1830s; they included beachcombers, castaways, traders, and missionaries.",
"Declaration of a protectorate on Abemama by Captain EHM Davis, 27 May 1892In 1886, an Anglo-German agreement partitioned the \"unclaimed\" central Pacific, leaving Nauru in the German sphere of influence, while Ocean Island and the future GEIC wound up in the British sphere of influence.",
"In 1892, local Gilbertese authorities (an ''uea'', a chief from the Northern Gilbert Group, and ''atun te boti'' or head of clan) on each of the Gilbert Islands agreed to Captain E.H.M.",
"Davis commanding HMS ''Royalist'' of the Royal Navy declaring them part of a British protectorate, along with the nearby Ellice Islands.",
"They were administered by a resident commissioner based first on Makin Islands (1893–95), then in Betio, Tarawa (1896–1908) and Ocean Island (1908–1942), protectorate who was under the Western Pacific High Commission based in Fiji.",
"Banaba, known to Europeans as Ocean Island, was added to the protectorate in 1900, because of the phosphate rock of its soil (discovered in 1900).",
"This discovery and the mining ended the contracting of Kanakas workers to farm plantations in Queensland, German Samoa or Central America, with all the needed workers being used in Ocean Island extraction.The conduct of William Telfer Campbell, the second resident commissioner of the Gilberts and Ellice Islands of 1896 to 1908, was criticised as to his legislative, judicial and administrative management (including allegations of forced labour exacted from islanders) and became the subject of the 1909 report by Arthur Mahaffy.",
"In 1913, an anonymous correspondent to ''The New Age'' newspaper described the maladministration of W. Telfer Campbell and questioned the partiality of Arthur Mahaffy, because he was a former colonial official in the Gilberts.",
"The anonymous correspondent also criticised the operations of the Pacific Phosphate Company on Ocean Island.Boeing 314 Clipper in cruise, 1940The islands became the crown colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands in 1916.The Northern Line Islands, including Christmas Island (Kiritimati), were added to the colony in 1919, and the Phoenix Islands were added in 1937 with the purpose of a Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme.",
"On 12 July 1940, Pan Am Airways' ''American Clipper'' landed at Canton Island for the first time during a flight from Honolulu to Auckland.Sir Arthur Grimble was a cadet administrative officer based at Tarawa (1913–1919) and became Resident Commissioner of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony in 1926.King George VI, 1939In 1902, the Pacific Cable Board laid the first trans-Pacific telegraph cable from Bamfield, British Columbia, to Fanning Island (Tabuaeran) in the Line Islands, and from Fiji to Fanning Island, thus completing the All Red Line, a series of telegraph lines circumnavigating the globe completely within the British Empire.",
"The location of Fanning Island, one of the closest formations to Hawaii, led to its annexation by the British Empire in 1888.Nearby candidates including Palmyra Island were not favoured due to the lack of adequate landing sites.The United States eventually incorporated the Northern Line Islands into its territories, and did the same with the Phoenix Islands, which lie between Gilberts and the Line Islands, including Howland, Jarvis, and Baker islands, thus causing a territorial dispute.",
"That was eventually resolved and they finally became part of Kiribati under the Treaty of Tarawa.American Marines assault a Japanese bunker during the Battle of Tarawa, November 1943.After the attack on Pearl Harbor, during World War II, Butaritari and Tarawa, and others of the Northern Gilbert group, were occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1943.Betio became an airfield and supply base.",
"The expulsion of the Japanese military in late 1943 involved one of the bloodiest battles in US Marine Corps history.",
"Marines landed in November 1943 and the Battle of Tarawa ensued.",
"Ocean Island, the headquarters of the colony, was bombed, evacuated and occupied by Japan in 1942 and only freed in 1945, after the massacre of all but one of the Gilbertese on the island by the Japanese forces.",
"Funafuti hosted then the provisional headquarters of the colony from 1942 to 1946, when Tarawa returned to host the headquarters, replacing Ocean Island.At the end of 1945, most of the remaining inhabitants of Banaba, repatriated from Kosrae, Nauru and Tarawa, were relocated to Rabi Island, a land of Fiji that the British government had acquired in 1942 for this purpose.On 1 January 1953, the British Western Pacific High Commissioner of the colony was transferred from Fiji to the new capital of Honiara, to the British Solomon Islands, with the Gilberts' Resident Commissioner still headquartered in Tarawa.Further military operations in the colony occurred in the late 1950s and early 1960s when Christmas Island was used by the United States and United Kingdom for nuclear weapons testing including hydrogen bombs.Institutions of internal self-rule were established on Tarawa from about 1967.The Ellice Islands asked for separation from the rest of the colony in 1974 and granted their own internal self-rule institutions.",
"The separation entered into force on 1 January 1976.In 1978, the Ellice Islands became the independent nation of Tuvalu.===Independence===The Presidential residence, former Government House, BairikiThe Gilbert Islands gained independence as the Republic of Kiribati on 12 July 1979.Then, in September, the United States relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited Phoenix and Line Islands, in a 1979 treaty of friendship with Kiribati (ratified in 1983).",
"Although the indigenous Gilbertese name for the Gilbert Islands proper is \"Tungaru\", the new state chose the name \"Kiribati\", the Gilbertese spelling of \"Gilberts\", because it was more modern and as an equivalent of the former colony to acknowledge the inclusion of Banaba, the Line Islands, and the Phoenix Islands.",
"The last two archipelagoes were never initially occupied by Gilbertese until the British authorities, and later the Republic Government, resettled Gilbertese there under resettlement schemes.",
"In 1982, the first elections since independence were held.",
"A no-confidence vote provoked the 1983 new election.",
"In the post-independence era, overcrowding has been an issue, at least in British and aid organisations' eyes.",
"In 1988, an announcement was made that 4,700 residents of the main island group would be resettled onto less populated islands.",
"In September 1994, Teburoro Tito from the opposition was elected president.In 1995, Kiribati unilaterally moved the international date line far to the east to encompass the Line Islands group, so that the nation would no longer be divided by the date line.",
"The move, which fulfilled one of President Tito's campaign promises, was intended to allow businesses across the expansive nation to keep the same business week.",
"This also enabled Kiribati to become the first country to see the dawn of the third millennium, an event of significance for tourism.",
"Tito was re-elected in 1998.In 1999, Kiribati became a full member of the United Nations, 20 years after independence.",
"In 2002, Kiribati passed a controversial law that enabled the government to shut down newspaper publishers.",
"The legislation followed the launching of Kiribati's first successful non-government-run newspaper.",
"President Tito was re-elected in 2003 but was removed from office in March 2003 by a no-confidence vote and replaced by a Council of State.",
"Anote Tong of the opposition party Boutokaan Te Koaua was elected to succeed Tito in July 2003.He was re-elected in 2007 and in 2011.In June 2008, Kiribati officials asked Australia and New Zealand to accept Kiribati citizens as permanent refugees.",
"Kiribati is expected to be the first country to lose all its land territory to climate change.",
"In June 2008, Kiribati President Anote Tong said that the country had reached \"the point of no return.\"",
"He added, \"To plan for the day when you no longer have a country is indeed painful but I think we have to do that.",
"\"In January 2012, Anote Tong was re-elected for a third and last successive term.",
"In early 2012, the government of Kiribati purchased the 2,200-hectare Natoavatu Estate on the second largest island of Fiji, Vanua Levu.",
"At the time it was widely reported that the government planned to evacuate the entire population of Kiribati to Fiji.",
"In April 2013, President Tong began urging citizens to evacuate the islands and migrate elsewhere.",
"In May 2014, the Office of the President confirmed the purchase of some 5,460 acres of land on Vanua Levu at a cost of 9.3 million Australian dollars.In March 2016, Taneti Maamau was elected as the new President of Kiribati.",
"He was the fifth president since the country became independent in 1979.In June 2020, President Maamau won re-election for a second four-year term.",
"President Maamau was considered pro-China and he supported closer ties with Beijing.",
"On 16 November 2021, the Kiribati government announced it would expose the world's largest marine protected area to commercial fishing.",
"The 2022 Kiribati constitutional crisis started with the suspension of all 5 major Justices of the judiciary of Kiribati.In 2020, Kiribati’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic, consistent with most of the COVID-19 responses of Oceania island nations, was to impose strict limits on tourism and commercial travel.",
"Kiribati reported that it remained essentially COVID-free (two cases) until January 2022 when the first commercial international flight in two years included 36 passengers who tested positive.",
"While new restrictions were imposed, Kiribati subsequently reported a total of 3252 cases and 13 deaths.On 29 January 2023, Kiribati confirmed its intention to rejoin the Pacific Islands Forum, ending a bitter two-year leadership split."
],
[
"Politics",
"Maneaba ni Maungatabu, House of Assembly, 2000The Constitution of Kiribati, promulgated 12 July 1979, provides for free and open elections in a parliamentary democratic republic.The executive branch consists of a president (''te Beretitenti''), a vice-president and a cabinet.",
"The president, who is also chief of the cabinet, is directly elected by the citizens, after the legislature nominates three or four persons from among its members to be candidates in the ensuing presidential election.",
"The president is limited to serving three four-year terms, and remains a member of the assembly.",
"The cabinet is composed of the president, vice-president, and 13 ministers (appointed by the president) who are also ministers of parliament.The legislative branch is the unicameral ''Maneaba ni Maungatabu'' (House of Assembly).",
"Its members are elected, including by constitutional mandate, a nominated representative of the Banaban people in Rabi Island, Fiji (Banaba, former Ocean Island), in addition to, until 2016, the attorney general, who served as an ''ex officio'' member from 1979 to 2016.Legislators serve for a four-year term.The constitutional provisions governing administration of justice are similar to those in other former British possessions in that the judiciary is free from governmental interference.",
"The judicial branch is made up of the High Court (in Betio) and the Court of Appeal.",
"The president appoints the presiding judges.Local government is through island councils with elected members.",
"Local affairs are handled in a manner similar to town meetings in colonial America.",
"Island councils make their own estimates of revenue and expenditure and generally are free from central government controls.",
"There are a total of 21 inhabited islands in Kiribati.",
"Each inhabited island has its own council.",
"Since independence, Kiribati is no longer divided into districts (see Subdivisions of Kiribati).Kiribati has formal political parties but their organisation is quite informal.",
"Ad hoc opposition groups tend to coalesce around specific issues.",
"There is universal suffrage at age 18.Today the only recognisable parties are the Boutokaan Kiribati Moa Party, former ''Boutokaan te Koaua'', and Tobwaan Kiribati Party.===Foreign relations===Kiribati maintains close relations with its Pacific neighbours, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and Fiji.",
"The first three of these provide the bulk of the country's foreign aid.",
"Taiwan and Japan also have specified-period licences to fish in Kiribati's waters.",
"There are three resident diplomatic missions headquartered in South Tarawa: the Embassies of the Republic of China (Taiwan) until 2019, replaced by People's Republic of China in 2020 and the High Commissions of Australia and New Zealand.",
"A US Embassy will open in 2023.In November 1999, Kiribati agreed to allow Japan's National Space Development Agency to lease land on Kiritimati (formerly Christmas Island) for 20 years, on which to build a spaceport.",
"The agreement stipulated that Japan was to pay US$840,000 per year and would also pay for any damage to roads and the environment.",
"A Japanese-built downrange tracking station operates on Kiritimati and an abandoned airfield on the island was designated as the landing strip for a proposed reusable unmanned space shuttle called HOPE-X.",
"HOPE-X, however, was eventually cancelled by Japan in 2003.Kiribati President Taneti Maamau meets with Taiwanese President Tsai Ing-wen on 23 May 2016.As one of the world's most vulnerable nations to the effects of global warming, Kiribati has been an active participant in international diplomatic efforts relating to climate change, most importantly the UNFCCC conferences of the parties (COP).",
"Kiribati is a member of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), an intergovernmental organisation of low-lying coastal and small island countries.Established in 1990, the main purpose of the alliance is to consolidate the voices of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) to address global warming.",
"AOSIS has been very active from its inception, putting forward the first draft text in the Kyoto Protocol negotiations as early as 1994.In 2009, President Tong attended the Climate Vulnerable Forum (V11) in the Maldives, with 10 other countries that are vulnerable to climate change, and signed the Bandos Island declaration on 10 November 2009, pledging to show moral leadership and commence greening their economies by voluntarily committing to achieving carbon neutrality.In November 2010, Kiribati hosted the Tarawa Climate Change Conference (TCCC) to support the president of Kiribati's initiative to hold a consultative forum between vulnerable states and their partners.",
"The conference strove to create an enabling environment for multi-party negotiations under the auspices of the UNFCCC.",
"The conference was a successor event to the Climate Vulnerable Forum.",
"The ultimate objective of TCCC was to reduce the number and intensity of fault lines between parties to the COP process, explore elements of agreement between the parties and thereby to support Kiribati's and other parties' contribution to COP16 held in Cancun, Mexico, from 29 November to 10 December 2010.In 2013, President Tong spoke of climate-change induced sea level rise as \"inevitable\".",
"\"For our people to survive, then they will have to migrate.",
"Either we can wait for the time when we have to move people en masse or we can prepare them—beginning from now ...\" In New York in 2014, per ''The New Yorker'', President Tong told ''The New York Times'' that \"according to the projections, within this century, the water will be higher than the highest point in our lands\".",
"In 2014, President Tong finalised the purchase of a stretch of land on Vanua Levu, one of the larger Fiji islands, 2,000 km away.",
"A move described by Tong as an \"absolute necessity\" should the nation be completely submerged under water.In 2013, attention was drawn to a claim of a Kiribati man of being a \"climate change refugee\" under the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951).",
"However, this claim was determined by the New Zealand High Court to be untenable.",
"The New Zealand Court of Appeal also rejected the claim in a 2014 decision.On further appeal, the New Zealand Supreme Court confirmed the earlier adverse rulings against the application for refugee status, but rejected the proposition \"that environmental degradation resulting from climate change or other natural disasters could never create a pathway into the Refugee Convention or protected person jurisdiction\".",
"In 2017, Kiribati signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.On 20 September 2019, the government of Kiribati restored its diplomatic relationship with the People's Republic of China and simultaneously stopped its diplomatic relationship with Taiwan.",
"China offered a 737 aircraft and ferries to Kiribati for the decision, according to Taiwan's foreign minister, Joseph Wu.====Peace Corps====From 1973 until 2008, a total of almost 500 US Peace Corps volunteers were based on the Islands, as many as 45 in a given year.",
"Activities included assisting in the planning, design and construction of wells, libraries, and other infrastructure, and agricultural, environmental, and community health education.",
"In 2006, volunteer placement was significantly scaled down due to the reduction of consistent air transportation to the outer islands; it was later ended because the associated ability to provide medical care to volunteers could not be assured.",
"In July 2022, US Vice President Harris announced plans to build a new embassy in Kiribati and Tonga and reestablish the Peace Corps presence in the region.===Law enforcement and military===Police vessel RKS ''Teanoai'', in 2019Law enforcement in Kiribati is carried out by the Kiribati Police Service which is responsible for all law enforcement and paramilitary duties for the island nation.",
"There are police posts located on all of the islands.",
"The police have one patrol boat, the RKS ''Teanoai II''.",
"Kiribati has no military and relies on both Australia and New Zealand for its defence.The main prison in Kiribati is located in Betio, named the Walter Betio Prison.",
"There is also a prison in London on Kiritimati.Male homosexuality is illegal in Kiribati, with a penalty up to 14 years in prison, according to a historical British law; however, this law is not enforced.",
"Kiribati has not yet followed the lead of the United Kingdom, following its Wolfenden report, to decriminalise acts of male homosexuality, beginning with provisions in the UK's Sexual Offences Act 1957.Female homosexuality is legal, but lesbians may face violence and discrimination.",
"However, employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is prohibited.=== Administrative divisions ===Line Islands: Millenium Island channel between west side of Long Island and Nake IslandMarakei, North Gilbert IslandsThere are 21 inhabited islands in Kiribati.",
"Kiribati can be geographically divided into three archipelagoes or groups of islands, which have no administrative functions.",
"They are:* Gilbert Islands* Phoenix Islands, in one of the largest marine protected areas on Earth (was the largest from 2008 to 2010)* Line IslandsThe original districts before independence were:* Banaba (Ocean Island)* Tarawa Atoll* Northern Gilbert Islands* Central Gilbert Island* Southern Gilbert Islands* Line IslandsFour of the former districts (including Tarawa) lie in the Gilbert Islands, where most of the country's population lives.",
"Five of the Line Islands are uninhabited (Malden Island, Starbuck Island, Millenium Island, Vostok Island and Flint Island).",
"The Phoenix Islands are uninhabited except for Kanton, and have no representation.",
"Banaba itself is sparsely inhabited now.",
"There is also a non-elected representative of the Banabans on Rabi Island in Fiji.Each of the 21 inhabited islands has its own local council that takes care of daily affairs.",
"There is one council for each inhabited island, with two exceptions: Tarawa Atoll has three councils: Betio Town Council, (TUC) (for the rest of South Tarawa) and Eutan Tarawa Council (ETC) (for North Tarawa); and Tabiteuea has two councils."
],
[
"Geography",
"Kiribati with its surrounding EEZs in dark gray, noting the three non-contiguous territoriesMap of KiribatiCoconut palms in AbaiangKiribati consists of 32 atolls and one solitary island (Banaba), extending into the eastern and western hemispheres, as well as the northern and southern hemispheres.",
"Its extensive exclusive economic zone covers three, non-contiguous, traditional geographic subregions: Banaba (Melanesian-Micronesian area), the Gilbert Islands (Micronesia) and the Line and Phoenix Islands (Polynesia).",
"The groups of islands are:* Banaba: an isolated island between Nauru and the Gilbert Islands* Gilbert Islands: 16 atolls located some north of Fiji* Phoenix Islands: 8 atolls and coral islands located some southeast of the Gilberts* Line Islands: 8 atolls and one reef, located about east of the GilbertsBanaba (or Ocean Island) is a raised-coral island.",
"It was once a rich source of phosphates, but was exhausted in mining before independence.",
"The rest of the land in Kiribati consists of the sand and reef rock islets of atolls or coral islands, which rise only one or two metres above sea level.The soil is thin and calcareous.",
"It has a low water-holding capacity and low organic matter and nutrient content—except for calcium, sodium, and magnesium.",
"Banaba is one of the least suitable places for agriculture in the world.Kiritimati (previously Christmas Island) in the Line Islands has the largest land area of any atoll in the world.",
"Based on a 1995 realignment of the International Date Line, the Line Islands were the first area to enter into a new year, including year 2000.For that reason, Caroline Island was renamed Millennium Island in 1997.=== Environmental issues ===According to the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (previously South Pacific Regional Environment Programme), two small uninhabited Kiribati islets, Tebua Tarawa and Abanuea, disappeared underwater in 1999.The sea level at Christmas Island, in the 50 years between 1972 and 2022, has risen .05 meters (50 mm).",
"The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that sea levels will rise by about 50 cm (20 in) by 2100 due to global warming and a further rise would be inevitable.",
"It is thus likely that within a century the nation's arable land will become subject to increased soil salination and will be largely submerged.The exposure of Kiribati to changes in sea levels is exacerbated by the Pacific decadal oscillation, which is a climate switch phenomenon that results in changes from periods of La Niña to periods of El Niño.",
"This has an effect on sea levels.",
"For example, in 2000, there was a switch from periods of downward pressure of El Niño on sea levels to an upward pressure of La Niña on sea levels, which upward pressure causes more frequent and higher high tide levels.",
"The Perigean spring tide (often called a king tide) can result in seawater flooding low-lying areas of the islands of Kiribati.South of Onotoa AtollTarawa AtollThe atolls and reef islands can respond to changes in sea-level.",
"Paul Kench at the University of Auckland in New Zealand and Arthur Webb at the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission in Fiji released a study in 2010 on the dynamic response of atolls and reef islands in the central Pacific.",
"Kiribati was mentioned in the study, and Webb and Kench found that the three major urbanised islands in Kiribati—Betio, Bairiki and Nanikai—increased by 30% (36 hectares), 16.3% (5.8 hectares) and 12.5% (0.8 hectares), respectively.The study by Paul Kench and Arthur Webb recognises that the islands are extremely vulnerable to sea level rise, and concluded that: \"This study did not measure vertical growth of the island surface nor does it suggest there is any change in the height of the islands.",
"Since land height has not changed the vulnerability of the greater part of the land area of each island to submergence due to sea level rise is also unchanged and these low-lying atolls remain immediately and extremely vulnerable to inundation or sea water flooding.",
"\"The Climate Change in the Pacific Report of 2011 describes Kiribati as having a low risk of cyclones.",
"In March 2015 Kiribati experienced flooding and destruction of seawalls and coastal infrastructure as the result of Cyclone Pam, a Category 5 cyclone that devastated Vanuatu.",
"Kiribati remains exposed to the risk that cyclones can strip the low-lying islands of their vegetation and soil.Gradual sea-level rise also allows for coral polyp activity to raise the atolls with the sea level.",
"However, if the increase in sea level occurs at a rate faster than coral growth, or if polyp activity is damaged by ocean acidification, then the resilience of the atolls and reef islands is less certain.",
"Also, coral bleaching has occurred on more than 60% of the coral reefs in the Maldives.The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that the climate crisis has worsened human rights conditions moderately (4.8 out of 6) in Kiribati.",
"Human rights experts reported that the climate crisis has compromised access to food and clean water, as well as women's rights, housing security and cultural integrity.The Kiribati Adaptation Program (KAP), started in 2003, is a US$5.5 million initiative that was originally enacted by the national government of Kiribati with the support of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the World Bank, the United Nations Development Program, and the Japanese government.",
"Australia later joined the coalition, donating US$1.5 million to the effort.",
"The program aims to take place over six years, supporting measures that reduce Kiribati's vulnerability to the effects of climate change and sea level rise by raising awareness of climate change, assessing and protecting available water resources, and managing inundation.At the start of the Adaptation Program, representatives from each of the inhabited atolls identified key climatic changes that had taken place over the past 20–40 years and proposed coping mechanisms to deal with these changes under four categories of urgency of need.",
"The program is now focusing on the country's most vulnerable sectors in the most highly populated areas.Initiatives include improving water supply management in and around Tarawa; coastal management protection measures such as mangrove re-plantation and protection of public infrastructure; strengthening laws to reduce coastal erosion; and population settlement planning to reduce personal risks.The government has taken specific action to ensure food security, as sea level rise, drought, and overfishing have created food and water shortages.",
"This has involved diversifying food sources and ensuring existing resources are managed sustainably.The issue of plastic pollution has also been a key challenge for Kiribati as it hurts both its marine biodiversity and its economy that relies primarily on tourism and fishery.",
"As a result, the government of Kiribati, more specifically the Environment and Conservation Division (ECD) which forms part of the Kiribati Government's Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development, has made efforts to tackle this issue nationally through environment acts, and state policy papers.",
"To a further extent, it has also recognized the global nature of plastic pollution, and consequently, has promoted international cooperation and multilateral solutions.",
"This is notably observable during the current negotiations of the Global Plastic Pollution Treaty planned to be finally drafted by the end of 2024.===Climate===A tropical islet with palm fronds oriented in the direction of the prevailing windsKiribati has a tropical rainforest climate (Af).",
"From April to October, there are predominant northeastern winds and stable temperatures close to .",
"From November to April, western gales bring rain.Kiribati wet season (''te Auu-Meang'') also recognized as the Tropical cyclone (TC) (''te Angibuaka'') season starts from November to April every year.",
"Kiribati therefore typically experiences more extreme weather events associated with Tropical disturbances (TD) or Tropical cyclones during te Auu-Meang.",
"But Tropical cyclones rarely develop or pass along the equator where Kiribati is located.",
"However, based on past events, Kiribati has been impacted from distant Tropical cyclone (TC) and the impacts were observed while the systems are in their development stages (Tropical Low/disturbance) or even before they reach Tropical cyclone category.The fair season starts when ''Ten Rimwimata'' (Antares) appears in the sky after sunset, from May to November, when more gentle winds and currents and less rain.",
"Then towards December, when ''Nei Auti'' (Pleiades) replaces Antares, the season of sudden westerly winds and more heavy rain discourages any far travel from island to island.Kiribati does not experience cyclones but effects may occasionally be experienced during cyclone seasons affecting nearby Pacific Island countries such as Fiji.Precipitation varies significantly between islands.",
"For example, the annual average is 3,000 mm (120 in) in the north and 500 mm (20 in) in the south of the Gilbert Islands.",
"Most of these islands are in the dry belt of the equatorial oceanic climatic zone and experience prolonged droughts.=== Ecology ===The bokikokiko (''Acrocephalus aequinoctialis'') is the only land wildlife species endemic to Kiribati.Kiribati contains three ecosystems: Central Polynesian tropical moist forests, Eastern Micronesia tropical moist forests, and Western Polynesian tropical moist forests.Because of the relatively young geological age of the islands and atolls and high level of soil salination, the flora of Kiribati is somewhat unhealthy.",
"The Gilbert Islands contain about 83 indigenous and 306 introduced plants, whereas the corresponding numbers for Line and Phoenix Islands are 67 and 283.None of these species are endemic, and about half of the indigenous ones have a limited distribution and became endangered or nearly extinct due to human activities such as phosphate mining.Coconut, pandanus palms and breadfruit trees are the most common ''wild'' plants, whereas the five most cultivated crops but the traditional ''Babai'', ''Cyrtosperma merkusii'', are imported Chinese cabbage, pumpkin, tomato, watermelon and cucumber.",
"Over eighty per cent of the population participates in either farming or fishing.Seaweed farming is an important part of the economy , with two major species ''Eucheuma alcarezii'' and ''Eucheuma spinosium'' introduced to the local lagoons from the Philippines in 1977.It competes with collection of the black-lipped pearl oyster (''Pinctada margaritifera'') and shellfish, which are dominated by the strombid gastropod (''Strombus luhuanus'') and Anadara cockles (''Anadara uropigimelana''), whereas the stocks of the giant clam (''Tridacna gigas'') have been largely exhausted.Kiribati has a few land mammals, none being indigenous or endemic.",
"They include the Polynesian rat (''Rattus exulans''), dogs, cats and pigs.",
"Among the 75 bird species, the Bokikokiko (''Acrocephalus aequinoctialis'') is endemic to Kiritimati.There are 600–800 species of inshore and pelagic finfish, some 200 species of corals and about 1000 species of shellfish.",
"Fishing mostly targets the family Scombridae, particularly the skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna as well as flying fish (''Cypselurus'' spp.",
").Dogs were already accompanying the first inhabitants but were re-introduced by European settlers: they have continued to grow in numbers and are roaming in traditional packs, particularly around South Tarawa."
],
[
"Economy",
"A Bosj's warehouse in KiribatiKiribati has few natural resources.",
"Commercially viable phosphate deposits on Banaba were exhausted at the time of independence.",
"Copra and fish now represent the bulk of production and exports.",
"Kiribati has the lowest GDP out of any sovereign state in Oceania, and is considered one of the least developed countries in the world.In one form or another, Kiribati gets a large portion of its income from abroad.",
"Examples include fishing licences, development assistance, workers' remittances, especially the seafarers issued from Marine Training Centre, and a few tourists.",
"Given Kiribati's limited domestic production ability, it must import nearly all of its essential foodstuffs and manufactured items; it depends on these external sources of income for financing.The economy of Kiribati benefits from international development assistance programs.",
"The multilateral donors providing development assistance in 2009 were the European Union (A$9 million), the United Nations Development Programme (A$3.7 million), UNICEF, and the World Health Organization (A$100,000).",
"The bilateral donors providing development assistance in 2009 were Australia (A$11 million), Japan (A$2 million), New Zealand (A$6.6 million), Taiwan (A$10.6 million), and other donors providing A$16.2 million, including technical assistance grants from the Asian Development Bank.The major donors in 2010/2011 were Australia (A$15 million), Taiwan (A$11 million); New Zealand (A$6 million), the World Bank (A$4 million) and the Asian Development Bank.In 1956, Gilbert and Ellice Islands established a sovereign wealth fund to act as a store of wealth for the country's earnings from phosphate mining.In 2008, the Revenue Equalization Reserve Fund was valued at US$400 million.",
"The RERF assets declined from A$637 million (420% of GDP) in 2007 to A$570.5 million (350% of GDP) in 2009 as the result of the global financial crisis and exposure to failed Icelandic banks.",
"In addition, draw-downs were made by the government of Kiribati to finance budgetary shortfalls during this period.In May 2011, the IMF country report assessment of the economy of Kiribati is that \"After two years of contraction, the economy recovered in the second half of 2010 and inflation pressure dissipated.",
"It is estimated to have grown by 1.75% for the year.",
"Despite a weather-related drop in copra production, private sector activity appears to have picked up, especially in retail.",
"Tourist arrivals rebounded by 20% compared to 2009, although from a very low base.Despite the rise in world food and fuel prices, inflation has bounced from 2008 crisis-highs into negative territory, reflecting the strong appreciation of the Australian dollar, which is used as the domestic currency, and a decline in the world price of rice.",
"Credit growth in the overall economy declined in 2009 as economic activity stalled.",
"But it started to pick up in the second half of 2010 as the recovery gained traction\".A major Australian bank, ANZ, maintains a presence on Kiribati with a number of branches and ATM units.===Ornamental fish===Kiribati is a major exporter of hand-caught ornamental fish.",
"There are eight licensed operators based on Kiritimati (Christmas Island).",
"At the end of 2005, the number of pet fish exported was 110,000.All operators have a land-based facility but fish are kept in containers on the reef until the day before the shipment.",
"This is to reduce the running cost and the mortality of pet fish to be exported.",
"The flame angelfish (''Centropyge loriculus'') is the major species exported.===Transport===Bonriki International AirportKiribati has had two domestic airlines: Air Kiribati and Coral Sun Airways.",
"Both airlines are based in Tarawa's Bonriki International Airport and serve destinations across the Gilbert Islands and Line Islands only: Banaba and the Phoenix Islands are not served by the domestic carriers.Cassidy International Airport on Kiritimati has an international service provided by Fiji Airways: Nadi to Cassidy Airport and then to Honolulu."
],
[
"Communications and media",
"The islands’ remote location in the Central Pacific at approximately the International Date Line and spanning hundreds of miles north and south of the equator has meant that communications between them has always been challenging and conducted primarily by radio and print media.",
"TV Kiribati Ltd, was owned by the government operated between 2004 and mid-2012, but could not reach all of the Islands.",
"Radio Kiribati, based on Tarawa and operated by the government's Broadcasting and Publications Authority (BPA) on 1440 kHz AM is the only form of mass media that reaches all the major islands.",
"Transmission hours are limited and local content in Gilbertese is supplemented by English summaries and BBC News.",
"The BPA and a private broadcaster also operate FM stations accessible on Tarawa.Inter-island communications for many years relied on a centralized shortwave radio network operated by Telecom Services Kiribati, Ltd (TSKL) based in each Island's Council Headquarters.",
"Numerous issues including low availability, maintenance, privacy, and only one per island led TSKL to adopt satellite-based telephones.",
"However, the system is more expensive and still only located at Council Headquarters.Print weeklies in Gilbertese include the ''Te Uekara'' published by the government, ''Te Mauri'' published by the Kiribati Protestant Church, and the ''Kiribati Independent'', published from Auckland as well as the ''Kiribati Newstar'', published in English.In December 2019, SpaceX launched the Kacific1 broadband satellite that provides 100Mbit/s mobile and broadband service to 25 countries throughout to the Asia-Pacific region including Kiribati.",
"Three of the satellite's 56 spot beams provide overlapping coverage of the Gilbert Islands and Tuvalu; however, the more eastern regions of the country, the Phoenix and Line Islands, are outside of the satellite's coverage.The Southern Cross NEXT cable system, which entered service in July 2022, connects the US to Australia and provides service to eastern part of Kiribati (Kiritimati island) through the Kiritimati Branch with one fiber pair.",
"The network, which is an upgrade to the existing Southern Cross Cable, also connects to Samoa, Fiji, and New Zealand.In June 2021, the World Bank-backed procurement for the East Micronesian Cable system was cancelled due to security concerns.",
"The undersea fiberoptic system, which would have originated in Guam, was \"designed to improve the communications in the island nations of Nauru, Kiribati and Federated States of Micronesia (FSM).\"",
"In January 2023, ministers from the three Pacific island nations signed a joint communiqué for moving forward with the stalled project.",
"Funded by the U.S., Japan and Australia the project is valued at $70 million.",
"In early 2023, it was reported that Kiribati became the first Pacific island nation to receive Starlink services."
],
[
"Demographics",
"I-Kiribati children in South TarawaThe November 2020 census showed a population of 119,940.About 90% lived in the Gilbert Islands, with 52.9% of them on South Tarawa, including Betio, the biggest township.Until recently, people lived mostly in villages with populations between 50 and 3,000 on the outer islands.",
"Most houses are made of materials obtained from coconut and pandanus trees.",
"Frequent droughts and infertile soil hinder reliable large-scale agriculture, so the islanders have largely turned to the sea for livelihood and subsistence.",
"Most are outrigger sailors and fishermen.",
"Copra plantations serve as a second source of employment.",
"In recent years, large numbers of citizens have moved to the more urban island capital of Tarawa, where Betio is the largest town and South Tarawa reunites larger towns like Bikenibeu or Teaoraereke.",
"Increasing urbanisation has raised the population of South Tarawa to 63,017.=== Ethnicity ===Village on KiribatiThe native people of Kiribati are called I-Kiribati.",
"Ethnically, the I-Kiribati are Oceanians, a sub-ethnicity of Austronesians.",
"Recent archaeological evidence indicates that Austronesians originally settled the islands thousands of years ago .",
"Around the 14th century, Fijians, Samoans, and Tongans invaded the islands, thus diversifying the ethnic range and introducing Polynesian linguistic traits.",
"Intermarriage among all ancestral groups, however, has led to a population reasonably homogeneous in appearance and traditions.=== Languages ===The people of Kiribati speak Gilbertese, an Oceanic language.",
"English is the other official language, but is not used very often outside the island capital of Tarawa.",
"It is more likely that some English words are mixed in their use with Gilbertese.",
"Older generations of I-Kiribati tend to use more complicated versions of the language.",
"Several words in Gilbertese have been adopted from European settlers, for instance, ''kamea'' is one of the Gilbertese words for dog, ''kiri'' being the Oceanic one, which has its origins in the I-Kiribati people hearing the European settlers saying \"come here\" to their dogs, and adopting that as ''kamea''.Many other loanwords have been adopted (like ''buun'', spoon, ''moko'', smoke, ''beeki'', pig, ''batoro'', bottle) but some typical Gilbertese words are quite common, even for European objects (like ''wanikiba'', plane – the flying canoe, ''rebwerebwe'', motorbike – for the motor noise, ''kauniwae'', shoes – the cow for the feet).=== Religion ===Catholic Church in BetioChristianity is the major religion in Kiribati, having been lately introduced by missionaries, because of its remoteness and the absence of any significant European presence until the latter half of the 19th century.",
"The population is predominantly Roman Catholic (58.9%), with two main Protestant denominations (Kiribati Protestant Church 8.4% and Kiribati Uniting Church 21.2%) accounting for 29.6%.",
"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (5.6%), Baháʼí Faith (2.1%), Seventh-day Adventist Church (2.1%), Pentecostals, Jehovah's Witnesses, and other small faiths together account for less than 2% (2020 census).===Health===Prevalence of obesity in the adult population, top countries (2016), Kiribati has the seventh highest rate in the world.The Gilbert Islands where 90% of the Kiribati population live, boast some of the highest population densities in the Pacific, rivalling cities like Hong Kong or Singapore without any skyscrapers or other forms of conventional high-density housing.",
"This overcrowding produces a great amount of pollution, worsening the quality and length of life.",
"Due to insufficient sanitation and water filtration systems, worsened by the fragility of the water lens of the atolls and by climate change, only about 66% have access to clean water.",
"Waterborne diseases grow at record levels throughout the islands.",
"Poor sanitation has led to an increase in cases of conjunctivitis, diarrhoea, dysentery, and fungal infections.",
"Kiribati is the country with the third highest prevalence of smoking in the world, with 54–57% of the population reported as smokers.",
"Due to this and other \"lifestyle diseases,\" such as type 2 diabetes, there has been a drastic spike in amputations on the islands, doubling in a few years.As a consequence, the population of Kiribati has a quite low life expectancy at birth of 68.46 years.",
"Even if this data is of only 66.9 years, provided elsewhere, Kiribati ranks last in life expectancy out of the 20 nations of Oceania.",
"This life expectancy is 64.3 for males, and 69.5 for females and there is an infant mortality rate of 41 deaths per 1,000 live births.",
"Tuberculosis has a small presence in the country, with 365 cases per 100,000 a year.",
"Government expenditure on health was at US$268 per capita (PPP) in 2006.In 1990–2007, there were 23 physicians per 100,000 persons.",
"Since the arrival of Cuban doctors in 2006, the infant mortality rate has decreased significantly.Most health problems are related to consumption of semi-raw seafood, limited food storage facilities, and bacterial contamination of fresh water supplies.",
"In the early 2000s, between 1 and 7% of the population, depending on the island, were annually treated for food poisoning in a hospital.",
"Modernization and cross-cultural exchange of the late 20th century brought new issues of unhealthy diet and lifestyle, heavy smoking, especially among the young, and external infections, including HIV/AIDS.Fresh water remains a concern of Kiribati – during the dry season (Aumaiaki), water has been drilled for instead of using rain water tanks.",
"In recent years, there has been a longer than usual Aumaikai season resulting in additional water having to be drilled from beneath the water table.",
"This has introduced water-borne illnesses, compounding the health problems within Kiribati.The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that Kiribati is fulfilling 77.2% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to health based on its level of income.",
"When looking at the right to health with respect to children, Kiribati achieves 93.8% of what is expected based on its current income.",
"In regards to the right to health amongst the adult population, the country achieves 92.2% of what is expected based on the nation's level of income.",
"Kiribati falls into the \"very bad\" category when evaluating the right to reproductive health because the nation is fulfilling only 45.5% of what the nation is expected to achieve based on the resources (income) it has available.===Education===The University of the South Pacific, Kiribati CampusPrimary education is free and compulsory for the first nine years, beginning at age six.",
"Mission schools are slowly being absorbed into the government primary school system.",
"Higher education is expanding; students may seek technical, teacher or marine training, or study in other countries.",
"Most choosing to do the latter have gone to Fiji to attend the University of the South Pacific, and those wishing to complete medical training have been sent to Australia, New Zealand or Cuba.The education system is organised as follows:* Preschool for childhood from 1 to 5 years;* Primary school (Class 1 to 6) from 6 to 11 years;* Junior secondary school (Form 1 to 3) from 12 to 14;* Senior secondary school (Form 4 to 7) from 15 to 18.Kiribati Ministry of Education is the education ministry.",
"The government high schools are King George V and Elaine Bernacchi School, Tabiteuea North Senior Secondary School, and Melaengi Tabai Secondary School.",
"Thirteen high schools are operated by Christian churches.The University of the South Pacific has a campus in Teaoraereke for distant/flexible learning, but also to provide preparatory studies towards obtaining certificates, diplomas and degrees at other campus sites.The other prominent schools in Kiribati are:* the Marine Training Centre in Betio;* the Kiribati Institute of Technology;* the Kiribati Fisheries Training Centre;* the Kiribati School of Nursing;* the Kiribati Police Academy;* the Kiribati Teachers College."
],
[
"Culture",
"Songs (''te anene'') and above all, dances (''te mwaie''), are held in high regard.===Music===Kiribati folk music is generally based on chanting or other forms of vocalising, accompanied by body percussion.",
"Public performances in modern Kiribati are generally performed by a seated chorus, accompanied by a guitar.",
"However, during formal performances of the standing dance (''Te Kaimatoa'') or the hip dance (''Te Buki''), a wooden box is used as a percussion instrument.",
"This box is constructed to give a hollow and reverberating tone when struck simultaneously by a chorus of men sitting around it.",
"Traditional songs are often love-themed, but there are also competitive, religious, children's, patriotic, war and wedding songs.",
"There are also stick dances which accompany legends and semi-historical stories.",
"These stick dances or \"tirere\" (pronounced seerere) are performed only during major festivals.===Dance===A welcome displayThe uniqueness of Kiribati when compared with other forms of Pacific island dance is its emphasis on the outstretched arms of the dancer and the sudden birdlike movement of the head.",
"The Frigate bird (''Fregata minor'') on the Kiribati flag refers to this bird-like style of Kiribati dancing.",
"Most dances are in the standing or sitting position with movement limited and staggered.",
"Smiling whilst dancing is generally considered vulgar within the context of Kiribati dancing.",
"This is due to its origin of not being solely as a form of entertainment but as a form of storytelling and a display of the skill, beauty and endurance of the dancer.=== Cuisine ===Traditionally, the staple diet of the I-Kiribati was the abundance of seafood and coconuts.",
"Starch-based carbohydrate sources were not plentiful due to the hostile climate of the atolls with only the northernmost atolls being viable for constant agriculture.",
"The national crop ''bwabwai'' was only eaten during special celebrations along with pork.Bwabwai cultivation in ButaritariTo complement the rather low consumption of carbohydrates in their diets, the I-Kiribati processed the sap and fruit of the abundant pandanus and coconut trees into different beverages and foods such as ''te karewe'' (fresh daily sap of the coconut tree) or ''te tuae'' (dried pandanus cake) and ''te kabubu'' (dried pandanus flour) from pandanus fruit pulp and ''te kamaimai'' (coconut sap syrup) from coconut sap.After World War II, rice became a daily staple in most households, which is still the case today.",
"The majority of seafood, fish in particular, is eaten sashimi-style with either coconut sap, soy sauce or vinegar-based dressings, often combined with chillies and onions.Coconut crabs and mud crabs are traditionally given to breastfeeding mothers, with the belief that the meat stimulates the production of high-quality breast milk.===Sport===Bairiki National Stadium, at Bairiki, TarawaKiribati has competed at the Commonwealth Games since 1998 and the Summer Olympics since 2004.It sent three competitors to its first Olympics, two sprinters and a weightlifter.",
"Kiribati won its first ever Commonwealth Games medal at the 2014 Commonwealth Games when weightlifter David Katoatau won Gold in the 105 kg Group.Football is the most popular sport.",
"Kiribati Islands Football Federation (KIFF) is an associate member of the Oceania Football Confederation, but not of world-governing body FIFA.",
"Instead, they are member of ConIFA.",
"Kiribati National team has played ten matches, all of which it has lost, and all at the Pacific Games from 1979 to 2011.The Kiribati football stadium is Bairiki National Stadium, which has a capacity of 2,500.The is home to a number of local sporting teams.===Outside perspectives===Edward Carlyon Eliot, who was Resident Commissioner of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (now Kiribati and Tuvalu) from 1913 to 1920, describes this period in his book ''Broken Atoms'' (autobiographical reminiscences) Pub.",
"G. Bles, London, 1938.Sir Arthur Grimble wrote about his time working in the British colonial service in Kiribati (then the Gilbert Islands) from 1914 to 1932 in two popular books ''A Pattern of Islands'' (1952) and ''Return to the Islands'' (1957).",
"He also undertook academic studies of Gilbertese culture.John Smith, the last governor of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, wrote his memoir ''An Island in the Autumn'' (2011).J.",
"Maarten Troost's more recent autobiographical experiences in Tarawa are documented in his book ''The Sex Lives of Cannibals'' (2004).Alice Piciocchi's illustrated essay, ''Kiribati.",
"Cronache illustrate da una terra (s)perduta'', (2016) Milan: 24 ORE Cultura, also translated into French (2018, éditions du Rouergue), tries to write and portray a comprehensive encyclopaedic book of modern Kiribati."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of towns and villages in Kiribati* Outline of Kiribati"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * * * * (also in French)* * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Map of Kiribati from World Maps* Kiribati National Tourism Office* Parliament of Kiribati* Kiribati National Climate Change Portal * Chief of State and Cabinet Members (archived 6 May 2009)=== General information ===* Kiribati.",
"''The World Factbook''.",
"Central Intelligence Agency.",
"* Kiribati from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 7 June 2008)* * Kiribati from the BBC News* * Phoenix Islands Protected Area * Exhibit: The Alfred Agate Collection: The United States Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842 from the Navy Art Gallery (archived 14 January 2012)* Birds of Kiribati from Conservation International"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"History of Kiribati"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Shark tooth weapon from the Gilbert Islands, manufactured in the mid to late 19th century.The islands which now form the Republic of Kiribati have been inhabited for at least seven hundred years, and possibly much longer.",
"The initial Austronesian peoples’ population, which remains the overwhelming majority today, was visited by Polynesian and Melanesian invaders before the first European sailors visited the islands in the 17th century.",
"For much of the subsequent period, the main island chain, the Gilbert Islands, was ruled as part of the British Empire.",
"The country gained its independence in 1979 and has since been known as Kiribati."
],
[
"Pre-history",
"For several millennia, the islands were inhabited by Austronesian peoples who had arrived from the Solomon Islands or Vanuatu.",
"The ''I-Kiribati'' or Gilbertese people settled what would become known as the Gilbert Islands (named for British captain Thomas Gilbert by von Krusenstern in 1820) some time in between 3000 BC and 1300 AD.",
"Subsequent invasions by Samoans and Tongans introduced Polynesian elements to the existing Micronesian culture, and invasions by Fijians introduced Melanesian elements.",
"Extensive intermarriage produced a population reasonably homogeneous in appearance, language and traditions."
],
[
"Contact with other cultures",
"In 1606 Pedro Fernandes de Queirós sighted Butaritari and Makin, which he named the Buen Viaje ('good trip' in Spanish) Islands.Captain John Byron passed through the islands in 1764 during his circumnavigation of the globe as captain of HMS ''Dolphin''.In 1788, Captain Thomas Gilbert in and Captain John Marshall in .",
"Messrs. Gilbert and Marshall crossed through Abemama, Kuria, Aranuka, Tarawa, Abaiang, Butaritari, and Makin without attempting to land on shore."
],
[
"Further exploration",
"Makin islands, drawn by Alfred Thomas Agate (1841)In 1820, the islands were named the ''îles Gilbert'' (in French, Gilbert Islands) by Adam Johann von Krusenstern, a Russian admiral of the Czar after the British Captain Thomas Gilbert, who crossed the archipelago in 1788.In 1824, French captain Louis-Isidore Duperrey was the first to map the whole Gilbert Islands archipelago.",
"He commanded ''La Coquille'' on its circumnavigation of the earth (1822–1825).Two ships of the United States Exploring Expedition, and , under the command of Captain Hudson, visited many of the Gilbert Islands (then called the Kingsmill Islands or Kingsmill Group in English).",
"While in the Gilberts, they devoted considerable time to mapping and charting reefs and anchorages.",
"Alfred Thomas Agate made drawings of men of Butaritari and Makin."
],
[
"Colonial era",
"Whalers, blackbirders, and merchant vessels arrived in great numbers in the 19th century, and the resulting upheaval fomented local tribal conflicts and introduced damaging European diseases.",
"In an effort to restore a measure of order, the Gilbert Islands and the neighboring Ellice Islands (now Tuvalu) were declared as the British Protectorate by Captain E.H.M.",
"Davis of on 27 May 1892.===British Western Pacific Territories===SS ''Tokelau'': Government Steamer Gilbert & Ellice Islands Protectorates (30 April 1909)The British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT) were administered by a High Commissioner resident in Fiji until 1952, then in Honiara.",
"A Resident Commissioner, Charles Swayne, was appointed in 1893 following the protectorate on the Gilbert group and on the Ellice group becoming formal and effective in 1892.The protectorate's headquarters was established on Tarawa in 1896, where Resident Commissioner William Telfer Campbell presided from 1896 until 1908.The headquarters were then moved to Ocean Island (now Banaba), and continued upon the transition to a Crown Colony.",
"This move in headquarters arose from the operations of the Pacific Phosphate Company resulting in good shipping connections to Ocean Island, and in any case the role of the British colonial authorities emphasised the procurement of labour for the mining and shipping of phosphate and keeping order among the workers.Ocean Island (now Banaba) was included in the protectorate in 1900 and then in the colony in 1916.In the same year, Fanning Island and Washington Island were included in it together with the islands of the Union Islands (now Tokelau).In 1916, the administration of the BWTP changed as the islands became a Crown Colony on 12 January 1916.But the new colony remained under the jurisdiction of BWTP until 1971.===Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony===The islands became a Crown Colony on 12 January 1916 by the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Order in Council, 1915.Christmas Island was included in the colony in 1919 although it was contested by the U.S. under the Guano Islands Act of 1856.The Union Islands were unofficially transferred to New Zealand administration in 1926 and officially in 1948.The Phoenix Islands were added in 1937 and the five islands of the Central and Southern Line Islands were added in 1972.The Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony continued to be administered by a Resident Commissioner.",
"One very famous colonial officer in the colony was Sir Arthur Grimble (1888–1956), at first as a cadet officer in 1914, under Edward Carlyon Eliot who was Resident Commissioner of the BWPT then the colony from 1913 to 1920.This period is described in Eliot's book \"Broken Atoms\" (autobiographical reminiscences) (Pub.",
"G. Bles, London, 1938) and in Sir Arthur Grimble's \"A Pattern of Islands\" (Pub.",
"John Murray, London, 1952).",
"Arthur Grimble became the Resident Commissioner of the colony in 1926.In 1930 Grimble, issued revised laws, ''Regulations for the good Order and Cleanliness of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands'', which replaced laws created during the BWPT.Ocean Island remained the headquarters of the colony until the British evacuation in 1942 because of the Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands.",
"After World War II, the colony headquarters was re-established on Tarawa, first on Betio islet (then occupied by American forces following the Battle for Tarawa) and subsequently on Bairiki."
],
[
"World War II",
"Japan seized part of the islands during World War II to form part of their island defenses.",
"On 20 November 1943, Allied forces threw themselves against Japanese positions at Tarawa and Makin in the Gilberts, resulting in some of the bloodiest fighting of the Pacific campaign.",
"The Battle of Tarawa and the Battle of Makin (in fact Butaritari) were a major turning point in the war for the Allies, which battles were the implementation of \"Operation Galvanic\"."
],
[
"Self-determination",
"===Transition to self-determination===The formation of the United Nations Organisation after World War II resulted in the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization committing to a process of decolonisation; as a consequence the British colonies in the Pacific started on a path to self-determination.As a consequence of the 1974 Ellice Islands self-determination referendum, separation occurred in two stages.",
"The Tuvaluan Order 1975 made by the Privy Council, which took effect on 1 October 1975, recognised Tuvalu as a separate British dependency with its own government.",
"The second stage occurred on 1 January 1976 when separate administrations were created out of the civil service of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.===Independence for Kiribati===The Gilberts obtained internal self-government in 1977 and held general elections in February 1978 which saw Ieremia Tabai elected Chief Minister at only age 27.Kiribati attained independence as a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations on 12 July 1979 by the Kiribati Independence Order 1979 made by the Privy Council of the United Kingdom.Although the indigenous Gilbertese language name for the Gilbert Islands proper is ''Tungaru'', the new state chose the name \"Kiribati,\" the Gilbertese rendition of \"Gilberts,\" as an equivalent of the former colony to acknowledge the inclusion of islands which were never considered part of the Gilberts chain.",
"The United States gave up its claims to 14 islands of the Line and Phoenix chains (previously asserted under the Guano Islands Act) in the 1979 Treaty of Tarawa."
],
[
"Independence",
"Following independence, the Kiribati head of state was Ieremia Tabai.",
"At 29-years-old, Tabai served three terms as ''Beretitenti'' (President), from 1979 to 1991.Tabai was the youngest head of state in the Commonwealth of Nations.In 1994, Teburoro Tito was elected ''Beretitenti''.",
"He was reelected in 1998 and 2002 but was ousted in a no-confidence vote in March 2003, and having served the maximum three terms, he is barred by the constitution from running for another term.",
"Tito's temporary replacement was Tion Otang, the Council of State chairman.",
"In 2003, a new presidential election was held, in which two brothers, Anote and Harry Tong, were the two main candidates (a third candidate, Banuera Berina, won just 9.1% of the vote.Anote Tong, a London School of Economics graduate, won on 4 July 2003, and was sworn in as President soon afterward.",
"He was re-elected in 2007 and in 2012 for a third term.",
"In March 2016, Taneti Maamau was elected as the new President of Kiribati.",
"He was the fifth president since the country became independent in 1979.In June 2020, President Maamau won re-election for second four-year term.",
"President Maamau was considered pro-China and he supported closer ties with Beijing."
],
[
"The Banaba issue",
"An emotional issue has been the protracted bid by the residents of Banaba to secede and have their island placed under the protection of Fiji.",
"Because Banaba was devastated by phosphate mining, the vast majority of Banabans was deported to the island of Rabi in the Fiji Islands in the 1940s where they now number some 5,000 and enjoy full Fijian citizenship.",
"The Kiribati government has responded by including several special provisions in the Constitution, such as the designation of a Banaban seat in the legislature and the return of land previously acquired by the government for phosphate mining.",
"Only around 300 people remain on Banaba.",
"Despite being part of Kiribati, Banaba's municipal administration is by the Rabi Council of Leaders and Elders, which is based on Rabi.",
"In 2006, Teitirake Corrie, the Rabi Island Council's representative to the Parliament of Kiribati, called for Banaba to secede from Kiribati and join Fiji."
],
[
"COVID-19 pandemic",
"When the COVID-19 pandemic began in early 2020, Kiribati closed off its borders, to the extent that citizens living abroad were prevented from returning.",
"The nation remained free of the infection and in late 2021, as the case rate seemed to be declining in many countries, the government considered relaxing restrictions.",
"By that time, 33 percent of the nation's residents had been fully vaccinated against infection.",
"In January 2022, a group of Kiribati citizens who had been living and travelling abroad as missionaries for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints when the pandemic began returned to Kiribati on a chartered plane.",
"Despite negative tests for the coronavirus that causes COVID-19 before and after arrival, and a quarantine period, 36 of the 54 passengers tested positive soon after their arrival.",
"Within a few days, the viral infection had spread to more than 180 members of the community."
],
[
"See also",
"*History of Oceania*Gilbert Islands*Kiribati*Politics of Kiribati*President of Kiribati"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*''Cinderellas of the Empire'', Barrie Macdonald, IPS, University of the South Pacific, 2001*''Les Insulaires du Pacifique'', Ian C. Campbell & Jean-Paul Latouche, PUF, Paris, 2001*''Kiribati: aspects of history'', Sister Alaima Talu et al., IPS, USP, 1979, reprinted 1998*''A Pattern of Islands'', Sir Arthur Grimble, John Murray & Co, London, 1952*''Return to the Islands'', Sir Arthur Grimble, John Murray & Co, London, 1957*''A History of Kiribati: from the Earliest Times to the 40th Anniversary of the Republic'', Michael Ravell Walsh, 2020 (Independently published)."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* U.S. State Department Background Note: Kiribati* The Kiribati international date line adjustment of 1994/95"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Geography of Kiribati"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Kiribati consists of 32 atolls and one island in an expanse of ocean equivalent in size to the contiguous United States.",
"The islands are scattered such that Kiribati has territory located in each of the four hemispheres.",
"The islands of Kiribati lie roughly halfway between Hawaii and Australia in the Micronesian and Polynesian regions of the South Pacific.",
"The three main island groupings are the Gilbert Islands, Phoenix Islands, and Line Islands.",
"On 1 January 1995 Kiribati moved the International Date Line to include its easternmost islands and make it the same day throughout the country."
],
[
"Geography",
"Kiribati includes Kiritimati (Christmas Atoll; in the Line Islands), the largest coral atoll (in terms of land area, not dimensions) in the world, and Banaba (Ocean Island), one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific.Kiribati straddles the equator in the Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia.",
"On 1 January 1995, Kiribati unilaterally moved the International Date Line from the middle of the country to include its easternmost islands and make it the same day throughout the country.=== Area ===A map of KiribatiKiribati's Gilbert IslandsThe total land area mass total .",
"It includes three island groups - Gilbert Islands, Line Islands, Phoenix Islands.",
"Most of the land on these islands is less than two metres above sea level.",
"Including the amount of water, the total water and land area is 2485 square miles.",
"A 1989 United Nations report identified Kiribati as one of the countries that could completely disappear in the 21st century if steps are not taken to address global climate change.The coastline of the islands total 1,143 km (710 mi) in length.",
"Kiribati has the 12th largest exclusive economic zone of (200 nautical miles).",
"The islands are relatively flat and very spread out.",
"The highest point, on Banaba Island, is 265 feet above sea level.=== Climate ===Due to its location, Kiribati exhibits a maritime climate.",
"Temperatures range between 26 and 32 °C year-round, with the water temperature sitting on a comfortable year-round 28-29 °C.",
"The dry season is from December to March while the wet season last from February to May and from September to November.",
"In the driest years, the islands have received 150mm of rainfall while its wettest years have seen upwards of 4000mm.=== Land use ===The amount of arable land is at 2.5%.",
"Crop usage stands at about 40% of the available land.",
"A few trees exist and occupy 10% of the land.",
"About 50% of the land is used for housing and commercial use.=== Natural environment ======= Ecoregions ====Kiribati is part of three terrestrial ecoregions:* the Line Islands are in the Central Polynesian tropical moist forests ecoregion* the Phoenix Islands are in the Western Polynesian tropical moist forests ecoregion* the Gilbert islands and Banaba are in the Eastern Micronesia tropical moist forests ecoregion==== Natural resources ====Much of the natural resources have been exhausted before its 1979 independence.",
"On the island of Banaba, the British mined guano for phosphorus, until exhaustion of supply, an event that was before independence.==== Natural hazards ====Cyclones can occur any time, but usually November to March; occasional tornadoes; low level of some of the islands make them very sensitive to changes in sea level.",
"The Climate Change in the Pacific Report (2011) describes Kiribati as having a low risk of cyclones; however in March 2015 Kiribati experienced flooding and destruction of seawalls and coastal infrastructure as the result of Cyclone Pam, a Category 5 cyclone that devastated Vanuatu.==== Pollution ====The island of Banaba has suffered greatly from the after effects of the massive phosphorus mining.",
"Most of the population were forced to evacuate to the island country of Fiji due to its effects.",
"In addition, the atoll near the island of Tarawa is vulnerable to the effects of solid waste disposal.",
"A report by the United Nations say the wildlife from the region are endangered.",
"The islands are very sensitive to the damaging effects.=== International conventions ===The country signed the Convention on Diversity on 6 August 1994.It also signed conventions on the Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection.=== Protected area ===Kiribati's territorial waters (EEZ)The Phoenix Islands Protected Area constitutes 11.34% of Kiribati's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) with a size of .",
"This is the second largest marine protected area (MPA) in the Pacific Ocean.=== Additional notes ===21 of the 33 islands are inhabited.Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean.Kiribati is the only country in the world whose land exists in all four hemispheres."
],
[
"Extreme points",
"This is a list of the extreme points of Kiribati, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.",
"* Northernmost point – Teraina (Washington Island), Line Islands* Easternmost point – Caroline Island, Line Islands* Southernmost point – Flint Island, Line Islands* Westernmost point - Banaba Island"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Demographics of Kiribati"
],
[
"Introduction",
" Demographic features of the population of Kiribati include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population."
],
[
"Population",
"===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 54 096 56 040 110 136 100 0–4 7 546 6 847 14 393 13.07 5–9 6 903 6 697 13 600 12.35 10–14 5 309 5 136 10 445 9.48 15–19 5 851 5 825 11 676 10.60 20–24 5 199 5 120 10 319 9.37 25–29 4 682 4 990 9 672 8.78 30–34 3 838 4 174 8 012 7.27 35–39 3 161 3 423 6 584 5.98 40–44 2 433 2 658 5 091 4.62 45–49 2 676 3 031 5 707 5.18 50–54 2 372 2 533 4 905 4.45 55–59 1 548 1 773 3 321 3.02 60–64 1 051 1 355 2 406 2.18 65-69 731 1 017 1 748 1.59 70-74 460 778 1 238 1.12 75-79 217 391 608 0.55 80-84 80 187 267 0.24 85-89 30 79 109 0.10 90-94 7 17 24 0.02 95-99 2 9 11 0.01 100+ 0 0 0 0Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 19 758 18 680 38 438 34.90 15–64 32 811 34 882 67 693 61.46 65+ 1 527 2 478 4 005 3.64Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 59 154 60 786 119 940 100 0–4 7 965 7 422 15 387 12.83 5–9 7 517 6 895 14 412 12.02 10–14 6 701 6 598 13 299 11.09 15–19 5 368 5 022 10 390 8.66 20–24 5 629 5 520 11 149 9.30 25–29 4 993 5 113 10 106 8.43 30–34 4 511 4 776 9 287 7.74 35–39 3 791 4 086 7 877 6.57 40–44 2 997 3 145 6 142 5.12 45–49 2 311 2 555 4 866 4.06 50–54 2 413 2 802 5 215 4.35 55–59 1 861 2 289 4 150 3.46 60–64 1 386 1 679 3 065 2.56 65+ 1 711 2 884 4 595 3.83Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 22 183 20 915 43 098 35.93 15–64 35 260 36 987 72 247 60.24 65+ 1 711 2 884 4 595 3.83"
],
[
"Statistics",
"Prevalence of obesity in the adult population, top countries (2016), Kiribati has the seventh highest rate in the world.The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.=== Nationality ===* Noun: I-Kiribati (singular and plural forms)* Adjective: Kiribati or Gilbertese=== Ethnic groups ===* I-Kiribati 96.2%, 105,983 * Mixed/I-Kiribati 1.8% 1,974* Tuvaluans 0.2% 198* Others 1.8% 1,981 (2015 census)=== Religions ===* Roman Catholic: 57.3%* Kiribati Uniting Church: 31.3%* Latter-day Saints: 5.3%* Baháʼí: 2.1%* Seventh-day Adventist: 1.9%* Other: 2.1% (2015 est.",
")=== Languages ===* English (official)* Gilbertese (official)=== Population ===* 110,136 (2015 Census)* 119,940 (2020 Census)=== Age structure ===* 0–14 years: 28.47% (male 16,223, female 15,604)* 15–24 years: 20.24% (male 11,171, female 11,459)* 25–54 years: 40.05% (male 21,530, female 23,249)* 55–64 years: 6.65% (male 3,350, female 4,084)* 65 years and over: 4.59% (male 2,004, female 3,122) (2015 est.",
")From 2015 Census:* 0–5 years: 17,466* 6–14 years: 20,962* 15–17 years: 7,089* 18–49 years: 49,972* + 50 years: 14,637=== Median age ===* Average: 23.9 years* Male: 23.1 years* Female: 24.8 years (2015 est.",
")=== Population growth rate ===* 1.09% (2020 est.",
")=== Birth rate ===* 20.5 births/1,000 population (2020 est.",
")=== Death rate ===* 6.9 deaths/1,000 population (2020 est.",
")=== Net migration rate ===* -2.8 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2020 est.",
")=== Urbanization ===* Urban population: 55.6% of Total population (2020)* Rate of urbanization: 1.78% annual rate of change (2010—15 est.",
")=== Sex ratio (male(s) to female) ===* At birth: 1.05* 0–14 years: 1.04* 15–24 years: 0.97* 25–54 years: 0.93* 55–64 years: 0.82* 65 years and over: 0.64* Total population: 0.94 (2020 est.",
")=== Maternal mortality rate ===* 90 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.",
")=== Infant mortality rate ===* Total: 34.26 deaths/1,000 live births* Male: 35.48 deaths/1,000 live births* Female: 32.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2015 est.",
")=== Life expectancy at birth ===* Total population: 67.5 years* Male: 65 years* Female: 70.2 years (2020 est.",
")=== Total fertility rate ===* 2.25 children born/woman (2020 est.",
")* 3.3 (2018–19) - Pacific community=== Health expenditure (% of GDP)===* 10.8% (2017)=== Physicians density ===* 0.2 physicians/1,000 population (2013)=== Hospital bed density ===* 1.9 beds/1,000 population (2015)=== Obesity – adult prevalence rate ===* 46% (2016)=== School life expectancy ===* Male: 11 years* Female: 12 years (2015 est.)"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Politics of Kiribati"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Politics of Kiribati''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the ''Beretitenti'', President of Kiribati, is both the head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system.",
"Executive power is exercised by the government, Beretitenti, and his cabinet, all MPs.",
"Legislative power is exercised by the House of Assembly.",
"The Judiciary of Kiribati is independent of the executive and the legislature.The Constitution of Kiribati, promulgated at independence on 12 July 1979, establishes the Republic of Kiribati as a sovereign democratic republic and guarantees the fundamental rights of its citizens and residents."
],
[
"Executive branch",
"After each general election, the new-elected ''Maneaba ni Maungatabu'' (House of Assembly) nominates not less than three nor more than four of its own members to stand as candidates for President (''Beretitenti'').",
"The voting public then elects the Beretitenti from among these candidates.",
"On 22 June 2020, for the first election ever since 1979 Independence, two candidates only have been nominated — unless Section 32(2) of the Constitution writes “not less than 3”.",
"On 17 June 2020, Judgment of Sir John Muria, the Chief Justice on Civil Case 56, allowed this reading of the Constitution.",
"The elected Beretitenti appoints a ''Kauoman-ni-Beretitenti'' (vice-president) and up to ten other Cabinet Ministers from among the members of the Maneaba.",
"+Main office holdersOfficeNamePartySincePresidentTaneti MaamauTobwaan Kiribati Party11 March 2016Vice PresidentTeuea ToatuTobwaan Kiribati Party19 June 2019=== Cabinet ===The Cabinet is the top decision-making body in Kiribati, through which all functions of the government get their authority.",
"Parliament can undo Cabinet decisions through a vote of no confidence, triggering a new election.The current Cabinet consists of the following Ministers:+Cabinet of Kiribati (since 2 July 2020)OfficeOfficeholderBeretitenti and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Immigration Taneti MaamauVice President and Minister of Finance and Economic Development Dr Teuea Toatu Minister of Infrastructure and Sustainable Energy (MISE)Willie Tokataake Minister of EducationAlexander Teabo Minister of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development (MELAD) Ruateki Tekaiara Minister of Fisheries and Marine Resources DevelopmentRibanataake Tiwau Minister of Health and Medical ServicesDr Tinte Itinteang Minister of Internal Affairs (MIA)Boutu Bateriki Minister of Commerce, Industry and Cooperatives (MCIC)Booti Nauan Minister for Women, Youth, Sports and Social Affairs (MWYSSA)Martin Moreti Minister of Employment and Human Resources (MEHR)Taabeta Teakai Minister for Line and Phoenix Islands DevelopmentMikarite Temari(sworn in on 6 August 2020) Minister of Justice (MOJ)Tarakabu Tofinga(sworn in on 16 July 2020) Minister of Information, Communications, Transport and Tourism Development (MICTTD)Tekeeua TaratiThe first nine ministers sworn in on 2 July 2020 at the State House in Bairiki (South Tarawa) and include Dr Teuea Toatu, Willie Tokataake, Ruateki Tekaiara, Ribanataake Awira, Dr Tinte Itinteang, Boutu Bateriki, Booti Nauan, Martin Moreti and Taabeta Teakaiao.The remaining four ministers who are stranded in the outer islands, at their respective island, which include Alexander Teabo, Tarakabu Martin, Tekeeua Tarati and Mikarite Temari, have been sworn later.=== Attorneys-General of Kiribati ===In Kiribati, the Attorney-General is defined by section 42 of the Constitution as \"the principal legal adviser to the Government.\"",
"The Constitution specifies: \"No person shall be qualified to hold or to act in the office of Attorney-General unless he is qualified to practise in Kiribati as an advocate in the High Court.",
"\"The Attorney-General of Kiribati was also until October 2016 a member of Cabinet of Kiribati and a member of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu as an ex-officio member of parliament.",
"According to a 2005 source, the Attorney-General \"is designated by the Republic of Kiribati as the Central Authority who shall have the responsibility and power to receive requests for mutual legal assistance.",
"\"+Attorneys-General of Kiribati (Complete Table)NameYears of ServiceC.J.",
"(Joe) Lynchc.",
"1978-1979Michael Jenningsc.",
"1980-1984Michael N. Takabwebwec.",
"1984-2002Titabu Tabanec.",
"2002-2016Natan Teewe Brechtefeld2016Tetiro Semilota (1st I-Kiribati female)October 2016-October 2022"
],
[
"Legislative branch",
"Maneaba ni Maungatabu, in Ambo (2000)The former House of Assembly, at BairikiIn a Westminster system, the unicameral House of Assembly (''Maneaba ni Maungatabu'') has 45 members: 44 elected in single-seat and multi-seat constituencies; one appointed member from the Banaban community on Rabi Island in Fiji.",
"The Attorney general was no longer an ''ex officio'' member.",
"The elected members of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu serve four-year terms.",
"The Speaker of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu is elected by the members of the Maneaba from outside of its membership.",
"The total number of the Legisters is forty four from the island in Kiribati and one representative nominated from Rabi Council representing the people in Rabi island in Fiji.",
"All citizens of Kiribati are eligible to vote at the age of 18."
],
[
"Judiciary",
"The Chapter VI of the Constitution of 1979 describes the Judiciary of Kiribati.The judicial system consists of magistrates' courts, the High Court and the Kiribati Court of Appeal.",
"The Beretitenti (President), acting in accordance with the advice of the Public Service Commission, makes all judicial appointments, and amongst them, the Chief Justice, the main judge of the High Court.",
"The High Court is in Betio.",
"Sir John Muria was the Chief Justice of Kiribati until his replacement by Bill Hastings in August 2021, after a 8 months vacancy.",
"On 30 June 2022, Hastings was abruptly suspended from his office during the 2022 Kiribati constitutional crisis.The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, England has jurisdiction only if a case involves constitutional rights.",
"Appeals are taken directly to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council itself.The Court of Appeal of Kiribati is otherwise the supreme court in Kiribati.=== The People's Lawyer of Kiribati ===The People's Lawyer of Kiribati represents disadvantaged residents and those who are unable to access legal representation.",
"Accordingly, the office represents clients in \"Land, Civil and Criminal Matters and act for them in the Magistrates and High Court as well as the Court of Appeal.\"",
"The position had long been filled by expatriate lawyers who were volunteering from either Australia or New Zealand with the \"role...funded by the Australian Government through the Australian Volunteers International.\"",
"In 2015, the role of The People's Lawyer changed in that it was now filled by a Kiribati citizen: Raweita Beniata (male lawyer; 2015- ).+The People's Lawyer of Kiribati (Incomplete Table)NameTermRoger Bell (who established the office)c. 1980-1982Michael Lodgec.",
"-1986David Lambournec.",
"1995-1999Jackie Hustonc.",
"2003-2004Jennifer Troupc.",
"2004-2006Joelle Groverc.",
"2006-2007Aomoro Amtenc.",
"2007-2008Daniel Webbc.",
"2010-2011Debrah Mercurioc.",
"2011-2012Nancy WalkerAndrea Hadawayc.",
"2012-2013Jessica McLarenc.",
"2013-2015Raweita Beniata (1st I-Kiribati male citizen)c. 2015-"
],
[
"Political conditions",
"Political parties have existed since 1965 but are more similar to informal coalitions in behaviour.",
"They do not have official platforms or party structures.",
"Most candidates formally present themselves as independents, then they joined one party at the first meeting of the House.",
"The website of the House of Assembly explains that in this way::''\"There were four political parties in Kiribati, Boutokaan Te Koaua (BTK), Maurin Kiribati Party (MKP), Maneaban Te Mauri Party (MMP) and Kiribati Tabomoa Party.",
"The parties are loose groupings rather than disciplined blocks, with little or no structure.",
"Members may change allegiance on a number of occasions during their tenure.",
"It is also common for members to vote according to the special interests of their electorate on certain issues.",
"\"''Kiribati Tabomoa Party (\"National Progressive Party\") and Christian Democratic Party merged into Maneaban Te Mauri (MMP, \"Protect the Maneaba\") in 2003, which later merged with Kiribati Independent Party into Karikirakean Te I-Kiribati (KTK, \"United Coalition Party\") in 2010, which later merged with Maurin Kiribati Party (MKP) to form Tobwaan Kiribati Party (TKP), the only one facing ''Boutokaan Te Koaua'' (BTK, \"Pillars of Truth\").A major source of conflict has been the protracted bid by the residents of Banaba Island to secede and have their island placed under the protection of Fiji.",
"The government's attempts to placate the Banabans include several special provisions in the constitution, such as the designation of a Banaban seat in the legislature and the return of land previously acquired by the government for phosphate mining."
],
[
"Political parties and elections",
"There is no solid tradition of formally organized political parties in Kiribati, even if the 2 first political parties were founded in 1965; they more closely resemble factions or interest groups with no formal platforms: * BKM = Boutokaan Kiribati Moa Party, former BTK = Boutokaan te Koaua (Pillars of Truth, split from NPP), merged with KM, in May 2020;* TKP = Tobwaan Kiribati Party (Embracing Kiribati Party, BTK opposition, merger of KTK and Maurin Kiribati, est.",
"19 Jan 2016); * Former parties:** CDP = Maneabau te Mauri (Christian Democratic Party, 1965–1994, merged into MTM);** GNP = Gilbertese National Party (supported Gilbert Islands’ separation from Ellice Islands, est.",
"16 Oct 1965);** KM = Kiribati Moa (Kiribati First, split from TKP, est.",
"Nov 2019) then merged with BTK in May 2020;** KTK = Karikirakean Tei I-Kiribati (United Coalition Party, 2010–2016, merged into TKP);** MTM = Maneaban te Mauri (Protect the Maneaba, Christian-democratic, conservative, merger of CDP and NPP, 2010 merged into KTK);** NPP = National Progressive Party (merged into MTM)=== 2020 presidential election====== 2016 presidential election===CandidatePartyVotes%Taneti MaamauTobwaan Kiribati Party19,83359.96Rimeta BeniaminaPillars of Truth12,76438.59Tianeti IoanePillars of Truth4821.46Invalid/blank votes168–'''Total''''''33,247''''''100'''Registered voters/turnout Source: Pina===2015-16 legislative election===PartyFirst roundSecond roundTotalseats+/–Votes%SeatsVotes%SeatsPillars of Truth 26+11United Coalition Party 19Maurin Kiribati Party Elected Speaker––––––10Invalid/blank votes –– ––––'''Total''' '''19''' '''25''''''46''''''0'''Registered voters/turnout – –––Source: IPU"
],
[
"See also",
"*2022 Kiribati constitutional crisis"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Politics of Kiribati as of 2007: a brief overview on the official website of the Commonwealth of Nations"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Transport in Kiribati"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The following article outlines '''transport in Kiribati'''."
],
[
"Roadways",
"There are 670 km of highways in Kiribati (1996 est.)",
"of which 27 km are paved in South Tarawa (2001).",
"The longest stretch of road travels from South Tarawa to North Tarawa."
],
[
"Water transport",
"Ports and harbours include Banaba, Betio, English Harbor, and Kanton.",
"There is a small network of canals, totaling 5 km, in the Line Islands.The Merchant marine includes the ships of the Kiribati JMR Group that operates the Coral Sea Shipping Line, which has three ships: ''Coral Sea number 1'', ''Coral Sea number 2'' and ''Coral Sea number 3''.",
"One merchant ship connects, from time to time, the Line Islands (Kiritimati, Fanning and Washington) and makes stops en route at the Phoenix Islands."
],
[
"Air travel",
"2 small aeroplanes fly out of the Gilbert Islands, except for Banaba.",
"Beginning in January 2009, Kiribati has two domestic airlines: Air Kiribati and Coral Sun Airways.",
"Both airlines are based in Tarawa's Bonriki International Airport and serve destinations across the Gilbert Islands only.",
"Neither the Phoenix nor Line Islands are served by the domestic carriers.",
"The only served airport by any airline is Cassidy International Airport on Kiritimati.",
"Fiji's national carrier Fiji Airways provides an international service from Fiji's main airport, Nadi International Airport to Cassidy Airport as well as to Bonriki Airport.",
"Fiji Airways currently flies a twice weekly flight from Nadi International Airport to Bonriki, Kiribati.=== Airports ===As of 2010, there are 23 airports in Kiribati, of which 4 have paved runways, the only international ones being Bonriki International Airport and Cassidy International Airport.",
"Bonriki International Airport is currently undergoing an upgrade program to bring airport security up to IATA standards - this includes the construction of a fence around the entire perimeter."
],
[
"See also",
"* Kiribati"
],
[
"References",
"*"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Foreign relations of Kiribati"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kiribati''' is a full member of the Commonwealth, the IMF and the World Bank, and became a full member of the United Nations in 1999.Kiribati hosted the Thirty-First Pacific Islands Forum in October 2000.Kiribati has Least Developed Country Status and its interests rarely extend beyond the region.",
"Through accession to the Lomé Convention, then Cotonou Agreement, Kiribati is also a member of the African Caribbean and Pacific Group.",
"Kiribati maintains good relations with most countries and has particularly close ties to Pacific neighbours Japan, Australia, South Korea and New Zealand.",
"Kiribati briefly suspended its relations with France in 1995 over that country's decision to renew nuclear testing in the South Pacific.Kiribati established diplomatic relations with Taiwan in November 2003, but cut off all relations in September 2019 when Kiribati switched diplomatic recognition to Beijing.",
"Taiwan's foreign minister stated that Kiribati had \"unrealistic\" expectations from China and ordered the embassy to evacuate."
],
[
"Regional relations",
"Kiribati maintains strong regional ties in the Pacific.",
"Until recently it was a full member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, the South Pacific Tourism Organisation, the Pacific Regional Environment Programme and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community.",
"Kiribati is one of the eight signatories of the Nauru Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Management of Fisheries of Common Interest which collectively controls 25–30% of the world's tuna supply and approximately 60% of the western and central Pacific tuna supply .",
"In 1985, Kiribati was one of the nine initial endorsers of the Treaty of Rarotonga creating the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty.===Extra-regional relations===Kiribati was admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations in 1979 upon its independence, and to the United Nations in 1999.Additionally outside the region, Kiribati is a member or participant of the ACP (Lomé Convention), the Asian Development Bank, the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, the International Development Association, the International Finance Corporation, the IMF, International Maritime Organization, International Olympic Committee, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Universal Postal Union and the World Meteorological Organization.",
"Finally, while Kiribati is not a member of the World Trade Organization, it does retain observer status."
],
[
"Diplomatic relations",
"List of countries which Kiribati maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate112 July 1979212 July 1979312 July 1979412 July 1979512 July 1979621 March 1980729 April 198082 May 198096 June 19801025 June 1980111 July 19801230 July 19801312 August 19801420 January 19811513 October 19821619821729 October 19831815 November 198319March 19842021 May 1984211984227 August 198523Before 1986244 June 1988259 December 19882620 March 1989277 September 1989285 September 199029Before 199530Before 1995 —10 April 19953112 July 1995323330 August 19993425 March 200035September 20003621 March 2001372 September 2002381 June 20043920044029 June 20054115 September 20054213 October 20054321 September 20064427 June 20074520 June 20084621 September 20104725 September 20104825 March 20114924 September 20115027 September 20125128 September 20125228 September 2012538 May 2013 —3 September 20135415 January 20145515 January 20145617 January 20145718 February 2014584 March 20145920 June 2014604 September 20146115 September 2014622 March 20156310 April 20156426 January 20166528 March 20166617 June 20166726 August 20166827 February 2017698 August 20177022 January 2018719 July 20187225 September 20187325 September 20187426 September 2018755 April 20197617 August 20197726 September 20197817 May 20217927 May 2021803 June 2021818 June 20218220 August 20218320 October 20218429 October 20218526 April 20228621 September 20228719 December 20238889Unknown90Unknown91Unknown92Unknown"
],
[
"Bilateral relations",
" Country Formal Relations BeganNotes12 July 1979* Australia has a high commission in Tarawa.",
"* Kiribati has an honorary consulate in Burradoo, New South Wales.25 June 1980, broke off 29 November 2003.Restored 27 September 2019.Kiribati President Taneti Mamau and Republic of China President Tsai Ing-wen in May 2016.Kiribati firstly established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1980.At that time, Kiribati had been the home to a satellite tracking base for PRC space program from 1997 until 2003.On 7 November 2003, Kiribati established diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (ROC).",
"Although it did not sever ties with the PRC, expressing the intention to continue relations, Beijing suspended ties on 29 November after failed attempts to lobby President Anote Tong to change his mind.On 9 January 2004, the ROC opened its embassy in Kiribati.",
"On 31 May 2013, Kiribati opened its embassy in Taipei.",
"This was the first ever Kiribati embassy outside of Oceania.",
"Teekoa Iuta became Kiribati's first ambassador to the country.",
"On 20 September 2019, Kiribati switched diplomatic relations from Taiwan to China, effectively cutting all relations to Taiwan.",
"Taiwanese Foreign Minister Joseph Wu said Beijing had used \"dollar diplomacy\" to influence the Kiribati government.On 15 July 2023, the Chinese military hospital ship “Peace Ark” made harbor at Tarawa, Kiribati, the first Chinese military vessel to visit Kiribati.",
"The seven-day visit was to include humanitarian and medical assistance, part of China’s effort to build relationships in the region, and was to be followed by stops in Tonga, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands and East Timor.2 September 2002In the late 2000s, Kiribati began to strengthen its relations with Cuba.",
"Cuba provides medical aid to Kiribati.",
"There are currently sixteen doctors providing specialised medical care in Kiribati, with sixteen more scheduled to join them.",
"Cuban doctors have reportedly provided a dramatic improvement to the field of medical care in Kiribati, reducing the child mortality rate in that country by 80% As of September 2008, over twenty I-Kiribati medical students are studying in Cuba, at Cuba's expense.In September 2008, President Anote Tong attended the first Cuba-Pacific Islands ministerial meeting in Havana.",
"By meeting President Raúl Castro to discuss \"mutual friendship and cooperation\", he became the first Pacific leader to pay a state visit to Cuba.",
"The two countries signed an agreement on increased cooperation in the field of health.3 December 1982, broke off 6 September 1995, Restored 6 February 1997The two countries maintain official diplomatic relations, but no diplomatic presence on each other's territory; the French embassy in Suva is accredited to Kiribati.In 1995, Kiribati briefly suspended its diplomatic relations with France in protest against French nuclear tests at Mururoa in French Polynesia.",
"28 September 2012 * Georgia is accredited to Kiribati from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.1 July 1980German shipping companies opened a trade school for seamen in 1967.It exists until today.",
"About I-Kiribati 5,000 seaman work for German shipping companies today.",
"* Kiribati has an honorary consul in Hamburg.",
"* Germany has no embassy in Tarawa.",
"The German embassy in Wellington is accredited for Kiribati.6 August 1985Diplomatic relations between Kiribati and India were established on 6 August 1985.At the Post Forum Dialogue partner meeting in 2006, India announced that it would provide a grant-in-aid of US$100,000 annually to each of the 14 Pacific Island countries, including Kiribati.",
"This was increased to US$125,000 from 2009.13 October 2005* Kiribati does not have an accreditation to Mexico.",
"* Mexico is accredited to Kiribati from its embassy in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.12 July 1979* Kiribati has an honorary consulate in Wellington.",
"* New Zealand has a high commission in Tarawa.",
"2 May 1980 The Republic of Kiribati and the Republic of Korea have established diplomatic relations on May 2, 1980.",
"* Kiribati and South Korea have nice diplomatic relations and others things.",
"12 July 1979Britain has long-standing historic links with Kiribati.",
"The first British visitor to Kiribati was reputed to be Commodore John Byron in 1765, the immediate predecessor of James Cook's more famous explorations of the Pacific between 1769 and 1779.With the growth of the British settlement in Australia's New South Wales, whaling became a key element of the regional economy, and up to the 1870s British whalers were regular visitors to the waters surrounding Kiribati.",
"Through its network of sovereign posts in the region (Fiji, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and Australia), the UK maintains bilateral programmes with Kiribati sponsored by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Department for Environment and Department for International Development and other government departments.",
"The UK Government's engagement in Kiribati is largely delivered through the Commonwealth, the European Union and The Asian Development Bank.12 August 1980Following its independence in 1979, Kiribati signed a treaty of friendship with the United States.",
"The United States Department of State characterizes U.S.–Kiribati relations as \"excellent\", .",
"Diplomatic relations are conducted by the I-Kiribati Ambassador to the United States.",
"Although the U.S. does not maintain a diplomatic office or consulate in Kiribati, staff from the American embassy in Suva, Fiji make frequent visits to Kiribati.",
"The U.S. provides economic development assistance through multilateral institutions.",
"From 1967 to 2008, the United States Peace Corps operated in Kiribati."
],
[
"Aid & Development",
"Kiribati receives development aid from the European Union, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Canada, USA, the Asian Development Bank, UN agencies and (until 2019) Taiwan.",
"In recent years it has accounted for 20–25% of Kiribati's GDP.",
"Recent projects and notable inputs by the EU have included telecommunications (improvement of telephone exchanges and provision of radio and navigation equipment), the development of seaweed as an export crop, solar energy systems for the outer islands, the upgrading of the Control Tower and fire fighting services at Tarawa's Bonriki International Airport, outer island social development, health services and extensive support for the Kiribati Vocational Training Programme.",
"Additionally, Cuba provides doctors, as well as scholarships for I-Kiribati medical students."
],
[
"See also",
"*Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Immigration*List of diplomatic missions in Kiribati*List of diplomatic missions of Kiribati"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Immigration* Government of Kiribati Climate Change portal* Tarawa Climate Change Conference website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"History of Kuwait"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Kuwait is a sovereign state in Western Asia located at the head of the Persian Gulf.",
"The geographical region of Kuwait has been occupied by humans since antiquity, particularly due to its strategic location at the head of the Persian Gulf.",
"In the pre-oil era, Kuwait was a regional trade port.",
"In the modern era, Kuwait is best known for the Gulf War (1990–1991)."
],
[
"Antiquity",
"===Mesopotamia===Following the post-glacial flooding of the Persian Gulf basin, debris from the Tigris–Euphrates river formed a substantial delta, creating most of the land in present-day Kuwait and establishing the present coastlines.",
"One of the earliest evidence of human habitation in Kuwait dates back to 8000 BC where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan.",
"During the Ubaid period (6500 BC), Kuwait was the central site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia, including Bahra 1 and site H3 in Subiya.",
"The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the world's earliest maritime traders.",
"One of the world's earliest reed-boats was discovered at site H3 dating back to the Ubaid period.",
"Other Neolithic sites in Kuwait are located in Khiran and Sulaibikhat.Mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 B.C.",
"Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business.",
"The island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 B.C.Ancient coins found on Failaka Island.In 4000 BC until 2000 BC, the bay of Kuwait was home to the Dilmun civilization.",
"Dilmun included Al-Shadadiya, Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Failaka.",
"Dilmun first appears in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna in the city of Uruk.",
"The adjective Dilmun is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official; in addition there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.AntiquitiesIn the Mesopotamian epic poem ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', Gilgamesh had to pass through Mount Mashu to reach Dilmun, Mount Mashu is usually identified with the whole of the parallel Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges, with the narrow gap between these mountains constituting the tunnel.Dilmun, sometimes described as \"the place where the sun rises\" and \"the Land of the Living\", is the scene of some versions of the Sumerian creation myth, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, Utnapishtim (Ziusudra), was taken by the gods to live forever.",
"Thorkild Jacobsen's translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it ''\"Mount Dilmun\"'' which he locates as a ''\"faraway, half-mythical place\"''.",
"Dilmun is also described in the epic story of Enki and Ninhursag as the site at which the Creation occurred.",
"The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother: For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals,whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives.The Sumerian goddess of air and wind Ninlil had her home in Dilmun.",
"It is also featured in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh''.",
"However, in the early epic ''Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta'', the main events, which center on Enmerkar's construction of the ziggurats in Uruk and Eridu, are described as taking place in a world \"before Dilmun had yet been settled\".From about 1650 BC there is a further inscription on a seal found at Failaka and preserving a king's name.",
"The short text readsː ''La'ù-la Panipa, daughter of Sumu-lěl, the servant of Inzak of Akarum''.",
"Sumu-lěl was evidently a third king of Dilmun belonging to about this period.",
"''Servant of Inzak of Akarum'' was the king's title in Dilmun.",
"The names of these later rulers are Amoritic.Despite the scholarly consensus that ancient Dilmun encompasses three modern locations - the eastern littoral of Arabia from the vicinity of modern Kuwait to Bahrain; the island of Bahrain; the island of Failaka of Kuwait - few researchers have taken into account the radically different geography of the basin represented by the Persian Gulf before its reflooding as sea levels rose about 6000 BCE.",
"During the Dilmun era (from ca.",
"3000 BC), Failaka was known as \"Agarum\", the land of Enzak, a great god in the Dilmun civilization according to Sumerian cuneiform texts found on the island.",
"During the Neo-Babylonian Period, Enzak was identified with Nabu, the ancient Mesopotamian patron god of literacy, the rational arts, scribes and wisdom.",
"As part of Dilmun, Failaka became a hub for the civilization from the end of the 3rd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC.",
"Failaka was settled following 2000 BC after a drop in sea level.After the Dilmun civilization, Failaka was inhabited by the Kassites of Mesopotamia, and was formally under the control of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon.",
"Studies indicate traces of human settlement can be found on Failaka dating back to as early as the end of the 3rd millennium BC, and extending until the 20th century AD.",
"Many of the artifacts found in Falaika are linked to Mesopotamian civilizations and seem to show that Failaka was gradually drawn toward the civilization based in Antioch.Under Nebuchadnezzar II, the bay of Kuwait was under Babylonian control.",
"Cuneiform documents found in Failaka indicate the presence of Babylonians in the island's population.",
"Babylonian Kings were present in Failaka during the Neo-Babylonian Empire period, Nabonidus had a governor in Failaka and Nebuchadnezzar II had a palace and temple in Falaika.",
"Failaka also contained temples dedicated to the worship of Shamash, the Mesopotamian sun god in the Babylonian pantheon.Most of present-day Kuwait is still archaeologically unexplored.",
"Although there is no scholarly consensus, several archaeologists and geologists have proposed that Kuwait was likely the original location of the Pishon River which watered the Garden of Eden.",
"Juris Zarins argued that the Garden of Eden was situated at the head of the Persian Gulf (present-day Kuwait), where the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers run into the sea, from his research on this area using information from many different sources, including LANDSAT images from space.",
"His suggestion about the Pishon River was supported by James A. Sauer of the American Center of Oriental Research.",
"Sauer made an argument from geology and history that Pishon River was the now-defunct Kuwait River.",
"With the aid of satellite photos, Farouk El-Baz traced the dry channel from Kuwait up the Wadi al-Batin.The Seleucid Empire at its greatest extent.After an apparent abandonment of about seven centuries, the bay of Kuwait was repopulated during the Achaemenid period (c. 550‒330 BC).",
"In 4th century BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great, the ancient Greeks named mainland Kuwait ''Larissa'' and Failaka was named ''Ikaros''.According to Strabo and Arrian, Alexander the Great named Failaka ''Ikaros'' because it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape.",
"Various elements of Greek mythology were mixed with the local cults in Failaka.",
"\"Ikaros\" was also the name of a prominent city situated in Failaka.According to another account, having returned from his Indian campaign to Persia, Alexander the Great ordered the island to be called Icarus, after the Icarus island in the Aegean Sea.",
"This was likely a Hellenization of the local name Akar (Aramaic 'KR), derived from the ancient bronze-age toponym Agarum.",
"Another suggestion is that the name Ikaros was influenced by the local É-kara temple, dedicated to the Babylonian sun-god Shamash.",
"That both Failaka and the Aegean Icarus housed bull cults would have made the identification tempting all the more.During Hellenistic times, there was a temple of Artemis on the island.",
"The wild animals on the island were dedicated to goddess and no one should harm them.",
"Strabo wrote that on the island there was a temple of Apollo and an oracle of Artemis (Tauropolus) (μαντεῖον Ταυροπόλου).",
"The island is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium and Ptolemaeus.Remains of the settlement include a large Hellenistic fort and two Greek temples.",
"Failaka was also a trading post (emporion) of the kingdom of Characene.",
"Archaeological remains of Greek colonization were also discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Subiya.",
"At the Hellenistic fortress in Failaka, pigs represented 20 percent of the total population, but no pig remains were found in nearby Akkaz.Nearchos was likely the first Greek to have explored Failaka.",
"The island was further visited and inspected by Archias, Androsthenes of Thasos, and Hiero during three exploration expeditions ordered by Alexander the Great during 324 BC.",
"Failaka might have been fortified and settled during the days of Seleucus I or Antiochos I.At the time of Alexander the Great, the mouth of the Euphrates River was located in northern Kuwait.",
"The Euphrates river flowed directly into the Persian Gulf via Khor Subiya which was a river channel at the time.",
"Failaka was located 15 kilometers from the mouth of the Euphrates river.",
"By the first century BC, the Khor Subiya river channel dried out completely.The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest territorial extent.During the Achaemenid period (c. 550‒330 BC), the bay of Kuwait was repopulated.",
"Failaka was under the control of the Achaemenid Empire as evidenced by the archaeological discovery of Achaemenid strata.",
"There are Aramaic inscriptions that testify Achaemenid presence.In 127 BC, Kuwait was part of the Parthian Empire and the kingdom of Characene was established around Teredon in present-day Kuwait.",
"Characene was centered in the region encompassing southern Mesopotamia, Characene coins were discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Failaka.",
"A busy Parthian era Characene commercial station existed in Kuwait.The earliest recorded mention of Kuwait was in 150 AD in the geographical treatise ''Geography'' by Greek scholar Ptolemy.",
"Ptolemy mentioned the Bay of Kuwait as ''Hieros Kolpos'' (''Sacer Sinus'' in the Latin versions).In 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sassanid Empire.",
"At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait was known as ''Meshan'', which was an alternative name of the kingdom of Characene.Late Sassanian settlements were discovered in Failaka.Akkaz was a Partho-Sassanian site; the Sassanid religion's tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz.In Bubiyan, there is archaeological evidence of Sassanian periods of human presence as evidenced by the recent discovery of torpedo-jar pottery sherds on several prominent beach ridges.In 636 AD, the Battle of Chains between the Sassanid Empire and Rashidun Caliphate was fought in Kuwait near Kazma.",
"At the time, Kuwait was under the control of the Sassanid Empire.",
"The Battle of Chains was the first battle of the Rashidun Caliphate in which the Muslim army sought to extend its frontiers.As a result of Rashidun victory in 636 AD, the bay of Kuwait was home to the city of Kazma (also known as \"Kadhima\" or \"Kāzimah\") in the early Islamic era.",
"Medieval Arabic sources contain multiple references to the bay of Kuwait in the early Islamic period.",
"The city functioned as a trade port and resting place for pilgrims on their way from Iraq to Hejaz.",
"The city was controlled by the kingdom of Al-Hirah in Iraq.",
"In the early Islamic period, the bay of Kuwait was known for being a fertile area.Kazna was mainly a stop for caravans coming from Persia and Mesopotamia en route to the Arabian Peninsula.",
"The poet Al-Farazdaq was born in Kazma.",
"Al-Farazdaq is recognized as one of the greatest classical poets of the Arabs.Early to late Islamic settlements were discovered in Subiya, Akkaz, Kharaib al-Dasht, Umm al-Aish, Al-Rawdatain, Al Qusur, Umm an Namil, Miskan, and Kuwait's side of Wadi al-Batin.There is archaeological evidence of early Islamic periods of human presence in Bubiyan.Christian Nestorian settlements flourished in the bay of Kuwait from the 5th century until the 9th century.",
"Excavations have revealed several farms, villages and two large churches dating from the 5th and 6th century.",
"Archaeologists are currently excavating nearby sites to understand the extent of the settlements that flourished in the eighth and ninth centuries A.D. An old island tradition is that a community grew up around a Christian mystic and hermit.",
"The small farms and villages were eventually abandoned.",
"Remains of Byzantine era Nestorian churches were found in Akkaz and Al-Qusur.",
"Pottery at the Al-Qusur site can be dated from as early as the first half of the 7th century through the 9th century."
],
[
"Pre-oil history",
"In 1521, Kuwait was under Portuguese control.",
"In the late 16th century, the Portuguese built a defensive settlement in Kuwait.",
"In 1613, Kuwait City was a small fishing village.",
"Administratively, it was a sheikhdom, ruled by local sheikhs from Bani Khalid clan.",
"in 1716, the Bani Utbah settled in Kuwait.",
"Sometime after the death of the Bani Khalid's leader Barrak Bin Urair and the fall of the Bani Khalid Emirate, the Utub were able to wrest control of Kuwait as a result of successive matrimonial alliances.The man chosen was a Sabah, Sabah I bin Jaber.",
"Sabah diplomacy may have also been important with neighbouring clans, especially as Bani Khalid power declined.",
"This selection is usually dated to 1752.===Early growth (1760–1899)=======Economy====In the latter half of the eighteenth century, Kuwait gradually became a principal commercial center for the transit of goods between India, Muscat, Baghdad, Persia, and Arabia.",
"By the late-1700s, Kuwait had already established itself as a trading route from the Persian Gulf to Aleppo.",
"During the Persian siege of Basra in 1775–1779, Iraqi merchants took refuge in Kuwait and were partly instrumental in the expansion of Kuwait's boatbuilding and trading activities.",
"As a result, Kuwait's maritime commerce boomed.Marine Museum in Kuwait City.",
"Demonstrates the founding of Kuwait as a sea port for merchants.Between the years 1775 and 1779, the Indian trade routes with Baghdad, Aleppo, Smyrna and Constantinople were diverted to Kuwait.",
"The East India Company was diverted to Kuwait in 1792.The East India Company secured the sea routes between Kuwait, India and the east coasts of Africa.",
"After the Persians withdrew from Basra in 1779, Kuwait continued to attract trade away from Basra.",
"The flight of many of Basra's leading merchants to Kuwait continued to play a significant role in Basra's commercial stagnation well into the 1850s.Regional geopolitical turbulence helped foster economic prosperity in Kuwait in the second half of the 18th century.",
"Kuwait became prosperous due to Basra's instability in the late 18th century.",
"In the late 18th century, Kuwait partly functioned as a haven for Basra's merchants fleeing Ottoman government persecution.",
"In 1776, Sabah I died and was succeeded by his youngest son, Abdullah.",
"Shortly before Sabah's death, in 1766, the al-Khalifa and, soon after, the al-Jalahima, left Kuwait en masse for Zubara in Qatar.",
"Domestically, the al-Khalifa and al-Jalahima had been among the top contenders for power.",
"Their emigration left the Sabahs in undisputed control, and by the end of Abdullah I's long rule (1776-1814), Sabah rule was secure, and the political hierarchy in Kuwait was well established, the merchants deferring to direct orders from the Shaikh.",
"By the 19th century, not only was the ruling Sabah much stronger than a desert Shaikh but also capable of naming his son successor.",
"This influence was not just internal but enabled the al-Sabah to conduct foreign diplomacy.",
"They soon established good relations with the British East India Company in 1775.Kuwait was the center of boat building in the Persian Gulf region.",
"Kuwaiti ship vessels were renowned throughout the Indian Ocean.",
"Its sailors developed a positive reputation in the Persian Gulf.",
"In the 19th century, Kuwait became significant in the horse trade, horses were regularly shipped by the way of sailing boats from Kuwait.",
"In the mid 19th century, it was estimated that Kuwait was exporting an average of 800 horses to India annually.====Assassination of Muhammad Bin Sabah====In the 1870s, Ottoman officials were reasserting their presence in the Persian Gulf, with a military intervention in 1871—which was not effectively pursued—where family rivalries in Kuwait were breeding chaos.",
"The Ottomans were bankrupt and when the European banks took control of the Ottoman budget in 1881, additional income was required from Kuwait.",
"Midhat Pasha, the governor of Iraq, demanded that Kuwait submit financially to Ottoman rule.",
"The al-Sabah found diplomatic allies in the British Foreign Office.",
"However, under Abdullah II Al-Sabah, Kuwait pursued a general pro-Ottoman foreign policy, formally taking the title of Ottoman provincial governor, this relationship with the Ottoman Empire did result in Ottoman interference with Kuwaiti laws and selection or rulers.",
"In May 1896, Shaikh Muhammad Al-Sabah was assassinated by his half-brother, Mubarak, who, in early 1897, was recognized, by the Ottoman sultan, as the ''qaimmaqam'' (provincial sub-governor) of Kuwait.====Mubarak the Great====Mubarak Al-Sabah \"the Great\" (1837–1915) Mubarak's seizure of the throne via murder left his brother's former allies as a threat to his rule, especially as his opponents gained the backing of the Ottomans.",
"In July, Mubarak invited the British to deploy gunboats along the Kuwaiti coast.",
"Britain saw Mubarak's desire for an alliance as an opportunity to counteract German influence in the region and so agreed.",
"This led to what is known as the First Kuwaiti Crisis, in which the Ottomans demanded that the British stop interfering with their empire.",
"In the end, the Ottoman Empire backed down, rather than go to war.In January 1899, Mubarak signed an agreement with the British which pledged that Kuwait would never cede any territory nor receive agents or representatives of any foreign power without the British Government's consent.",
"In essence, this policy gave Britain control of Kuwait's foreign policy.",
"The treaty also gave Britain responsibility for Kuwait's national security.",
"In return, Britain agreed to grant an annual subsidy of 15,000 Indian rupees (£1,500) to the ruling family.",
"In 1911, Mubarak raised taxes.",
"Therefore, three wealthy business men Ibrahim Al-Mudhaf, Helal Al-Mutairi, and Shamlan Ali bin Saif Al-Roumi (brother of Hussain Ali bin Saif Al-Roumi), led a protest against Mubarak by making Bahrain their main trade point, which negatively affected the Kuwaiti economy.",
"However, Mubarak went to Bahrain and apologized for raising taxes and the three business men returned to Kuwait.",
"In 1915, Mubarak the Great died and was succeeded by his son Jaber II Al-Sabah, who reigned for just over one year until his death in early 1917.His brother Sheikh Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah succeeded him.During the reign of Mubarak, Kuwait was dubbed the \"Marseilles of the Persian Gulf\" because its economic vitality attracted a large variety of people.",
"The population was cosmopolitan and ethnically diverse, including Arabs, Persians, Africans, Jews, and Armenians.",
"Kuwait was known for its religious tolerance.In the first decades of the twentieth century, Kuwait had a well-established elite: wealthy trading families who were linked by marriage and shared economic interests.",
"The elite were long-settled, urban, Sunni families, the majority of which claim descent from the original 30 Bani Utubi families.",
"The wealthiest families were trade merchants who acquired their wealth from long-distance commerce, shipbuilding and pearling.",
"They were a cosmopolitan elite, they traveled extensively to India, Africa and Europe.",
"The elite educated their sons abroad more than other Gulf Arab elite.",
"Western visitors noted that Kuwait's elite used European office systems, typewriters and followed European culture with curiosity.",
"The richest families were involved in general trade.",
"The merchant families of Al-Ghanim and Al-Hamad were estimated to be worth millions before the 1940s.===Anglo-Ottoman convention (1913)===Informal negotiations began on 29 July 1911 in a British memorandum sent to the Ottoman Government.",
"By this time, it seemed likely that the terminus for the German funded and engineered Berlin–Baghdad railway would be situated in Kuwait.",
"Kuwait had been under Ottoman administration since 1871 and in 1875 was included in the Basra Vilayet.",
"Although the sheikhdom now fell under the Empire’s jurisdiction, no Ottoman official was stationed in Kuwait.",
"Influence over Kuwait was crucial to British foreign policy in the Persian Gulf with regard to commerce and strategic interests concerning India.",
"In the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, the British concurred with the Ottoman Empire in defining Kuwait as an autonomous kaza of the Ottoman Empire and that the Shaikhs of Kuwait were not independent leaders, but rather ''qaimmaqams'' (provincial sub-governors) of the Ottoman government.The convention ruled that Sheikh Mubarak had authority over an area extending out to a radius of 80 km, from the capital.",
"This region was marked by a red circle and included the islands of Auhah, Bubiyan, Failaka, Kubbar, Mashian, and Warbah.",
"A green circle designated an area extending out an additional 100 km, in radius, within which the ''qaimmaqam'' was authorized to collect tribute and taxes from the natives.World War I disrupted elements of Kuwait's politics, society, economy and trans-regional networks.===Mesopotamian Campaign (1914)===On 6 November 1914, British offensive action began with the naval bombardment of the old fort at Fao in Iraq, located at the point where the Shatt-al-Arab meets the Persian Gulf.",
"At the Fao Landing, the British Indian Expeditionary Force D (IEF D), comprising the 6th (Poona) Division led by Lieutenant General Arthur Barrett with Sir Percy Cox as Political Officer, was opposed by 350 Ottoman troops and 4 guns.",
"After a sharp engagement, the fort was overrun.",
"By mid-November the Poona Division was fully ashore and began moving towards the city of Basra.The same month, the ruler of Kuwait, Sheikh Mubarak Al-Sabah, contributed to the Allied war effort by sending forces to attack Ottoman troops at Umm Qasr, Safwan, Bubiyan, and Basra.",
"In exchange the British government recognised Kuwait as an \"independent government under British protection.\"",
"There is no report on the exact size and nature of Mubarak's attack, though Ottoman forces did retreat from those positions weeks later.",
"Mubarak soon removed the Ottoman symbol from the Kuwaiti flag and replaced it with \"Kuwait\" written in Arabic script.",
"Mubarak's participation and previous exploits in obstructing the completion of the Baghdad railway helped the British safeguard the Persian Gulf by preventing Ottoman and German reinforcement.",
"He refused to rent any storage facilities to the Germans.===Kuwait–Najd War (1919–21)===The Kuwait-Najd War erupted in the aftermath of World War I, when the Ottoman Empire was defeated and the British invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention.",
"The power vacuum, left by the fall of the Ottomans, sharpened the conflict between Kuwait and Najd (Ikhwan).",
"The war resulted in sporadic border clashes throughout 1919–20.Kuwait Red Fort.However, Kuwait immensely declined in regional economic importance, mainly due to various trade blockades and the world economic depression.",
"The Great Depression negatively impacted Kuwait's economy starting in the late 1920s.",
"International trading was one of Kuwait's main sources of income before oil.",
"Kuwaiti merchants were mostly intermediary merchants.",
"As a result of European decline of demand for goods from India and Africa, the economy of Kuwait suffered.",
"The decline in international trade resulted in an increase in gold smuggling by Kuwaiti ships to India.",
"Some Kuwaiti merchant families became rich due to gold smuggling to India.Kuwait's pearling industry also collapsed as a result of the worldwide economic depression.",
"At its height, Kuwait's pearling industry led the world's luxury market, regularly sending out between 750 and 800 ship vessels to meet the European elite's need for luxuries pearls.",
"During the economic depression, luxuries like pearls were in little demand.",
"The Japanese invention of cultured pearls also contributed to the collapse of Kuwait's pearling industry.====Battle of Jahra====The Battle of Jahra was a battle during the Kuwait-Najd War.",
"The battle took place in Al Jahra, west of Kuwait City on 10 October 1920 between Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah ruler of Kuwait and Ikhwan Wahhabi followers of Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia, king of Saudi Arabia.A force of 4,000 Saudi Ikhwan, led by Faisal Al-Dawish, attacked the Kuwait Red Fort at Al-Jahra, defended by 2,000 Kuwaiti men.",
"The Kuwaitis were largely outnumbered by the Ikhwan of Najd.====Sheikh Khaz'al turns down the throne of Kuwait====When Percy Cox was informed of the border clashes in Kuwait, he sent a letter to Mohammerah Sheikh Khazʽal Ibn Jabir offering the Kuwaiti throne to either him or one of his heirs, knowing that Khaz'al would be a wiser ruler than the Al Sabah family.",
"Khaz'al, who considered the Al Sabah as his own family, replied \"Do you expect me to allow the stepping down of Al Mubarak from the throne of Kuwait?",
"Do you think I can accept this?\"",
"He then asked: Ibn Saud imposed a tight trade blockade against Kuwait from the years 1923 until 1937.The goal of the Saudi economic and military attacks on Kuwait was to annex as much of Kuwait's territory as possible.",
"===The Uqair protocol===The British High Commissioner in Baghdad, Percy Cox, imposed the Uqair Protocol of 1922 which defined the boundaries between Iraq, Kuwait and Nejd.",
"In April 1923, Shaikh Ahmad al-Sabah wrote the British Political Agent in Kuwait, Major John More, \"I still do not know what the border between Iraq and Kuwait is, I shall be glad if you will kindly give me this information.\"",
"More, upon learning that al-Sabah claimed the outer green line of the Anglo-Ottoman Convention (4 April), would relay the information to Sir Percy.On 19 April, Sir Percy stated that the British government recognized the outer line of the convention as the border between Iraq and Kuwait.",
"This decision limited Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf at 58 km of mostly marshy and swampy coastline.",
"As this would make it difficult for Iraq to become a naval power (the territory did not include any deepwater harbours), the Iraqi King Faisal I (whom the British installed as a puppet king in Iraq) did not agree to the plan.",
"However, as his country was under British mandate, he had little say in the matter.",
"Iraq and Kuwait would formally ratify the border in August.",
"The border was re-recognized in 1932.Attempts by Faisal I to build an Iraqi railway to Kuwait and port facilities on the Gulf were rejected by Britain.",
"These and other similar British colonial policies made Kuwait a focus of the Arab national movement in Iraq, and a symbol of Iraqi humiliation at the hands of the British.Kuwait's border was revisited by a memorandum sent by the British high commissioner for Iraq in 1923, which became the basis for Kuwait's northern border.",
"In Iraq's 1932 application to the League of Nations it included information about its borders, including its border with Kuwait, where it accepted the boundary established in 1923.Fateh Al-Khayr is a museum ship in Kuwait.",
"The ship was built in 1938.After the Uqair conference, Kuwait was still subjected to a Saudi economic blockade and intermittent Saudi raiding.",
"Some merchant families left Kuwait in the early 1930s due to the prevalence of economic hardship.",
"At the time of the discovery of oil in 1937, most of Kuwait's inhabitants were impoverished.",
"Merchants had the most economic power.",
"Al Sabah family rule remained limited until well into the 1930s because the merchants, owing to their financial power, were the primary sources of income in Kuwait.",
"The inauguration of the oil era freed the rulers from their financial dependency on merchant wealth.Before Mary Bruins Allison visited Kuwait in 1934, Kuwait had already lost its prominence in long-distance trade.",
"During World War I, the British Empire imposed a trade blockade against Kuwait because Kuwait's ruler supported the Ottoman Empire.",
"The British economic blockade heavily damaged Kuwait's economy.In 1937, Freya Stark wrote about the extent of poverty in Kuwait at the time:Al Sabah became Kuwait's dynastic monarchy in 1938.One tradition has it that political power went to the Sabahs as part of an explicit agreement; merchant families focused on the trade while the House of Sabah and other notable Kuwaiti families provided protection of city housed within Kuwait's wall.",
"===1930–1939: Iraq–Kuwait Reunification Movement===Throughout the 1930s, Kuwaiti people opposed the British imposed separation of Kuwait from Iraq.In the 1930s, a popular movement emerged in Kuwait which called for the reunification of the country with Iraq.",
"This movement coalesced into the Free Kuwaiti Movement in 1938, which was established by Kuwaiti youths who were opposed to British influence in the region.",
"The movement submitted a petition to the Iraqi government demanding that it support the reunification of Kuwait and Iraq.",
"Fearing that the movement would turn into an armed rebellion, the Al Sabah family agreed to the establishment of a legislative council to represent the Free Kuwaiti Movement and its political demands.",
"The council's first meeting in 1938 resulted in a unanimous resolution demanding the reunification of Kuwait and Iraq.In March 1939, an armed rebellion broke out in Kuwait by supporters of the movement, seeking to reunify Kuwait with Iraq by force.",
"Supported by the British, the Al Sabah family rapidly suppressed the rebellion, imprisoning numerous supporters of the movement.",
"King Ghazi of Iraq publicly demanded that the prisoners be released and the Al Sabah family end their repressive policies towards members of the Free Kuwaiti Movement."
],
[
"Modern era",
"===Independence and early state-building (1946–89)===Between 1946 and 1982, Kuwait experienced a period of prosperity driven by oil and its liberal cultural atmosphere; this period is called the \"golden era\".",
"In 1946, crude oil was exported for the first time.",
"In 1950, a major public-work programme allowed Kuwaitis to enjoy a modern standard of living.",
"By 1952, the country became the largest oil exporter in the Persian Gulf.",
"This massive growth attracted many foreign workers, especially from Palestine, Egypt, Iran, and India.In June 1961, Kuwait became independent with the end of the British protectorate and the sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah became an Emir.",
"Under the terms of the newly drafted constitution, Kuwait held its first parliamentary elections in 1963.Kuwait was the first Arab state in the Persian Gulf to establish a constitution and parliament.HMS ''Victorious'' taking part in Operation Vantage in July 1961Although Kuwait formally gained independence in 1961, Iraq initially refused to recognize the country's independence by maintaining that Kuwait is part of Iraq, albeit Iraq later briefly backed down following a show of force by Britain and Arab League support of Kuwait's independence.",
"The short-lived Operation Vantage crisis evolved in July 1961, as the Iraqi government threatened to invade Kuwait and the invasion was finally averted following plans by the Arab League to form an international Arab force against the potential Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.",
"As a result of Operation Vantage, the Arab League took over the border security of Kuwait and the British had withdrawn their forces by 19 October.",
"Iraqi prime minister Abd al-Karim Qasim was killed in a coup in 1963 but, although Iraq recognised Kuwaiti independence and the military threat was perceived to be reduced, Britain continued to monitor the situation and kept forces available to protect Kuwait until 1971.There had been no Iraqi military action against Kuwait at the time: this was attributed to the political and military situation within Iraq which continued to be unstable.",
"A treaty of friendship between Iraq and Kuwait was signed in 1963 by which Iraq recognised the 1932 border of Kuwait.",
"The Kuwait-Iraq 1973 Sanita border skirmish evolved on 20 March 1973, when Iraqi army units occupied El-Samitah near the Kuwaiti border, which evoked an international crisis.On 6 February 1974, Palestinian militants occupied the Japanese embassy in Kuwait, taking the ambassador and ten others hostage.",
"The militants' motive was to support the Japanese Red Army members and Palestinian militants who were holding hostages on a Singaporean ferry in what is known as the ''Laju'' incident.",
"Ultimately, the hostages were released, and the guerrillas allowed to fly to Aden.",
"This was the first time Palestinian guerrillas struck in Kuwait as the Al Sabah ruling family, headed by Sheikh Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, funded the Palestinian resistance movement.",
"Kuwait had been a regular endpoint for Palestinian plane hijacking in the past and had considered itself safe.In the 1960s and 1970s, Kuwait was the most developed country in the region.",
"Kuwait was first Middle East country to diversify its revenue away from oil exports, establishing the Kuwait Investment Authority as the world's first sovereign wealth fund.",
"From the 1970s onward, Kuwait scored highest of all Arab countries on the Human Development Index, and Kuwait University, founded in 1966, attracted students from neighboring countries.",
"Kuwait's theatre industry was renowned throughout the Arab world.At the time, Kuwait's press was described as one of the freest in the world.",
"Kuwait was the pioneer in the literary renaissance in the Arab region.",
"In 1958, ''Al Arabi'' magazine was first published, the magazine went on to become the most popular magazine in the Arab world.",
"Additionally, Kuwait became a haven for writers and journalists in the region, and many, like the Iraqi poet Ahmed Matar, moved to Kuwait for its strong freedom of expression laws, which surpassed those of any other country in the region.Kuwaiti society embraced liberal and Western attitudes throughout the 1960s and 1970s.",
"Most Kuwaiti women did not wear the hijab in the 1960s and 1970s.",
"At Kuwait University, mini-skirts were more common than the hijab.",
"Oil and the social structure of Kuwait were closely interlinked.",
"According to an authoritative of the region such a structure resembled a form of \"new slavery\" with a \"viciously reactionary character\".",
"90 per cent of the capital generated from oil for investment abroad was concentrated in the hands of eighteen families.",
"The manual as well as a significant section of the managerial workforce was predominantly foreign, mainly Palestinians who were denied Kuwaiti citizenship.",
"Major investment was made into developing new architectural projects reflecting a new liberal economy whilst advancing passive cooling and attempts at weaving in local styles and decoration.In August 1976, in reaction to heightened assembly opposition to his policies, the emir suspended four articles of the constitution concerned with political and civil rights (freedom of the press and dissolution of the legislature) and the assembly itself.",
"In 1980, however, the suspended articles of the constitution were reinstated along with the National Assembly.",
"In 1982 the government submitted sixteen constitutional amendments that, among other things, would have allowed the emir to declare martial law for an extended period and would have increased both the size of the legislature and the length of terms of office.",
"In May 1983, the proposals were formally dropped after several months of debate.",
"Nonetheless, the issue of constitutional revisions continued as a topic of discussion in both the National Assembly and the palace.In the early 1980s, Kuwait experienced a major economic crisis after the Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash and decrease in oil price.During the Iran–Iraq War, Kuwait ardently supported Iraq.",
"As a result, there were various pro-Iran terror attacks across Kuwait, including the 1983 bombings, the attempted assassination of Emir Jaber in May 1985, the 1985 Kuwait City bombings, and the hijacking of several Kuwait Airways planes.",
"Kuwait's economy and scientific research sector significantly suffered due to the pro-Iran terror attacks.In 1986, the constitution was again suspended, along with the National Assembly.",
"As with the previous suspension, popular opposition to this move emerged; indeed, the prodemocracy movement of 1989-90 took its name, the Constitutional Movement, from the demand for a return to constitutional life.After the Iran–Iraq War ended, Kuwait declined an Iraqi request to forgive its US$65 billion debt.",
"An economic rivalry between the two countries ensued after Kuwait increased its oil production by 40 percent.The Iraq–Kuwait dispute also involved historical claims to Kuwait's territory.",
"Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empire's province of Basra, something that Iraq said made Kuwait rightful Iraqi territory.",
"Kuwait's ruling dynasty, the Al Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for Kuwait's foreign affairs to the United Kingdom.",
"The UK drew the border between Kuwait and Iraq in 1922, making Iraq almost entirely landlocked by limiting its access to the Persian Gulf coastline.",
"Kuwait rejected Iraq's attempts to secure further coastline provisions in the region.",
"Iraq accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC quotas for oil production.",
"In order for the cartel to maintain its desired price of $18 per barrel, discipline was required.",
"Kuwait was consistently overproducing; in part to repair infrastructure losses caused by the Iran–Iraq War attacks on Kuwait and to pay for the losses of economic scandals.",
"The result was a slump in the oil priceas low as with a resulting loss of $7 billion a year to Iraq, equal to its 1989 balance of payments deficit.",
"Resulting revenues struggled to support the government's basic costs, let alone repair Iraq's damaged infrastructure.",
"Iraq looked for more discipline, with little success.",
"The Iraqi government described it as a form of economic warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant-drilling across the border into Iraq's Rumaila oil field.",
"At the same time, Saddam looked for closer ties with those Arab states that had supported Iraq in the war.",
"This move was supported by the US, who believed that Iraqi ties with pro-Western Gulf states would help bring and maintain Iraq inside the US' sphere of influence.In 1989, it appeared that Iraq–Kuwait relations, strong during the war, would be maintained.",
"A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries, followed by a Kuwaiti-Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although a request for Kuwait to lease Iraq Umm Qasr was rejected.",
"GCC-backed development projects were hampered by Iraq's large debts, even with the demobilization of 200,000 soldiers.",
"Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter, although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq's obligations; in Iraq, resentment to OPEC's controls mounted.Iraq's relations with its other Arab neighbors were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups, who were well-employed during the war, by unemployed Iraqis, among them demobilized soldiers.",
"These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast-moving events directly related to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe.",
"However, the US did begin to condemn Iraq's human rights record, including the well-known use of torture.",
"The UK also condemned the execution of Farzad Bazoft, a journalist working for the British newspaper ''The Observer''.",
"Following Saddam's declaration that \"binary chemical weapons\" would be used on Israel if it used military force against Iraq, Washington halted part of its funding.",
"A UN mission to the Israeli-occupied territories, where riots had resulted in Palestinian deaths, was vetoed by the US, making Iraq deeply skeptical of US foreign policy aims in the region, combined with the reliance of the US on Middle Eastern energy reserves.===Gulf War (1990–91)===Tensions increased further in summer 1990, after Iraq complained to OPEC claiming that Kuwait was stealing its oil from a field near the border by slant drilling of the Rumaila field.",
"In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait's behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action.",
"On the 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border, and the US naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert.",
"Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developingKuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq's rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt.",
"Upon review by the Secretary of Defense, it was found that Syria indeed planned a strike against Iraq in the coming days.",
"Saddam immediately used funding to incorporate central intelligence into Syria and ultimately prevented the impending air strike.",
"On 15 July 1990, Saddam's government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League, including that policy moves were costing Iraq $1 billion a year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its \"Arab brothers\".",
"He threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE, saying: \"The policies of some Arab rulers are American ...",
"They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security.\"",
"The US sent aerial refuelling planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats.",
"Discussions in Jeddah mediated on the Arab League's behalf by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, were held on 31 July and led Mubarak to believe that a peaceful course could be established.On the 25th, Saddam met with April Glaspie, the US Ambassador to Iraq, in Baghdad.",
"The Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and the UAE:Glaspie replied:Saddam stated that he would attempt last-ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq \"would not accept death\".According to Glaspie's own account, she stated in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq.",
"Glaspie similarly believed that war was not imminent.Iraqi Type 69 tank on the road into Kuwait City during the Gulf WarThe invasion of Kuwait and annexation by Iraq took place on 2 August 1990.The initial casus belli was claimed to be support for a Kuwaiti rebellion against the Al Sabah family.An Iraqi-backed Kuwaiti puppet leader named Alaa Hussein Ali was installed as head of the \"Provisional Government of Free Kuwait.\"",
"Iraq annexed Kuwait on 8 August.",
"The war was traumatic to both countries.Kuwaiti civilians founded a local armed following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait.",
"The Kuwaiti resistance's casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages.",
"The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision.The underground resistance was punished by summary executions and torture.",
"Almost all Kuwaitis at the time lost some family member.",
"In addition, half the population, including native and foreign-born fled Kuwait to escape persecution.George H. W. Bush condemned the invasion, and led efforts to drive out the Iraqi forces.",
"Authorized by the United Nations Security Council, an American-led coalition of 34 nations fought the Gulf War to liberate Kuwait.",
"Aerial bombardments began on 17 January 1991, and after several weeks a U.S.-led United Nations (UN) coalition began a ground assault on 23 February 1991 that achieved a complete removal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait in four days.====Controversies=========Oil spill=====Smoke plumes from several Kuwaiti oil spill fires on April 7, 1991, as seen from a space shuttle during STS-37.On 23 January 1991, Iraq dumped of crude oil into the Persian Gulf, causing the largest offshore oil spill in history at that time.",
"It was reported as a deliberate natural resources attack to keep US Marines from coming ashore (''Missouri'' and ''Wisconsin'' had shelled Failaka Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious assault attempt).",
"About 30–40% of this came from allied raids on Iraqi coastal targets.The land based Kuwait oil spill surpassed the Lakeview Gusher, which spilled nine million barrels in 1910, as the largest oil spill in recorded history.=====Kuwaiti oil fires=====Oil fires in Kuwait in 1991, which were a result of the scorched earth policy of Iraqi military forces retreating from Kuwait.The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by coalition forces.",
"The fires started in January and February 1991, and the last one was extinguished by November.The resulting fires burned uncontrollably because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews.",
"Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out.",
"Somewhere around of oil were lost each day.",
"Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait.",
"By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately 10 months, causing widespread pollution in Kuwait.The Kuwaiti Oil Minister estimated between twenty-five and fifty million barrels of unburned oil from damaged facilities pooled to create approximately 300 oil lakes, that contaminated around 40 million tons of sand and earth.",
"The mixture of desert sand, unignited oil spilled and soot generated by the burning oil wells formed layers of hard \"tarcrete\", which covered nearly five percent of Kuwait's land mass.Cleaning efforts were led by the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research and the Arab Oil Co., who tested a number of technologies including the use of petroleum-degrading bacteria on the oil lakes.Vegetation in most of the contaminated areas adjoining the oil lakes began recovering by the mid-1990s, but the dry climate has also partially solidified some of the lakes.",
"Over time the oil has continued to sink into the sand, with potential consequences for Kuwait's small groundwater resources.=====Highway of Death=====Destroyed civilian and military vehicles on the Highway of DeathOn the night of 26–27 February 1991, several Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of some 1,400 vehicles.",
"A patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed the retreating forces and relayed the information to the DDM-8 air operations center in Saudi Arabia.",
"These vehicles and the retreating soldiers were subsequently attacked by two A-10 aircraft, resulting in a 60 km stretch of highway strewn with debris—the Highway of Death.",
"''New York Times'' reporter Maureen Dowd wrote, \"With the Iraqi leader facing military defeat, Mr. Bush decided that he would rather gamble on a violent and potentially unpopular ground war than risk the alternative: an imperfect settlement hammered out by the Soviets and Iraqis that world opinion might accept as tolerable.",
"\"Chuck Horner, Commander of US and allied air operations, has written:=====Nayriah testimony=====The Nayirah testimony was a false testimony given before the United States Congressional Human Rights Caucus in October 1990 by a 15-year-old girl who was publicly identified by only her first name, Nayirah.",
"The testimony was widely publicized in the American media and was cited numerous times by United States senators and President George H. W. Bush in their rationale to back Kuwait in the Gulf War.",
"In 1992, it was revealed that Nayirah's last name was Al-Ṣabaḥ () and that she was the daughter of Saud bin Nasir Al-Sabah, the Kuwaiti ambassador to the United States.",
"Furthermore, it was revealed that her testimony was organized as part of the Citizens for a Free Kuwait public relations campaign, which was run by the American public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for the Kuwaiti government.",
"Following this, al-Sabah's testimony has come to be regarded as a classic example of modern atrocity propaganda.In her emotional testimony, Nayirah claimed that after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait she had witnessed Iraqi soldiers take babies out of incubators in a Kuwaiti hospital, take the incubators, and leave the babies to die.Her story was initially corroborated by Amnesty International, a British NGO, which published several independent reports about the killings and testimony from evacuees.",
"Following the liberation of Kuwait, reporters were given access to the country.",
"An ABC report found that \"patients, including premature babies, did die, when many of Kuwait's nurses and doctors ... fled\" but Iraqi troops \"almost certainly had not stolen hospital incubators and left hundreds of Kuwaiti babies to die.\"",
"Amnesty International reacted by issuing a correction, with executive director John Healey subsequently accusing the Bush administration of \"opportunistic manipulation of the international human rights movement\".=====Palestinian exodus from Kuwait=====Significant demographic changes occurred in Kuwait as a result of the Gulf War.",
"During the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, 200,000 Palestinians voluntarily fled Kuwait due to various reasons (fear or persecution, food shortages, medical care difficulties, financial shortages, fear of arrest and mistreatment at roadblocks by Iraqis).",
"After the Gulf War in 1991, nearly 200,000 Palestinians fled Kuwait, partly due to economic burdens, regulations on residence and fear of abuse by Kuwaiti security forces.Prior to the Gulf War, Palestinians numbered 400,000 of Kuwait's population of 2.2 million.",
"The Palestinians who fled Kuwait were mostly Jordanian citizens.",
"In 2012, relations resumed and 80,000 Palestinians resided in Kuwait.===Aftermath of Gulf War liberation (1992–2005)===Immediately after liberation in 1991, the United Nations, under Security Council Resolution 687, demarcated the Iraq-Kuwait boundary on the basis of the 1932 and the 1963 agreements between the two states.",
"In November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait, which had been further spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 773 (1992) and 833 (1993).Criticism of the Al Sabah family in Kuwait became more pronounced following the country's return to sovereignty in 1991.The Al Sabah family were criticized for their actions during the Iraqi occupation.",
"They were the first to flee Kuwait during the invasion.",
"In early 1992, many press restrictions were lifted in Kuwait.",
"After the October 1992 election, the National Assembly exercised a constitutional right to review all emiri decrees promulgated while the assembly was in dissolution.",
"It has been suggested that the United States significantly pressured Kuwait to implement a more \"democratic\" political system as a condition for the country's liberation in 1991.The United Nations Security Council has passed nearly 60 resolutions on Iraq and Kuwait since Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990.The most relevant to this issue is Resolution 678, passed on 29 November 1990.It authorizes \"member states co-operating with the Government of Kuwait ... to use all necessary means\" to (1) implement Security Council Resolution 660 and other resolutions calling for the end of Iraq's occupation of Kuwait and withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwaiti territory and (2) \"restore international peace and security in the area\".",
"Resolution 678 has not been rescinded or nullified by succeeding resolutions and Iraq was not alleged after 1991 to invade Kuwait or to threaten to do so.In March 2003, Kuwait became the springboard for the US-led invasion of Iraq.",
"In preparation for the invasion, 100,000 U.S. troops assembled in Kuwait by 18 February.===Political crisis and economic turmoil (2006–present)===From 2006 onwards, Kuwait has suffered from chronic political deadlocks and longstanding periods of cabinet reshuffles and dissolutions.",
"This has significantly hampered investment and economic reforms in Kuwait, making the country's economy much more dependent on oil.On 15 January 2006, Emir Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmed died and his crown prince, Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah of the Salem branch was named Emir.",
"On 23 January 2006, the assembly unanimously voted in favor of Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah abdicating in favor of Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmed, citing his illness with a form of dementia.",
"Instead of naming a successor from the Salem branch as per convention, Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmed named his half-brother Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmed as crown prince and his nephew Sheikh Nasser Al-Mohammed as prime minister.In August 2011, supporters of Sheikh Ahmed Al-Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah \"discovered\" documents that incriminated up to one-third of Kuwaiti politicians in what quickly became the largest political corruption scandal in Kuwaiti history.",
"By October 2011, 16 Kuwaiti politicians were alleged to have received payments of $350m in return for their support of government policy.In December 2013, allies of Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad claimed to possess tapes purportedly showing that Sheikh Nasser Al-Mohammed Al-Sabah and Jassem Al-Kharafi were discussing plans to topple the Kuwaiti government.",
"Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad appeared on local channel Al-Watan TV describing his claims.In March 2014, David S. Cohen, then Under Secretary of the Treasury for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence, accused Kuwait of funding terrorism.",
"Since the end of the Gulf War in 1991, accusations of Kuwait funding terrorism have been very common and come from a wide variety of sources including intelligence reports, Western government officials, scholarly research, and renowned journalists.",
"From 2014 to 2015, Kuwait was frequently described as the world's biggest source of terrorism funding, particularly for ISIS and Al-Qaeda.In April 2014, the Kuwaiti government imposed a total media blackout to ban any reporting or discussion on the issue.",
"In March 2015, Kuwait's public prosecutor dropped all investigations into the alleged coup plot and Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad read a public apology on Kuwait state television renouncing the coup allegations.",
"Since then, \"numerous associates of his have been targeted and detained by the Kuwaiti authorities on various charges,\" most notably members of the so-called \"Fintas Group\" that had allegedly been the original circulators of the fake coup video.On 26 June 2015, a suicide bombing took place at a Shia Muslim mosque in Kuwait.",
"The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant claimed responsibility for the attack.",
"Twenty-seven people were killed and 227 people were wounded.",
"In the aftermath, a lawsuit was filed accusing the Kuwaiti government of negligence and direct responsibility for the terror attack.In December 2015, Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad was convicted of \"disrespect to the public prosecutor and attributing a remark to the country's ruler without a special permission from the emir's court,\" issuing a suspended six-month prison sentence and a fine of 1,000 Kuwaiti Dinar.",
"In January 2016, the Kuwaiti appeals court overturned the prior ruling and cleared Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad of all charges.Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad during a press conference in TehranIn November 2018, Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad, along with four other defendants, were charged in Switzerland with forgery related to the fake coup video.",
"Shortly thereafter, Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad temporarily stepped aside from his role at the International Olympic Committee, pending an ethics committee hearing into the allegations.In June 2019, government official Fahad Al Rajaan and his spouse were given life sentences in absentia by the Kuwait criminal court; personal property was confiscated, and they were ordered to repay $82 million, as well as being fined \"twice that amount.In November 2019, former deputy prime minister and minister of interior Sheikh Khaled Al Jarrah Al Sabah was dismissed from office after minister of defense Sheikh Nasser Sabah Al Ahmed Al Sabah filed a complaint with the Kuwaiti Attorney General alleging embezzlement of 240 million Kuwaiti dinars ($794.5 million) of Kuwait government funds had taken place during Khaled's tenure as minister of defense.The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated Kuwait's economic crisis.",
"Kuwait's economy faced a budget deficit of $46 billion in 2020.Kuwait was downgraded by S&P Global Ratings two times in less than two years because of declining oil revenue and delayed fiscal reforms.In July 2020, the US Department of Justice filed an asset forfeiture claim against The Mountain Beverly Hills and other real property in the United States, alleging a group of three Kuwaiti officials, including Sheikh Khaled Al Jarrah, set up unauthorized accounts in the name of the country's Military Attache Office in London, known as the 'Army Fund.'",
"They allegedly funded the accounts with over $100m of Kuwaiti public money and used it for their own purposes.In September 2020, Kuwait's Crown Prince Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah became the 16th Emir of Kuwait and the successor to Emir Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, who died at the age of 91.In October 2020, Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was appointed as the Crown Prince.Since January 2021, Kuwait has been experiencing its worst political crisis in many decades.",
"Kuwait is also facing a looming debt crisis according to various media sources.",
"Kuwait is widely considered the region's most oil-dependent country with the least amount of economic diversification.",
"According to the World Economic Forum, Kuwait is the least economically developed Gulf country.",
"Kuwait has the weakest infrastructure in the entire GCC region.In March 2021, the Kuwaiti ministerial court ordered the detention of Sheikh Khaled Al Jarrah, who was then arrested and imprisoned.On April 13, 2021, a Kuwaiti court ordered the detention of former prime minister Sheikh Jaber Al-Mubarak Al-Hamad Al-Sabah on corruption charges related to the 'Army Fund.'",
"He is the first former Kuwaiti prime minister to face pre-trial detention over graft charges.",
"The crimes allegedly took place during Jaber Al-Sabah's 2001–11 term as defense minister.In August 2021, Sheikh Ahmed Al-Fahad attended court in Switzerland alongside three of the other four defendants.",
"In September 2021, the Swiss court convicted Sheikh Ahmed Al-Fahad of forgery along with the four other defendants.",
"He denied wrongdoing and plans to appeal.",
"On 16 December, 2023 Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah appointed as 17th Emir of Kuwait after the death of Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah."
],
[
"See also",
"* Mesopotamia* Dilmun* Timeline of Kuwait City* List of museums in Kuwait"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* ** *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Geography of Kuwait"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Kuwait is a country in West Asia, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iraq and Saudi Arabia.",
"Kuwait is located at the far northwestern corner of the Persian Gulf.",
"Kuwait is 17,820 square kilometres in size.",
"At its most distant points, it is about north to south, and east to west.",
"Kuwait has 10 islands.",
"Kuwait's area consists mostly of desert."
],
[
"Boundaries and geographic features",
"A detailed map of Kuwait.As previously mentioned, Kuwait borders the Persian Gulf with of coast.",
"Within its territory are ten islands, two of which, Bubiyan (the largest) and Warbah, are strategically important.Kuwait's most prominent geographic feature is Kuwait Bay (Jun al Kuwayt), which indents the shoreline for about forty kilometers, providing natural protection for the port of Kuwait, and accounts for nearly one third of the country's shoreline.To the north and northwest, there is the historically contested border between Kuwait and Iraq.",
"Although the Iraqi government, which had first asserted a claim to rule Kuwait in 1938, recognized the borders with Kuwait in 1963 (based on agreements made earlier in the century), it continued to press Kuwait for control over Bubiyan and Warbah islands through the 1960s and 1970s.To the south and southwest, Kuwait shares a 250-km border with Saudi Arabia.",
"The boundary between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia was set by the Treaty of Al Uqayr in 1922, which also established the Saudi–Kuwaiti neutral zone of 5,700 square kilometers between the two nations.",
"In 1966, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia agreed to divide the neutral zone; the partitioning agreement making each country responsible for administration in its portion was signed in December 1969.The resources in the area, now known as the Divided Zone, are not affected by the agreement.",
"The oil from onshore and offshore fields continues to be shared equally between the two countries.In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait and, shortly thereafter, formally incorporated the entire country into Iraq.",
"Under United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 687, after the restoration of Kuwaiti sovereignty in 1991, a UN commission undertook formal demarcation of the borders on the basis of those agreed to in 1963.The boundary was demarcated in 1992.Iraq initially refused to accept the commission's findings but ultimately accepted them in November 1994."
],
[
"Climate",
"Dust storm over Kuwait and Southern Iraq, 16 April 2003Kuwait has an arid climate.",
"Rainfall in the nation varies from a year.",
"Actual rainfall has ranged from a year to as much as .",
"In summer, average daily high temperatures range from ; the highest ever temperature recorded in Kuwait was at Mitribah on 21 July 2016 which is the highest recorded temperature in Asia and also the third highest in the world.",
"The summers are relentlessly long, punctuated mainly by dramatic dust storms in June and July when northwesterly winds cover the cities in sand.",
"In late summer, which is more humid, there are occasional sharp, brief thunderstorms.By November summer is over, and colder winter weather sets in, dropping temperatures to as low as at night; daytime temperatures are in the upper 20s °C (upper 70s to low 80s °F).",
"Frost rarely occurs; rain is more common and falls mostly in the spring.Kuwait's winter is colder than in other Persian Gulf countries, such as Bahrain, Qatar or United Arab Emirates.",
"Kuwait experiences colder weather because it is situated farther north, and because of cold winds blowing from upper Iraq and Iran."
],
[
"Nature reserves",
"At present, there are five protected areas in Kuwait recognized by the IUCN.",
"In response to Kuwait becoming the 169th signatory of the Ramsar Convention, Bubiyan Island's Mubarak al-Kabeer reserve was designated as the country's first Wetland of International Importance.",
"The 50,948 ha reserve consists of small lagoons and shallow salt marshes and is important as a stop-over for migrating birds on two migration routes.",
"The reserve is home to the world's largest breeding colony of crab-plover."
],
[
"Biodiversity",
"Currently, 444 species of birds have been recorded in Kuwait, 18 species of which breed in the country.",
"Due to its location at the head of the Persian Gulf near the mouth of the Tigris–Euphrates river, Kuwait is situated at the crossroads of many major bird migration routes and between two and three million birds pass each year.",
"Kuwait's marine and littoral ecosystems contain the bulk of the country's biodiversity heritage.",
"The marshes in northern Kuwait and Jahra have become increasingly important as a refuge for passage migrants.Twenty eight species of mammal are found in Kuwait; animals such as gerboa, desert rabbits and hedgehogs are common in the desert.",
"Large carnivores, such as the wolf, caracal and jackal, are longer present.",
"Among the endangered mammalian species are the red fox and wild cat.",
"Forty reptile species have been recorded although none are endemic to Kuwait.Kuwait, Oman and Yemen are the only locations where the endangered smoothtooth blacktip shark is confirmed as occurring.Kuwaiti islands are important breeding areas for four species of tern and the socotra cormorant.",
"Kubbar Island has been recognised an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports a breeding colony of white-cheeked terns."
],
[
"Geology and aquifers",
"The land was formed in a recent geologic era.",
"In the south, limestone rises in a long, north-oriented dome that lies beneath the surface.",
"It is within and below this formation that the principal oil fields, Kuwait's most important natural resource, are located.",
"In the west and north, layers of sand, gravel, silt, and clay overlie the limestone to a depth of more than 210 meters.",
"The upper portions of these beds are part of a mass of sediment deposited by a great wadi whose most recent channel was the Wadi al Batin, the broad shallow valley forming the western boundary of the country.On the western side of the Al Rawdatayn geological formation, a freshwater aquifer was discovered in 1960 and became Kuwait's principal water source.",
"The supply is insufficient to support extensive irrigation, but it is tapped to supplement the distilled water supply that fills most of the country's needs.",
"The only other exploited aquifer lies in the permeable zone in the top of the limestone of the Ash Shuaybah field south and east of the city of Kuwait.",
"Unlike water from the Al Rawdatayn aquifer, water from the Ash Shuaybah aquifer is brackish.",
"Millions of liters a day of this water are pumped for commercial and household purposes."
],
[
"Water and marshes",
"Kuwait is the most water stressed country in the world.Kuwait is part of the Tigris–Euphrates river system basin.",
"Several Tigris–Euphrates confluences form parts of the Kuwait–Iraq border.",
"Bubiyan Island is part of the Shatt al-Arab delta.",
"Kuwait is partially part of the Mesopotamian Marshes.",
"Kuwait does not currently have any permanent rivers within its territory.",
"However, Kuwait does have several wadis, the most notable of which is Wadi al-Batin which forms the border between Kuwait and Iraq.",
"Kuwait also has several river-like marine channels around Bubiyan Island, most notably Khawr Abd Allah which is now an estuary, but once was the point where the Shatt al-Arab emptied into the Persian Gulf.",
"Khawr Abd Allah is located in southern Iraq and northern Kuwait, the Iraq-Kuwait border divides the lower portion of the estuary, but adjacent to the port of Umm Qasr the estuary becomes wholly Iraqi.",
"It forms the northeast coastline of Bubiyan Island and the north coastline of Warbah Island.Kuwait relies on water desalination as a primary source of fresh water for drinking and domestic purposes.",
"There are currently more than six desalination plants.",
"Kuwait was the first country in the world to use desalination to supply water for large-scale domestic use.",
"The history of desalination in Kuwait dates back to 1951 when the first distillation plant was commissioned.Kuwait's fresh water resources are limited to groundwater, desalinated seawater, and treated wastewater effluents.",
"There are three major municipal wastewater treatment plants.",
"Most water demand is currently satisfied through seawater desalination plants.",
"Sewage disposal is handled by a national sewage network that covers 98% of facilities in the country."
],
[
"Human geography",
"The bulk of the Kuwaiti population lives in the coastal capital of the city of Kuwait.",
"Smaller populations inhabit the nearby city of Al Jahrah, smaller desert and coastal towns, and, prior to the Persian Gulf War, some of the several nearby gulf islands, notably Faylakah."
],
[
"Area boundaries",
"; Area::* Total: 17,818 km²:* Land: 17,818 km²:* Water: 0 km²; Area—comparative:: Slightly smaller than Fiji; Land boundaries::* Total: 475 km:* Border countries: Iraq 254 km, Saudi Arabia 221 km; Coastline:: 499 km; Maritime claims:; Exclusive Economic Zone: :* Territorial sea: ; Elevation extremes::* Lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m:* Highest point: Mutla Ridge 306 m"
],
[
"Resources and land use",
"; Natural resources:: Petroleum, fish, shrimp, natural gas; Land use:* Arable land: 0.6%:* Permanent crops: 0.3%:* Permanent pasture: 7.6%:* Forest: 0.4%:* Other: 91.1% (2011); Irrigated land:: 86 km² (2007); Total renewable water resources:: 0.02 km3 (2011); Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)::* Total: 0.91 km3/yr (47%/2%/51%):* Per capita: 441.2 m3/yr (2005)"
],
[
"Environmental concerns",
"The Kuwaiti desert during a sandstorm.",
"; Natural hazards:: Sudden cloudbursts are common from October to April – they bring heavy rain which can damage roads and houses; sandstorms and dust storms occur throughout the year, but are most common between March and August; Environment—current issues:: Limited natural fresh water resources; some of world's largest and most sophisticated desalination facilities provide much of the water; air and water pollution; desertification; Environment—international agreements::* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea"
],
[
"References",
"'''Attribution:'''*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Demographics of Kuwait"
],
[
"Introduction",
" Crowd of Kuwaiti spectators.This is a demography of the population of Kuwait ().Expatriates account for around 60% of Kuwait's total population, with Kuwaitis constituting 38%-42% of the total population.",
"The government and some Kuwaiti citizens consider the proportion of expatriates (which has been relatively stable since the mid-1970s) to be a problem, and in 2016 the number of deportations increased."
],
[
"Governorates",
"Kuwait consists of six governorates: Hawalli, Asimah, Farwaniyah, Jahra, Ahmadi and Mubarak Al-Kabeer.",
"Most people in Kuwait live in the governorates of Hawalli, Asimah, and Farwaniyah."
],
[
"Historical populations",
"+''Population of Kuwait according to nationality''Census yearKuwaitinon-Kuwaiti Total Change Population % Population % Population %1975307,755'''30.9''' 687,082'''69''' 1985470,473'''35''' 1,226,828'''65''' 1,697,30170.61995653,616'''41.5''' 921,954'''58.5''' 1,575,570-7.22005860,324'''39.2''' 1,333,327'''60.8''' 2,193,65139.220151,208,643'''32.3''' 2,535,017'''67.7''' 3,743,66070.6The biggest population difficulty in Kuwait involves the Bedoon, stateless people.",
"According to Human Rights Watch in 1995, Kuwait has produced 300,000 stateless Bedoon.",
"Kuwait has the largest number of stateless people in the entire region.",
"The Bedoon issue in Kuwait is largely sectarian."
],
[
"Vital statistics",
";UN estimatesPeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBR*CDR*NC*TFR*IMR* 1950-1955 8,000 2,000 6,00043.712.331.47.21113 1955-1960 9,000 2,000 7,00040.09.630.47.2190 1960-1965 16,000 3,000 13,00043.47.635.87.3170 1965-1970 30,000 4,000 26,00048.86.342.57.4153 1970-1975 43,000 5,000 38,00047.65.242.46.9040 1975-1980 49,000 5,000 44,00040.74.236.55.8929 1980-1985 58,000 5,000 52,00037.13.433.65.1022 1985-1990 51,000 5,000 45,00026.52.823.73.3416 1990-1995 33,000 5,000 28,00018.02.715.32.2013 1995-2000 43,000 5,000 38,00024.13.021.12.9311 2000-2005 39,000 6,000 32,00018.53.115.42.2410 2005-2010 47,000 7,000 40,00018.73.115.62.328 2010-2015 58,000 9,000 49,00016.12.413.72.088 2015-2020 60,000 12,000 48,00012.62.99.72.077 * CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman);Registered births and deathsAverage population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)TFR 1958 1959 196011,6161,23510,381 1961 296,00012,9422,50410,43843.78.435.2 1962 337,00015,2042,18013,02445.16.538.6 1963 384,00017,3972,13915,25845.45.639.8 1964 433,00019,4282,61816,81044.86.038.8 1965 484,00021,9502,45419,49645.35.140.3 1966 536,00023,7322,81320,91944.35.339.0 1967 588,00028,3343,11125,22348.25.342.9 1968 642,00033,0263,34629,68051.55.246.3 1969 697,00035,1353,37831,75750.44.845.6 1970 753,00033,8423,73530,10744.95.040.0 1971 811,00035,5583,83231,72643.84.739.1 1972 870,00037,6884,14933,53943.34.838.5 1973 931,00040,1654,60135,56443.24.938.2 1974 992,00041,0604,69336,36741.44.736.7 19751,054,00042,8614,77838,08340.74.536.1 19761,116,00046,0394,66141,37841.34.237.1 19771,179,00046,8645,36541,49939.84.635.2 19781,243,00048,0104,93643,07438.64.034.7 19791,309,00048,2735,02843,24536.93.833.0 19801,377,00051,0904,93246,15837.13.633.5 19811,446,00052,0414,67847,36336.03.232.8 19821,514,00054,2574,99249,26535.83.332.5 19831,584,00055,6174,65450,96335.12.932.2 19841,660,00056,7764,54452,23234.22.731.5 19851,742,00055,0874,71150,37631.62.728.9 19861,836,00053,8454,39049,45529.32.426.9 19871,937,00052,4124,11348,29927.12.124.9 19882,028,00053,0804,58148,49926.22.323.9 19892,084,00052,8584,62848,23025.42.223.1 19902,088,000 19912,031,00020,6093,38017,22910.11.78.5 19921,924,00034,8173,36931,44818.11.816.3 19931,796,00037,3793,44133,93820.81.918.9 19941,688,00038,8683,46435,40423.02.121.0 19951,628,00041,1693,78137,38825.32.323.0 19961,628,00044,6203,81240,80827.42.325.1 19971,679,00042,8154,01738,79825.52.423.1 19981,764,00041,4244,21637,20823.52.421.1 19991,857,00041,1354,18736,94822.12.319.9 20001,941,00041,8434,22737,61621.62.219.4 20012,010,00041,3424,36436,97820.62.218.4 20022,070,00043,4904,34239,14821.02.118.9 20032,127,00043,9824,42439,55820.72.118.6 20042,189,00047,2744,79342,48121.62.219.4 20052,264,00050,9414,78446,15722.52.120.4 20062,351,00052,7595,24747,51222.42.220.2 20072,448,00053,5875,29348,29421.92.219.7 20082,548,00054,5715,70148,87021.42.219.2 20092,778,00056,5036,26650,23720.32.318.1 20102,933,00057,5335,44852,08519.61.917.8 20113,099,00058,1985,33952,85918.71.717.01.95 20123,246,62259,7535,95053,80318.41.816.61.86 20133,427,59559,4265,90953,51717.31.715.61.72 20143,588,09261,3136,03155,28216.31.614.71.90 20153,743,66059,2716,48152,79014.91.613.3 20163,925,48758,7976,33852,45914.41.512.91.47 20174,082,70459,1726,67952,49314.71.713.02.15 20184,226,92056,1216,80749,31413.61.711.92.161 20194,420,11053,5657,30646,25912.11.610.42.082 20204,464,52152,46310,56941,89411.72.49.32.033 20214,336,01251,58510,93840,64711.92.59.42.148 20224,385,71749,7938,04141,75210.91.89.11.546 20234,793,568=== Structure of the population ===Structure of the population (1.01.2020) (Census - provisional):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2,743,617 1,720,904 4,464,521 100 0-4 123,865 111,800 235,663 5,27 5-9 190,736 153,412 344,148 7,7 10-14 160,820 129,882 290,702 6,51 15-19 135,324 111,798 247,122 5,53 20-24 126,687 102,773 229,460 5,13 25-29 113,416 93,183 206,599 4,62 30-34 205,555 157,101 362,656 8,12 35-39 341,766 192,989 534,755 11,97 40-44 368,779 180,249 549,028 12,29 45-49 342,307 165,443 507,750 11,37 50-54 234,060 112,764 346,824 7,76 55-59 158,989 76,976 235,965 5,28 60-64 105,746 46,617 152,363 3,41 65-69 59,345 27,921 87,266 1,95 70-74 26,885 15,982 42,867 0,96 75-79 11,984 8,711 20,695 0,46 80+ 10,839 7,912 18,751 0,42Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 475,419 395,094 870,513 19,49 15-64 2,132,629 1,239,893 3,372,522 75,54 65+ 109,053 60,526 169,579 3,80=== Life expectancy ===Life expectancy at birth in KuwaitPeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195553.61985–199071.61955–196058.31990–199572.41960–196562.01995–200073.01965–197064.92000–200573.31970–197567.12005–201073.71975–198068.72010–201574.31980–198570.32015–202075.1Source: ''UN World Population Prospects'';Ethnic groups* Kuwaiti 41.4%, Arab expat 21.4%, Asian (mostly South Asian) 35.3%, African 1%, other 0.7% (includes European, North American, South American, and Australian) (2018 est.",
");Languages*Arabic (official)*English spoken widely;Religion*Muslim (official) 74.6%*Christian 18.2% *Other and Unspecified 7.2%"
],
[
"See also",
"* Religion in Kuwait* Expatriates in Kuwait"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Government of Kuwait"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Kuwait is an emirate with a political system consisting of an appointed judiciary, appointed government (dominated by the Al Sabah ruling family), and nominally elected parliament."
],
[
"Executive branch",
"The Constitution of Kuwait was approved and promulgated on 17 November 1962.===Government===The prime minister chooses the cabinet of ministers, which form the government.",
"The prime minister is a member of the ruling family and is appointed by the Emir.===Emir===The Emir's powers are defined by the 1961 constitution.",
"These powers include appointing the prime minister, who in turn chooses the cabinet of ministers (government).",
"Upon the death of the Emir, the crown prince succeeds."
],
[
"Judicial branch",
"The judiciary in Kuwait is not independent of the government, the Emir appoints all the judges and many judges are foreign nationals from Egypt.",
"In each administrative district of Kuwait, there is a Summary Court (also called Courts of First Instance which are composed of one or more divisions, like a Traffic Court or an Administrative Court); then there is Court of Appeals; Cassation Court, and lastly - a Constitutional Court which interprets the constitution and deals with disputes related to the constitutionality of laws.",
"Kuwait has a civil law legal system."
],
[
"Legislative branch",
"The National Assembly is the legislature in Kuwait, established in 1963.Its predecessor, the 1938 National Assembly was formally dissolved in 1939 after \"one member, Sulaiman al-Adasani, in possession of a letter, signed by other Assembly members, addressed to Iraq's King Ghazi, requesting Kuwait's immediate incorporation into Iraq\".",
"This demand came after the merchant members of the Assembly attempted to extract oil money from Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, a suggestion refused by him and upon which he instigated a crackdown which arrested the Assembly members in 1939.The National Assembly can have up to 50 MPs.",
"Deputies are elected by one non-transferable vote to serve four-year terms.",
"Members of the cabinet also sit in the parliament as deputies.",
"The constitution limits the size of the cabinet to 16.The cabinet ministers have the same rights as the elected MPs, with the following two exceptions: they do not participate in the work of committees, and they cannot vote when an interpolation leads to a no-confidence vote against one of the cabinet members.",
"In 2001, George Washington University's Nathan J.",
"Brown claimed Kuwait's National Assembly is the most independent parliament in the Arab world; in 2009, Israeli scholar Eran Segal claimed it is among the \"strongest\" parliaments in the Middle East."
],
[
"Gulf War",
"During the 1990-1991 Gulf War, Saddam Hussein attempted to make Kuwait the 19th province of Iraq (known as Kuwait Governorate).",
"During the Iraqi occupation, Ali Hassan al-Majid became the governor and took over what was left of the original government."
],
[
"VIP Flight",
"The State of Kuwait operates several VIP jets used mainly by the Emir of Kuwait:* 1 Airbus A319-100 ACJ* 1 Airbus A320-200* 2 Airbus A340-500* 1 Boeing 737-900ER* 1 Boeing 747-8\t* 4 Gulfstream Aerospace"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Economy of Kuwait"
],
[
"Introduction",
" The '''economy of Kuwait''' is a wealthy petroleum-based economy.",
"Kuwait is one of the richest countries in the world.",
"The Kuwaiti dinar is the highest-valued unit of currency in the world.",
"According to the World Bank, Kuwait is the fifth richest country in the world by gross national income per capita."
],
[
"Energy",
"===Petroleum and natural gas ===In 1934, the Emir of Kuwait granted an oil concession to the Kuwait Oil Co. (KOC), jointly owned by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (later British Petroleum Company) and Gulf Oil Corporation In 1976, the Kuwaiti Government nationalized KOC.Smoke from burning Kuwait oil fields after Saddam Hussein set fire to during Gulf war.The Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC), an integrated international oil company, is the parent company of the government's operations in the petroleum sector, and includes Kuwait Oil Company, which produced oil and gas; Kuwait National Petroleum Co., refining and domestic sales; Petrochemical Industries Co., producing ammonia and urea; Kuwait Foreign Petroleum Exploration Co., with several concessions in developing countries; Kuwait Oil Tanker Co.; and Santa Fe International Corp.",
"The latter, purchased outright in 1982, gives KPC a worldwide presence in the petroleum industry.KPC also has purchased from Gulf Oil Co. refineries and associated service stations in the Benelux nations and Scandinavia, as well as storage facilities and a network of service stations in Italy.",
"In 1987, KPC bought a 19% share in British Petroleum, which was later reduced to 10%.",
"KPC markets its products in Europe under the brand Q8 and is interested in the markets of the United States and Japan.Kuwait has about of recoverable oil reserves.",
"Estimated capacity, before the war, was about .",
"During the Iraqi occupation, Kuwait's oil-producing capacity was reduced to practically nothing.",
"However, tremendous recovery and improvements have been made since.",
"Oil production was by the end of 1992, and pre-war capacity was restored in 1993.Kuwait's production capacity is estimated to be .",
"Kuwait plans to increase its capacity to by 2005.As part of Kuwait Vision 2035, Kuwait aims to position itself as a global hub for the petrochemical industry.",
"Al Zour Refinery is the largest refinery in the Middle East.",
"Al Zour Refinery is a Kuwait-China cooperation project under the Belt and Road Initiative.",
"===Renewable energy===As part of Kuwait Vision 2035, Kuwait inaugurated its largest renewable energy park, Shagaya Renewable Energy Park, which includes concentrated solar power, solar photovoltaic, and wind power plants.",
"The park consists of four phases with a target capacity of 4,000 MW.",
"It is set to be one of the largest renewable energy parks in the world."
],
[
"Steel manufacturing",
"Steel manufacturing is Kuwait's second biggest industry.",
"United Steel Industrial Company (KWT Steel) is Kuwait's main steel manufacturing company, the company caters to all of Kuwait's domestic market demands (particularly construction).",
"Kuwait is self-sufficient in steel."
],
[
"Agriculture",
"In 2016, Kuwait's food self-sufficiency ratio was 49.5% in vegetables, 38.7% in meat, 12.4% in diary, 24.9% in fruits, and 0.4% in cereals.",
"8.5% of Kuwait's entire territory consists of agricultural land, while arable land covers 0.6% of Kuwait's entire territory.",
"Historically, Jahra was a predominantly agricultural area.",
"There are currently various farms in Jahra.In 2017, agriculture (including fisheries) accounted for almost 0.4 percent of the gross domestic product.",
"Around 4 percent of the economically active population works in agriculture, almost all foreigners.",
"The majority of farm owners are investors.",
"The total agricultural land covered 1,521 sq km in 2014.The agriculture industry is hampered by the limited water and arable land.",
"The government has experimented in growing food through hydroponics and carefully managed farms.",
"However, most of the soil which was suitable for farming in south central Kuwait was destroyed when Iraqi troops set fire to oil wells in the area and created vast \"oil lakes\".",
"Fish and shrimp are plentiful in territorial waters, and largescale commercial fishing has been undertaken locally and in the Indian Ocean."
],
[
"Finance",
"Kuwait has a leading position in the financial industry in the GCC.",
"The Emir has promoted the idea that Kuwait should focus its energies, in terms of economic development, on the financial industry.The historical preeminence of Kuwait (among the Gulf monarchies) in finance dates back to the founding of the National Bank of Kuwait in 1952.The bank was the first local publicly traded corporation in the Gulf.",
"In the late 1970s and early 1980s, an alternative stock market, trading in shares of Gulf companies, emerged in Kuwait, the Souk Al-Manakh.",
"At its peak, its market capitalization was the third highest in the world, behind only the U.S. and Japan, and ahead of the UK and France.Kuwait has a large wealth-management industry.",
"Kuwaiti investment companies administer more assets than those of any other GCC country, save the much larger Saudi Arabia.",
"The Kuwait Financial Centre, in a rough calculation, estimated that Kuwaiti firms accounted for over one-third of the total assets under management in the GCC.The relative strength of Kuwait in the financial industry extends to its stock market.",
"For many years, the total valuation of all companies listed on the Kuwaiti exchange far exceeded the value of those on any other GCC bourse, except Saudi Arabia.",
"In 2011, financial and banking companies made up more than half of the market capitalization of the Kuwaiti bourse; among all the Gulf states, the market capitalization of Kuwaiti financial-sector firms was, in total, behind only that of Saudi Arabia.",
"In recent years, Kuwaiti investment companies have invested large percentages of their assets abroad, and their foreign assets have become substantially larger than their domestic assets.Kuwait is a major source of foreign economic assistance to other states through the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, an autonomous state institution created in 1961 on the pattern of Western and international development agencies.",
"Over the years aid was annually provided to Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, as well as the Palestine Liberation Organization.",
"In 1974, the fund's lending mandate was expanded to include all developing countries in the world.===Reserve funds===The Kuwait Investment Authority (KIA) is Kuwait's sovereign wealth fund specializing in foreign investment.",
"The KIA is the world's oldest sovereign wealth fund.",
"Since 1953, the Kuwaiti government has directed investments into Europe, United States and Asia Pacific.",
"In 2021, the holdings were valued at around $700 billion in assets.",
"It was the 3rd largest sovereign wealth fund in the world.The KIA manages two funds: the General Reserve Fund (GRF) and Future Generations Fund (FGF).",
"The GRF is the main treasurer for the government.",
"It receives all state revenues and all national expenditures are paid out of this fund.",
"The KIA does not disclose its financial assets in public, but it is estimated that the KIA has $410 billion in assets as of February 2014.The KIA was the main source of capital for the Kuwaiti government during the Gulf War.",
"The Kuwaiti government relied on the KIA to pay for coalition expenses and postwar reconstruction.",
"The KIA was worth $100 billion prior to 1990, KIA funds were depleted to $40–$50 billion after the Gulf War.In July 2023, Kuwait plans to create a new sovereign fund, Ciyada, in partnership with the Kuwait Investment Authority (KIA).",
"While the value of the fund has not been specified, the KIA, which currently manages over $800 billion in assets, will play a significant role in studying and implementing the proposed fund.",
"The aim is to develop the local economy, attract foreign investment, and finance major projects to promote economic diversification in Kuwait.",
";Future Generations FundThe Future Generations Fund (FGF) was created in 1976 by transferring 50% from the general reserve fund at that time.",
"The FGF is a saving funds for future generations.",
"25% of all state revenues are annually transferred to the fund.All of the FGF is invested abroad, with an estimated 75% invested in the US and Europe and the rest in emerging markets, mainly China and India."
],
[
"Health",
"Kuwait has a state-funded healthcare system, which provides treatment without charge to Kuwaiti nationals.",
"There are outpatient clinics in every residential area in Kuwait.",
"A public insurance scheme exists to provide reduced cost healthcare to expatriates.",
"Private healthcare providers also run medical facilities in the country, available to members of their insurance schemes.",
"As part of Kuwait Vision 2035, many new hospitals have opened.",
"In the years leading up to the COVID-19 pandemic, Kuwait invested in its health care system at a rate that was proportionally higher than most other GCC countries.",
"As a result, the public hospital sector significantly increased its capacity.",
"Kuwait currently has 20 public hospitals.",
"The new Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Hospital is considered the largest hospital in the Middle East.",
"Kuwait also has 16 private hospitals."
],
[
"Entrepreneurship",
"In the past five years, there has been a significant rise in entrepreneurship and small business creation in Kuwait.",
"The informal sector is also on the rise, mainly due to the popularity of Instagram businesses.",
"In 2020, Kuwait ranked fourth in the MENA region in startup funding after the UAE, Egypt and Saudi Arabia.Many Kuwaiti entrepreneurs use the Instagram-based business model."
],
[
"Tourism",
"The Palms Beach Hotel & Spa in KuwaitIn 2020, Kuwait's domestic travel and tourism spending reached $6.1 billion (up from $1.6 billion in 2019) with family tourism a rapidly growing segment.",
"The WTTC named Kuwait as one of the world's fastest-growing countries in travel and tourism GDP in 2019, with 11.6% year-on-year growth.",
"In 2016, the tourism industry generated nearly $500 million in revenue.",
"In 2015, tourism accounted for 1.5 percent of the GDP.The Amiri Diwan recently inaugurated the new Kuwait National Cultural District (KNCD), which comprises Sheikh Abdullah Al Salem Cultural Centre, Sheikh Jaber Al Ahmad Cultural Centre, Al Shaheed Park, and Al Salam Palace.",
"With a capital cost of more than US$1 billion, the project is one of the largest cultural investments in the world.",
"In November 2016, the Sheikh Jaber Al Ahmad Cultural Centre opened.",
"It is the largest cultural centre and opera house in the Middle East.",
"The Kuwait National Cultural District is a member of the Global Cultural Districts Network.",
"The annual \"Hala Febrayer\" festival attracts tourists from neighboring GCC countries, and includes a variety of events including music concerts, parades, and carnivals.",
"The festival is a month-long commemoration of the liberation of Kuwait, and runs from 1 to 28 February.",
"Liberation Day itself is celebrated on 26 February."
],
[
"Science and technology",
"According to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, Kuwait registered 448 patents as of 31 December 2015, In the early to mid 2010s, Kuwait registered the largest number of scientific publications and patents per capita regionally.",
"The Kuwaiti government has implemented various programs to foster innovation resulting in patent rights.",
"The WIPO Global Innovation Index found that Kuwait ranks relatively high for its innovation efficiency ratio (which shows how much innovation output a country is getting for its inputs).Kuwait was the first country in the region to implement 5G technology.",
"Kuwait is among the world's leading countries in 5G penetration.",
"The Chinese company Huawei has a $1.7 billion investment license in Kuwait to develop the country's ICT sector in line with the Kuwait Vision 2035 strategy.===Space===Kuwait Space Rocket.Kuwait has an emerging space industry driven by the private sector.",
";Kuwait's first satellite Kuwait's Orbital Space in collaboration with the Space Challenges Program and EnduroSat introduced an international initiative called \"Code in Space\".",
"The initiative allows students from around the world to send and execute their own code in space.",
"The code is transmitted from a satellite ground station to a cubesat (nanosatellite) orbiting Earth above sea level.",
"The code is then executed by the satellite's onboard computer and tested under real space environment conditions.",
"The nanosatellite is called \"QMR-KWT\" (Arabic: قمر الكويت) which means \"Moon of Kuwait\", translated from Arabic.QMR-KWT launched to space on 30 June 2021 on SpaceX Falcon 9 Block 5 rocket and was part of the payload of a satellite carrier called ION SCV Dauntless David by D-Orbit.",
"It was deployed into its final orbit (Sun-synchronous orbit) on 16 July 2021.QMR-KWT is Kuwait's first satellite.",
";Um Alaish 4Seven years after the launch of the world's first communications satellite, Telstar 1, Kuwait in October 1969 inaugurated the first satellite ground station in the Middle East, \"Um Alaish\".",
"The Um Alaish satellite station complex housed several satellite ground stations including Um Alaish 1 (1969), Um Alaish 2 (1977), and Um Alaish 3 (1981).",
"It provided satellite communication services in Kuwait until 1990 when it was destroyed by the Iraqi armed forces during the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.",
"In 2019, Kuwait's Orbital Space established an amateur satellite ground station to provide free access to signals from satellites in orbit passing over Kuwait.",
"The station was named Um Alaish 4 to continue the legacy of \"Um Alaish\" satellite station.",
"Um Alaish 4 is member of FUNcube distributed ground station network and the Satellite Networked Open Ground Station project (SatNOGS).",
";Kuwait Space RocketThe Kuwait Space Rocket (KSR) is a Kuwaiti project to build and launch the first suborbital liquid bi-propellant rocket in Arabia.",
"The project is divided into two phases with two separate vehicles: an initial testing phase with KSR-1 as a test vehicle capable of reaching an altitude of and a more expansive suborbital test phase with the KSR-2 planned to fly to an altitude of .",
";TSCK experiment in spaceKuwait's Orbital Space in collaboration with the Kuwait Scientific Center (TSCK) introduced for the first time in Kuwait the opportunity for students to send a science experiment to space.",
"The objectives of this initiative was to allow students to learn about (a) how science space missions are done; (b) microgravity (weightlessness) environment; (c) how to do science like a real scientist.",
"This opportunity was made possible through Orbital Space agreement with DreamUp PBC and Nanoracks LLC, which are collaborating with NASA under a Space Act Agreement.",
"The students' experiment was named \"Kuwait’s Experiment: E.coli Consuming Carbon Dioxide to Combat Climate Change\".",
"The experiment was launched on SpaceX CRS-21 (SpX-21) spaceflight to the International Space Station (ISS) on 6 December 2020.Astronauts Shannon Walker (member of the ISS Expedition 64) conducted the experiment on behalf of the students.",
";National satellite projectIn July 2021, Kuwait University announced that it is launching a national satellite project as part of state-led efforts to pioneer the country's sustainable space sector."
],
[
"Transport",
"A highway in Kuwait CityKuwait has a modern network of highways.",
"Roadways extended , of which is paved.",
"There are more than 2 million passenger cars, and 500,000 commercial taxis, buses, and trucks in use.",
"On major highways the maximum speed is .",
"Since there is no railway system in the country, most people travel by automobiles.The country's public transportation network consists almost entirely of bus routes.",
"The state owned Kuwait Public Transportation Company was established in 1962.It runs local bus routes across Kuwait as well as longer distance services to other Gulf states.",
"The main private bus company is CityBus, which operates about 20 routes across the country.",
"Another private bus company, Kuwait Gulf Link Public Transport Services, was started in 2006.It runs local bus routes across Kuwait and longer distance services to neighbouring Arab countries.There are two airports in Kuwait.",
"Kuwait International Airport serves as the principal hub for international air travel.",
"State-owned Kuwait Airways is the largest airline in the country.",
"A portion of the airport complex is designated as Al Mubarak Air Base, which contains the headquarters of the Kuwait Air Force, as well as the Kuwait Air Force Museum.",
"In 2004, the first private airline of Kuwait, Jazeera Airways, was launched.",
"In 2005, the second private airline, Wataniya Airways was founded.Kuwait has one of the largest shipping industries in the region.",
"The Kuwait Ports Public Authority manages and operates ports across Kuwait.",
"The country’s principal commercial seaports are Shuwaikh and Shuaiba which handled combined cargo of 753,334 TEU in 2006.Mina Al-Ahmadi, the largest port in the country, handles most of Kuwait's oil exports.",
"Mubarak Al Kabeer Port in Bubiyan Island is currently under construction.",
"The port is expected to handle 2 million TEU when operations start."
],
[
"Macro-Economic",
"The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Year198019851990199520002005200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017GDP in $(PPP)45.32 Bln.45.49 Bln.52.04 Bln.94.48 Bln..112.87 Bln.187.25 Bln.207.52 Bln.225.81 Bln.235.95 Bln.220.92 Bln.218.31 Bln.247.18 Bln.271.51 Bln.276.91 Bln.283.63 Bln.283.83 Bln.293.76 Bln.291.48 Bln.GDP per capita in $(PPP)33,08226,75924,43548,20750,90862,60165,19766,42268,55363,39260,94766,85371,32671,15070,217 66,95668,54066,163GDP growth(real)−20.4%−4.3%−26.6%1.7%4.7%10.1%7.5%6.0%2.5%−7.1%−2.4%10.9%7.9%0.4%0.6%−1.0%2.2%−2.5%Inflation(in Percent)6.9%1.5%15.8%2.5%1.6%4.1%3.1%5.5%6.3%4.6%4.5%4.9%3.2%2.7%3.2%3.7%3.5%1.5%Government debt(Percentage of GDP) ... ... ... 78%35%12%8%7%5%7%6%5%4%3%3%5%10%21%In 2019, Kuwait's main export products were mineral fuels including oil (89.1% of total exports), aircraft and spacecraft (4.3%), organic chemicals (3.2%), plastics (1.2%), iron and steel (0.2%), gems and precious metals (0.1%), machinery including computers (0.1%), aluminum (0.1%), copper (0.1%), and salt, sulphur, stone and cement (0.1%).",
"Kuwait was the world's biggest exporter of sulfonated, nitrated and nitrosated hydrocarbons in 2019.Kuwait was ranked 63rd out of 157 countries in the 2019 Economic Complexity Index (ECI).",
"Iraq was Kuwait's leading export market in 2019 and food/agricultural products accounted for 94.2% of total export commodities."
],
[
"See also",
"* Energy in Kuwait* Telecommunications in Kuwait* List of companies of Kuwait"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Kuwait Investment Authority* Kuwait Investment Office*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Telecommunications in Kuwait"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Telecommunications in Kuwait''' provides information about the telephone, Internet, radio, and television infrastructure in Kuwait."
],
[
"Infrastructure",
"===Telephones==='''Telephones - main lines in use:'''514,700 (2011), 510,300 (2005)'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''4.9 million (2011), 2.7 million (2007)'''Telephone system:'''*''general assessment:'' the quality of service is excellent*''domestic:'' new telephone exchanges provide a large capacity for new subscribers; trunk traffic is carried by microwave radio relay, coaxial cable, open-wire and fiber-optic cable; a cellular telephone system operates throughout Kuwait, and the country is well supplied with pay telephones.",
"*''international:'' linked to international submarine cable Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe (FLAG); linked to Bahrain, Qatar, UAE via the Fiber-Optic Gulf (FOG) cable; coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 6 (3 Intelsat - 1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean, 1 Inmarsat - Atlantic Ocean, and 2 Arabsat) *''country code:'' 965===Broadcast media==='''Radio broadcast stations:'''AM 6, FM 11, shortwave 1 (1998)'''Radios:'''1.175 million (1997)'''Television broadcast stations:'''13 (plus several satellite channels) (1997)'''Televisions:'''875,000 (1997)===Internet==='''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''5 (2011)Which are: Fasttelco, Gulfnet, KEMS, Mada, and Qualitynet'''Internet users:'''1,925,956 or 74.2% of the population (2011), 700,000 (2005)'''Top-level domain:''' .kw"
],
[
"See also",
"* Telephone numbers in Kuwait* Television in Kuwait* Wataniya Telecom"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Nokia to upgrade Kuwaiti network, ''BBC News'', 29 May 2005"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Transport in Kuwait"
],
[
"Introduction",
"As a small country, '''local transport in Kuwait''' is largely road-based with one car for every 2.25 people.",
"Bus services make up Kuwait's entire public transport network.",
"There are seven airports in Kuwait, the largest of which and solely allocated for civil use is Kuwait International Airport.",
"The Gulf Railway is currently under planning in Kuwait.",
"The metro for Kuwait City is currently in the design phase.",
"Kuwait has several maritime ports along the coast of the Persian Gulf, the largest port is Mubarak Al Kabeer Port which is currently under construction.During the First Gulf War, a lot of Kuwait's infrastructure was damaged or destroyed."
],
[
"Road transport",
"As a nation with one car per 2.25 people, Kuwait relies heavily on its road network for transportation.",
"The total length of paved and unpaved roads was 6,524 km in 2009.Traffic congestion is common throughout the day, particularly in Kuwait City.The country's public transport network consists entirely of bus routes.",
"The state-owned Kuwait Public Transportation Company was established in 1962.It runs local bus routes across Kuwait.",
"The main private bus company is CityBus, which operates about 28 routes across the country.",
"Another private bus company, Kuwait Gulf Link Public Transport Services, was started in 2006.It runs local bus routes across Kuwait and longer distance services to neighbouring Arab countries."
],
[
"Ports and harbors",
"The Ash Shu'aybah portKuwait lies on the Persian Gulf and ports include: Ash Shu'aybah, Ash Shuwaykh, Kuwait, Mina' 'Abd Allah, Mina' al Ahmadi, Mina' Su'ud, and Mubarak Al Kabeer Port.===Mubarak Al Kabeer Port===Under China's Belt and Road Initiative, the Mubarak Al Kabeer Port is part of the first phase of the Silk City project.",
"As of 2021, the Mubarak Al Kabeer Port is currently under construction.",
"In September 2020, it was reported that the port is 53% complete.",
"In March 2021, it was announced that Kuwait and Pakistan will develop linkages between Gwadar Port and Mubarak Al Kabeer Port.",
"In April 2021, the port's first phase was completed (4 berths).",
"As part of Mubarak Al Kabeer Port's development, Bubiyan Island will contain power plants and substations.",
"A 5,000-megawatt power plant has already been built in Subiya, the Subiya power plant is the largest power plant in Kuwait.",
"Mubarak Al Kabeer Port is among Kuwait's largest infrastructure projects in 2021.There is a current road project connecting Mubarak Al Kabeer Port's first phase to the existing road network in Bubiyan Island.",
"Mubarak Al Kabeer Port's fire stations are currently under development.",
"The port is set to be environmentally sustainable.=== Merchant marine===''total:''38 ships (1000 GT or over) 2,294,233 GT/3,730,776 DWT ''ships by type:''bulk carrier 2, cargo 1, container 6, liquefied gas 5, livestock carrier 4, petroleum tanker 20 ''foreign-owned:'' 1 (Iran 1) ''registered in other countries:''29 (Bahrain 3, Comoros 1, Liberia 1, Libya 1, Panama 2, Qatar 7, Saudi Arabia 6, UAE 8) (2005)"
],
[
"Airports",
"===Overview===There are seven airports, the largest of which and solely allocated for civil use is Kuwait International Airport.",
"Kuwait International Airport recently inaugurated two new terminals to cater to Kuwait-based airlines.",
"Moreover, the largest Kuwait International Airport terminal (Terminal 2) is currently under construction and will expand the airport's overall capacity by 25–50 million passengers per year.",
"The new terminal is environmentally sustainable.",
"It is one of the world's largest environment friendly airport projects.=== Airports - with paved runways ===*Total: 4*over 3,047 m: 1*2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 *1,524 to 2,437 m: 1=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===*Total: 3*1,524 to 2,437 m: 1*under 914 m: 2 (2005)=== Heliports ===*12 (2023)=== Kuwait-based Airlines ===This is a list of airlines currently operating in Kuwait.",
"Airline Arabic name Image IATA ICAO Callsign Hubs Notes Jazeera Airways طيران الجزيرة 100px J9 JZR JAZEERA Kuwait International Airport*The airline commenced operations in 2004.",
"*The airline is Kuwait's second national airline after Kuwait Airways.",
"*The airline is the Middle East's first fully privately owned airline.",
"Kuwait Airways الخطوط الجوية الكويتية 100px KU KAC KUWAITI Kuwait International Airport*The airline commenced operations on 16 March 1954.",
"*The airline is Kuwait's national airline."
],
[
"Railways",
"===Overview===The increasing congestion to the country's roads has led to several railway megaprojects in Kuwait.===Gulf Railway===Kuwait City will form one terminus of the Gulf Railway, a railway network which will run from Kuwait to Oman, via cities across the Persian Gulf.",
"As of 2021, the Gulf Railway project is currently under construction in Kuwait.Mubarak Al Kabeer Port in Bubiyan Island is part of the Gulf Railway.===Metro===The Kuwait Metropolitan Rapid Transit System Project is a planned four-line metro network which will total 160 km with 69 stations.",
"According to MEED in 2021, the metro project is currently in the design stage.",
"It is now a PPP project under the management of the Kuwait Authority for Partnership Projects (KAPP).",
"The government will own 10% of the project and raise 50% of the funds through an initial public offer.",
"The remaining 40% will be held by the private developer."
],
[
"See also",
"* Kuwait* Jazeera Airways* Wataniya Airways"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kuwait Armed Forces"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Kuwait Armed Forces''' () are the military forces of the State of Kuwait.",
"They consist of the Kuwait Air Force, the Kuwait Army, the Kuwait Navy & the Kuwait National Guard.",
"The governing bodies are the Kuwait Ministry of Defense, the Kuwait Ministry of Interior, and the Kuwait Fire Service Directorate.",
"The Emir of Kuwait is the commander-in-chief of all defense forces while the Crown Prince is the deputy commander.The early military structured organization which first dealt with security and the military following the engagements of Kuwait Army's infantry and cavalry protecting the three mounted defensive walls (third defensive wall mounted in 1920) of Kuwait prior and following to The Great War, was the Directorate of Public Security Force, formed during the Interwar period and mainly after World War II.",
"The Directorate of Public Security Force already included the partnership integration of the Kuwait Army and Directorate of Police as independent forces following the formation of the first cabinet on June 17, 1962, after the independence.",
"In 1953, the Kuwait Army split from the Directorate of Public Security Force; the latter merged with the Directorate of Police in 1959, giving formation to the newly established Kuwait Ministry of Interior.",
"The Ministry of Interior includes the Kuwait Coast Guard and has several military commanders, designated by government protocol as assistant ministers undersecretaries, each reporting to the Minister of Interior who is designated by protocol as Deputy Prime Minister of the State of Kuwait.Upon splitting from the Directorate of Public Security Force in 1953, the Kuwait Army acted as the de facto command leadership of the available armed forces since establishment.",
"The Kuwait Army was created in 1949, thirteen years before the ministry and partly mainly at the time composed almost entirely of land force components with the Kuwait Air Force being created in 1953.With the creation of the Kuwait Armed Forces in 1963, the Kuwait Ministry of Defense eventually became and is the governing body of the Kuwait Armed Forces, which includes the Kuwait Land Force, the Kuwait 25th Commando Brigade, the Kuwait Military Police Authority, the Kuwait Emiri Guard Authority, the Kuwait Air Force, the Kuwait Naval Force, the Kuwait Military Fire Service Directorate and others.",
"Each armed force at disposition of the respective combat commander, reports to the Chief of General Staff of the Kuwait Armed Forces who later reports to the Minister of Defense, designated also by protocol as Deputy Prime Minister of the State of Kuwait.The Kuwait National Guard, however, is an independent combat institution from the Ministry of Defense and Interior and acts independently under the guidance, discretion and disposition of the respective leadership, supporting the Military of the State of Kuwait as needed and required.",
"The Kuwait Fire Service Directorate, is also an independent public fire fighting body with military ranks and ribbons identifications."
],
[
"Organization",
"The three main military arms of Kuwait are the Kuwait Land Force, the Kuwait Air Force, and the Kuwait Naval Force, which includes the Kuwait Commando Marine Units.",
"In addition, there are other independent and ancillary military formations.",
"The independent formations include the Kuwait Emiri Guard, which is an independent combat force dating back to the eighteenth century (as the Rulers own Guards); and the 25th Commando Brigade, an independent commando combat brigade.",
"Ancillary formations include the Kuwait Military Police and the Kuwait Military Fire Service Directorate.The Kuwait National Guard, considered a combat formation, is independent of the Kuwait Armed Forces (and the Kuwait Ministry of Interior, which maintains several formations of its own, including the Kuwait Land Border Force and the Kuwait Coast Guard) and is the main internal and border protection security force.According to the London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies, in 2007, the Kuwait Land Force had around 11,000 personnel, the Kuwait Air Force 2,500, and the Kuwait Navy 10 patrol and coastal craft, and there were 23,000 reservists for all services not including uniformed men and women of the Ministry of Interior and military of the Fire Service Directorate.",
"There were 6,600 paramilitary Kuwait National Guard forces.",
"It was considered that, although the Military of the State of Kuwait remained small per speculated policies and analysis, training and military readiness were taken seriously and were effective at the brigade and squadron level.",
"The combat operational doctrine is different amongst the various combat forces forming and is highly dependent on operational capabilities and general manning formations within sizes and types of equipment packing."
],
[
"History",
"In 1950 Emir Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah ordered the capabilities of the Armed Forces to be developed to deal with external threats.",
"Accordingly, Abdullah Mubarak Al-Sabah was appointed Commander General of the Kuwait Public Security Force, the newly designated Kuwait Army and the initial forming of the Armed services.In 1951 the Bren Gun entered into service with the Kuwait Public Security Department, followed in 1952 by the Daimler Armoured Car, both primarily with the Army (future land force).In 1953 the border and security force was named the Kuwait Army and split from the Directorate of Public Security Force, and the latter merged with the Directorate of Police to form the preliminaries of the Ministry of Interior.",
"Members of the previous forces became members either of the army or merged with police forces and the Directorate of Public Security Force within the Interior Ministry.",
"The Kuwait Army was headed by Mubarak Abdullah Al-Jaber Al-Sabah who had recently returned from military training in the United Kingdom and reported to Abdullah Mubarak Al-Sabah.In 1953 Abdullah Mubarak Al-Sabah established the first Kuwait Flying Club.",
"The flying club was part of the Civil Aviation Directorate and graduated the first batch of Kuwaiti pilots in 1954; these later attended advanced training in the United Kingdom.In 1954, Mubarak Abdullah Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was appointed Deputy head commander of the Kuwait Army, reporting to Abdullah Mubarak Al-Sabah.",
"During that same year, Saleh Al-Mohammed Al-Sabah returned from the United Kingdom and was assigned as commanding officer at headquarters.",
"Also in 1954 eight Auster aircraft entered into service with the Kuwait Flying Club for purposes of preliminary training.In 1956, the Kuwait Army officially moved to headquarters and was equipped with artillery for the first time.",
"Also during the same year, a new training center was established for the Kuwait Army.=== Demolition of Kuwait City 3rd Defensive Wall, and formation of the Kuwait Armed Forces ===The Kuwait Army split from the Directorate of Public Security Force in 1953; subsequently, the latter merged with Directorate of Police to form Directorate of Public Security and Police in 1959; following the demolition of the third defensive wall of Kuwait in 1957 through a ministerial decree for the expansion of Kuwait City; which later formed the Kuwait Ministry of Interior including the Kuwait Police.",
"The Army was the first branch of what became the Armed Forces formed mainly of land force components.",
"In the same year, the Army signed on the procurement of the Centurion tank, and two de Havilland DH.104 Dove monoplanes entered into service in the newly formed Air Force.In 1958 Kuwaiti officers were sent to the Military Academies in Egypt and Iraq to train, and the Kuwait Army underwent its first alert following the coup of Abdul Karim Qasim.",
"In 1959 the Kuwait Army set up its first mechanized combat brigade, the Kuwait 6th Mechanized Brigade, known later as the Kuwait 6th Liberation Mechanized Brigade, following the liberation of Kuwait during the Gulf War.=== Operation Vantage 1961 ===HMS ''Victorious'' taking part in Operation Vantage in support of Kuwait in July 1961.After 62 years as a British protectorate, Kuwait declared independence in 1961.Iraq immediately claimed that Kuwait was actually an Iraqi province, and threatened to invade to implement the claim.",
"Britain flew troops into the newly independent country to forestall Iraq, an operation called Operation Vantage.In 1961, Field Marshal Abdullah Mubarak Al-Sabah, the Commander General of the Army was followed by the leadership of Brigadier General Mubarak Abdullah Al-Jaber Al-Sabah and his deputy Colonel Saleh Mohammed Al-Sabah who stepped in to take part in Operation Vantage along with the already active Kuwait 25th Commando Brigade as the Army was put on their second alert phase.Also during the same year, the Kuwait Flying Club was separated from the Civilian Aviation Directorate and the Kuwait Air Force was officially enacted.",
"Also in 1961, the Universal Carrier was retired from the Kuwait Army.Over the following years and through combat experiences; Kuwait built a small effective military force including a land force, navy, air force, national guard, existing police force and fire service directorate.In 1962 the Kuwait Army activated both the Kuwait 35th Shaheed Armored Brigade and the Kuwait 15th Mubarak Armored Brigade which were considered the second and third functioning armored brigades in service.During that same year, the Kuwait Army held the first military parade in recognition of the independence of Kuwait, and the BAC Jet Provost entered into service with the Kuwaiti Air Force.",
"Also in 1962, the Kuwait Police became an integral component of the Kuwait Ministry of Interior.=== Establishment of the General Chief of Staff Headquarters (1963) ===In 1963, an organizational Amiri Decree was issued, enacting officially Chief of General Staff Headquarters of the Kuwait Armed Forces.Similarly, an Amiri Decree was issued to appoint Major General Mubarak Abdullah Al-Jaber Al-Sabah to the position of Chief of General Staff of the newly formed Kuwait Armed Forces.",
"During the same year, the subsonic British Hawker Hunter jet aircraft and the de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou transport aircraft entered into service with the Kuwait Air Force.In 1965 Brigadier General Saleh Al-Mohammed Al-Sabah was appointed as the first Deputy Chief of General Staff of the Kuwait Armed Forces.=== Six-Day War (1967) and War of Attrition (1967–1970) ===In 1966, the headquarters of the Kuwait Military Hospital was opened.",
"In 1967, the Chief of General Staff Major General Mubarak Abdullah Al-Jaber Al-Sabah appointed his deputy Brigadier General Saleh Mohammed Al-Sabah as acting commander of a hand-picked brigade from the Kuwait Armed Forces, mainly the elite of the Kuwait Army.",
"Attached also to the elite brigade was Sheikh Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah as acting commander by delegation of the 2nd Commando Battalion of the Kuwait 25th Commando Brigade.",
"In 1967 several Arab nations were at war with the State of Israel in the Six-Day War.",
"Kuwait did not openly participate, but a contingent from the Army took part in fighting in the central sector; Kuwaiti participation was too small to have any significant impact; nevertheless, going from the principle of Arab solidarity, the various combat operational unit assets of the Kuwait Army exercised their principle of solidarity and completed their mission.",
"The assembled Yarmouk Brigade participated on the Egyptian Front, the first Kuwaiti military unit to fight outside the territory of Kuwait.On June 6, 1967, the Kuwait National Guard was established under the leadership of and guidance of Sheikh Salem Al-Ali Al-Sabah.",
"On July 1, the War of Attrition against the State of Israel commenced while the Yarmouk brigade was engaged on the Egyptian Front.",
"In 1968, Kuwaiti military authorities established the Kuwait Military Academy.In 1969, the Kuwait Armed Forces placed the English Electric Lightning supersonic jet fighter aircraft and the Bell 206 and Bell 204/205 (mainly the 205) helicopters into service with the Kuwaiti Air Force.In 1970, the Kuwait Armed Forces suffered seventeen fatalities in fighting against Israeli forces in Egypt.",
"One man was killed in April and sixteen more were killed in June.",
"During the same year, the Kuwait Air Force placed BAC Strikemaster light attack jets into service and the following year took delivery of Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft.In 1972, the Kuwait Army introduced the Vickers MBT main battle tank series, and the Kuwait Armed Forces trained Egyptian pilots and technicians through the Kuwait Air Force on the English Electric Lightning.=== Double-fronted wars: 1973 Samita border skirmish and October War ===The Al Jahra Force in the Golan HeightsIn 1973, the Kuwait Armed Forces entered into their third alert phase with the beginning of the 1973 Samita border skirmish which led to a significant change in the operational capabilities of the Armed Forces.Also in 1973, the leadership of the Armed Forces found itself battle readying on two fronts.",
"While components of the Armed Forces were readying to fight following the skirmish on the Kuwaiti border, Kuwait sent a token force to participate on the West Bank of the Jordan River alongside the Iraqi Armed Forces on the Egyptian and Syrian fronts during the 1973 October War against the State of Israel (also known as the Yom Kippur war), being especially heavily combat engaged on the Syrian front.",
"As in 1967, Kuwaiti participation was too small to have any significant impact; nevertheless as in 1967, the various combat operational unit assets forming, exercised their Arab principle of solidarity and completed their mission.",
"During 1973 the Kuwait Armed Forces officially enacted the Kuwait Naval Armed Service; mainly the Kuwait Navy.In 1973 the leadership of the Armed Forces led a double fronted war with and against the same forming Arab belligerent for the State of Kuwait.",
"The leadership led the Kuwait Armed Forces brigades through their combat commanders engaged on both Syrian and Egyptian fronts during the war against Israel with and alongside the Iraqi Armed Forces while simultaneously part leading and engaging the remainder of the Kuwaiti forces on the Kuwaiti border due to the effects of the 1973 Sanita combat engagement.One year later in 1974 and as a result of unpredictable conflicting crises, authorities enacted a new plan to expand the Kuwait Armed Forces even further.",
"During the same year, Kuwait Armed Forces introduced the Aérospatiale Gazelle and Puma series helicopters to the Kuwait Air Force.=== State of Kuwait Embassy protection and general support to Halt the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) ===With the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975, units of the Kuwait 25th Commando Brigade were sent to Lebanon to protect mainly the State of Kuwait Embassy mission in Beirut.",
"On another hand, a United Nations multinational peace deterrence force was formed by the United Kingdom, United States, France and Italy.",
"The United Kingdom's contingents of the Multinational Force in Lebanon included Her Majesty's 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards.",
"United States formations featured contingents of the U.S. Navy including the United States Marine Corps, Air Force and Army.",
"France's components included the French Air Force, French Army, French Navy including Aéronavale and French Regular and Foreign paratrooper regiments, companies, units including the 1st Parachute Hussard Regiment, the 17th Parachute Engineer Regiment, the 35th Parachute Artillery Regiment, the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment, others along with the 1st Foreign Regiment, the 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment and the 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment of the French Foreign Legion.",
"The Multinational Force in Lebanon also included Italian paratroopers from the Folgore Brigade, infantry units from the Bersaglieri regiments and Italian Marines of the San Marco Battalion.In the parallel diplomatical couloir of the United Nations peace initiative force and mainly at the level of leading Arab international diplomacy and humanitarianism; the State of Kuwait support participated in bringing the Lebanese Civil War to a halt (1975–1990).A mission for this purpose was led by Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, then Minister of Foreign Affairs of the State of Kuwait, during the reign of Emir of Kuwait, Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah.During 1975, Kuwait defense authorities enacted the establishment of the first Kuwait naval base.",
"During the same year, Kuwait Armed Forces signed on the delivery of the MIM-23 Hawk surface-to-air missile system and merged the Air Defense component to the Kuwait Air Force.",
"The de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou was retired from service.In 1976, the Kuwait Armed Forces took delivery of Dassault Mirage F1s to be operated by the Kuwait Air Force.",
"During the same year, the Kuwait Air Force retired the Bell 206 and Bell 204/205 from service.In 1977, the Kuwait Armed Forces initiated the first drill training with the United States Armed Forces.",
"During the same year, authorities enacted the Ahmed Al Jaber Air Base, officially opened in 1979, and Ali Al Salem Air Base, officially opened in 1980.During the year of 1977, the Kuwait Armed Forces retired several equipment operated by the Air Force and Army and gained one new operating equipment.",
"The English Electric Lightning and Hawker Hunter were retired by the Kuwait Air Force and Douglas A-4 Skyhawks were introduced; while the Centurion Tanks were given to Somalia by the Army, as deliveries of Chieftain MBT started to arrive.=== Creation of the Kuwait Naval Force (1978) ===In 1978, the Kuwait Navy was created and designated as the sea-based component of the Kuwait Armed Forces.",
"During the same period, the Kuwait Army entered into service the M113 armored personnel carrier, the 9K52 Luna-M short-range artillery rocket system and the M109 howitzer.=== Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) ===In 1980, the Iran–Iraq War broke out and the Kuwait Armed Forces entered into their fourth alert phase.",
"During the same year, the Kuwait Armed Forces signed on the procurement of naval warships for the Kuwait Navy.=== First joint Kuwait-Saudi Arabian air drills (1983) ===In 1983, the Kuwait Armed Forces carried out the first air joint training with the Royal Saudi Air Force using Douglas A-4 Skyhawks.In 1984, the Kuwait Armed Forces enter the short-range tactical surface-to-air missile system 9K33 Osa in service to be operated by the Kuwait Air Force.",
"During the same year, the ordered naval warships arrived and were directly commissioned by the Kuwait Naval Force.=== Official enacting of the Land Force of the Kuwait Armed Forces (1988) ===In 1988, the Kuwait Land Force was officially designated as the land component of the Kuwait Armed Forces.",
"The Kuwait Armed Forces were removed from their alert phase with the ending of the Iran-Iraq War.",
"The eight-year fourth alert phase was the longest in the Armed Forces' history.",
"With the ending of the Iran-Iraq War, the Kuwait Army adopted the BMP-2 infantry combat vehicle.In 1989, the Kuwait Armed Forces signed on the delivery of F/A-18 Hornets and launched the opening of the new Kuwaiti Military Hospital.Douglas A-4 Skyhawk aircraft of the Kuwaiti Air Force are serviced on a flight line in preparation for a mission during Operation Desert Storm on 13 Feb 1991=== Iraqi invasion and aftermath (1990) ===On 2 August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded Kuwait.",
"The larger Iraqi army brushed aside resistance by the 20,000-strong Kuwait Armed Forces with heavy casualties; after two days, Kuwait had been fully conquered.",
"There were some instances of especially heroic resistance, particularly by combat aircraft pilots.",
"Kuwaiti Forces, principally the Kuwait 35th Shaheed (Martyr) Armored Brigade of the Kuwait Army, engaged in the Battle of the Bridges near Al Jahra under Colonel Salem Masoud Al-Sorour, and the Kuwait Emiri Guards were engaged in the Battle of Dasman Palace with the Emir's half-brother Sheikh Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah.Iraqi forces seized most of the heavy military equipment of the Kuwaiti military and used it against the coalition forces.",
"This included the entire navy, which was sunk by coalition forces; tanks and armoured personnel carriers were also seized.",
"While the Iraqis were required to return seized equipment after their defeat, most of it was damaged beyond repair.",
"Only the air force escaped destruction, as many of its aircraft had escaped to Saudi Arabia.=== Gulf War and Operation Desert Storm (1990–1991) ===Kuwaiti M-84 MBTs.Ground troop movements 24–28 February 1991 during Operation Desert StormIn the same year, Kuwait was part of a U.S.-led military coalition formed in response to the invasion which expelled Iraq from Kuwait in what became known as the Gulf War or First Persian Gulf War.",
"Operation Desert Storm was launched by the coalition.",
"Douglas A-4 Skyhawks of the Kuwait Air Force destroyed several Iraqi Naval ships trying to infiltrate into Bubiyan Island.",
"The Kuwait Armed Forces commissioned and entered into service the M-84 battle tank during the attack on Iraqi forces in Saudi Arabia.After the four-week air campaign, coalition forces launched the ground offensive.",
"They quickly penetrated deep into Iraq, with the Legion taking the Al Salman Airport, meeting little resistance.",
"The war ended after a hundred hours of fighting on the ground, which resulted in very light casualties for the Legion.==== Aftermath ====U.S.",
"President George H. W. Bush condemned the invasion and led efforts to drive out the Iraqi forces.",
"Authorized by the United Nations Security Council, an American-led coalition of 34 nations led by Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. fought the Gulf War to liberate Kuwait.",
"Following several weeks of aerial bombardment, a U.S.-led United Nations (UN) coalition began a ground assault on 23 February 1991 that completely removed Iraqi forces from Kuwait in four days.",
"After liberation, the UN, under Security Council Resolution 687, demarcated the Iraq-Kuwait boundary on the basis of the 1932 and the 1963 agreements between the two states.",
"In November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait, which had been further spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 773 (1992) and 833 (1993).There was an exodus of Palestinian from Kuwait during and after the Gulf War.",
"During the Iraqi occupation more than 200,000 Palestinians fled Kuwait due to harassment, intimidation by Iraqi security forces, and being dismissed from their employment due to Iraqi influence.",
"After the Gulf War, the Kuwaiti authorities forcibly pressured nearly 200,000 Palestinians to leave Kuwait in 1991.This was in response to the alignment of Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and the PLO with Iraqi dictator and invader of Kuwait Saddam Hussein.The Palestinians who fled Kuwait were Jordanians naturalized citizens.After the liberation, Kuwait became a close military partner of the United States, Britain and France.Kuwait entered into a ten-year defense cooperation agreement with the United States in September 1991, and later with the United Kingdom and France.",
"The defense cooperation with the United States, the United Kingdom and France is done at the training level in the foreign country and the joint military exercise level on Kuwaiti soil.The agreement with the United States also includes port access, military equipment storage, and joint training and exercises.",
"The agreement did not officially provide for the stationing of United States service personnel in Kuwait, as the 1,500 US personnel remaining after the Gulf War were scheduled to leave within a few months.In 1992, the Kuwait Armed Forces initiated joint structuring of its various Armed Forces.",
"In the same year, F/A-18 Hornet aircraft were delivered and entered official service with the Kuwaiti Air Force.=== October 1994 crisis with Iraq ===In 1994, the Kuwait Armed Forces entered their fifth alert phase with the beginning of the Iraq disarmament crisis in October, and the Kuwait Air Force signed on the delivery of Starburst missile systems.In 1995, the Desert Warrior tracked armoured vehicle and the BM-30 Smerch System entered into service with the Kuwait Army.In 1996, the M1A2 Abrams main battle tank and the BMP-3 infantry fighting vehicle entered Kuwaiti service.",
"During the same year, the Mubarak al-Abdullah Joint Command and Staff College (), named in memory of Lieutenant General Mubarak Abdullah Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (1934–1987), opened.=== Operation Desert Strike (1996) ===Following Operation Desert Strike in 1996, Kuwait agreed to a United States Battalion Task Force to be permanently stationed in Kuwait.",
"These US Army Intrinsic Action (later called Operation Desert Spring on 1 October 1999) rotations and US Marine Corps EAGER MACE rotations conducted combined training with the Kuwait Land Forces and other coalition partners.",
"In addition, US Special Operations Forces conducted Iris Gold rotations to train and assist other Kuwaiti military units.In 1997, the Kuwait Armed Forces entered into service the MIM-104 Patriot surface-to-air missile (SAM) system with the Kuwait Air Force.=== Operation Desert Fox (1998) ===In 1998, the Kuwait Armed Forces made an organizational change in command between the Chief of General Staff and his various assistants through the chains of command.",
"During the same year, the Kuwait Armed Forces enter into their sixth alert phase with the December 1998 bombing of Iraq (code-named Operation Desert Fox) between the United States, the United Kingdom and Iraq.=== 50th Anniversary of the Kuwait Army (1999) ===In 1999, during the reign of Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, the General Staff Headquarters of the Kuwait Army commemorated the 50th Anniversary Golden jubilee of the Kuwait Armed Forces under the leadership of the Commander-in-chief, the Emir of Kuwait, and the directives of the Chief of the General Staff.",
"Newly ordered armored Naval warships were received and directly commissioned by the Kuwait Navy and Coast Guard.=== Global War on Terror (2001–present) ===After the War on Terror began with military campaigns following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Kuwait was declared one of fifteen major non-NATO allies of the United States by US President George W. Bush.During the Iraq War, the Military of Kuwait played an important role in supporting the logistical operations of the United States Armed Forces engaged in military operations in Iraq.=== 50th Anniversary of the Kuwait Air Force (2003) ===In May 2003, the Kuwait Air Force commemorated their 50th Anniversary Golden jubilee under the leadership of the Commander-in-chief, the Emir of Kuwait.=== 50th Anniversary of the Kuwait Emiri Guard (2011) ===In June 2011, the Kuwait Emiri Guard commemorated their 50th Anniversary Golden jubilee under the leadership of the Commander-in-chief, and the Emir of Kuwait.===50th Anniversary of the Kuwait Naval Force (2011) ===In November 2011, the Kuwait Naval Force commemorated their 50th Anniversary Golden jubilee under the leadership of the Commander-in-chief, the Emir of Kuwait.=== 2015 intervention in Yemen ===The Military of Kuwait went on alert as a result of the 2015 Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen by a coalition of forces of Arab countries including Kuwait, which contributed aircraft of the Kuwaiti Air Force.",
"The military, National Guard, Kuwait Police, and Fire Service Directorate activated defense plans to strengthen internal security measures.",
"Defense measures also included intensifying security around oil installations in Kuwait and abroad.=== 50th Anniversary of the Kuwait National Guard (2017) ===In June 2017, the Kuwait National Guard commemorated their 50th Anniversary Golden jubilee under the leadership of the Commander-in-chief, the Emir of Kuwait, and directives of Sheikh Salem Al-Ali Al-Sabah."
],
[
"Ranks of the Military of Kuwait"
],
[
"Order of battle",
"=== Kuwait Naval Force ===The Kuwait Navy Force is the main sea deterring force with naval warships sailors.",
"The navy includes the Kuwait Marine Corps and units of the Kuwait Commando Marine Units.=== Kuwait Air Force ===According to Jane's World's Air Forces the operational doctrine of the Kuwaiti Air Force is to provide air support to ground forces as part of a coalition, rather than alone.",
"It is made up of 2,500 people organized into two fighter/ground attack squadrons, two fixed-wing transport squadrons, two helicopter squadrons, a utility squadron and a training/attack helicopter squadron.",
"Although comparatively small in size, it is well equipped and trained, with Kuwaiti pilots averaging 210 flying hours per year.",
"It does not constitute any offensive threat, but can support ground forces in defensive operations.===Kuwait Land Force===The Kuwait Land Force consists of active-duty personnel organized into three armored brigades, two mechanized infantry brigades, a mechanized reconnaissance brigade, an artillery brigade, a combat engineering brigade, a reserve brigade, and various other commands.",
"The brigades are small by western standards, roughly the equivalent of small regiments or large battalions.",
"They are \"cadre forces\", kept up to 80 percent of full strength, with the balance made up of reserves in case of war.Although the threat from Iraq was replaced by the War on Terror, forces structure has remained largely unchanged since 2000.=== Kuwait Emiri Guard ===The Kuwait Emiri Guard is an independent combat authority in the Kuwait Armed Forces.=== Kuwait 25th Commando Brigade ===The 25th Commando Brigade is an independent commando combat brigade part of the Kuwait Armed Forces.=== Kuwait Commando Marine Units ===The Kuwait Commando Marine Units are independent commando combat units part of the Kuwait Navy in the Kuwait Armed Forces.=== Kuwait Military Police ===The Kuwaiti Military Police is an independent combat authority in the Kuwait Armed Forces.=== Kuwait National Guard ===The Kuwait National Guard, considered a combat institution, is an independent body from the Kuwait Armed Forces and is a main internal and border combating security force.=== Kuwait Ministry of Interior ===The Kuwaiti Ministry of Interior is the governing body of the Kuwait Police, considered an institution, is an independent corps from the Kuwait Armed Forces and is an internal, coastal and border security force with combating and non-combatant elements.=== Kuwait Land Border Force ===The Kuwait Land Border Force of the interior is a border component of the Kuwait Police.=== Kuwait Coast Guard ===The Kuwait Coast Guard is a sea-based component of the Kuwait Police.=== Kuwait Military Fire Service Directorate ===The Kuwait military fire service are the military firefighters of the Kuwait Armed Forces.=== Kuwait Fire Service Directorate ===The Kuwait Fire Service Directorate are the public firefighters with military ranks and ribbon identifications."
],
[
"Relationship with the United States Armed Forces",
"An analysis of the U.S.-Kuwaiti strategic relationship after the Iraqi invasion was published in 2007 by the U.S. Army War College Strategic Studies Institute.=== Forces ===The United States of America has thousands of troops stationed in Kuwait as part of a defence agreement.",
"The largest part is the US Army Central Command (ARCENT), part of the United States Central Command (USCENTCOM).Active US Forces facilities:* Ali Al Salem Air Base* Camp Arifjan* Camp Buehring* Camp Fox* Camp Patriot* Camp Spearhead* Camp Virginia* Camp Wolf* Abdullah Al-Mubarak Air Base* Kuwait Naval Base* Udairi Range* Ahmad al-Jaber Air BaseInactive US Forces facilities:* Camp Doha* Camp Moreell* Camp Navistar* Camp New York* Failaka Island* Mina Al Ahmad=== Equipment ===The United States has provided military and defence technical assistance to Kuwait from both Foreign Military Sales (FMS) and commercial sources, with all transactions made by direct cash sale.",
"The US Office of Military Cooperation in Kuwait is attached to the American Embassy and manages the FMS program.",
"US military sales to Kuwait total US$5.5 billion since 2004.Principal US military systems purchased by the Kuwait Defence Forces are the Patriot missile system, F-18 Hornet fighters, and the M1A2 Main Battle Tank."
],
[
"See also",
"* House of Sabah* National Assembly of Kuwait* Politics of Kuwait* Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen* Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References and links",
"* UNIKOM* CIA World Factbook* Summary of Kuwait military power Summary of Kuwaiti military* Kuwaiti Military at Global security* Anscombe, Frederick F. (1997).",
"''The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar''.",
"New York City: Columbia University Press.",
".",
"Retrieved 23 September 2010.",
"* Slot, B. J.",
"(2005).",
"''Mubarak Al-Sabah : Founder of Modern Kuwait 1896–1915''.",
"London: Arabian Publishing Ltd. .",
"Retrieved 23 September 2010."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Foreign relations of Kuwait"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Since its independence in 1961, Kuwait maintained strong '''international relations''' with most countries, especially nations within the Arab world.",
"Its vast oil reserves gives it a prominent voice in global economic forums and organizations like the OPEC.",
"Kuwait is also a major ally of ASEAN, a regional ally of China, and a major non-NATO ally."
],
[
"Overview",
"Location of diplomatic missions of Kuwait:Regionally, Kuwait has a unique foreign policy that is characterized by neutrality.",
"Kuwait's relationship with neighboring Iraq formed the core of its foreign policy from late 1980s onwards.",
"Its first major foreign policy problem arose when Iraq claimed Kuwaiti territory.",
"Iraq threatened invasion, but was dissuaded by the United Kingdom's ready response to the Amir's request for assistance.",
"Kuwait presented its case before the United Nations and successfully preserved its sovereignty.",
"UK forces were later withdrawn and replaced by troops from Arab League nations, which were withdrawn in 1963 at Kuwait's request.On 2 August 1990, Iraq invaded and occupied Kuwait.",
"A multinational coalition was assembled and under UN auspices, initiated military action against Iraq to liberate Kuwait.",
"Arab states, especially the other five members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates), Egypt, and Syria, supported Kuwait by sending troops to fight with the coalition.",
"Many European and East Asian states sent troops, equipment, and/or financial support.After its liberation, Kuwait largely directed its diplomatic and cooperative efforts toward states that had participated in the multinational coalition.",
"Notably, many of these states were given key roles in the reconstruction of Kuwait.",
"Conversely, Kuwait's relations with nations that had supported Iraq, among them Jordan, Sudan, Yemen, Greece and Cuba, have proved to be strained.Since the conclusion of the Gulf War, Kuwait has made efforts to secure allies throughout the world, particularly United Nations Security Council members.",
"In addition to the United States, defense arrangements have been concluded with Russia, the United Kingdom, and France.",
"Close ties to other key Arab members of the Gulf War coalition — Egypt and Syria — also have been sustained.Kuwait's foreign policy has been dominated for some time by its economic dependence on oil and natural gas.",
"As a developing nation, its various economies are insufficient to independently support it.",
"As a result, Kuwait has directed considerable attention toward oil or natural gas related issues.",
"With the outbreak of the War on Iraq, Kuwait has taken a pro-U.S. stance, having been the nation from which the war was actually launched.",
"It supported the Coalition Provisional Authority, with particular stress upon strict border controls and adequate U.S. troop presence.",
"Kuwait also has good relations with Iran.Kuwait is a member of the UN and some of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank (IBRD), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); African Development Bank (AFDB), Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (AFESD), Arab League, Arab Monetary Fund (AMF), Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), Group of 77 (G-77), Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), INMARSAT, International Development Association (IDA), International Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Labour Organization (ILO), International Marine Organization, Interpol, IOC, Islamic Development Bank (IDB), League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (LORCS), Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)."
],
[
"International disputes",
"In November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1992), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah Island islands; ownership of Qaruh and Umm al Maradim islands disputed by Saudi Arabia.",
"Kuwait and Saudi Arabia continue negotiating a joint maritime boundary with Iran; no maritime boundary exists with Iraq in the Persian Gulf."
],
[
"Diplomatic relations",
"List of countries which Kuwait maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132''''''33343536373839404142434445464748495051525354—555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177—178179180181182183184185186187188—189—Unknown190Unknown"
],
[
"Bilateral relations",
"=== Africa === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes23 April 1968See Kenya–Kuwait relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 23 April 1968 when has been accredited first Ambassador of Kuwait to Kenya with residence in Nairobi Mr. Mohammad A.",
"Al-Mishari.",
"* Kenya has an embassy in Kuwait City.",
"* Kuwait has an embassy in Nairobi.=== Americas === Country Formal Relations startedNotes27 April 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 April 1965.In 1965, official relations between Kuwait and Canada were launched when the US ambassador to Kuwait began to act as a non-resident ambassador to Canada.",
"In 1978, Canada opened its embassy in Kuwait City.",
"Kuwait opened its embassy in Ottawa in 1993.23 July 1975See Kuwait–Mexico relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 23 July 1975* Kuwait has an embassy in Mexico City.",
"* Mexico has an embassy in Kuwait City.1 December 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 1975* Peru has an embassy in Kuwait City.",
"* Kuwait is accredited to Peru from Santiago, Chile.22 September 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 September 1961See Kuwait–United States relationsUnited States Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Martin Dempsey, with Kuwaiti Prime Minister Sheikh Jaber Mubarak Al-Sabah in 2011.The United States opened a consulate in Kuwait in October 1951, which was elevated to embassy status at the time of Kuwait's independence 10 years later.=== Asia ===Kuwait, is a member of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, which includes, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman.",
"These countries, have solid, and unbreakable bilateral relations.",
"Citizens of these countries, may enter other GCC, country with their national ID.",
"GCC citizens are allowed to reside at any other GCC, nation an unlimited period of time.",
"They also follow the same economic plan, and give each other military, and Intelligence support.",
"They also have similar, educational, social, plans.",
"The GCC countries, discuss their foreign policies, as they try to maintain similar foreign policies.",
"These six monarchies are also known as the oil-rich countries of the Middle East.",
"Country Formal Relations BeganNotes2 September 1971See Bahrain–Kuwait relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 2 September 1971* Bahrain has an embassy in Kuwait City.",
"* Kuwait has an embassy in Manama.22 March 1971China and Kuwait established diplomatic relations on 22 March 1971.In 2007, Kuwait exported $2.3 billion worth of goods to China ($2.1 billion of which was oil) and Kuwait imported $1.3 billion of goods from China.In 2007, Kuwait supplied China with of oil per day, accounting for 2.6% of China's total crude oil imports.",
"Saudi Arabia was China's top supplier with its shipments jumping 69.8 percent to 3.84 million tons (939,000 bbl/d), followed by Angola with 2.06 million tons (503,000 bbl/d), down 27.1 percent.",
"Iran became third, with imports from the country shrinking 35.3 percent to 1.18 million tons (289,000 bbl/d).",
"China is the world's second-biggest oil consumer after the US.",
"Abdullatif Al-Houti, managing director of International Marketing at state-run Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC), told KUNA in October that Kuwait is on course for its China-bound crude oil export target of by 2015, but success will heavily depend on the Sino-Kuwaiti refinery project.",
"The two countries have been in talks for the planned refinery in China's southern Guangdong Province.",
"The complex is expected to be on-stream by 2020.In July 2018, the State Administration for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defence signed an agreement with the Government of Kuwait to increase cooperation in the defense industry.",
"China also agreed to increase investment in the Kuwaiti energy sector.In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Kuwait, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.In June 2020, Kuwait was one of 53 countries backed the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations.26 March 1962See India–Kuwait relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 March 1962 when India and Kuwait have decided to raise their diplomatic missions to Embassy level.India and Kuwait enjoy mutual relationship due to the strategic position of both nations in the important lane of trade and development of Asia.India and Kuwait enjoy traditionally friendly relations.",
"These are based in history and have stood the test of time.",
"Geographic proximity, historical trade links, cultural affinities and presence of a large number of Indian expatriates continue to sustain and nurture this long standing relationship.",
"India has been a natural trading partner and a destination for higher learning.",
"Until 1961, the Indian Rupee was the legal tender in Kuwait.",
"High level visits from India to Kuwait have included those by Vice President of India Dr. Zakir Husain in 1965, by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1981 and by Vice President of India Shri M Hamid Ansari in 2009.High level visits from Kuwait to India have included those by the Crown Prince and Prime Minister Sheikh Sabah Al-Salem Al-Sabah in November 1964, the Amir Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah in 1980 and again in 1983 (for the NAM Summit), and the Amir Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah in 2006.According to the Kuwaiti Ministry of Interior, there are approximately 600,000 Indians, who constitute the largest expatriate community in Kuwait.",
"The Indian community is regarded as the community of first preference among the expatriates in Kuwait.",
"Kuwait views India as a fast-growing economy and a source of highly qualified professional and technical personnel.",
"A large proportion of the Indian expatriates are unskilled and semi-skilled workers.",
"Professionals like engineers, doctors, chartered accountants, scientists, software experts, management consultants, architects; skilled workers like technicians and nurses; semi-skilled workers; retail traders and businessmen are also present in the Indian community.Of late, there has been an increase in the number of highly qualified Indian experts in hi-tech areas, especially in the software and financial sector in Kuwait.",
"In the field of health, India not only supplies top specialists but also para-medical staff who enjoy high reputation.The total remittance from Kuwait to India is estimated to be upwards of US$3 billion annually.Approximately 300 associations exist within the Indian community in Kuwait, representing a variety of regional, professional and cultural interests.",
"Of these, 128 Associations are presently registered with the Embassy.",
"Cultural events are organised regularly by these associations through the year, to which leading Indian artistes are often invited.There are 18 Indian Schools in Kuwait affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi.17 December 1961See Iran–Kuwait relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 December 1961.Iran and Kuwait signed a demarcation agreement in 1965.On 13 July 2008, Kuwait's Speaker of the Parliament Jassem Al-Kharafi publicly accused the West of provoking Iran on the nuclear issue.",
"In his interview with state-owned Kuwait TV, Al-Kharafi said, \"What is happening is that there are provocative Western statements, and Iran responds in the same way...",
"I believe that a matter this sensitive needs dialogue not escalation, and it shouldn't be dealt with as if Iran were one of America's states.",
"\"10 January 1964See Iraq–Kuwait relations, Kurdistan Region–Kuwait relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1964.Diplomatic relations severed on 2 August 1990 when then Iraqi president Saddam Hussein sent his forces to occupy the small Gulf emirate and restore diplomatic relations on 2 August 2004''.",
"''On March 2, 2021, Iraqi official said that Iraq has so far paid $49.5 billion in war reparations to Kuwait.Mazhar Salih, an adviser to the Prime Minister, told Al-Sabaah newspaper that Iraq's dues now amount to only $2.5 billion.See Israel–Kuwait relationsKuwait has no diplomatic ties with Israel, and boycotts Israeli products.",
"In January 2014, Kuwait boycotted a renewable energy conference attended by Israel in Abu Dhabi, because Kuwait opposes normalization of ties with Israel.In December 2008, Kuwaiti lawmakers protested in front of the Kuwait National Assembly Building against Israel during the Gaza War.",
"The Kuwaiti lawmakers burned Israeli flags, waved banners reading, \"No to hunger, no to submission\" and chanted \"Allahu Akbar\".",
"Israel launched air strikes against Hamas in the Gaza Strip on December 26 after Hamas launched rockets into the Israeli town of Sderot following the expiration of a six-month ceasefire on December 18.On January 3, 2009, MPs protested in front of the National Assembly again.",
"After Friday prayers on January 8, 2009, Jamaan Al-Harbash and several other MPs urged Arab leaders to take a stronger stand against the Israeli attacks and open Rafah Crossing to end an embargo imposed by Israel on the residents of Gaza.In November 2012, Kuwait and the World Bank concluded an agreement according to which Kuwait contributed a US$50 million grant to the World Bank's Palestinian Reform and Development Program (PRDP).8 December 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 December 1961.The two nations have agreed to work together on the security of the oil trade route that connects them.27 September 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 September 1961* Kuwait has an embassy in Beirut.",
"* Lebanon has an embassy in Kuwait City.28 March 1965See Kuwait–Malaysia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 1965* Kuwait has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.",
"* Malaysia has an embassy in Kuwait City.",
"Relations are mainly in economic cooperation.Northern Cyprus has a Representative Office in Kuwait City.21 July 1963See Kuwait–Pakistan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 July 1963 when Kuwait opens Embassy in Islamabad.The relationship between Kuwait and Pakistan are exemplary, brotherly, historical and deep based on shared history, traditions and common culture.",
"Kuwait and Pakistan have always enjoyed deep economic and cultural ties.After the end of the first Gulf War in 1991 Pakistani army engineers were involved in a programme of mine clearance in the country.",
"Kuwait was also the first country to send aid to isolated mountain villages in Kashmir after the quake of 2005, also offering the largest amount of aid in the aftermath of the quake ($100m).15 December 1971See Kuwait–Qatar relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 December 1971.",
"* Kuwait has an embassy in Doha.",
"* Qatar has an embassy in Kuwait City.5 October 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 October 1961.Although Kuwait and Saudi Arabia have good relations and cooperate within OPEC and the GCC, Riyadh disputes Kuwait's ownership of the Qaruh and Umm al Maradim islands.11 June 1979The Republic of Korea and Kuwait have had diplomatic relations since 11 June 1979.On 2 March 2015, foreign minister Yun Byung-se and his Kuwaiti counterpart Sheikh Sabah Al-Khalid Al-Hamad Al-Sabah signed a bilateral Agreement on the mutual waiver of visa requirements for holders of diplomatic, official, and special passports in the presence of the heads of state of the Republic of Korea and Kuwait.24 October 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 October 1963Kuwait–Syria relations became somewhat strained due to the Syrian Civil War after Kuwait closed its embassies along with the rest of the Arab States of the Persian Gulf.",
"Bilaterial relations have since come to focus on humanitarian efforts for Syria instead.",
"For example, Kuwait has hosted three international pledging conferences in 2013, 2014 and 2015, raising 1.5bn, 2.4bn and 3.8bn respectively.",
"Relations between the two countries have since normalized.In 2016, Kuwait co-hosted the Supporting Syria and the Region Conference in London along with the United Kingdom, Kuwait, Germany and Norway.",
"The conference resulted in a record $10 billion pledge.10 January 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1964See Kuwait–Turkey relationsThe Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Turkey describes the current relations at \"outstanding levels\".",
"Bilateral trade between the two countries is worth around $275 million.",
"The two countries have recently signed fifteen agreements for cooperation in tourism, health, environment, economy, commercial exchange and oil.8 March 1972See Kuwait–United Arab Emirates relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 March 1972* Kuwait has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai.",
"* United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Kuwait City.10 January 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1976Kuwait was the first country in the GCC that Vietnam chose to establish its trade representative office in 1993, and embassy in 2003.The former Prime Minister of Kuwait Sheikh Nasser Al-Mohammed Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah and Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung in 2009 visited each other's countries.As a member of the UN Security Council in 1990 and 1991, Yemen abstained on a number of resolutions concerning the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and voted against the \"use of force resolution.\"",
"Kuwait responded by cancelling aid programs, cutting diplomatic contact, and expelling thousands of Yemeni workers.=== Europe === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes8 August 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 August 1968Kuwait – Albania friendship monumentAlbania and Kuwait are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.",
"The restoration of Skanderbeg Square in Albanian capital Tirana is funded by a grant from the State of Kuwait.",
"* Albania has an embassy in Kuwait City.",
"* Kuwait has an embassy in Tirana.3 May 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 May 2005See Cyprus-Kuwait relationsCyprus and Kuwait can be described as excellent with various exchange visits between the two countries.",
"* Cyprus has an embassy in Kuwait City.",
"* Kuwait has an embassy in Nicosia.25 April 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 April 1964.On 6 November 2006, the Kuwaiti parliament voted 22–15 to approve severing diplomatic ties with Denmark over the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy and spending about US$50 (€39.20) million to defend Muhammad's image in the West.",
"Both votes were nonbinding, meaning the Cabinet does not have to abide by them.",
"Kuwaiti lawmaker Abdulsamad voted in favor of cutting diplomatic ties, saying, \"We have to cut diplomatic and commercial ties with Denmark...We don't have to eat Danish cheese.\"",
"Al-Rashid voted against cutting diplomatic ties, arguing that Muslims have to be positive and remember that it were some individuals, not governments, who insulted Muhammad.",
"Al-Rashid was quoted as saying, \"We here in Kuwait curse Christians in many of our mosques, should those (Christian) countries boycott Kuwait?",
"\"20 May 1964See Germany–Kuwait relations* Kuwait has an embassy in Berlin.",
"* Germany has an embassy in Kuwait City.3 January 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 January 1965Greece was one of the 34 member countries in the coalition which assisted in the liberation of Kuwait from Iraq in 1991 during the Gulf War.",
"Greece also participated in the UNICOM mission to patrol the demilitarized zone along the Kuwait-Iraq border.",
"* Greece has an embassy in Kuwait City.",
"* Kuwait has an embassy in Athens.21 October 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 October 1968* Holy See has an apostolic nunciature in Kuwait City.16 January 2013* Kuwait recognised the Republic of Kosovo on 11 October 2011.",
"* Kosovo and Kuwait established diplomatic relations on 16 January 2013.13 May 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 May 1963* Kuwait has an embassy in Warsaw.",
"* Poland has an embassy in Kuwait City.17 April 1964See Kuwait–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 April 1964* Kuwait has an embassy in Madrid.",
"* Spain has an embassy in Kuwait City.22 December 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 December 1964 when Sweden opens its Embassy in Kuwait."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of diplomatic missions in Kuwait* List of diplomatic missions of Kuwait* Iran-Arab Relations (Kuwait)* Visa requirements for Kuwaiti citizens"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"History of Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate Man on horse in Kyrgyzstan (1995) Burana Tower in Balasagun (11th century).The history of the Kyrgyz people and the land now called Kyrgyzstan goes back more than 3,000 years.",
"Although geographically isolated by its mountainous location, it had an important role as part of the historical Silk Road trade route.",
"Turkic nomads, who trace their ancestry to many Turkic states such as the First and Second Turkic Khaganates, have inhabited the country throughout its history.",
"In the 13th century, Kyrgyzstan was conquered by the Mongols; subsequently it regained independence but was invaded by Kalmyks, Manchus, and Uzbeks.",
"In 1876, it became part of the Russian Empire, remaining in the USSR as the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic after the Russian Revolution.",
"Following Mikhael Gorbachev's democratic reforms in the USSR, in 1990 pro-independence candidate Askar Akayev was elected president of the SSR.",
"On 31 August 1991, Kyrgyzstan declared independence from Moscow, and a democratic government was subsequently established."
],
[
"Early history",
"Stone implements found in the Tian Shan mountains indicate the presence of early humans in what is now Kyrgyzstan as many as 200,000 to 300,000 years ago.",
"The first written records of a civilization in the area occupied by Kyrgyzstan appear in Chinese chronicles beginning about 2000 BC."
],
[
"Origins of the Kyrgyz people",
"The Yenisei Kirghiz lived in the upper Yenisey River valley, central Siberia.",
"Chinese sources of the 2nd century BC and Muslim sources of the 7th–12th centuries AD describe the Kyrgyz as red-haired with fair complexion and green (blue) eyes.",
"First appearing in Chinese ''Records of the Grand Historian'' as '''Gekun''' or '''Jiankun''' (鬲昆 or 隔昆), and later as part of the Tiele tribes, they came under the rule of the Göktürks and Uyghurs.",
"Later Kyrgyzstan was part of the Kushan empire during Buddhism.The early Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 AD.",
"Then Kyrgyz quickly moved as far as the Tian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years.",
"In the 12th century, however, the Kyrgyz domination had shrunk to the Altay Range and the Sayan Mountains as a result of the rising Mongol expansion.",
"With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the Kyrgyz migrated south.",
"Plano Carpin, an envoy of the Papal states, and William Rubruck, an envoy of France, all wrote about their life under the Mongols.",
"Various Turkic peoples ruled them until 1685, when they came under the control of the Oirats (Dzungars).63% of the modern Kyrgyz men carry Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA), comparable to the prevalence of the haplogroup among the Tajiks (64%)."
],
[
"Early medieval times",
"The siege and battle of Isfarah.",
"Babur and his army assaults the fortress of Ibrāhīm Sārū (painting circa 1589–90)The first Turks to form a state in the territory of Central Asia (including Kyrgyzstan) were Göktürks or Kök-Türks.",
"Known in medieval Chinese sources as Tujue (突厥 tú jué), the Göktürks under the leadership of Bumin/Tuman Khan/Khaghan (d. 552) of Ashina tribe or dynasty and his sons established the first known Turkic state in 551 in the general area of territory that had earlier been occupied by the Xiongnu, and expanded rapidly to rule wide territories in Central Asia.",
"The Göktürks split into two rival Khanates, of which the western one disintegrated in 744.The first kingdom to emerge from the Göktürk Khaganate was the Buddhist Uyghur Empire that flourished in the territory encompassing most of Central Asia from 744 to 840.After the Uyghur empire disintegrated a branch of the Uyghurs migrated to oasis settlements in the Tarim Basin and Gansu, such as Gaochang (Karakhoja) and Hami City (Kumul), and set up a confederation of decentralized Buddhist states called Kara-Khoja.",
"Others, mainly closely related to the Uyghurs (the Karluks), occupying the western Tarim Basin, Ferghana Valley, Jungaria and parts of modern Kazakhstan bordering the Muslim Turco-Tajik Khwarazm Sultanate, converted to Islam no later than the 10th century and built a federation with Muslim institutions called Kara-Khanlik, whose princely dynasties are called Karakhanids by most historians.",
"Its capital, Balasagun flourished as a cultural and economic centre.The Islamized Karluk princely clan, the Balasagunlu Ashinalar (or the Karakhanids) gravitated toward the Persian Islamic cultural zone after their political autonomy and suzerainty over Central Asia was secured during the 9–10th century.As they became increasingly Persianized they settled in the more Indo-Iranian sedentary centers such as Kashgaria, and became detached from the nomadic traditions of fellow Karluks, many of whom retained cultural elements of the Uyghur Khanate.The principality was significantly weakened by the early 12th century and the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan was conquered by the Mongolic Khitan people.",
"The Kara-Khitan Khanate (; 1124–1218), also known as Western Liao, was established by Yelü Dashi (耶律大石) who led around 100,000 Khitan remnants after escaping the Jurchen conquest of their native country, the Khitan dynasty.The Khitay conquest of Central Asia can thus be seen as an internecine struggle within the Karluk nomadic tribe, played out as dynastic conflict between the conquering Buddhist Khitay elites and the defending Kara-Khanid princes, resulting in the subjugation of the latter by the former, and in the subjugation of the Muslim Karluks by their Nestorian/Buddhist kin."
],
[
"Mongol domination",
"The Mongol invasion of Central Asia in the 13th century devastated the territory of Kyrgyzstan, costing its people their independence and their written language.",
"The son of Genghis Khan, Juche, conquered the Kyrgyz tribes of the Yenisey region, who by this time had become disunited.",
"At the same time, the area of present-day Kyrgyzstan was an important link in the Silk Road, as attested by several Nestorian gravestones.",
"For the next 200 years, the Kyrgyz remained under the Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and the Oirats as well as Dzungars that succeeded that regime.",
"Freedom was regained in 1510, but Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the seventeenth century by the Kalmyks, in the mid-eighteenth century by the Manchus, and in the early nineteenth century by the Uzbeks.The Mongol Empire (1206-1294/1368) was the largest contiguous empire and the second largest empire overall in world history.",
"It emerged from the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes in modern-day Mongolia, and grew through invasion, after Genghis Khan had been proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206.The Mongol Empire began to split following the succession war in 1260–1264, with the Golden Horde and the Chagatai Khanate being de facto independent and refusing to accept Kublai Khan (1260–1294) as Khagan.",
"By the time of Kublai's death, the Mongol Empire had already fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives.",
"The kagans of the Yuan dynasty assumed the role of Chinese emperors and fixed their capital at Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing) from the old Mongol capital Karakorum.",
"Although other khanates accepted them as their titular suzerains and sent tributes and some support after the peace treaty in 1304, the three western khanates were virtually independent, and they each continued their own separate developments as sovereign states.",
"Eventually the Mongol rule in China fell in 1368 and was replaced by the Ming dynasty though the Genghisid Borjigin dynasty survived in Mongolia until the 17th century.",
"Temujin, the son of a Mongol chieftain, who suffered a difficult childhood, united the nomadic, previously ever-rivaling Mongol-Turkic tribes under his rule through political manipulation and military might.",
"In 1203–1205, the Mongols under Temujin destroyed all the remaining rival tribes (Kereyd, Merkits) and brought them under his sway.",
"In 1206, Temujin was crowned as the Kagan of the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol Nation) at a Kurultai (general assembly) and assumed the title \"Chingis Khan\" (or more commonly known as \"Genghis Khan\" probably meaning Universal ruler) instead of the old tribal tities such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan.",
"This event essentially marked the start of the Mongol Empire under the leadership of Genghis Khan (1206–1227).",
"Genghis Khan appointed his loyal friends as the heads of army units and households.",
"He also divided his nation into (each with 10 people), (100), (1000) and (10,000) of decimal organization.",
"Genghis Khan rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions.",
"He proclaimed new law of the empire Yassa and codified everything related to the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads at the time.",
"For example, he forbade the hunting of animals during the breeding time, the selling of women, theft of other's properties as well as fighting between the Mongols, by his law.",
"He quickly came into conflict with the Jin dynasty of the Jurchens and the Western Xia of the Tanguts in northern China.",
"Under the provocation of the Muslim Khwarezmid Empire, he moved into Central Asia as well, devastating Transoxiana and eastern Persia, and then raiding into Kievan Rus' and the Caucasus.",
"Before his death, Genghis divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, but as custom made clear, it remained the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class.",
"In 1207 Kyrgyz possessions on the Yenisei, in Tuva and Altai were entered into part of Mongol Empire.",
"But in 1273–1293 Kyrgyz rulers restored their independence after repeated rebellions Kyrgyz tribes against Mongols power in 1217, 1218, 1273–1280.In 1218 the east Turkestan and Semirechie were conquered by Mongols.",
"Genghis Khan's empire was inherited by his third son, Ugedei, the designated Great Khan who personally controlled the lands east of Lake Balkhash as far as Mongolia.",
"Tolui, the youngest, the keeper of the hearth, was granted the northern Mongolian homeland.",
"Chagatai, the second son, received Transoxania, between the Amur-Darya and Syr-Darya rivers in modern Uzbekistan, and the area around Kashgar.",
"He made his capital at Almalik near what is now Kulja in northwestern China.",
"Apart from problems of lineage and inheritance, the Mongol Empire was endangered by the great cultural and ethnic divide between the Mongols themselves and their mostly Islamic Turkic subjects.",
"* In 1269 during the common meeting of khans of Chagatai and Ugedei uluses Khaidu (1269- 1301) was officially chosen to be a Khan.",
"His lands extended from Altai to Amur-Darya, including the territory of the modern Kyrgyzstan and the Eastern Turkestan (an extensive region of central Asia between Siberia in the north and Tibet, India, Afghanistan, and Iran in the south: formerły divided into West (Russian) Turkestan (also called Soviet Central Asia), comprising present-day Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan and the South part of Kazakhstan, and East Turkestan consisting of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (Chinese)."
],
[
"Timurids and Uzbeks",
"The Kyrgyz in the north were never totally subjugated by Timurlane.",
"In the southern region, however, his conquests and influence had a unifying role.",
"In the 15th century, a tribe of Uzbeks, originally from the Golden horde, arrived in this region."
],
[
"Russian Empire: 1876–1917",
"A 50-Kyrgyzstan som banknote representing Kurmanjan Datka.In 1775, Atake Tynay Biy Uulu, one of the leaders of Sarybagysh tribe, established first diplomatic ties with the Russian Empire by sending his envoys to Catherine the Great in Saint Petersburg.",
"In the early 19th century, the territory of Kyrgyzstan came under the control of the Khanate of Kokand, but the territory was occupied and formally annexed by the Russian Empire in 1876.The Russian takeover instigated numerous revolts against tsarist authority, and many Kyrgyz opted to move into the Pamir Mountains or to Afghanistan.",
"The ruthless suppression of the 1916 rebellion in Central Asia, triggered by the Russian imposition of the military draft on the Kyrgyz and other Central Asian peoples, caused many Kyrgyz to flee to China.",
"For Russian expansion into central Asia see Russian conquest of Turkestan."
],
[
"The Soviet Era: 1917–1991",
"Soviet power was initially established in the region in 1918, and in 1924, the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was created within the Russian SFSR.",
"(The term Kara-Kyrgyz was used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to distinguish them from the Kazakhs, who were also referred to as Kyrgyz.)",
"In 1926, it became the Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.",
"On December 5, 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was established as a full Union Republic of the USSR.Flag of Kyrgyz SSRDuring the 1920s, Kyrgyzstan saw considerable cultural, educational, and social change.",
"Economic and social development also was notable.",
"Literacy increased, and a standard literary language was introduced.",
"The Kyrgyz language belongs to the Kipchak Turkic group of languages.",
"In 1924, an Arabic-based Kyrgyz alphabet was introduced, which was replaced by Latin script in 1928.In 1941 Cyrillic script was adopted.",
"Many aspects of the Kyrgyz national culture were retained despite suppression of nationalist activity under Joseph Stalin, who controlled the Soviet Union from the late 1920s until 1953.Modern Kyrgyz religious affiliation is eclectically Muslim for a majority of the population.",
"Typical Kyrgyz families vary in their devotion to Islam.Russian and Kyrgyz cultures differ in respect to family, religious identity, and social structure.",
"Kyrgyzstan is a country in transition.",
"The current social dilemma is one that has emerged from the controlling body mainly relying on classic Russian ethnicities, to Kyrgyz or Turkic ethnic groups shaping and forming the infrastructure of Kyrgyzstan.",
"This has resulted in a measurable degree of instability and chaos associated with a social transition.The ancestral Kyrgyz social structure was dominated by nomadic traditions, governing political philosophies, and socialization.",
"As classical Russian ethnic groups were injected into the Soviet Republic of Kyrgyzstan, the urbanization process began and was mainly authored by the Russian communities placed within the Soviet Republic, mostly by policies created by the communist party.",
"It is unclear why these policies were created and it is only clear that these policies forced Russians of certain descent to populate the Republic.===Towards independence: 1985–1991===On 11 March 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev was chosen by the Politburo as the new General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.",
"Gorbachev immediately launched his new liberalizing policies of glasnost and perestroika, although they had little immediate impact on the political climate in Kyrgyzstan.",
"On 2 November 1985 Gorbachev replaced Turdakun Usubaliyev the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kirghizia, who had been in power for 24 years, with Absamat Masaliyev.",
"The republic's press was permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to establish a new publication, ''Literaturny Kyrgyzstan'', by the Union of Writers.",
"Unofficial political groups were forbidden, but several groups that emerged in 1989 to deal with an acute housing crisis were permitted to function.Gorbachev's policy of separating Party and State began to impact at the Soviet Republic level in early 1991 when each SSR held competitive elections to their respective legislative Supreme Soviets, shortly after the CPSU had given up its 'leading role'.",
"This meant that real local power moved from the position of Communist Party Leader to that of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet, the official Head of State of the SSR.",
"Between January and April 1990 each of the Communist Party leaders of the five states of Soviet Central Asia assumed the position of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet in their respective SSRs, without any difficulty from the still weak opposition forces in the region.In Kirghizia the 1990 elections were held on 25 February, with a second round on 7 April.",
"As the Communists were the only political party contesting the elections it is not surprising that they received 90% of the vote.",
"Absamat Masaliyev the Communist leader was voted by the new Parliament as Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Kirghizia on 10 April 1990.However events quickly began to slip from the Communists control.",
"On 1 May 1990 the opposition groups held their first big demonstration in Frunze in competition with the officially sanctioned May Day celebrations, and on 25–26 May 1990 the opposition groups formed the Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement as a bloc of several anti-Communist political parties, movements and nongovernment organizations.",
"Then on 4 June 1990, ethnic tensions between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced in an area of the Osh Region where Uzbeks form a majority of the population.",
"Violent confrontations ensued, and a state of emergency and curfew were introduced.",
"Order was not restored until August 1990.The Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement swiftly developed into a significant political force with growing support in parliament.",
"On 27 October 1990 in an upset victory, Askar Akayev, the president of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences and reformist Communist Party member, was elected to the newly created presidency defeating Communist Party leader Absamat Masaliyev.",
"Kirghizia was the only one of the five states of Soviet Central Asia that voted their established Communist leadership out of power in 1990.On 15 December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change the republic's name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan.",
"In January 1991, Akayev introduced new government structures and appointed a government consisting mainly of younger, reform-oriented politicians.",
"On 5 February 1991, the name of the capital, Frunze, was changed to Bishkek.Despite these moves toward independence, economic realities seemed to work against secession from the Soviet Union In a referendum on the preservation of the USSR, in March 1991, 88.7% of the voters approved a proposal to remain part of the union as a \"renewed federation.",
"\"On August 19, 1991, when the State Emergency Committee assumed power in Moscow, there was an attempt to depose Akayev in Kyrgyzstan.",
"After the coup collapsed the following week, Akayev and Vice President German Kuznetsov announced their resignations from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and the entire politburo and secretariat resigned.",
"This was followed by the Supreme Soviet vote declaring independence from the Soviet Union on 31 August 1991, becoming the first of the five Republics of Soviet Central Asia to break away."
],
[
"Independence and the Akayev presidency: 1991–2005",
"Kyrgyz was announced as the state language in September 1991.In October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected President of the new independent republic by direct ballot, receiving 95% of the votes cast.",
"Together with the representatives of seven other republics, he signed the Treaty of the New Economic Communists that same month.",
"On December 21, 1991, Kyrgyzstan formally entered the new Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).As in many former Soviet republics, after Kyrgyzstan regained independence in August 1991 many individuals, organizations, and political parties sought to reestablish (and, to a certain extent, to create from scratch) a Kyrgyz national cultural identity; often one that included a backlash against Russians.In 1993, allegations of corruption against Akayev's closest political associates blossomed into a major scandal.",
"One of those accused of improprieties was Prime Minister Tursunbek Chyngyshev, who was dismissed for ethical reasons in December.",
"Following Chyngyshev's dismissal, Akayev dismissed the government and called upon the last communist premier, Apas Djumagulov, to form a new one.",
"In January 1994, Akayev initiated a referendum asking for a renewed mandate to complete his term of office.",
"He received 96.2% of the vote.A new constitution was passed by the parliament in May 1993 and the Republic of Kyrgyzstan was renamed the Kyrgyz Republic.",
"In 1994, however, the parliament failed to produce a quorum for its last scheduled session prior to the expiration of its term in February 1995.President Akayev was widely accused of having manipulated a boycott by a majority of the parliamentarians.",
"Akayev, in turn, asserted that the communists had caused a political crisis by preventing the legislature from fulfilling its role.",
"Akayev scheduled an October 1994 referendum, overwhelmingly approved by voters, which proposed two amendments to the constitution—one that would allow the constitution to be amended by means of a referendum, and the other creating a new bicameral parliament called the ''Jogorku Kenesh''.Elections for the two legislative chambers—a 35-seat full-time assembly and a 70-seat part-time assembly—were held in February 1995 after campaigns considered remarkably free and open by most international observers, although the election-day proceedings were marred by widespread irregularities.",
"Independent candidates won most of the seats, suggesting that personalities prevailed over ideologies.",
"The new parliament convened its initial session in March 1995.One of its first orders of business was the approval of the precise constitutional language on the role of the legislature.On December 24, 1995, President Akayev was reelected for another 5-year term with wide support (75% of vote) over two opposing candidates.",
"He used government resources and state-owned media to carry out his campaign.",
"Three (out of six) candidates were de-registered shortly before the election.A February 1996 referendum—in violation of the constitution and the law on referendums—amended the constitution to give President Akayev more power.",
"Although the changes gave the president the power to dissolve parliament, it also more clearly defined the parliament's powers.",
"Since that time, the parliament has demonstrated real independence from the executive branch.An October 1998 referendum approved constitutional changes, including increasing the number of deputies in the lower house, reducing the number of deputies in the upper house, providing for 25% of lower house deputies to be elected by party lists, rolling back parliamentary immunity, introducing private property, prohibiting adoption of laws restricting freedom of speech and mass media, and reforming the state budget.Two rounds of parliamentary elections were held on February 20, 2000, and March 12, 2000.The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) reported that the elections failed to comply with commitments to free and fair elections and hence were invalid.",
"Questionable judicial proceedings against opposition candidates and parties limited the choice of candidates available to Kyrgyz voters, while state-controlled media only reported favorably on official candidates.",
"Government officials put pressure on independent media outlets that favored the opposition.",
"The presidential election that followed later in 2000 also was marred by irregularities and was not declared free and fair by international observers.",
"In December 2001, through a constitutional amendment, the Russian language was given official status.The OSCE found that the parliamentary elections held on 27 February and 13 March 2005 failed to comply with commitments to free and fair elections; however, there were improvements over the 2000 elections, notably the use of indelible ink, transparent ballot boxes, and generally good access by election observers."
],
[
"Tulip Revolution: 2005",
"Sporadic protests against perceived manipulation and fraud during the elections of February 27, 2005, erupted into widespread calls for the government to resign, which started in the southern provinces.",
"On March 24, 15,000 pro-opposition demonstrators in Bishkek called for the resignation of the President and his regime.",
"Protesters seized the main government building, and Akayev hurriedly fled the country, first to neighboring Kazakhstan and then to Moscow.",
"Initially refusing to resign and denouncing the events as a coup, he subsequently resigned his office on April 4."
],
[
"Bakiyev presidency: 2005–2010",
"Kurmanbek Bakiyev won the 10 July ballot for the presidential election with 89% of the vote with a 53% turnout.",
"Bakiyev's term in office was marred by the murder of several prominent politicians, prison riots, economic ills and battles for control of lucrative businesses.",
"In 2006, Bakiyev faced a political crisis as thousands of people participated in a series of protests in Bishkek.",
"He was accused of not following through with his promises to limit presidential power, give more authority to parliament and the prime minister, and eradicate corruption and crime.",
"Bakiyev claimed that the opposition was plotting a coup against him.In April 2007, the opposition held protests demanding Bakiyev's resignation, with a large protest beginning on April 11 in Bishkek.",
"Bakiyev signed constitutional amendments to reduce his own power on April 10, but the protest went ahead, with protesters saying that they would remain until he resigned.",
"Clashes broke out between protesters and police on April 19, after which the protests ended.Bakiyev was re-elected in the 2009 presidential election.",
"After the re-election in 2009, some people in Kyrgyzstan said that he would now deal with political and economic reform.",
"Others were skeptical.",
"The Eurasian Daily Monitor wrote on September 10 that his style resembled other leaders such as Vladimir Putin and Nursultan Nazarbayev.",
"However, he lacked resources and Kyrgyz people were anxious about the risk of renewed power shortages and blackouts like in the winter 2008–2009.During the winter of 2010 Kyrgyzstan has suffered from rolling blackouts and cutoffs occurring regularly while energy prices have risen."
],
[
"Revolution 2010",
"President Obama Greets Kyrgyzstan President OtunbayevaThe arrest of an opposition figure on 6 April 2010 in the town of Talas led opposition supporters to protest.",
"The protestors took control of a governmental building, demanding a new government.",
"Riot police were sent from Bishkek, and managed to temporarily regain control of the building.",
"Later the same day several more opposition figures were arrested, while the government claimed to have regained control of the situation.",
"The following day, however, hundreds of opposition supporters gathered in Bishkek and marched on the government headquarters.",
"Security personnel attempted to disperse the protestors with the use of stun grenades and live rounds, at the cost of dozens of lives.",
"The protests continued, however, resulting in the flight of President Bakiyev to his southern stronghold of Jalalabad, and the freeing later the same day of the arrested opposition figures.",
"A new government was formed under opposition leader Roza Otunbayeva, while Bakiyev remained for several days in southern Kyrgyzstan, before fleeing to Belarus, where he was given asylum by President Lukashenko.",
"The new interim government held consultations on a new constitution, intended to increase the powers of the parliament and reduce those of the president.",
"A referendum was held on the resulting document on 27 June 2010, and was approved by over 90% of voters, with a turnout of 72%.",
"Elections were subsequently held on 10 October 2010.These elections resulted in five parties reaching the 5% threshold necessary to enter parliament."
],
[
"Atambayev presidency: 2011-to 2017",
"Almazbek Atambayev ran in 2011 to succeed Roza Otunbayeva as President of Kyrgyzstan.",
"On election day, 30 October 2011, he won in a landslide, defeating Adakhan Madumarov from the Butun Kyrgyzstan party and Kamchybek Tashiev from the Ata-Zhurt party with 63% of the vote, and with about 60% of the eligible Kyrgyz population voting.Almazbek Atambayev with President of Russia Vladimir Putin on 16 March 2015 In 2011 soon after becoming president, Atambayev travelled to Turkey and signed an agreement with the Turkish President agreeing to increase trade from $300 million in 2011 to $1 billion by 2015, with Turkey also agreeing to attract Turkish investment to Kyrgyzstan to the amount of $450 million within the next few years.Atambayev has repeatedly presented himself as a pro-Russian politician.",
"He positively supports Kyrgyzstan's Membership of the Russian led Eurasian Customs Union and secured the withdrawal of the American military base from the country in 2014.He has spoken of the need for closer economic relations with Russia, which temporarily employs about 500,000 citizens of Kyrgyzstan; however, he also expressed his wish to achieve greater economic and energy independence from it."
],
[
"Jeenbekov presidency: 2017–2020",
"Jeenbekov with Azerbaijani President Ilham AliyevSooronbay Jeenbekov was sworn in as president on 24 November 2017 at the Ala Archa State Residence.",
"In the hours since assuming office, he made his first decree to confer the title of Hero of the Kyrgyz Republic to his predecessor.",
"The following May, he conducted his first foreign visit after assuming the presidency was to Russia where he met with Vladimir Putin.",
"In April 2018, Jeenbekov fired Prime Minister Sapar Isakov and his entire government following a vote of no confidence from Supreme Council.In his first year, Jeenbekov participated in 30 international meetings, where he signed a total of 77 bilateral agreements and 414 multilateral documents.",
"That same year, he ordered the foreign ministry to establish diplomatic relations with four foreign countries.",
"The draft of a new co-operation agreement with the United States is currently being reconciled.Since Jeenbekov took power, he has had a somewhat adversarial relationship with former President Atambayev, who strongly backed Jeenbekov against his opponent Ömürbek Babanov during the 2017 election, even referring to comparing himself as an “older brother” to Jeenbekov when referring to their relationship.",
"Despite this, a rift grew between the two politicians as Atambayev became more involved in politics, eventually rising to the Chairmanship of the Social Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan, of which Jeenbekov is a member of.",
"While in this post, he criticized Jeenbekov for his handling many controversies and state emergencies, including the Bishkek power plant failure and his refusal to force his brother to resign from parliament.",
"In early April 2018, Jeenbekov dismissed two high-ranking officials in the State Committee for National Security (GKNB) who are considered to be close to Atambayev, which was seen as an apparent jab at Atambayev and his former government.",
"Jeenbekov has on many occasions accused Atambayev of indirectly trying to influence his presidency, saying in November 2018 that he has attempted to turn him into \"a puppet leader through some third individuals\" Even with the accusations, he denies any type of rivalry with the former president, saying the following month that he \"does not consider anyone a rival\"."
],
[
"October 2020 protests",
"Mass protests began on 5 October 2020 in response to the parliamentary election that was perceived by protestors as unfair.",
"In the early morning of 6 October 2020, the protesters reclaimed control of the Ala-Too Square in central Bishkek.",
"They also managed to seize the White House and Supreme Council buildings nearby, throwing paper from windows and setting them on fire, also entering the President's offices.",
"A protestor died and 590 others were injured.",
"Protestors freed former president Almazbek Atambayev and opposition politician Sadyr Japarov from prison.On 6 October, following the protests, the electoral authorities in the country annulled the results of the parliamentary elections.",
"Likely due to pressure from the protest, Prime Minister Kubatbek Boronov resigned, citing parliamentary deputy Myktybek Abdyldayev as the new speaker.",
"Following the resignation of Prime Minister Boronov, former lawmaker Sadyr Japarov was appointed to replace him.",
"Opposition parties rejected the legitimacy of Japarov's status and instead put forward their own candidate for prime minister, Tilek Toktogaziyev.",
"Japarov claimed that he was already the \"legitimate prime minister\" and that he was appointed by \"the parliament's majority.",
"\"President Sooronbay Jeenbekov resigned on 15 October 2020, leading Japarov to declare himself as acting president.",
"Despite the Kyrgyzstan Constitution stating that the speaker of the Supreme Council should succeed the role, Kanatbek Isaev refused to assume office, resulting in Japarov becoming the acting president."
],
[
"Japarov presidency: 2021–present",
"Sadyr Japarov resigned his post of prime minister to run for the presidency in January 2021.He successfully defeated Adakhan Madumarov in a landslide win and assumed office on 28 January 2021.A constitutional referendum was held in Kyrgyzstan on 11 April 2021.The draft new constitution adopted by the referendum replaces the parliamentary system with a presidential one, with presidents limited to two five year terms instead of a single six-year term."
],
[
"See also",
"*Dissolution of the Soviet Union*Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate*Kyrgyz Khanate*History of Asia*History of Central Asia*History of the Soviet Union*Leadership of Communist Kyrgyzstan*Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic*Politics of Kyrgyzstan*President of Kyrgyzstan*Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan*Soviet Central Asia*Tulip Revolution"
],
[
"References",
"* History of Kyrgyzstan* Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Abazov, Rafiz ''Historical Dictionary of Kyrgyzstan'' Lanham, Maryland, and Oxford: The Scarecrow Press, 2004.",
"*KokaislL, Petr; Kokaislová, Pavla ''The Kyrgyz – Children of Manas'' Prague: Nostalgie, 2009."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Geography of Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked nation in Central Asia, west of the People's Republic of China.",
"Less than a ninth the size of Kazakhstan, at 199,951 square kilometers, Kyrgyzstan is one of the smaller Central Asian states.",
"The national territory extends about from east to west and from north to south.Kyrgyzstan is bordered on the east and southeast by China, on the north by Kazakhstan, on the west by Uzbekistan and on the south by Tajikistan.",
"The borders with Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the Fergana Valley are rather difficult.",
"One consequence of the Stalinist division of Central Asia into five republics is that many ethnic Kyrgyz people do not live in Kyrgyzstan.",
"Three enclaves, legally part of the territory of Kyrgyzstan but geographically removed by several kilometers, have been established, two in Uzbekistan and one in Tajikistan.The terrain of Kyrgyzstan is dominated by the Tian Shan and Pamir mountain systems, which together occupy about 65% of national territory.",
"The Alay range portion of the Tian Shan system dominates the southwestern crescent of the country, and, to the east, the main Tian Shan range runs along the boundary between southern Kyrgyzstan and China before extending farther east into China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.",
"Kyrgyzstan's average elevation is , ranging from at Peak Jengish Chokusu to in the Fergana Valley near Osh.",
"Almost 90% of the country lies more than above sea level."
],
[
"Topography and drainage",
"Detailed map of KyrgyzstanThis MODIS true-color image shows portions of Kazakhstan (top) and Kyrgyzstan at the bottom.",
"The lake at the top of the image is Lake Balkash.TopographyBlank mapThe mountains of Kyrgyzstan are geologically young, so that the physical terrain is marked by sharply uplifted peaks separated by deep valleys.",
"There is also considerable glaciation, with the largest glacier being the Engilchek Glacier.",
"Kyrgyzstan's 6,500 distinct glaciers are estimated to hold about of water and cover 8,048 square kilometers (5,000 square miles) or 4.2% of Kyrgyzstan.",
"Only around the Chüy, Talas, and Fergana valleys is there relatively flat land suitable for large-scale agriculture.Because the high peaks function as moisture catchers, Kyrgyzstan is relatively well watered by the streams that descend from them.",
"None of the rivers of Kyrgyzstan are navigable, however.",
"The majority are small, rapid, runoff streams.",
"Most of Kyrgyzstan's rivers are tributaries of the Syr Darya, which has its headwaters in the western Tian Shan along the Chinese border.",
"Another large runoff system forms the Chu (Chüy), which arises in northern Kyrgyzstan, then flows northwest and disappears into the deserts of southern Kazakhstan.",
"Ysyk-Köl is the second largest body of water in Central Asia, after the Aral Sea, but the saline lake has been shrinking steadily, and its mineral content has been rising gradually.",
"Kyrgyzstan has a total of about 2,000 lakes with a total surface area of , mostly located at altitudes of 3,000 to 4,000 meters.",
"Only the largest three, however, occupy more than each.",
"The second- and third-largest lakes, Song-Köl and Chatyr-Köl (the latter of which also is saline), are located in the Naryn River Basin.Natural disasters have been frequent and varied.",
"Overgrazing and deforestation of steep mountain slopes have increased the occurrence of mudslides and avalanches, which occasionally have swallowed entire villages.",
"In August 1992, a severe earthquake left several thousand people homeless in the southwestern city of Jalal-Abad."
],
[
"Climate",
"Kyrgyzstan map of Köppen climate classificationThe country's climate is influenced chiefly by the mountains, Kyrgyzstan's position near the middle of the Eurasian landmass, and the absence of any body of water large enough to influence weather patterns.",
"Those factors create a distinctly continental climate that has significant local variations.",
"Although the mountains tend to collect clouds and block sunlight (reducing some narrow valleys at certain times of year to no more than three or four hours of sunlight per day), the country is generally sunny, receiving as much as 2,900 hours of sunlight per year in some areas.",
"The same conditions also affect temperatures, which can vary significantly from place to place.",
"In January the warmest average temperature () occurs around the southern city of Osh, and around Ysyk-Köl.",
"The latter, which has a volume of , does not freeze in winter.",
"Indeed, its name means \"hot lake\" in Kyrgyz.",
"The coldest temperatures are in mountain valleys.",
"There, readings can fall to or lower; the record is .",
"The average temperature for July similarly varies from in the Fergana Valley, where the record high is , to a low of on the highest mountain peaks.",
"Precipitation varies from per year in the mountains above the Fergana Valley to less than per year on the west bank of Ysyk-Köl."
],
[
"Climate change"
],
[
"Environmental issues",
"Kyrgyzstan has been spared many of the enormous environmental problems faced by its Central Asian neighbors, primarily because its designated roles in the Soviet system involved neither heavy industry nor large-scale cotton production.",
"Also, the economic downturn of the early 1990s reduced some of the more serious effects of industrial and agricultural policy.",
"Nevertheless, Kyrgyzstan has serious problems because of inefficient use and pollution of water resources, land degradation, and improper agricultural practices.",
"The country is prone to earthquakes, and major flooding occurs during the snow melt.===Water resources===The Kyrgyz Republic is the only Central Asian state where water resources are fully generated within its own territory.",
"The water originates from the often glacier covered mountain ranges and its abundance is a vital component for agriculture and the production of hydro‐electric power.",
"The mountainous Kyrgyz Republic is an essential \"water tower\" for irrigated arable farming on arid plain territories.",
"In addition, the impressive glacierized mountain landscape implies a considerable potential for tourism.Alamedin River does not carry a lot of water in SeptemberAlthough Kyrgyzstan has abundant water running through it, its water supply is determined by a post-Soviet sharing agreement among the five Central Asian republics.",
"As in the Soviet era, Kyrgyzstan has the right to 25% of the water that originates in its territory, but the new agreement allows Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan unlimited use of the water that flows into them from Kyrgyzstan, with no compensation for the nation at the source.",
"Kyrgyzstan uses the entire amount to which the agreement entitles it, but utilization is skewed heavily in favor of agricultural irrigation.",
"During the Soviet era, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan shared their abundant water resources with Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan during summer, and these three nations shared oil and gas with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan in winter.",
"According to the International Crisis Group, the skewed system that is currently in place could cause irreversible regional destabilization, and needs to be dealt with by international actors to avoid a crisis in Central Asia.",
"In 1994 agriculture accounted for about 88% of total water consumption, compared with 8% by industry and 4% by municipal water distribution systems.",
"According to World Bank experts, Kyrgyzstan has an adequate supply of high-quality water for future use, provided the resource is prudently managed.",
"However, in Central Asia water problems are on the rise.",
"The Kyrgyz Republic exports water to irrigate the neighbouring states Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan.",
"To prevent conflicts, water allocation and use, and in particular the role of agriculture as major water user, have become very important questions in the development discourse in recent years, and will continue to be in the future.Irrigation is extremely wasteful of water because the distribution infrastructure is old and poorly maintained.",
"In 1993 only an estimated 5% of required maintenance expenditures was allocated.",
", an estimated 70% of the nation's water supply network is in need of repair or replacement.",
"The quality of drinking water from this aging system is poorly monitored—the water management staff has been cut drastically because of inadequate funds.",
"Further, there is no money to buy new water disinfection equipment when it is needed.",
"Some aquifers near industrial and mining centers have been contaminated by heavy metals, oils, and sanitary wastes.",
"In addition, many localities rely on surface sources, making users vulnerable to agricultural runoff and livestock waste, which seep gradually downward from the surface.",
"The areas of lowest water quality are the heavily populated regions of the Chui Valley and Osh and Jalal-Abad Regions, and areas along the rivers flowing into Ysyk-Köl.In towns, wastewater collection provides about 70% of the water supply.",
"Although towns have biological treatment equipment, as much as 50% of such equipment is rated as ineffective.",
"The major sources of toxic waste in the water supply are the mercury mining combine at Haidarkan; the antimony mine at Kadamzai; the Kadzyi Sai uranium mine, which ceased extraction in 1967 but which continues to leach toxic materials into nearby Ysyk Köl; the Kara-Balta Uranium Recovery Plant; the Min Kush deposit of mine tailings; and the Kyrgyz Mining and Metallurgy Plant at Orlovka.===Land management===Low-cost water management in Tamchy, Issyk Kul RegionThe most important problems in land use are soil erosion and salinization in improperly irrigated farmland.",
"An estimated 60% of Kyrgyzstan's land is affected by topsoil loss, and 6% by salinization, both problems with more serious long-term than short-term effects.",
"In 1994 the size of livestock herds averaged twice the carrying capacity of pasturage land, continuing the serious overgrazing problem and consequent soil erosion that began when the herds were at their peak in the late 1980s.",
"Uncertain land tenure and overall financial insecurity have caused many private farmers to concentrate their capital in the traditional form—livestock—thus subjecting new land to the overgrazing problem.The inherent land shortage in Kyrgyzstan is exacerbated by the flooding of agricultural areas for hydroelectric projects.",
"The creation of Toktogul Reservoir on the Naryn River, for example, involved the flooding of 130 km² of fertile land.",
"Such projects have the additional effect of constricting downstream water supply; Toktogul deprives the lower reaches of the Syr Darya in Uzbekistan and the Aral Sea Basin of substantial amounts of water.",
"Because the Naryn Basin, where many hydroelectric projects are located, is very active seismically, flooding is also a danger should a dam be broken by an earthquake.",
"'''Environment - current issues:''' Nuclear waste left behind by the Soviet Union in many open-air pits in hazardous locations.",
"Water pollution; many people get their water directly from contaminated streams and wells; as a result, water-borne diseases are prevalent; increasing soil salinity from faulty irrigation practices.",
"Illegal hunting of very rare species such as the snow leopard and the Marco Polo sheep.",
"'''Environment - international agreements:'''''party to:'' Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands=== Aral Sea===In response to the internationally recognized environmental crisis of the rapid desiccation of the Aral Sea, the five states sharing the Aral Sea Basin (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) are developing a strategy to end the crisis.",
"The World Bank and agencies of the United Nations (UN) have developed an Aral Sea Program, the first stage of which is funded by the five countries and external donors.",
"That stage has seven areas of focus, one of which—land and water management in the upper watersheds—is of primary concern to Kyrgyzstan.",
"Among the conditions detrimental to the Aral Sea's environment are erosion from deforestation and overgrazing, contamination from poorly managed irrigation systems, and uncontrolled waste from mining and municipal effluents.",
"Kyrgyzstan's National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) has addressed these problems as part of its first-phase priorities in cooperation with the Aral Sea Program.===Environmental policy making===Pallas cat, the famous wild cat of Kyrgyzstan, celebrated on a postage stampThe NEAP, adopted in 1994, is the basic blueprint for environmental protection.",
"The plan focuses on solving a small number of critical problems, collecting reliable information to aid in that process, and integrating environmental measures with economic and social development strategy.",
"The initial planning period is to end in 1997.The main targets of that phase are inefficient water resource management, land degradation, overexploitation of forest reserves, loss of biodiversity, and pollution from inefficient mining and refining practices.Because of severe budget constraints, most of the funds for NEAP operations come from international sources, including official institutions such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank and numerous international nongovernmental organizations.",
"Implementation is guided by a committee of state ministers and by a NEAP Expert Working Group, both established in 1994 by executive order.",
"A NEAP office in Bishkek was set up with funds from Switzerland.The main environmental protection agency of the Kyrgyzstan government is the State Committee on Environmental Protection, still known by its Soviet-era acronym, Goskompriroda.",
"Established by the old regime in 1988, the agency's post-Soviet responsibilities have been described in a series of decrees beginning in 1991.In 1994 the state committee had a central office in Bishkek, one branch in each of the seven regions, and a total staff of about 150 persons.",
"Because of poorly defined lines of responsibility, administrative conflicts often occur between local and national authorities of Goskompriroda and between Goskompriroda and a second national agency, the Hydrometeorological Administration (Gidromet), which is the main monitoring agency for air, water, and soil quality.",
"In general, the vertical hierarchy structure, a relic of Soviet times, has led to poor coordination and duplication of effort among environmental protection agencies.=== Specially protected areas ===A number of protected nature areas have been designated by the government of the republic.",
"As of the end of 2004, they included:* Eight state nature reserves (zapovedniks), with the total area of 2,880 km²;* Nine state nature national parks (2,760 km²);* Ten forest, twenty-three floral, eighteen geological, and two general-purpose protected areas (zakazniks), as well as fourteen game reserves, with the total area of 3,250 km²;* Lake Issyk Kul (so designated since 1998) and Sary-Chelek biosphere reserve (since 1978), together occupying the area of 282 km²."
],
[
"Area and boundaries",
"Tamchy Bay on Lake Issyk Kul'''Area:'''''total:'' 198,951 km²''land:'' 191,801 km²''water:'' 8,150 km²'''Land boundaries:'''''total:'' 5,473 km''border countries:'' the People's Republic of China 1,063 km, Kazakhstan 1,212 km, Tajikistan 984 km, Uzbekistan 1,314 km'''Coastline:''' 0 km (landlocked)'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:'' Kara-Darya 132 m''highest point:'' Peak Jengish Chokusu 7,439 m"
],
[
"Resources and land use",
"Wetlands along the shore of Lake Issyk Kul near Tamchy'''Terrain:''' peaks of Tian Shan and associated valleys and basins encompass entire nation'''Natural resources:''' abundant hydropower; significant deposits of gold and rare earth metals; locally exploitable coal, petroleum, and natural gas; other deposits of nepheline, mercury, bismuth, lead, and zinc.",
"'''Land use:'''''arable land:'' 6.7%''permanent crops:'' 0.4%''permanent pasture:'' 48.3%''forest:'' 5.1%''other:'' 93.24% (2011)''note:''Kyrgyzstan has the world's largest natural growth walnut forest, Arslanbob, located in Jalal-Abad Region with an enormous variety of different genetic characteristics.",
"It is believed that most of the world's walnut varieties derive from the original species still found here.",
"'''Irrigated land:''' 10,210 km² (2005)'''Total renewable water resources:''' 23.62 km3 (2011)"
],
[
"References",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Demographics of Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"}The '''Demographics of Kyrgyzstan''' is about the demographic features of the population of Kyrgyzstan, including population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population.",
"The name Kyrgyz, both for the people and the country, means \"forty tribes\", a reference to the epic hero Manas who unified forty tribes against the Oirats, as symbolized by the 40-ray sun on the flag of Kyrgyzstan."
],
[
"Overview",
"Kyrgyzstan's population increased from 2.1 million to 4.8 million between the censuses of 1959 and 1999.Official estimates set the population at 6,389,500 in 2019.Of those, 34.4% are under the age of 15 and 6.2% are over the age of 65.The country is rural: only about one-third of Kyrgyzstan's population live in urban areas.",
"The average population density is .The nation's largest ethnic group are the Kyrgyz, a Turkic people, which comprise 73.2% of the population (2018 census).",
"Other ethnic groups include Russians (5.8%) concentrated in the north and Uzbeks (14.5%) living in the south.",
"Small but noticeable minorities include Dungans (1.1%), Uyghurs (1.1%), Tajiks (0.9%), Kazakhs (0.7%) and Ukrainians (0.5%), and other smaller ethnic minorities (1.7%).",
"Of the formerly sizable Volga German community, exiled here by Joseph Stalin from their earlier homes in the Volga German Republic, most have returned to Germany, and only a few small groups remain.",
"A small percentage of the population are also Koreans, who are the descendants of the Koreans deported in 1937 from the Soviet Far East to Central Asia.Kyrgyzstan has undergone a pronounced change in its ethnic composition since independence.",
"The percentage of ethnic Kyrgyz increased from around 50% in 1979 to nearly 73% in 2018, while the percentage of Slavic ethnic groups (Russians, Ukrainians) dropped from 35% to about 6%.The Kyrgyz have historically been semi-nomadic herders, living in round tents called yurts and tending sheep, horses and yaks.",
"This nomadic tradition continues to function seasonally (see transhumance) as herding families return to the high mountain pasture (or ''jailoo'') in the summer.",
"The retention of this nomadic heritage and the freedoms that it implies continue to affect the political atmosphere in the country."
],
[
"Population size and structure",
"Population density of Kyrgyzstan, 2015 Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020) (Data refer to annual average population.",
"):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 3 265 870 3 314 296 6 580 166 100 0–4 413 265 392 172 805 437 12.24 5–9 388 796 369 309 758 105 11.52 10–14 309 396 297 034 606 430 9.22 15–19 258 649 249 178 507 827 7.72 20–24 263 240 252 719 515 959 7.84 25–29 289 819 279 117 568 936 8.65 30–34 282 674 281 432 564 106 8.57 35–39 222 715 220 855 443 570 6.74 40–44 180 015 182 328 362 343 5.51 45–49 157 253 167 537 324 790 4.94 50–54 142 981 156 499 299 480 4.55 55–59 129 553 149 093 278 646 4.23 60–64 99 239 121 193 220 432 3.35 65-69 59 174 80 206 139 380 2.12 70-74 33 247 50 398 83 645 1.27 75-79 13 209 21 957 35 166 0.53 80-84 13 189 25 642 38 831 0.59 85-89 4 822 10 280 15 102 0.23 90-94 3 131 5 305 8 436 0.13 95-99 1 127 1 459 2 586 0.04 100+ 376 583 959 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 1 111 457 1 058 515 2 169 972 32.98 15–64 2 026 138 2 059 951 4 086 089 62.10 65+ 128 275 195 830 324 105 4.93"
],
[
"Vital statistics",
"===Births and deaths===Statistics are taken from the United Nations Demographic Yearbook, the National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan, the Demographic Annual of the Kyrgyz Republic, and Demoskop Weekly.Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)TFRLife expectancy(male)Life expectancy (female)Life expectancy (total) 1950 1,740,000 56,471 14,845 41,626 32.5 8.5 24.0 1951 1,768,000 58,828 13,927 44,901 33.3 7.9 25.4 1952 1,788,000 57,632 13,868 43,764 32.2 7.8 24.4 1953 1,818,000 60,755 14,288 46,467 33.4 7.9 25.5 1954 1,859,000 63,803 13,684 50,119 34.3 7.4 26.9 1955 1,903,000 63,883 14,923 48,960 33.6 7.8 25.8 1956 1,941,000 65,667 11,918 53,749 33.8 6.1 27.7 1957 1,978,000 68,644 12,275 56,369 34.7 6.2 28.5 1958 2,030,000 70,521 12,324 58,197 34.7 6.1 28.6 1959 2,099,000 70,501 12,930 57,571 33.6 6.2 27.4 1960 2,172,000 80,209 13,259 66,950 36.9 6.1 30.8 1961 2,256,000 80,671 15,175 65,496 35.8 6.7 29.1 1962 2,333,000 79,010 15,141 63,869 33.9 6.5 27.4 1963 2,413,000 80,279 14,986 65,293 33.3 6.2 27.1 1964 2,495,000 79,342 15,834 63,508 31.8 6.3 25.5 1965 2,573,000 80,812 16,693 64,119 31.4 6.5 24.9 1966 2,655,000 81,771 17,888 63,883 30.8 6.7 24.1 1967 2,737,000 83,609 19,550 64,059 30.5 7.1 23.4 1968 2,818,000 86,741 19,840 66,901 30.8 7.0 23.8 1969 2,896,000 87,210 21,683 65,527 30.1 7.5 22.6 1970 2,964,000 90,442 21,828 68,614 30.5 7.4 23.1 1971 3,028,000 95,932 21,343 74,589 31.7 7.0 24.7 1972 3,094,000 94,923 23,157 71,766 30.7 7.5 23.2 1973 3,160,000 97,421 24,181 73,240 30.8 7.7 23.1 1974 3,230,000 99,433 23,747 75,686 30.8 7.4 23.4 1975 3,299,000 101,287 26,920 74,367 30.7 8.2 22.5 1976 3,365,000 106,606 27,864 78,742 31.7 8.3 23.4 1977 3,430,000 104,971 28,510 76,461 30.6 8.3 22.3 1978 3,495,000 106,176 28,385 77,791 30.4 8.1 22.3 1979 3,558,000 107,091 29,578 77,513 30.1 8.3 21.8 1980 3,628,000 107,278 30,460 76,818 29.6 8.4 21.2 1981 3,699,000 113,434 29,591 83,843 30.7 8.0 22.7 1982 3,775,000 117,235 29,194 88,041 31.1 7.7 23.4 1983 3,857,000 120,708 30,241 90,467 31.3 7.8 23.5 1984 3,937,000 126,075 32,603 93,472 32.0 8.3 23.7 4.16 1985 4,014,000 128,460 32,332 96,128 32.0 8.1 23.9 4.12 1986 4,093,000 133,728 29,083 104,645 32.7 7.1 25.6 4.21 1987 4,173,000 136,588 30,597 105,991 32.7 7.3 25.4 4.20 1988 4,250,000 133,710 31,879 101,831 31.5 7.5 24.0 4.00 1989 4,327,000 131,508 31,156 100,352 30.4 7.2 23.2 3.81 1990 4,395,000 128,810 30,580 98,230 29.3 7.0 22.3 3.6364.272.668.4 1991 4,464,000 129,536 30,859 98,677 29.0 6.9 22.1 3.5864.672.768.7 1992 4,515,000 128,352 32,163 96,189 28.4 7.1 21.3 3.5264.272.268.2 1993 4,515,000 116,795 34,513 82,282 25.9 7.6 18.3 3.1562.971.767.3 1994 4,523,000 110,113 37,109 73,004 24.3 8.2 16.1 2.9561.670.766.1 1995 4,560,000 117,340 36,915 80,425 25.7 8.1 17.6 3.1261.470.465.9 1996 4,628,000 108,007 34,562 73,445 23.3 7.5 15.8 2.7362.371.066.7 1997 4,696,000 102,050 34,540 67,510 21.7 7.4 14.3 2.5962.671.467.0 1998 4,769,000 104,183 34,596 69,587 21.8 7.3 14.5 2.6563.171.267.2 1999 4,837,000 104,068 32,850 71,218 21.5 6.8 14.7 2.6365.072.668.8 2000 4,888,000 96,770 34,111 62,659 19.8 7.0 12.8 2.4064.972.468.6 2001 4,927,000 98,138 32,677 65,461 19.9 6.6 13.3 2.3965.072.668.8 2002 4,965,000 101,012 35,235 65,777 20.3 7.1 13.2 2.4364.472.168.2 2003 5,011,000 105,490 35,941 69,549 21.1 7.2 13.9 2.4964.572.268.3 2004 5,065,000 109,939 35,061 74,878 21.7 6.9 14.8 2.5564.472.368.4 2005 5,116,000 109,839 36,992 72,847 21.5 7.2 14.3 2.5064.271.968.0 2006 5,164,000 120,737 38,566 82,171 23.4 7.5 15.9 2.7063.572.167.8 2007 5,207,000 123,251 38,180 85,071 23.7 7.3 16.4 2.7163.772.368.0 2008 5,250,000 127,332 37,710 89,622 24.3 7.2 17.1 2.7664.572.668.62009 5,383,000 135,494 35,898 99,596 25.2 6.7 18.5 2.8865.273.269.2 2010 5,448,000 146,123 36,174 109,949 26.8 6.6 20.2 3.0665.373.569.42011 5,552,000 149,612 35,941 113,671 27.0 6.5 20.5 3.0965.773.769.72012 5,663,000 154,918 36,186 118,732 27.4 6.4 21.0 3.1566.174.170.12013 5,777,000 155,520 34,880 120,640 26.9 6.0 20.9 3.1166.374.370.32014 5,895,000 161,813 35,564 126,249 27.5 6.0 21.5 3.1966.574.570.52015 6,019,000 163,452 34,808 128,644 27.2 5.8 21.4 3.1966.774.870.82016 6,140,000 158,160 33,475 124,685 25.8 5.5 20.3 3.0667.075.171.12017 6,257,000 153,620 33,166 120,454 24.6 5.3 19.3 2.9567.275.471.32018 6,389,000 171,149 32,989 138,160 26.8 5.2 21.6 3.3067.475.671.52019 6,524,000 173,484 33,295 140,189 26.6 5.1 21.5 3.3367.675.871.72020 6,636,803 158,112 39,977 118,135 23.8 6.0 17.8 3.0567.876.071.92021 6,747,323 150,164 38,875 111,289 22.3 5.8 16.5 2.8967.976.172.02022 7,037,590 150,225 31,401 118,824 21.5 4.5 17.0 2.8168.076.3 72.22023 145,977 31,500 114,477 ===Latest data===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January — November 2022''' 137,388 28,232 +109,156 '''January — November 2023''' 133,968 28,582 +105,386 '''Difference''' -3,420 (-2.49%) +350 (+1.23%) -3,770===Total fertility rate===During the Sovjet era fertility in Kyrgyzstan was high (TFR 4 or higher).",
"After the independence there was a fast decrease to 2.4 in the beginning of the 21st century, but the TFR increased to 3 or higher as of 2010.Since 2020, there is a decrease to 2.8 in 2022.The differences in the number of children by nationality are significant: Uzbeks (3.0 children), Tajiks (3.0 children), Turks (2.9), Kyrgyz (2.9), Dungans (2.8) Russians (1.7), Koreans (1.7), Germans (1.8), Ukrainians (2.1), Tatars (2.1), Kazakhs (2.3) and Uyghurs (2.5).",
"The TFR for Russians, Ukrainians, Germans, and Koreans in Kyrgyzstan are considerably higher than in their home countries.===Life expectancy===Life expectancy in Kyrgyzstan since 1950Life expectancy in Kyrgyzstan since 1960 by gender"
],
[
"Ethnic groups",
"According to the 2022 census, the ethnic composition of the population was as follows: Kyrgyz 77.6%, Uzbeks 14.2%, Russians 4.1%, Dungans 1.0%, Uyghurs 0.5%, other 2.7%, including Tajiks 0.9%, Kazakhs 0.4% and Turks 0,3%.",
"Most Russians, Ukrainians, Tatars, Germans, and Koreans lived in northeast, especially around the city of Karakol.",
"Most of the Dungans and Uyghurs are found along the Chinese border.",
"Most of the Tajiks and Uzbeks live in and around Fergana valley.",
"File:Процент киргизов в Киргизии.png|Percantage of Kyrgyz in Kyrgyzstan by regionFile:Процент русских в Киргизии.png|Percantage of Russians in Kyrgyzstan by regionFile:Процент узбеков в Киргизии.png|Percantage of Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan by regionThe emigration of non-Turkic people to Russia, Ukraine, and Germany is now negligible, in part because most of them left prior to 1999.For example, the number of Germans has fallen by over 90% between the 1989 and 2009 censuses.",
"The table shows the ethnic composition of Kyrgyzstan's population according to all population censuses between 1926 and 2022.Due to emigration (and low fertility rates), there has been a sharp decline in the European ethnic groups (Russians, Ukrainians, Germans) and also Tatars since independence (as captured in the 1989, 1999, 2009 and 2022 censuses).+'''Population of Kyrgyzstan according to ethnic group 1926–2022''' Ethnicgroup census 1926 census 1939 census 1959 census 1970 census 1979 census 1989 census 1999 census 2009census 2022 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Kyrgyz 661,171 66.6 754,323 51.7 836,831 40.5 1,284,773 43.8 1,687,382 47.9 2,229,663 52.4 3,128,147 64.9 3,804,788 71.0 5,379,020 77.6 Uzbeks 110,463 11.1 151,551 10.4 218,640 10.6 332,638 11.3 426,194 12.1 550,096 12.9 664,950 13.8 768,405 14.3 986,881 14.2 Russians 116,436 11.7 302,916 20.8 623,562 30.2 855,935 29.2 911,703 25.9 916,558 21.5 603,201 12.5 419,583 7.8 282,652 4.1 Dungans 6,004 0.6 5,921 0.4 11,088 0.5 19,837 0.7 26,661 0.8 36,928 0.9 51,766 1.1 58,409 1.1 66,525 1.0 Tajiks 2,667 0.3 10,670 0.7 15,221 0.7 21,927 0.7 23,209 0.7 33,518 0.8 42,636 0.9 46,105 0.9 59,895 0.9 Uyghurs 7,540 0.8 9,412 0.6 13,757 0.7 24,872 0.8 29,817 0.8 36,779 0.9 46,944 1.0 48,543 0.9 31,559 0.5 Kazakhs 1,766 0.2 23,925 1.6 20,067 1.0 21,998 0.8 27,442 0.8 37,318 0.9 42,657 0.9 33,198 0.6 28,244 0.4 Turks 44 0.0 33 0.0 542 0.0 3,076 0.1 5,160 0.1 21,294 0.5 33,327 0.7 39,133 0.7 22,074 0.3 Azeris 3,631 0.4 7,724 0.5 10,428 0.5 12,536 0.4 17,207 0.5 15,775 0.4 14,014 0.3 17,267 0.3 17,359 0.3 Tatars 4,902 0.5 20,017 1.4 56,209 2.7 68,827 2.3 71,744 2.0 70,068 1.6 45,438 0.9 31,424 0.6 11,219 0.2 Kurds - - 1,490 0.1 4,783 0.2 7,974 0.3 9,544 0.3 14,262 0.3 11,620 0.2 13,171 0.3 10,733 0.2 Koreans 9 0.0 508 0.0 3,622 0.2 9,404 0.3 14,481 0.4 18,355 0.4 19,784 0.4 17,299 0.3 5,900 0.1 Ukrainians 64,128 6.5 137,299 9.4 137,031 6.6 120,081 4.1 109,324 3.1 108,027 2.5 50,442 1.0 21,924 0.4 3,875 0.1 Germans 4,291 0.4 11,741 0.8 39,915 1.9 89,834 3.1 101,057 2.9 101,309 2.4 21,471 0.4 9,487 0.2 2,831 0.0 Chechens 1 0.0 7 0.0 25,208 1.2 3,391 0.1 2,654 0.1 2,873 0.1 2,612 0.1 1,875 0.0 1,105 0.0 Belarusians 333 0.0 1,520 0.1 4,613 0.2 6,868 0.2 7,676 0.2 9,187 0.2 3,208 0.1 1,394 0.0 391 0.0 Jews 318 0.0 1,895 0.1 8,607 0.4 7,677 0.3 6,836 0.2 6,005 0.1 1,571 0.0 604 0.0 125 0.0 Others 9,300 0.9 17,261 1.2 35,713 1.7 41,157 1.4 44,741 1.3 49,740 1.2 50,770 1.1 43,300 0.8 25,643 0.4 Total 993,004 1,458,213 2,065,837 2,932,805 3,522,832 4,257,755 4,822,938 5,362,793 6,936,156"
],
[
"Languages",
"*Kyrgyz (official) 73.8%*Uzbek 14.8%*Russian (official) 5.1%*others 6.3% (2021 est.)"
],
[
"Religion",
"*Islam 87.6%*Russian Orthodox 9.4%*others 3%."
],
[
"See also",
"*Demography of Central Asia"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Politics of Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''politics of Kyrgyzstan''', officially known as the Kyrgyz Republic, takes place in the framework of a presidential system representative democratic republic, whereby the President is head of state and the Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers is head of government.",
"Executive power is exercised by the government.",
"Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.",
"Unlike its authoritarian neighbors – Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan – Kyrgyzstan has had a more pluralistic political system since the collapse of the Soviet Union.",
"Kyrgyzstan has swung between authoritarian and democratic forms of government.",
"Three authoritarian presidents have been ousted from office since 2005 due to popular protests."
],
[
"Political history",
"In the first years of Kyrgyzstan's full independence, President Askar Akayev appeared wholeheartedly committed to the reform process.",
"However, despite the backing of major Western donors, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Kyrgyzstan had consequential economic difficulties from the outset.",
"These came mainly as a result of the breakup of the Soviet trade bloc, which impeded the Republic's smooth transfer to a free-market economy.In 1993, allegations of corruption against Akayev's closest political associates blossomed into a major scandal.",
"One of those accused of improprieties was Vice President Feliks Kulov, who resigned for ethical reasons in December.",
"Following Kulov's resignation, Akayev dismissed the government and called upon the last communist premier, Apas Djumagulov, to form a new one.",
"In January 1994, Akayev initiated a referendum asking for a renewed mandate to complete his term of office.",
"He received 96.2% of the vote.A new Constitution was passed by the Parliament in May 1993.In 1994, however, the Parliament failed to produce a quorum for its last scheduled session prior to the expiration of its term (February 1995).",
"President Akayev was widely accused of having manipulated a boycott by a majority of the parliamentarians.",
"Akayev, in turn, asserted that the communists had caused a political crisis by preventing the legislature from fulfilling its role.",
"Akayev scheduled an October 1994 referendum, overwhelmingly approved by voters, that proposed two amendments to the Constitution, one that would allow the Constitution to be amended by means of a referendum, and the other creating a new bicameral parliament called the ''Jogorku Keņesh''.Elections for the two legislative chambers – a 35-seat full-time assembly and a 70-seat part-time assembly – were held in February 1995 after campaigns considered remarkably free and open by most international observers, although the election-day proceedings were marred by widespread irregularities.",
"Independent candidates won most of the seats, suggesting that personalities prevailed over ideologies.",
"The new Parliament convened its initial session in March 1995.One of its first orders of business was the approval of the precise constitutional language on the role of the legislature.Kyrgyzstan's independent political parties competed in the 1996 parliamentary elections.",
"A February 1996 referendum – in violation of the Constitution and the law on referendums – amended the Constitution to give President Akayev more power.",
"It also removed the clause that parliamentarians be directly elected by universal suffrage.",
"Although the changes gave the President the power to dissolve Parliament, it also more clearly defined Parliament's powers.",
"Since that time, Parliament has demonstrated real independence from the executive branch.An October 1998 referendum approved constitutional changes, including increasing the number of deputies in the upper house, reducing the number of deputies in the lower house, rolling back Parliamentary immunity, reforming land tender rules, and reforming the state budget.Two rounds of Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2000 and 12 March 2000.With the full backing of the United States, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) reported that the elections failed to comply with commitments to free and fair elections and hence were invalid.",
"Questionable judicial proceedings against opposition candidates and parties limited the choice of candidates available to Kyrgyz voters, while state-controlled media reported favorably on official candidates only and government officials put pressure on independent media outlets that favored the opposition.In 2002 Azimbek Beknazarov, a leading opposition figure, was imprisoned by the local authorities, in what many believe to be politically motivated circumstances.",
"This led to protests resulting in clashes with police forces, culminating in the death of five people in Jalal-Abad.As May approached the authorities further extended their hold on power, imprisoning the vocal former presidential ally, Feliks Kulov, to ten years for alleged \"abuses of office\".",
"During the same month the entire government resigned, accepting blame for the loss of life during the protests earlier in the year.",
"A new government led by Nikolay Tanayev was then formed.In November the President faced yet more protests, as the opposition announced it would march on the capital and demand his resignation.",
"The police reacted by arresting large amounts of demonstrators, further adding to international disapproval at the authoritarian nature of Akayev's government.Government office building in the village of Tamchy, Issyk-Kul RegionBy June 2003, the lower house of Parliament announced that President Akayev and two other leaders of Kyrgyzstan, from the Soviet era, would be given lifetime immunity from prosecution, raising the prospect of Akayev finally stepping down.In 2005, following disputed results of the 2005 parliamentary elections, Kyrgyzstan was thrown into a state of political turmoil, with different parties claiming that they were the legitimate government.",
"On 10 July 2005 interim President and opposition People's Movement leader Kurmanbek Bakiyev won the presidential election in a landslide victory.",
"(See: Tulip Revolution).In 2006, Bakiyev faced a political crisis as thousands of people demonstrated in a series of protests in Bishkek.",
"They accused him of reneging on promised constitutional reforms limiting presidential power and giving more authority to the parliament and cabinet.",
"They also accused him of failing to eradicate corruption, crime, and poverty.",
"Bakiyev in turn accused the opposition of plotting a coup against him.",
"Several parliamentarians had been killed during the political unrest.Presidential elections, originally expected in 2010, were rescheduled for 23 July 2009.President Bakiyev was widely expected to retain his mandate, while the opposition United People's Movement (OND) announced on 20 April 2009 that it would field a single candidate – Social Democratic Party leader Almaz Atambayev.",
"The election turnout was reported at 79.3%.",
"As of 00:45 local time in Kyrgyzstan on 25 July 2009 (with 2058 of 2330 polling districts reporting), Bakiyev had won the election with 83.8% of the vote.In assessing the election, the OSCE stated that Bakiyev had gained an \"unfair advantage\" and that media bias \"did not allow voters to make an informed choice.\"",
"Additionally, they found that the election was \"marred by many problems and irregularities\", citing ballot stuffing and problems with the counting of votes.",
"On polling day Atambayev withdrew his candidacy claiming widespread fraud, stating \"due to massive, unprecedented violations, we consider these elections illegitimate and a new election should be held.\"",
"An opposition rally of 1,000 people in Balykchy on election day was broken up by riot police.The arrest of an opposition figure on 6 April 2010 in the town of Talas led opposition supporters to protest.",
"The protestors took control of a governmental building, demanding a new government.",
"Riot police were sent from Bishkek, and managed to temporarily regain control of the building.",
"Later the same day several more opposition figures were arrested, while the government claimed to have regained control of the situation.",
"The following day, however, hundreds of opposition supporters gathered in Bishkek and marched on the government headquarters.",
"Security personnel attempted to disperse the protestors with the use of stun grenades and live rounds, at the cost of dozens of lives.",
"The protests continued, however, resulting in the flight of President Bakiyev to his southern stronghold of Jalalabad, and the freeing later the same day of the arrested opposition figures.",
"A new government was formed under opposition leader Roza Otunbayeva, while Bakiyev remained for several days in southern Kyrgyzstan, before fleeing to Belarus, where he was given asylum by President Lukashenko.",
"The new interim government held consultations on a new constitution, intended to increase the powers of the parliament and reduce those of the president.",
"A referendum was held on the resulting document on 27 June 2010, and was approved by over 90% of voters, with a turnout of 72%.",
"Elections were subsequently held on 10 October 2010.These elections resulted in five parties reaching the 5% threshold necessary to enter parliament.Presidential elections were held in 2011, resulting in the victory of Almazbek Atambayev.",
"In 2017, he endorsed Prime minister Sooronbay Jeenbekov for President, who won that year's presidential contest.",
"After Atambayev retired from presidency, he began criticizing Jeenbekov and their relations worsened over time.",
"Soon Atambayev was accused of corruption by the Jeenbekov administration.",
"Clashes grew between security forces and Atambayev supporters, exacerbating political turmoil.",
"Political insurgency in Kyrgyzstan amplified following controversy about the conduct of October 2020 Kyrgyz parliamentary election, where only four parties met the 7% threshold to achieve parliamentary representation, three of whom were closely aligned with the government.",
"Opposition supporters claimed that these elections were tainted by vote buying and many other forms of irregularities.",
"The protests resulted in en masse resignation of government officials.",
"In October 2020, President Sooronbay Jeenbekov resigned after protests caused by irregularities in parliamentary elections on 4 October 2020.In January 2021, Sadyr Japarov was elected as the new president after winning the presidential election by landslide.In April 2021, the majority of voters approved in the constitutional referendum a new constitution that would give new powers to the president, strengthening significantly the presidency."
],
[
"Executive branch",
"|PresidentSadyr JaparovMekenchil28 January 2021Chairman of the Cabinet of MinistersAkylbek JaparovAr-Namys12 October 2021The president is elected by popular vote for a maximum of two five-year terms.",
"The chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers is appointed by the president and approved by the Supreme Council.===Cabinet of Ministers=======Akylbek Japarov Government====Since 13 October 2021:*Chairman of the cabinet of ministers – Akylbek Japarov**First Deputy Chairman – Arzybek Kojoshev**Deputy Chairman – Edil Baisalov**Deputy Chairman – Bakyt Torobaev**Deputy Chairman, Head of SCNS – Kamchybek Tashiev*Minister of Foreign Affairs – Jeenbek Kulubaev*Minister of Agriculture – Askar Janybekov*Minister of Digital Development – Talantbek Imanov*Minister of the Economy – Daniyar Amangeldiev*Minister of Education and Science – Almazbek Beishenaliev*Minister of Emergency Situations – Boobek Ajikeev*Minister of Culture, Information and Tourism – Azamat Jamankulov*Minister of Finance – Almaz Baketaev*Minister of Health Care – Jarkynbek Kasymbekov*Minister of Internal Affairs – Ulan Niyazbekov*Minister of Justice – Ayaz Baetov*Minister of Transport and Communication – Erkinbek Osoev*Minister of Energy – Doskul Bekmurzaev*Minister of Labor, Welfare and Migration – Kudaibergen Bazarbaev*Minister of Defence – Baktybek Bekbolotov*Minister of Natural Resources, Environment and Technical Supervision – Dinara Kutmanova"
],
[
"Legislative branch",
"In the Soviet era, Kyrgyzstan had a unicameral legislature which was replaced in 1995 by the bicameral Supreme Council (''Joghorku Keneš'').",
"The Supreme Council consisted of the Assembly of People's Representatives (45 seats; members were elected by popular vote from single member constituencies) and the Legislative Assembly (60 seats; 45 members of which were elected by popular vote from single member constituencies, and 15 of which were from national party lists on a proportional basis with a 5% threshold).",
"All legislative terms were five years.In 2005, as part of the 2005 election process and in accordance with a 2003 referendum, the Parliament again became unicameral.",
"The Legislative Assembly (''Myizam Chygaruu Jyiyny'') had 75 members, elected for five-year terms from single-seat constituencies.However, because of the political unrest, a new constitutional referendum was held on 21 October 2007 which approved a new electoral system, enlarged the parliament to 90 members and introducing party-list voting.",
"Party-list voting is a proportional representation system of voting, where candidates are selected from central party lists rather than locally elected.",
"Early parliamentary elections were held on 16 December 2007."
],
[
"Political parties and elections",
"===2017 presidential elections===CandidatePartyVotes%Sooronbay JeenbekovSDPK920,62054.22Ömürbek BabanovIndependent568,66533.49Adakhan MadumarovButun Kyrgyzstan110,2846.57Temir SariyevAkshumar43,3112.55Taalatbek MasadykovIndependent10,8030.64Ulukbek KochkorovIndependent8,4980.50Azimbek BeknazarovIndependent2,7430.16Arstanbek AbdyldayevIndependent2,0150.12Arslanbek MaliyevIndependent1,6210.10Ernis ZarlykovIndependent1,5540.09Toktaiym UmetalievaIndependent1,4730.09Against all12,3710.73Invalid/blank votes13,9020.82'''Total''''''1,697,868''''''100'''Registered voters/turnout3,014,43456.32Source: Central Election Commission===2015 parliamentary elections===centerPartyVotes%Seats+/–Social Democratic Party435,96827.3538+12Respublika–Ata Zhurt320,11520.0828–23Kyrgyzstan Party206,09412.9318NewOnuguu–Progress148,2799.3013NewBir Bol135,8758.5212NewAta Meken Socialist Party123,0557.7211–7Butun Kyrgyzstan–Emgek97,8696.1400Zamandash43,4052.7200Uluu Kyrgyzstan23,8991.500NewAr-Namys12,8070.800–25Meken Yntymygy12,6790.800NewCongress of the Peoples of Kyrgyzstan9,6190.600NewAalam6,3980.400NewAzattyk5,3550.340NewAgainst all12,4280.78––Invalid/blank votes32,410 –––'''Total''''''1,626,255''''''100''''''120''''''0'''Registered voters/turnout2,761,29758.89––Source: CEC"
],
[
"Political pressure groups and leaders",
"* Council of Free Trade Unions* Kyrgyz Committee on Human Rights – Ramazan Dyryldayev* National Unity Democratic Movement* Union of Entrepreneurs* Central Asian Free Market Institute"
],
[
"Judicial branch",
"Although the constitution provides for an independent judiciary, Kyrgyzstan's court system is widely seen as under the influence of the prosecutor's office.",
"Low salaries make the bribery of judges commonplace.",
"Most cases originate in local courts; they then can move via the appeals process to municipal or regional courts, with the Supreme Court the final court of appeals.",
"Property and family law disputes and low-level criminal cases are heard by traditional elders' courts, which are loosely supervised by the prosecutor's office.",
"Economic disputes and military cases are heard in specialized courts.",
"The constitutional amendments of 2003 expanded the scope of the Supreme Court in civil, criminal, and administrative proceedings.",
"Many protections of Western jurisprudence are not present in Kyrgyzstan's system, which retains many features of the Soviet system.",
"The right to counsel and the presumption of innocence of the accused are guaranteed by law but often not practiced.",
"There is no trial by jury.",
"Reform legislation under consideration in 2006 would establish a jury system and bolster the independence of the judicial branch.The Prosecutor General's Office of Kyrgyzstan oversees the enforcement of the Kyrgyz legal system and the activities of law enforcement agencies and the sentencing of criminals in concert with the judiciary."
],
[
"Administrative divisions",
"Kyrgyzstan is divided into seven Regions (oblustar, singular – oblus) and two region-level cities* (shaar):* Batken Region (Batken)* Bishkek** Chüy Region (Bishkek)* Issyk-Kul Region (Karakol)* Jalal-Abad Region (Jalal-Abad)* Naryn Region (Naryn)* Osh** Osh Region (Osh)* Talas Region (Talas)''note:'' administrative center names in parentheses"
],
[
"International organization participation",
"*AsDB*CIS*EAPC*EBRD*ECO*FAO*IBRD*ICAO*ICCt (signatory)*ICRM*IDA*IDB *IFAD*IFC*IFRCS*ILO*IMF*INOGATE*Interpol*IOC*IOM*ISO (correspondent)*ITU*NAM (observer)*OIC*OPCW*OSCE *PCA*PFP*SCO*UN*UNAMSIL*UNCTAD (UNECE)*United Nations Economic Commission for Europe*UNESCO*UNIDO*UNMIK*UPU*WCO*WFTU*WHO*WIPO*WMO*WToO*WTO*UNICEF"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"* Erik Herron's Guide to Politics in East Central Europe and Eurasia * Kyrgyz Report offers ongoing analysis, including an analysis of the clusters of political forces in the country and the roots of the country’s political problems* Government of Kyrgyz Republic"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Economy of Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''economy of Kyrgyzstan''' is heavily dependent on the agricultural sector.",
"Cotton, tobacco, wool, and meat are the main agricultural products, although only tobacco and cotton are exported in any quantity.",
"According to Healy Consultants, Kyrgyzstan's economy relies heavily on the strength of industrial exports, with plentiful reserves of gold, mercury and uranium.",
"The economy also relies heavily on remittances from foreign workers.",
"Following independence, Kyrgyzstan was progressive in carrying out market reforms, such as an improved regulatory system and land reform.",
"In 1998, Kyrgyzstan was the first Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) country to be accepted into the World Trade Organization.",
"Much of the government's stock in enterprises has been sold.",
"Kyrgyzstan's economic performance has been hindered by widespread corruption, low foreign investment and general regional instability.",
"Despite those issues, Kyrgyzstan is ranked 70th (as of 2019) on the ease of doing business index."
],
[
"Finance",
"In October 2012, the International reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity of Kyrgyzstan National Bank reached US$1.96 bln, 8.6% of which is in gold.",
"In 2012, to diversify the assets of Kyrgyzstan, the basket of currencies has been expanded by means of the Chinese yuan and the Singapore dollar.",
"In 2012, 1 billion soms are to be spent for the purchase of gold.",
"Gold proportion in international reserves has already grown to 8.6%.",
"The National Bank plans to increase it to 12-15% in future."
],
[
"Industries",
"===Agriculture===Chuy ValleyAgriculture remains a vital part of Kyrgyzstan's economy and a refuge for workers displaced from industry.",
"Subsistence farming has increased in the early 2000s.",
"After sharp reductions in the early 1990s, by the early 2000s agricultural production was approaching 1991 levels.",
"Grain production in the lower valleys and livestock grazing on upland pastures occupy the largest share of the agricultural workforce.",
"Farmers are shifting to grain and away from cotton and tobacco.",
"Other important products are dairy products, hay, animal feed, potatoes, vegetables, and sugar beets.",
"Agricultural output comes from private household plots (55 percent of the total), private farms (40 percent), and state farms (5 percent).",
"Further expansion of the sector depends on banking reform to increase investment, and on market reform to streamline the distribution of inputs.",
"Land reform, a controversial issue in Kyrgyzstan, has proceeded very slowly since initial legislation in 1998.The irrigation infrastructure is in poor condition.",
"Agriculture contributes about one-third of the GDP and more than one-third of employment.Kyrgyzstan produced in 2018:* 1.4 million tons of potato;* 773 thousand tons of sugar beet;* 692 thousand tons of maize;* 615 thousand tons of wheat;* 429 thousand tons of barley;* 224 thousand tons of tomato;* 218 thousand tons of watermelon;* 209 thousand tons of onion;* 176 thousand tons of carrot;* 147 thousand tons of cabbage;* 144 thousand tons of apple;* 119 thousand tons of cucumber;* 116 thousand tons of vegetable;* 101 thousand tons of bean;* 74 thousand tons of cotton;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like apricot (25 thousand tons).===Forestry===Only 4 percent of Kyrgyzstan is classified as forested.",
"All of that area is state-owned, and none is classified as available for wood supply.",
"The main commercial product of the forests is walnuts.===Fishing===Locally produced dried fish can be purchased by the roadside in BalykchyKyrgyzstan does not have a significant fishing industry.",
"In 2002 aquaculture contributed 66 percent of the country's total output of 142 metric tons of fish, but in 2003 the aquaculture industry collapsed, producing only 12 of the country's total of 26 metric tons.===Mining and minerals===In the post-Soviet era, mining has been an increasingly important economic activity.",
"The Kumtor Gold Mine, which opened in 1997, is one of the largest gold deposits in the world.",
"New gold mines are planned at Jerooy and Taldy–Bulak, and a major gold discovery was announced in late 2006 at Tokhtonysay.",
"The state agency Kyrgyzaltyn owns all mines, many of which are operated as joint ventures with foreign companies.",
"Uranium and antimony, important mineral outputs of the Soviet era, no longer are produced in significant amounts.",
"Although between 1992 and 2003 coal output dropped from about 2.4 million tons to 411,000 tons, the government plans to increase exploitation of Kyrgyzstan's considerable remaining deposits (estimated at 2.5 billion tons) in order to reduce dependency on foreign energy sources.",
"A particular target of this policy is the Kara–Keche deposit in northern Kyrgyzstan, whose annual output capability is estimated at between 500,000 and 1 million tons.",
"The small domestic output of oil and natural gas does not meet national needs.===Industry and manufacturing===In the post-Soviet era, Kyrgyzstan's industries suffered sharp reductions in productivity because the supply of raw materials and fuels was disrupted, and Soviet markets disappeared.",
"The sector has not recovered appreciably from that reduction; if gold production is not counted, in 2005 industry contributed only 14 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP).",
"Investment and restructuring have remained at low levels, and the electricity industry (traditionally an important part of industry's contribution to GDP) has stagnated in recent years.",
"Government support is moving away from the machine industries, which were a major contributor to the Soviet economy, toward clothing and textiles.",
"Food processing accounted for 10 to 15 percent of industrial production until encountering a slump in 2004.In recent years, the glass industry has surpassed clothing and textiles in investment received and as a contributor to GDP.",
"In the early 2000s, the construction industry has grown steadily because of large infrastructure projects such as highways and new gold mines.",
"Housing construction, however, has lagged because of low investment.===Energy===More than ninety percent of electricity produced is hydroelectric and the country could produce much more of such clean energy and export to its neighbors and the region.",
"Even though Kyrgyzstan has abundant hydro resources, only less than ten percent of its potential has been developed so far.",
"It has limited deposits of fossil fuels and most of its natural gas imports come from Uzbekistan, with which Kyrgyzstan has had a series of imperfect barter agreements.",
"Per capita energy consumption is high considering average income, and the government has no comprehensive plan to reduce demand.",
"Up to 45 percent of electricity generated, especially in winter time, is diverted illegally or leaks from the distribution system.",
"Hydroelectric plants generate some 92.5 percent of domestically consumed electricity, and three commercial thermoelectric plants are in operation.",
"Because of its rich supply of hydroelectric power, Kyrgyzstan sends electricity to Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in return for fossil fuels.",
"A new hydroelectric plant on the Naryn River at Kambar–Ata would supply power to parts of China and Russia, improving Kyrgyzstan's export situation and domestic energy supply.",
"The plant was completed on August 30, 2010.An antiquated infrastructure and poor management make Kyrgyzstan more dependent on foreign energy in winter when water levels are low.",
"In the early 2000s, Kyrgyzstan was exploiting only an estimated 10 percent of its hydroelectric power potential.",
"In 2001 Kyrgyzstan had about 70,000 kilometers of power transmission lines served by about 500 substations.",
"Kyrgyzstan would be a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation's Asian Energy Club, which Russia proposed in 2006 to unify oil, gas, and electricity producers, consumers, and transit countries in the Central Asian region in a bloc that is self-sufficient in energy.",
"Other members would be China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.Kyrgyzstan is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest.The South Korean style manufactured bituminous coal called ''yeontan'' (йонтан) is gaining popularity in Kyrgyzstan's energy industrial scene.===Services===A swimming pool at the Ysyk-Ata resortSubstantial post-Soviet growth in the services sector is mainly attributable to the appearance of small private enterprises.",
"The central bank is the National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic, which nominally is independent but follows government policy.",
"Although the banking system has been reformed several times since 1991, it does not play a significant role in investment.",
"High interest rates have discouraged borrowing.",
"A stock market opened in 1995, but its main function is trading in government securities.",
"Because of the Akayev regime's economic reforms, many small trade and catering enterprises have opened in the post-Soviet era.",
"Although Kyrgyzstan's mountains and lakes are an attractive tourist destination, the tourism industry has grown very slowly because it has received little investment.",
"In the early 2000s, an average of about 450,000 tourists visited annually, mainly from countries of the former Soviet Union."
],
[
"External trade",
"Kyrgyz exports in 2006Traders' cars parked between the row of shipping containers turned into shops in Dordoy BazaarKyrgyzstan's principal exports, which go overwhelmingly to other CIS countries, are nonferrous metals and minerals, woolen goods and other agricultural products, electric energy, and certain engineering goods.",
"In turn, the Republic relies on other former Soviet states for petroleum and natural gas, ferrous metals, chemicals, most machinery, wood and paper products, some foods, and most construction materials.",
"In 1999, Kyrgyz exports to the U.S. totaled $11.2 million, and imports from the U.S. totaled $54.2 million.",
"In 2017, Kyrgyzstan exports were estimated to be worth $1.84 billion, while their imports were at an estimated $4.187 billion.",
"Kyrgyzstan's major exports include gold, cotton, wool, garments, meat, mercury, uranium, electricity, machinery, and shoes.",
"Major imports include oil and gas, machinery and equipment, chemicals, and foodstuffs.Reexport of China-made consumer goods to Kazakhstan and Russia, centered on Dordoy Bazaar in Bishkek, and to Uzbekistan, centered on Kara-Suu Bazaar in Osh Region, is particularly important; it is thought by some economists to be one of the country's two largest economic activities.The Kyrgyzstan Government has reduced expenditures, ended most price subsidies, and introduced a value added tax.",
"Overall, the government appears committed to transferring to a free market economic system by stabilizing the economy and implementing reforms, which will encourage long-term growth.",
"These reforms led to Kyrgyzstan's accession to the WTO on December 20, 1998."
],
[
"Investment",
"Livestock market in Kyzyl-Jar, Jalal-Abad RegionThe stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Kyrgyzstan was valued at $42 million in 2005 by the World Bank."
],
[
"Taxation",
"The tax regime in the Kyrgyz Republic is administered by the State Tax Service.",
"Collected taxes reached 18.1% of GDP in 2012."
],
[
"Macro-economic trend",
"This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Kyrgyzstan at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund and EconStats with figures in millions of Kyrgyz Soms.",
"Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange 1995 16,146 10.80 Soms 2000 65,358 47.77 Soms 2005 100,116 41.01 Soms 2010 219,000 47.00 Soms 2012 320,000 47.50 SomsFor purchasing power parity comparisons, the international dollar is exchanged at 9.40 Soms only.Current GDP per capita of Kyrgyzstan shrank by 54% in the 1990s.",
"Mean wages were $0.85 per man-hour in 2009 and this rate represented underemployment when compared to effective market pay.",
"In the first half of 2012, Kyrgyz economy shrank by 5.8%.",
"This downturn was largely due to decline in gold production at the Kumtor mine.The budget deficit in mid-2012 was 23-billion soms and accounted for 7% of GDP while the target was to reduce it to 6%.The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1992–2017.Year GDP(in bil.",
"US$ PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.",
"US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation(in Percent) Government debt(Percentage of GDP) 1992 8.07 1,8220.9 ... ... ... 1995 6.20 1,2371.5 −5.4 % 42.1 % ... 2000 8.12 1,6491.4 5.4 % 19.7 % 122 % 2005 10.98 2,1152.5 2.6 % 4.3 % 86 % 2006 11.67 2,2232.8 3.1 % 5.6 % 73 % 2007 13.00 2,4583.8 8.5 % 10.2 % 57 % 2008 14.26 2,6665.1 7.6 % 24.5 % 48 % 2009 14.78 2,7284.7 2.9 % 6.8 % 58 % 2010 14.89 2,7194.8 −0.5 % 8.0 % 60 % 2011 16.10 2,9016.2 6.0 % 16.6 % 49 % 2012 16.39 2,8946.6 −0.1 % 2.8 % 49 % 2013 18.47 3,1987.3 10.9 % 6.6 % 46 % 2014 19.56 3,3187.5 4.0 % 7.5 % 52 % 2015 20.54 3,4116.7 3.9 % 6.5 % 65 % 2016 21.60 3,5176.8 3.8 % 0.4 % 58 % 2017 22.97 3,6677.7 4.5 % 3.2 % 59 %"
],
[
"Other statistics",
"'''Investment (gross fixed):'''17% of GDP (2004 est.",
")'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''* ''lowest 10%:'' 3.9%* ''highest 10%:'' 23.3% (2001)'''Distribution of family income - Gini index:'''27.3 (2017)'''Agriculture - products:'''tobacco, cotton, potatoes, vegetables, grapes, fruits and berries; sheep, goats, cattle, wool, dairy products'''Industrial production growth rate:'''6% (2000 est.",
")'''Electricity'''* ''production:'' 11,720 GWh (2002)* ''consumption:'' 10,210 GWh (2002)* ''exports:'' 1,062 GWh (2002)* ''imports:'' 375 GWh (2002)'''Electricity - production by source:'''* ''fossil fuel:'' 7.6%* ''hydro:'' 92.4%* ''other:'' 0% (2001)* ''nuclear:'' 0%'''Oil:'''* ''production:'' (2001 est.",
")* ''consumption:'' (2001 est.",
")* ''exports:'' NA* ''imports:'' NA'''Natural gas:'''* ''production:'' 16 million m³ (2001 est.",
")* ''consumption:'' 2.016 billion m³ (2001 est.",
")* ''exports:'' 0 m³ (2001 est.",
")* ''imports:'' 2 billion m³ (2001 est.",
")'''Current account balance:'''$-87.92 million (2004 est.",
")'''Exports - commodities:'''cotton, wool, meat, tobacco; gold, mercury, uranium, natural gas, hydropower; machinery; shoes'''Imports - commodities:'''oil and gas, machinery and equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs'''Reserves of foreign exchange & gold:'''$498.7 million (2004 est.",
")'''Exchange rates:'''soms per US dollar - 41.731 (2004), 43.6484 (2003), 46.9371 (2002), 48.378 (2001), 47.7038 (2000), 69.85 (2020)"
],
[
"See also",
"*Kyrgyzstan*Economy of Asia"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Minister wants bigger role for local mining firms* Kyrgyz-North America Trade Council, New York USA* American Chamber of Commerce in Kyrgyz Republic, Bishkek* International Business Council, Bishkek* Bishkek Business Club* ''Kyrgyzstan: Kyrgyzstan has great potential to become a center of organic production in Central Asia''* Tariffs applied by Kyrgyzstan as provided by ITC's Access Map''', an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Telecommunications in Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Telecommunications in Kyrgyzstan''' include fixed and mobile telephones and the Internet."
],
[
"Communications policy",
"The long-term goal of the government's information and communications technology strategy is for the telecommunications sector to contribute 5 percent to gross domestic product by 2010.The June 2006 launch of the KazSat communications satellite from Kazakhstan was expected to reduce the dependence of all the Central Asian countries on European and U.S. telecommunications satellites.",
"Launch of a second KazSat is planned for 2009."
],
[
"Telephones",
"In the early 2000s, Kyrgyzstan used international investment support to restructure its telecommunications system, which had 7.7 telephone lines per 100 inhabitants in 2002 and 1,100,000 cellular phones in use in 2007.As part of the upgrading process, the government has attempted to sell a majority interest in the state-owned telecommunications company, Kyrgyztelecom, to foreign bidders.",
"Companies from Russia, Sweden, and Turkey have been possible buyers.",
"However, in 2005 an estimated 100,000 applicants were waiting for telephone line installation.",
"* Telephone system:** ''domestic:'' principally microwave radio relay; one cellular provider, probably limited to Bishkek region;** ''international:'' connections with other CIS countries by landline or microwave radio relay and with other countries by leased connections with Moscow international gateway switch and by satellite; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik and 1 Intelsat; connected internationally by the Trans-Asia-Europe (TAE) fiber-optic line."
],
[
"Internet",
"One of many internet cafes in BishkekIn the early 2000s, Internet use has expanded rapidly.",
"Between 1999 and 2005, the number of Internet subscribers increased from 3,000 to 263,000.In 2004 some 12,300 Internet hosts were in operation.",
"The country code top level domain is .kg.Variable upload/download speeds through xDSL are available through state telephone company Kyrgyz Telecom (up to 8 Mbit/s downlink) and private ISPs (up to 10 Mbit/s downlink).",
"There is typically a monthly cap on the amount of data transferred, with separate caps depending on whether the data stays within Kyrgyzstan or travels beyond the border.",
"Broadband internet access with unlimited international traffic is rarely offered by ISPs to the market at significantly higher price.",
"This is probably due to the lack of country's telecommunications bandwidth capacity.ISPs provide internet access through satellite backbone communication lines linked to Russia, Germany, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan.",
"There is a major telecommunications project under construction - The Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber Optic Line, connecting Shanghai, China and Frankfurt, Germany, with the capacity of 622 Mbit/s, where Kyrgyzstan has completed its part.",
"Completion of this project might affect broadband internet prices in Kyrgyzstan.There are several ISPs that provide broadband internet access using different technologies such as xDSL, ISDN, Leased Line, and Ethernet.",
"ISPs in Kyrgyzstan include Kyrgyz Telecom, Elcat, Asiainfo, Transfer Ltd, Totel, Megaline, Aknet, Intranet, Saima Telecom, My4G, Rikonet, AlaTV, ExNET, and IPSWICH.===Internet censorship and surveillance===Listed as engaged in selective Internet filtering in the political and social areas and as little or no evidence of filtering in the conflict/security and Internet tools areas by the OpenNet Initiative (ONI) in December 2010.Access to the Internet in Kyrgyzstan has deteriorated as heightened political tensions have led to more frequent instances of second- and third-generation controls.",
"The government has become more sensitive to the Internet's influence on domestic politics and enacted laws that increase its authority to regulate the sector.Liberalisation of the telecommunications market in Kyrgyzstan has made the Internet affordable for the majority of the population.",
"However, Kyrgyzstan is an effectively cyberlocked country dependent on purchasing bandwidth from Kazakhstan and Russia.",
"The increasingly authoritarian regime in Kazakhstan is shifting toward more restrictive Internet controls, which is leading to instances of \"upstream filtering\" affecting ISPs in Kyrgyzstan."
],
[
"See also",
"* Media of Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Transport in Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A road in Osh'''Transport in Kyrgyzstan''' is severely constrained by the country's alpine topography.",
"Roads have to snake up steep valleys, cross passes of altitude and more, and are subject to frequent mud slides and snow avalanches.",
"Winter travel is close to impossible in many of the more remote and high-altitude regions.",
"Additional problems are because many roads and railway lines built during the Soviet period are today intersected by international boundaries, requiring time-consuming border formalities to cross where they are not completely closed.",
"The horse is still a much used transport option, especially in rural and inaccessible areas, as it does not depend on imported fuel."
],
[
"Railways",
"A diesel loco near the main train station in BishkekThe Kyrgyz Railway is currently responsible for railway development and maintenance in the country.",
"The Chüy Valley in the north and the Fergana Valley in the south were endpoints of the Soviet Union's rail system in Central Asia.",
"Following the emergence of independent post-Soviet states, the rail lines which were built without regard for administrative boundaries have been cut by borders, and traffic is therefore severely curtailed.",
"The small bits of rail lines within Kyrgyzstan, about 370 km of broad gauge in total, have little economic value in the absence of the former bulk traffic over long distances to and from such centers as Tashkent, Almaty and the cities of Russia.There are vague plans about extending rail lines from Balykchy in the north and/or from Osh in the south into the People's Republic of China, but the cost of construction would be enormous.=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===* Kazakhstan - yes - Bishkek branch - same gauge* Uzbekistan - yes - Osh branch - same gauge* Tajikistan - no - same gauge* China - no - Break of gauge /"
],
[
"Highways",
"Most of the intercity travelers having switched from the big state-run buses to minivans, the palatial halls of Bishkek's West Bus Terminal remain mostly desertedWith support from the Asian Development Bank, a major road linking the north and southwest from Bishkek to Osh has recently been completed.",
"This considerably eases communication between the two major population centers of the country—the Chüy Valley in the north and the Fergana Valley in the South.",
"An offshoot of this road branches off across a 3,500 meter pass into the Talas Valley in the northwest.",
"Plans are now being formulated to build a major road from Osh into the People's Republic of China.The total length of the road network in Kyrgyzstan is approximately 34,000 km.",
"Of them, 18,810 km are public roads directly subordinated to the Ministry of Transport and Communications, and 15,190 km - other roads (village, agricultural, industrial etc.).",
"By their status the roads of the Ministry of Transport and Communications are classified as:* ''international roads:'' 4,163 km* ''state roads:'' 5,678 km* ''local roads:'' 8,969 kmBy nature of surface there can be distinguished:* ''hard-surfaced roads:'' 7,228 km (including 11 km of cement concrete roads, 4,969 km - bituminous concrete surface, 2,248 km - road-mix pavement)* ''gravel roads:'' 9,961 km* ''earth roads:'' 1,621 km Frequent bus and, more commonly, minibus, service connects country's major cities.",
"Minibuses provide public transit in cities and between cities to neighboring villages.The condition of the road network is generally bad, though repairs have been made recently.",
"Usually, only the main roads of population centres are illuminated, and drain lids might be missing on both streets and sidewalks.",
"The roads are often not plowed during winters.",
"Fuel stations are rare outside Bishkek and Osh."
],
[
"Pipelines",
"The limitations of Kyrgyzstan's pipeline system are a major impediment to fuel distribution.",
"In 2006 the country had 367 kilometers of natural gas pipeline and 16 kilometers of oil pipeline, after adding 167 kilometers of natural gas pipeline in 2003."
],
[
"Waterways",
"Water transport exists only on Issyk Kul Lake, and has drastically shrunk since the end of the Soviet Union."
],
[
"Ports and waterways",
"Kyrgyzstan's only port is Balykchy, a fishing town on Issyk Kul Lake.",
"None of Kyrgyzstan's rivers are navigable, and the country has no canals."
],
[
"Airports",
"In the little airfield in Tamchy village on Issyk Kul Lake's north shoreKyrgyzstan Air Company Antonov AN-24 in Jalal-Abad Airport prepares for flight to Bishkek, March 7, 2010.At the end of the Soviet period there were about 50 airports and airstrips in Kyrgyzstan, many of them built primarily to serve military purposes in this border region so close to China.",
"Only a few of them remain in service today.There are four airports with international flights, namely in Bishkek, Osh, Tamchy and Karakol.",
"* Manas International Airport near Bishkek is the main international terminal, with flights to Moscow, Tashkent, Dushanbe, Istanbul, Baku and Muscat.",
"* Osh Airport is the main air terminal in the south, with daily connections to Bishkek and beyond.",
"* Jalal-Abad Airport is linked to Bishkek by daily flights operated by Kyrgyzstan Air Company, Avia Traffic Company, Air Bishkek and Sky Bishkek on BAe-146 and Saab-340 as well as weekly flights to Aksy District and Toguz-Toro District.",
"* Issyk-Kul International Airport is linked to Almaty in summers by flights operated by SCAT on Yakovlev YAK-42 Bishkek, Jalal-Abad and Osh.",
"* Karakol International Airport is linked to Almaty in winters by flights operated by SCAT on Antonov AN-24.",
"* Kazarman Airport is linked to Jalal-Abad, Osh and Bishkek by flights operated by Sky Bishkek on Saab-340.",
"* Kerben Airport is linked to Jalal-Abad and Bishkek by flights operated by Sky Bishkek on Saab-340.",
"* Other airports, aerodromes and landing strips are located in Toktogul, Kanysh-Kiya, Ala-Buka, Sakaldy in Nooken District, Batken, Isfana, Kyzyl-Kiya, Naryn, Talas, Pokrovka, Cholpon-Ata, Tamga, Tokmok, Aravan and many other places.",
"* Other facilities built during the Soviet era are either closed down, used only occasionally or restricted to military use (e.g., Kant airbase, now a Russian air base near Bishkek).===Airports with paved runways===''total:'' 21''over 3,047 m:'' 1 (Bishkek-Manas)''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 3 (Osh, Kant and Tokmok)''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 11 (Jalal-Abad, Karakol International, Kerben, Kazarman, Isfana, Batken, Naryn, Talas, Issyk-Kul International, Kyzyl-Kiya and Cholpon-Ata)''under 914 m:'' 6 (Tamga, Toktogul, Kanysh-Kiya, Pokrovka, Aravan and Sakaldy) (2012)===Airports with unpaved runways (mostly disused)===''total:'' 29''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 3''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 5''914 to 1,523 m:'' 6 (Gulcha, Daroot-Korgon, Ala-Buka, At-Bashy, Suzak and Chatkal)''under 914 m:'' 15 (2012)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Kyrgyzstan* Turkestan–Siberia Railway* Eurasian Land Bridge* Trans-Asian Railway*Transport in the Soviet Union"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic''' (; Kırgız Respublikasının Kuralduu Küçtörü) is the national military of Kyrgyzstan.",
"It was originally formed from the former Soviet forces of the Turkestan Military District stationed in newly independent Kyrgyzstan.",
"It consists of the Ground Forces, the Air Force and the National Guard.",
"Affiliated security forces to the armed forces included the Internal Troops, the State Committee for National Security and the Border Troops."
],
[
"History",
"=== Early years ===The Armed Forces were formed on 29 May 1992 when President of the Kyrgyz SSR Askar Akayev signed a decree which effectively consolidated all the formations and units of the Soviet Army deployed in the territory of the new republic under the jurisdiction of Bishkek and not Moscow.",
"Until 1988, these troops were part of the Central Asian Military District.",
"29 May is today celebrated as the Day of the Armed Forces.",
"In 1993, the State Defense Committee was renamed to the Ministry of Defense on the basis of the headquarters of the 17th Army Corps.",
"In 1998, the 1st Koy Tash, 2nd Osh, and 3rd Balykchinsk Infantry Brigades were created on the basis of the 8th Guards Motor Rifle Division.",
"In August 1999, the Batken Conflict occurred in southwestern Kyrgyzstan, during which militants of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) made incursions of into Uzbek and Kyrgyz territory from their camps in Tajikistan.=== 21st century ===In 2006, the Air Force and Air Defense Forces were combined to form the Kyrgyz Air Force.",
"The same year, the term of service was reduced from 18 to 12 months (1 year).",
"In February 2014, the Armed Forces General Staff was expanded to have complete control over the military apparatus, with the ministry of defense becoming a state defense committee which plays a smaller and more administrative role.",
"Despite this arrangement, many former military/security officials such as Taalaibek Omuraliev and Adyl Kurbanov were in favor of returning the military to its former organization.Following the inauguration of President Sadyr Japarov in early February 2021, the Ministry of Defense was reestablished following a 7-year hiatus.",
"After signing the new Constitution of Kyrgyzstan in May 2021, President Japarov called for reform in the military, particularly the need to \"organize the army according to the principle of special units, fully trained and technologically equipped to conduct military operations in mountainous conditions.\"",
"He also at the same time called for the creation of \"people’s guards\", which according to him, will provide mobilization readiness amongst the population living in border areas."
],
[
"Military units",
"=== Armed Forces of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan ===* Сарбаздар Катары / Sarbazdar Katary () — 4 units* Аскер Бөлүгү / Asker Bölügü () — 8 units* Взвод / Vzvod — 32 units* Ширкет / Shirket () — 96 units* Табур, Батальон / Tabur, Battalion () — 540 units* Полк / Polk — 2700 units* Тугай, Бригада / Tugaý, Brigada — 5400 units* Бөлүм, Дивизия / Bölüm, Diviziya — 10.000+ units* Колоор, Корпус / Koloor, Korpus — 30.000+ units"
],
[
"Special forces units list",
"=== National Guard of Kyrgyzstan=== '''National Guardee of Kyrgyz Republic/NGKR Кыргыз Республикасынын Улуттук Уланы/КРУУ'''* '''BKT/BARS''', Commandant's Brigade «BARS», * '''ÉTAT/EDELWEISS''', Mountain Rifle Brigade \"Edelweiss\", * '''PANTHER''', Special Forces Brigade \"Panther\", * '''Guard of Honor Company''', АКШ* '''MANAS''', Detachment \"Manas\", * «'''GÜRZA'''» reconnaissance company, ГБШ"
],
[
"Army",
"For much of the Soviet period, since 1967, the 8th Guards 'Panfilov' Motor Rifle Division was the main military force in the country.",
"In 1967 the division had been moved to Bishkek from the Baltic Military District, where it had previously been based.",
"It was only disbanded in January 2003.However, in 2011 reports said the division had been reformed with its headquarters in Tokmak.The Army of Kyrgyzstan includes the 1st Motor Rifle Brigade (Mountain) at Osh, a brigade at Koy-Tash, in the Bishkek area, the 25th Special Forces Brigade, independent battalions at Karakol and Naryn, a brigade at Balykchi, and other units.Two Groups of Forces, the Southern, and more recently the Northern, have been active during Kyrgyzstan's history.",
"In 2004, the Northern Group of Forces was reported as consisting of the Balykchynsky brigade, the brigade deployed in suburb of Bishkek, separate battalions in Karakol and Naryn, and other army units.The Army controls the Combat Training Center and Training Center \"Ala-Too\"."
],
[
"Air Force",
"Kyrgyzstan's air arm was inherited from the central Soviet air force training school.",
"This presented the nation a fleet of nearly 70 L-39s, dismantled MiG-21's and several Mi-8's and Mi-24's.",
"However, only a few L-39s and the helicopters are capable of flight.",
"All Kyrgyz military aircraft are reportedly based at Kant, alongside the Russian 999th Air Base.Because of expense and military doctrine, Kyrgyzstan has not developed its air capability; a large number of the MiG-21 interceptors that it borrowed from Russia were returned in 1993, although a number of former Soviet air bases remain available.",
"In 1996 about 100 decommissioned MiG-21s remained in Kyrgyzstan, as of 2017 only 29 MiG-21s are in working order, in service along with ninety-six L-39 trainers and sixty-five helicopters.",
"The air defense forces have received aid from Russia, which has sent military advisory units to establish a defense system.",
"The Russians also help patrol Kyrgyz airspace as part of the Joint CIS Air Defence System.",
"Presently Kyrgyzstan has twenty-six SA-2 and SA-3 surface-to-air missiles in its air defense arsenal.",
"In 2002 the Kyrgyzstan government allowed the United States to use Manas air base for support operations in the War on terror.",
"This agreement lasted until June 2014."
],
[
"National Guard",
"The National Guard of Kyrgyzstan was founded on December 6, 1991, and took their first oath July 20 the following year.",
"In 2014, the Internal Troops were absorbed into the National Guard as a result of the ongoing military reforms.",
"This would remain this way until September 2018 when they were separated once again."
],
[
"Equipment",
"+Military equipment of the Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic NameImage Origin In service NotesTanks T-72 \"Ural\" Early150x150pxN/A T-72 \"Ural\" Late150x150pxN/A T-72A150x150pxN/A Armoured fighting vehicles BRDM-2150x150px N/A BRDM-2MS150x150px N/A MT-LB150x150px N/A (Some with ZU-23 AA Guns).",
"Infantry fighting vehicles BMP-1150x150pxN/A BMP-1(P)150x150pxN/A BMP-1D N/A BMP-2 Obr.",
"1984150x150pxN/A BMP-2D150x150pxN/A BMD-1150x150pxN/A Armoured personnel carriers BTR-70150x150px N/A BTR-70M150x150px N/A BTR-80150x150px N/A Infantry mobility vehicles GAZ Tigr-M150x150px N/A CS/VN3 Dajiang150x150pxN/A TigerN/A EQ2050F150x150pxN/A Technicals Toyota Land Cruiser150x150px N/A Ford Ranger150x150px N/A Towed artillery 100mm BS-3150x150pxN/A (Used for avalanche control).",
"100mm KS-19150x150pxN/A (Used for avalanche control).",
"122mm D-30150x150pxN/A 152mm 2A65 Msta-B150x150pxN/A Self-propelled artillery 120mm 2S9 Nona150x150pxN/A 122mm 2S1 Gvozdika150x150pxN/A Multiple rocket launchers 122mm BM-21 Grad150x150pxN/A 122mm 9P138 Grad-1150x150pxN/A Towed anti-aircraft guns 23mm ZU-23150x150px N/A Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns ZSU-23-4 'Shilka'150x150px N/A Static surface-to-air missile systems S-75150x150pxN/A (One site protecting the capital Bishkek).",
"S-125 150x150pxN/A (Two sites protecting the capital Bishkek).",
"Self-propelled surface-to-air missile systems 9K35 Strela-10150x150px N/A Radars P-15 'Flat Face A'150x150pxN/A P-18 'Spoon Rest D'150x150pxN/A Smart Hunter 150x150px N/A (For use in conjunction with MANPADS).",
"SNR-75 'Fan Song' 150x150pxN/A (For S-75).",
"SNR-125 'Low Blow'150x150pxN/A (For S-125).",
"Reconnaissance unmanned aerial vehicles Orlan-10E150x150px N/A (Not yet seen).",
"WJ-100150x150px N/A Unmanned combat aerial vehiclesBayraktar Akıncı150x150pxN/A Bayraktar TB2150x150px N/A (Armed with four MAM-C or MAM-L PGMs).TAI Aksungur150x150px2 Saara-02 150x150px N/A (Armed with two Bask-80 PGMs)."
],
[
"Foreign military presence and international cooperation",
"In terms of foreign presence, the U.S.-led Operation Enduring Freedom coalition used the Manas Air Base (Bishkek's international airport) until June 2014.In response, Russia set up the 999th Air Base at Kant to counter the American military presence in the former Soviet state.",
"Moscow is believed to have promised Bishkek $1.1 billion for modernizing its army.",
"Agreements to this effect were reached during the visits to Bishkek by Deputy Prime Minister Igor Shuvalov in August and President Vladimir Putin in September 2012.As of fall 2023, Russia supplies various military equipment and also begins to form a joint air defense system.",
"Since May 1992, Kyrgyzstan has been a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization.",
"In addition, its leaders work within the framework of the Council of Ministers of Defense of the CIS.",
"Kyrgyzstan hosted the Second CIS Military Sports Games in 2017 in Balykchy.",
"The games included various competition in shooting, fighting, etc.",
"On 16 July 2018, the opening of the Kyrgyz-Indian Mountain Training Center took place in Balykchy at the Edelweiss Training Center, built with funds allocated by the Government of India.The personnel of the armed forces also take part in UN peacekeeping missions.",
"Currently, Kyrgyz forces are serving in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, East Timor, Ethiopia and Kosovo."
],
[
"Personnel",
"=== Military education ===Military guard of honor near a monument in Bishkek's main squareThe main military educational institutions include:* Military Institute of the Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic* MVD Academy of KyrgyzstanKyrgyzstan has an agreement with the Russian Federation, according to which Kyrgyz soldiers are trained in military academies in Russia.",
"The training of officers is carried out in the military educational institutions of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Republic of Azerbaijan, the Republic of Turkey and the People's Republic of China.==== Training centers ====The Center for Advanced Training of Officers and NCOs of the Defense Ministry was opened in early 2007.It was designed to offer one-month professional training courses.",
"In 2005, the NCO Training School of the Combined Arms Training Center of the Armed Forces was opened at the base of the 2nd Independent Motorized Rifle Brigade.",
"In 2013, the border guard opened classes at more than 100 secondary schools.",
"The Edelweiss Training Center operates in the Issyk-Kul Region.==== High schools ====The Kyrgyz State National Military Lyceum and MVD High School are secondary schools that trains middle-tier commanders in the armed forces.==== Kyrgyz State Medical Academy Faculty ====victory day parade in central Moscow in 2020.The Military Faculty of Kyrgyz State Medical Academy was created in the beginning of the Second World War, specifically in October 1941 when there was a shortage of medical personnel in the medical service.",
"Originally it was the Sanitary Department of Defence, and in 1942 it was renamed to the Department of Military and Health Training, and has since 1944 been known as the Department of Military Medical Training.",
"It currently engages in the military training of students of medical, pediatric, dental, sanitary and pharmaceutical departments of the armed forces.===Conscription===Kyrgyz Armed Forces have inherited conscription from the Armed Forces of USSR.",
"The length of conscription was reduced to 12 months from initial 18 in 2006.Today, Kyrgyz Armed Forces employ a policy of reducing the service period for university graduates to 9 months.",
"Alternative service exists, however, it is only offered to conscripts who belong to certain religious groups."
],
[
"Affiliated security forces",
"* State Committee for National Security* Ministry of the Interior*Kyrgyz Frontier Force"
],
[
"References",
"===General references===* CIA World Factbook, 2003 edition.",
"* IISS Military Balance, 2007 edition"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* O'Mallery, William D., and McDErmott, Roger N., 'Kyrgyzstan's Security Tightrope,' Journal of Slavic Military Studies, Vol.",
"16, No.",
"3, September 2003, 72-111* Martha Brill Olcott, Library of Congress Country Study Kyrgyzstan, National Security, 1996* Henry Plater-Zyberk, Kyrgyzstan - Focusing on Security, Conflict Studies Research Centre K41, November 2003"
],
[
"External links",
"* Armed Forces of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan official site * Armed Forces of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan official site * Ministry of Emergency Situation (Kyrgyzstan) official site* Ministry of Internal Affairs (Kyrgyzstan) official site* Kyrgyzstan military ranks"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Foreign relations of Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"Introduction",
" Kyrgyzstan has close relations with other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States, particularly Kazakhstan and Russia, given the historical legacy of the Soviet Union.",
"It also has close relations with Turkey as well, given their shared heritage as Turkic languages.While Kyrgyzstan was initially determined to stay in the ruble zone, the stringent conditions set forth by the Russian Government prompted Kyrgyzstan to introduce its own currency, the som, in May 1993.Kyrgyzstan's withdrawal from the ruble zone was done with little prior notification and initially caused tensions in the region.",
"Both Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan temporarily suspended trade, and Uzbekistan even introduced restrictions tantamount to economic sanctions.",
"Both nations feared an influx of rubles and an increase in inflation.",
"Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan's hostility toward Kyrgyzstan was short-lived, and the three nations signed an agreement in January 1994 creating an economic union.",
"This led to the relaxation of border restrictions between the nations the following month.",
"Kyrgyzstan also has contributed to the CIS peacekeeping forces in Tajikistan.Turkey has sought to capitalize on its cultural and ethnic links to the region and has found Kyrgyzstan receptive to cultivating bilateral relations.",
"The Kyrgyz Republic also has experienced a dramatic increase in trade with the People's Republic of China, its southern neighbor.",
"Kyrgyzstan has been active in furthering regional cooperation, such as joint military exercises with Uzbek and Kazakh troops.In January 1999, a new OSCE office opened in Bishkek; on February 18, 2000, the OSCE announced that an additional office would open in Osh to assist Bishkek in carrying out its work.",
"Kyrgyzstan is a member of the OSCE, the CIS, and the United Nations."
],
[
"Diplomatic relations",
"List of countries which Kyrgyzstan maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051 —5253545556575859606162636465666768697071727374757677787980818283848586878889—90919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169"
],
[
"Bilateral relations",
" Country Formal Relations BeganNotesJanuary 1993* Both countries established diplomatic relations in January 1993 by protocol.",
"* Armenia is represented in Kyrgyzstan through its embassy in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan and an honorary consulate in Bishkek.",
"* Kyrgyzstan is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.",
"* Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States, Collective Security Treaty Organization and Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area.Australia is represented in Kyrgyzstan by its embassy in Moscow, Russia.See Azerbaijan–Kyrgyzstan relations* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Bishkek.",
"* Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in Baku.See China–Kyrgyzstan relationsAs of 1996, relations between both nations were an area of substantial uncertainty for the government in Bishkek.",
"The free-trade zone in Naryn attracted large numbers of Chinese businesspeople, who came to dominate most of the republic's import and export of small goods.",
"Most of these trades are in barter conducted by ethnic Kyrgyz or Kazakhs who are Chinese citizens.",
"The Kyrgyzstani government has expressed alarm over the numbers of Chinese who are moving into Naryn and other parts of Kyrgyzstan, but no preventive measures had been taken as of 1996.23 December 1996* Both countries established diplomatic relations on December 23, 1996.",
"* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.20 February 1992* Both countries established diplomatic relations on February 20, 1992.",
"* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.1996* Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1996.",
"* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.",
"See Finland–Kyrgyzstan relations* Georgia is represented in Kyrgyzstan by its embassy in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan.",
"* Kyrgyzstan is represented in Georgia by its embassy in Baku, Azerbaijan.",
"* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.1992See Greece-Kyrgyzstan relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.Greece is represented in Kyrgyzstan through its embassy in Almaty (Kazakhstan).",
"Kyrgyzstan is represented in Greece through a non resident ambassador based in Bishkek (in the Foreign Ministry).",
"Kyrgyz consular representation in Greece is made by the Kazakh consulate in Athens.",
"* On November 1, 2004, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev made an official visit to Greece.",
"A Foreign Ministry delegation from Greece visited Dushanbe for talks, and had meetings with Tajikistans Foreign Minister Zarifi and First Deputy Foreign Minister Youldashev in 2008.Foreign Minister Dora Bakoyannis met with Tajikistans Foreign Minister Zarifi during the 1st EU-Central Asia Forum on security issues in Paris in September 2008.",
"* There are between 650 and 700 people of Greek descent living in Kyrgyzstan.",
"However, the data of the General Secretariat For Greeks Abroad give an even lower number (50 people).",
"* In 2004 Greece and Kyrgyzstan signed a bilateral agreement for air transports, tourism and diplomacy during Kyrgyz president Askar Akayev's visit to Greece.18 March 1992See Kyrgyzstan–India relationsSince the independence of Kyrgyz Republic on 31 August 1991, India was among the first to establish bilateral diplomatic relations on 18 March 1992; the resident Mission of India was set up in 1994.Political ties with the Kyrgyz Republic have been traditionally warm and friendly.",
"The Kyrgyz leaderships have been largely supportive of India's stand on Kashmir and have welcomed the ongoing peace process.",
"Kyrgyzstan also supports India's bid for permanent seat at the United Nations Security Council and India's role in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).",
"India also has strong educational ties with the country.",
"The Defense Minister Omuraliyev was enthusiastic about the prospects of military cooperation in a radio interview with Free Europe in September 2013.",
"\"Many are skeptical, thinking that Kyrgyzstan and India can't have mutual interests in military relations....",
"But we have had a very close partnership in the defense sphere.\"",
"He specified foreign language (presumably English) training, military medicine and preparing for United Nations peacekeeping missions as specific areas of cooperation.See Iran–Kyrgyzstan relationsIran–Kyrgyzstan relations are foreign and diplomatic relations between Kyrgyzstan and Iran.",
"Bilateral relations between Iran and Kyrgyzstan are more or less even and somewhat relaxed.",
"On September 12, 2013, Iran's President Hassan Rouhani expressed political will to enhance relations with Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.26 January 1992Diplomatic relations between Japan and Kyrgyzstan were established on 26 January 1992.Japan opened an embassy in Bishkek in January 2003, and Kyrgyzstan opened an embassy in Tokyo in April 2004.See Kazakhstan–Kyrgyzstan relationsBilateral relationships between the countries are very strong and Kyrgyz and Kazakh are very close in terms of language, culture and religion.",
"Kyrgyz-Kazakh relationships have always been friendly and economic and other formal unifications of two countries have been greeted with strong appreciation since the two nations have a lot in common.",
"On Apr.",
"26, 2007 Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan signed an agreement to create an \"International Supreme Council\".",
"This historic event took place during an official visit of the Kazakh president to the Kyrgyzstan capital, Bishkek.18 March 1993* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 March 1993.",
"* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.3 July 1992* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 July 1992.",
"* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.See Kyrgyzstan–Malaysia relationsKyrgyzstan has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur, while Malaysia embassy in Tashkent is also accredited to Kyrgyzstan.19 February 1993* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 February 1993.",
"* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.14 January 1992* Kyrgyzstan is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.",
"* Mexico is accredited to Kyrgyzstan from its embassy in Tehran, Iran.20 December 1991See Kyrgyzstan–Pakistan relationsRelations between the two countries were established on 20 December 1991 shortly after Kyrgyzstan became independent from the Soviet Union.",
"See Kyrgyzstan–Poland relations 15 June 1992* Both countries established diplomatic relations on June 15, 1992.",
"* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.See Kyrgyzstan–Russia relationsPresident Almazbek Atambayev and Russian PM Dmitry Medvedev during the Moscow Victory Day Parade, 9 May 2015Whereas the other Central Asian republics have sometimes complained of Russian interference, Kyrgyzstan has more often wished for more attention and support from Moscow than it has been able to obtain.",
"For all the financial support that the world community has offered, Kyrgyzstan remains economically dependent on Russia, both directly and through Kazakhstan.",
"In early 1995, Askar Akayev, the then President of Kyrgyzstan, attempted to sell Russian companies controlling shares in the republic's twenty-nine largest industrial plants, an offer that Russia refused.1998* Both countries have established diplomatic relations in 1998.",
"* In 2011, the total trade value amounted EUR 3,5 million.31 January 1992The Republic of Korea and Kyrgyzstan have had official relations since 31 January 1992.On the sidelines of the 69th session of the UN General Assembly, Foreign Minister Yun Byung-se met with his Kyrgyz counterpart Yerlan Abdyldaev on September 26.In the meeting, the two diplomats discussed matters of mutual concern including ways to boost high-level exchanges to step up substantive cooperation and work together on the international stage.",
"The two sides shared the view that their countries have seen their bilateral relations move forward in diverse fields since the visit of Kyrgyz President Almazbek Atambayev to the Republic of Korea in November 2013.The meeting resulted in an agreement to increase high-level exchanges in order to further enhance friendship and cooperation between the two countries.",
"See Kyrgyzstan–Spain relations1993Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1993.See Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan relationsKyrgyzstan-Tajikistan relations have been tense.",
"Refugees and antigovernment fighters in Tajikistan have crossed into Kyrgyzstan several times, even taking hostages.",
"Kyrgyzstan attempted to assist in brokering an agreement between contesting Tajikistani forces in October 1992 but without success.",
"Askar Akayev later joined presidents Islam Karimov and Nursultan Nazarbayev in sending a joint intervention force to support Tajikistan's president Imomali Rahmonov against insurgents, but the Kyrgyzstani parliament delayed the mission of its small contingent for several months until late spring 1993.In mid-1995 Kyrgyzstani forces had the responsibility of sealing a small portion of the Tajikistan border near Panj from Tajikistani rebel forces.Jan.",
"29, 1992See Kyrgyzstan–Turkey relations* Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in Ankara.",
"* Turkey has an embassy in Bishkek.",
"*Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Economic Cooperation Organization, International Organization of Turkic Culture, OIC, TAKM, Turkic Council, TURKPA, OSCE and WTO.",
"*Trade volume between the two countries was US$519 million in 2019 (Kyrgyz exports/imports: 77/442 million USD.",
"*Turkey became the first state to recognize the Republic of Kyrgyzstan.See Kyrgyzstan-Turkmenistan relations* Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in Ashgabat.",
"* Turkmenistan has an embassy in Bishkek.",
"* Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in Kyiv.",
"* Ukraine has an embassy in Bishkek.See Kyrgyzstan–United Kingdom relations* Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in London.",
"* United Kingdom has an embassy in Bishkek.See Kyrgyzstan–United States relationsThe U.S. government provides humanitarian assistance, non-lethal military assistance, and assistance to support economic and political reforms.",
"It also has supported the Kyrgyz Republic's requests for assistance from international organizations.The United States assisted the Kyrgyz Republic accede to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in December 1998.U.S.",
"assistance aids the Kyrgyz Republic in implementing necessary economic, health sector, and educational reforms, and supports economic development and conflict resolution in the Fergana Valley.",
"(See also American Chamber of Commerce in Kyrgyzstan.",
")* Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in Washington, D.C.* United States has an embassy in Bishkek.See Kyrgyzstan–Uzbekistan relationsUzbekistan informs southern Kyrgyzstan both economically and politically, based on the large Uzbek population in that region of Kyrgyzstan and on economic and geographic conditions.",
"Much of Kyrgyzstan depends on Uzbekistan for natural gas; on several occasions, Karimov has achieved political ends by shutting pipelines or by adjusting terms of delivery.",
"In a number of television appearances broadcast in the Osh and Jalal-Abad provinces of Kyrgyzstan, Karimov has addressed Akayev with considerable condescension; Akayev, in turn, has been highly deferential to his neighbor.",
"Although Uzbekistan has not shown overt expansionist tendencies, the Kyrgyz government is acutely aware of the implications of Karimov's assertions that he is responsible for the well-being of all Uzbeks, regardless of their nation of residence."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of diplomatic missions in Kyrgyzstan* List of diplomatic missions of Kyrgyzstan"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kool Keith"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Keith Matthew Thornton''' (born October 7, 1963), better known by his stage name '''Kool Keith''', is an American rapper and record producer from The Bronx, New York City, known for his surreal, abstract and often profane or incomprehensible lyrics.",
"Kool Keith has recorded prolifically both as a solo artist and in group collaborations.",
"Kool Keith is generally considered to be one of hip-hop's most eccentric and unusual personalities.Kool Keith was a cofounding member of Ultramagnetic MCs, whose debut ''Critical Beatdown'' was released in 1988.After two more albums with the group, ''Funk Your Head Up'' and ''The Four Horsemen'', Kool Keith released his critically acclaimed solo debut album, ''Dr.",
"Octagonecologyst'', under the name Dr. Octagon in 1996.He subsequently released a series of further independently released hip hop albums, including ''Sex Style'', ''First Come, First Served'' (as Dr. Dooom), and most recently ''Keith''.After releasing only one album on a major label, ''Black Elvis/Lost in Space'', Kool Keith subsequently returned to independently releasing music, producing further efforts as a solo artist and in collaboration with groups such as Analog Brothers, Masters of Illusion, Thee Undatakerz and Project Polaroid.",
"Kool Keith has also made guest appearances in collaboration with Peeping Tom and Yeah Yeah Yeahs.",
"He was also featured on the short track DDT on Jurassic 5's album ''Power in Numbers''.The Prodigy's hit \"Smack My Bitch Up\" was based on a sample of Kool Keith's voice saying \"Change my pitch up.",
"Smack my bitch up\" on ''Give The Drummer Some'' by Ultramagnetic MC's."
],
[
"History",
"===Ultramagnetic MCs (1984–1993)===Thornton began his career with the group Ultramagnetic MCs under the pseudonym Kool Keith in 1984.Four years later, their release of the album ''Critical Beatdown'' was critically acclaimed and later became recognized as widely influential for its innovative production, complex rhymes, and chopped sampling.",
"Just after its release, Thornton was reportedly institutionalized in Bellevue Hospital Center.",
"However, he later said that the idea that he was institutionalized came from a flippant remark made during an interview, and he never expected the story to become so well known.Ultramagnetic MCs would release two more albums (1992's ''Funk Your Head Up'' and 1993's ''The Four Horsemen'') with little commercial success due to West Coast hip hop's changing landscape.",
"They went on hiatus for years, leading Thorton to embark on a solo career.===Dr.",
"Octagon debuts (1995–1996)===Thornton released his first notable solo single, \"Earth People\", in 1995, under the name Dr. Octagon.",
"This was followed by the release of the concept album ''Dr.",
"Octagonecologyst'' the following year.",
"The album's production by Dan the Automator and Kutmasta Kurt, with scratching by DJ Qbert was acclaimed by critics, and the album was released nationally by DreamWorks Records in 1997, after an initial release on the smaller Bulk Recordings label (as, simply, ''Dr.",
"Octagon'') a year prior.",
"''Dr.",
"Octagonecologyst'' was considered a departure from old school hip hop to abstract hip hop, with surrealistic, horror, science-fiction, and sexual themes.",
"DreamWorks also issued an instrumental version of the album, titled ''Instrumentalyst (Octagon Beats)''.===Further releases (1996–2001)===In 1996, Thornton collaborated with Tim Dog for the single \"The Industry is Wack\", performing under the name Ultra—the album ''Big Time'' soon followed.",
"The following year, Thornton followed the release the sophomore album, ''Sex Style'' under the name Kool Keith.",
"Being a dirty rap concept album, Thornton described it as \"pornocore\", filled with sexual metaphors to diss other rappers.",
"An instrumental version was also released.",
"This year, a collaborative album with Godfather Don titled ''Cenobites'', was released as an LP.In 1999, he released the album ''First Come, First Served'' under the name \"Dr. Dooom\", in which the album's main character killed off Dr. Octagon on the album's opening track.",
"The same year, on August 10, 1999, Thornton released ''Black Elvis/Lost in Space'', under the major record labels Ruffhouse and Columbia.",
"It peaked at #10 on the ''Billboard'' Heatseekers chart, #74 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and #180 on the ''Billboard'' 200, Despite standing out as Thornton's most commercially successful project to date, he was disappointed with the album's delays and promotional efforts, even though a promotional video was made for the lead single, \"Livin' Astro\", which aired on a few episodes of the MTV show ''Amp'' in early 2000.Its sequel, ''Black Elvis 2'', was released in 2023.On June 5, 2001, Thornton released the album ''Spankmaster'' on TVT and Gothom Records.",
"It peaked at #16 on the ''Billboard'' Heatseekers chart, #11 on the Top Independent Albums\tchart and #48 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart.",
"The album has yet to be on streaming.===Collaborations (2000–2004)===On July 25, 2000, Thornton released the album ''Matthew''.",
"It peaked at #47 on the ''Billboard'' Heatseekers chart.",
"The following month, Thornton collaborated with Ice-T, Marc Live, Black Silver and Pimp Rex for the album ''Pimp to Eat'', under the group name Analog Brothers, with Keith performing as Keith Korg and Ice-T as Ice Oscillator.",
"The album was re-released by Mello Music Group on streaming, CD, and LP in 2016.Masters of Illusion, a collaboration with KutMasta Kurt and Motion Man, followed a few months later.Thornton, Marc Live and H-Bomb formed the group KHM, releasing the album ''Game'' on November 19, 2002.They later changed their name to \"Clayborne Family\" by the release of their second album two years later.",
"During the same year (2004) that Clayborne Family was released in, ''Kool Keith Presents Thee Undatakerz'' (with Reverend Tom (Kool Keith) Al Bury-U (BIG NONAME), M-Balmer and The Funeral Director) and ''Diesel Truckers'', another collaboration with KutMasta Kurt.===Second Dr. Octagon album (2002–2004)===In 2002, Thornton began recording ''The Resurrection of Dr. Octagon'' with producer Fanatik J, signing a contract with CMH Records to release the album, which was eventually completed without much input from Thornton, due to a falling out over contractual terms.On October 12, 2004, Real Talk Entertainment issued the album ''Dr.",
"Octagon Part 2''.",
"The album was discontinued by court order.",
"On June 27, ''The Return of Dr. Octagon'' was released by OCD International, an imprint of CMH, advertised as the official follow-up to ''Dr.",
"Octagonecologyst''.",
"Some critics felt that it was not as good as its predecessor.",
"Thornton stated that he liked the album, but felt that it hurt his reputation as a musician.",
"In August, Thornton performed under the Dr. Octagon billing, but did not acknowledge the release of the OCD album.===Further collaborations and solo albums (2006–present)===On April 25, 2006, Thornton released the album ''Nogatco Rd.''",
"under the name Mr. Nogatco, and ''Project Polaroid'', a collaboration with TomC3.",
"''The Return of Dr. Octagon'', the sequel to ''Dr.",
"Octagonecologyst'', was released two months later, as well as a Dr. Dooom sequel titled ''Dr.",
"Dooom 2'' being released two years later.In 2007, Ultramagnetic MCs released the reunion album ''The Best Kept Secret''.",
"In 2009, Kool Keith released the concept album ''Tashan Dorrsett''; a follow-up, ''The Legend of Tashan Dorrsett'', followed two years later.",
"In 2012, Kool Keith performed at the Gathering of the Juggalos.",
"He has stated that he is considering retiring from music.",
"In 2013, Keith appeared as Dr. Octagon on the Yeah Yeah Yeahs song \"Buried Alive\", from their album ''Mosquito''.",
"In 2015, Keith released \"Time?",
"Astonishing!\"",
"with producer L'Orange and began the start of his relationship with Mello Music Group.",
"Since then, Keith also re-issued his group album with the Analog Brothers (Ice-T, Pimp Rex, Marc Live, Silver Synth) \"Pimp To Eat\" with Mello Music.",
"Kool Keith's recent solo album ''Feature Magnetic'' was dropped on September 16, 2016 and it features MF DOOM, Slug from Atmosphere, Dirt Nasty and many others.",
"Artwork for the \"Feature Magnetic\" album was produced by Marc Santo.In 2018, Keith collaborated once again with Dan the Automator and DJ Qbert for another Dr. Octagon album.",
"''Moosebumps: An Exploration Into Modern Day Horripilation'' was released on streaming services on April 6, 2018, with the physical release scheduled for Record Store Day, April 21, 2018.The Record Store Day release includes both vinyl and CD copies.",
"Using his Deltron persona, Del the Funky Homosapien guests on \"3030 Meets the Doc, Pt.",
"1\".",
"NPR offered a first look at the album on March 29, 2018.Kool Keith appears on \"Western\" by the bluegrass-rap group Gangstagrass, performing as himself.",
"Throughout five years, Thornton released ''Controller of Trap'', ''Keith'', ''Computer Technology'', ''Saks 5th Ave'', ''Space Goretex'' (with Thetan), ''Keith's Salon'', ''Subatomic'' (with Del the Funky Homosapien), ''Serpent'' (with Real Bad Man), and ''Black Elvis 2''.Thornton's fan site refers to his discography of roughly fifty album releases, most of which have been commercially released.",
"Singles such as \"Spectrum\" continue to appear online under the artist's name, on sites such as SoundCloud and Spotify."
],
[
"Lyrical and performance style",
"Kool Keith performing at Mezzanine in San Francisco, California during the 2009 Noise Pop FestivalThornton's lyrics are often abstract, surreal, and filled with non-sequiturs and profane humor.",
"For example, \"Technical Difficulties,\" from the album ''Dr.",
"Octagonecologyst'', contains the following lyrics: \"Intestines, investments, hide money in your stomach / Who can stop Pepto-Bismol?",
"Only a Gremlin eatin' in Larry Parker like Gizmo.\"",
"Thornton is also known for an explicit style focusing on sexual themes, which Thornton has referred to as \"pornocore\".",
"In a 2007 interview, Thornton claims to have \"invented horrorcore\"."
],
[
"Alter egos",
"Kool Keith is known for his many alter egos.",
"As of 2012, Kool Keith had at least 58 such alter egos: these include well-known aliases such as Dr. Octagon, Dr. Dooom, and Black Elvis, which appeared on albums bearing their names; and the more obscure, such as firearms dealer \"Crazy Lou\" and \"Exotron Geiger Counter One Plus Megatron,\" as he introduced himself in an appearance on Marley Marl's radio show ''In Control''.",
"Some of Kool Keith's monikers have only existed on album artwork, such as \"Mr. Green\" and \"Elvin Presley.",
"\"In reference to his relationship between himself and his various stage personalities, Keith has said, \"I don't even feel like I'm a human being anymore\"."
],
[
"Discography",
"'''Solo albums'''*''Dr.",
"Octagonecologyst'' (1996)*''Sex Style'' (1997)*''First Come, First Served'' (1999)*''Black Elvis/Lost in Space'' (1999)*''Matthew'' (2000)*''Spankmaster'' (2001)*''Nogatco Rd.''",
"(2006)*''The Return of Dr. Octagon'' (2006)*''Dr.",
"Dooom 2'' (2008)*''Tashan Dorrsett'' (2009)*''Love & Danger'' (2012)*''Demolition Crash'' (2014)*''El Dorado Driven'' (2014)*''Feature Magnetic'' (2016)*''Moosebumps: An Exploration Into Modern Day Horripilation'' (2018)*''Controller of Trap'' (2018)*''Keith'' (2019)*''Computer Technology'' (2019)*''Saks 5th Ave'' (2019)*''Keith's Salon'' (2021)*''Black Elvis 2'' (2023)*''Mr.",
"Controller'' (2023)*''World Area'' (2023)'''Collaborative albums'''*''Big Time'' (with Tim Dog as Ultra) (1996)*''The Cenobites'' (with Godfather Don as The Cenobites) (1997)*''Pimp to Eat'' (with Ice-T, Black Silver, Marc Live and Pimpin' Rex as Analog Brothers) (2000)*''A Much Better Tomorrow'' (with Dan The Automator) (2000)*''Masters of Illusion'' (with KutMasta Kurt and Motion Man as Masters of Illusion) (2000)*''Game'' (with Jacky Jasper and Marc Live as KHM) (2002)*''Kool Keith Presents Thee Undatakerz'' (with M-Balmer, The Funeral Director and Al Bury-U as Thee Undatakerz) (2004)*''Kool Keith Official Space Tape'' (with DJ Junkaz Lou) (2004)*''Diesel Truckers'' (with KutMasta Kurt as The Diesel Truckers) (2004)*''Clayborne Family'' (with Jacky Jasper and Marc Live as Clayborne Family) (2004)*''The Original SoundTrack Album of Project Polaroid'' (with TomC3 as Project Polaroid) (2006)*''Idea of a Masterpiece'' (with 57-41) (2009)*''Bikinis N Thongs'' (with Denis Deft) (2009)*''Stoned'' (with H-Bomb as 7th Veil) (2009)*''Magnetic Pimp Force Field'' (with Big Sche Eastwood) (2013)*''Time?",
"Astonishing!''",
"(with L'Orange) (2015) *''A Couple of Slices'' (with Ray West) (2015)*''Moosebumps: An Exploration Into Modern Day Horripilation The SP 1200 Remixes'' (with Dan The Automator) (2018)*''The Foundation Album'' (2019)*''Space Goretex'' (with Thetan) (2020)*''Subatomic'' (2022, with FNKPMPN)*''Serpent'' (2023, with Real Bad Man)*''Lonnie Parachute'' (2023, with Your Best Friend Jippy)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kurt Cobain"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kurt Donald Cobain''' (February 20, 1967 – April 5, 1994) was an American musician who was the lead vocalist, guitarist, primary songwriter, and a founding member of the rock band Nirvana.",
"Through his angst-fueled songwriting and anti-establishment persona, his compositions widened the thematic conventions of mainstream rock music.",
"He was heralded as a spokesman of Generation X and is widely recognized as one of the most influential alternative rock musicians.Cobain formed Nirvana with Krist Novoselic and Aaron Burckhard in 1987, establishing themselves as part of the Seattle music scene that later became known as grunge.",
"Burckhard was replaced by Chad Channing before the band released their debut album ''Bleach'' (1989) on Sub Pop, after which Channing was in turn replaced by Dave Grohl.",
"With this finalized line-up, the band signed with DGC and found commercial success with the single \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" from their critically acclaimed second album ''Nevermind'' (1991).",
"Cobain wrote many other hit Nirvana songs such as \"About a Girl\", \"All Apologies\", \"Aneurysm\", \"Come as You Are\", \"Heart-Shaped Box\", \"In Bloom\", \"Lithium\", \"Something in the Way\", and \"You Know You're Right\".",
"Although he was hailed as the voice of his generation following Nirvana's sudden success, he was uncomfortable with this role.During his final years, Cobain struggled with a heroin addiction and chronic depression.",
"He also struggled with the personal and professional pressures of fame, and was often in the spotlight for his tumultuous marriage to fellow musician Courtney Love, with whom he had a daughter named Frances.",
"In March 1994, he overdosed on a combination of champagne and Rohypnol, subsequently undergoing an intervention and detox program.",
"On April 8, 1994, he was found dead in the greenhouse of his Seattle home at the age of 27, with police concluding that he had died around three days earlier from a self-inflicted shotgun wound to the head.Cobain was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, alongside Nirvana bandmates Novoselic and Grohl, in their first year of eligibility in 2014.",
"''Rolling Stone'' included him on its lists of the 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time, 100 Greatest Guitarists, and 100 Greatest Singers of All Time.",
"He was ranked 7th by MTV in the \"22 Greatest Voices in Music\", and was placed 20th by ''Hit Parader'' on their 2006 list of the \"100 Greatest Metal Singers of All Time\"."
],
[
"Early life",
"Grays Harbor Hospital, where Cobain was bornCobain's childhood home in 2020Kurt Donald Cobain was born at Grays Harbor Hospital in Aberdeen, Washington, on February 20, 1967, the son of waitress Wendy Elizabeth (née Fradenburg; born 1948) and car mechanic Donald Leland Cobain (born 1946).",
"His parents married in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, on July 31, 1965.Cobain had Dutch, English, French, German, Irish, and Scottish ancestry.",
"The Cobain surname comes from his Irish ancestors, who emigrated from the Northern Irish town of Carrickmore in 1875.Researchers found that they were shoemakers, originally surnamed Cobane, and came from the Inishatieve area of Carrickmore.",
"They first settled in Canada, where they lived in Cornwall, Ontario, before moving to Washington.",
"Cobain mistakenly believed that his Irish ancestors came from County Cork.",
"His younger sister, Kimberly, was born on April 24, 1970.Cobain's family had a musical background.",
"His maternal uncle, Chuck Fradenburg, played in a band called the Beachcombers; his aunt, Mari Earle, played guitar and performed in bands throughout Grays Harbor County; and his great-uncle, Delbert, had a career as an Irish tenor, making an appearance in the 1930 film ''King of Jazz''.",
"Kurt was described as a happy and excitable child, who also exhibited sensitivity and care.",
"His talent as an artist was evident from an early age, as he would draw his favorite characters from films and cartoons, such as the Creature from the Black Lagoon and Donald Duck, in his bedroom.",
"He was encouraged by his grandmother, Iris Cobain, a professional artist.",
"Cobain developed an interest in music at a young age.",
"According to his aunt Mari, he began singing at the age of two.",
"At age four, he started playing the piano and singing, writing a song about a trip to a park.",
"He listened to artists including Electric Light Orchestra (ELO), and, from a young age, would sing songs including Arlo Guthrie's \"Motorcycle Song\", the Beatles' \"Hey Jude\", Terry Jacks' \"Seasons in the Sun\", and the theme song to the ''Monkees'' television show.When Cobain was nine years old, his parents divorced.",
"He later said the divorce had a profound effect on his life, and his mother noted that his personality changed dramatically; Cobain became defiant and withdrawn.",
"In a 1993 interview, he said he felt \"ashamed\" of his parents as a child and had desperately wanted to have a \"typical family ...",
"I wanted that security, so I resented my parents for quite a few years because of that.\"",
"His parents found new partners after the divorce.",
"Although his father had promised not to remarry, he married Jenny Westeby, to Kurt's dismay.",
"Cobain, his father, Westeby, and her two children, Mindy and James, moved into a new household.",
"Cobain liked Westeby at first, as she gave him the maternal attention he desired.",
"In January 1979, Westeby gave birth to a boy, Chad Cobain.",
"This new family, which Cobain insisted was not his real one, was in stark contrast to the attention Cobain was used to receiving as an only boy, and he became resentful of his stepmother.",
"Cobain's mother dated a man who was abusive; Cobain witnessed the domestic violence inflicted upon her, with one incident resulting in her being hospitalized with a broken arm.",
"Wendy refused to press charges, remaining committed to the relationship.Cobain behaved insolently toward adults during this period and began bullying another boy at school.",
"His father and Westeby took him to a therapist who concluded that he would benefit from a single-family environment.",
"Both sides of the family unsuccessfully attempted to reunite his parents.",
"On June 28, 1979, Cobain's mother granted full custody to his father.",
"Cobain's teenage rebellion quickly became overwhelming for his father who placed him in the care of family and friends.",
"While living with the born-again Christian family of his friend Jesse Reed, Cobain became a devout Christian and regularly attended church services.",
"He later renounced Christianity, engaging in what was described as \"anti-God\" rants.",
"The song \"Lithium\" is about his experience while living with the Reed family.",
"Religion remained an important part of his personal life and beliefs.",
"Although uninterested in sports, Cobain was enrolled in a junior high school wrestling team at the insistence of his father.",
"He was a skilled wrestler but despised the experience.",
"Because of the ridicule he endured from his teammates and coach, he allowed himself to be pinned in an attempt to sadden his father.",
"Later, his father enlisted him in a Little League Baseball team, where Cobain would intentionally strike out to avoid playing.",
"Cobain befriended a gay student at school and was bullied by peers who concluded that he was gay.",
"In an interview, he said that he liked being associated with a gay identity because he did not like people, and when they thought he was gay they left him alone.",
"He said, \"I started being really proud of the fact that I was gay even though I wasn't.\"",
"His friend tried to kiss him, and Cobain backed away, explaining to his friend that he was not gay, but remained friends with him.",
"According to Cobain, he used to spray paint \"God Is Gay\" on pickup trucks in the Aberdeen area.",
"Police records show that Cobain was arrested for spray painting the phrase \"ain't got no how watchamacallit\" on vehicles.Cobain playing drums at Montesano High School in 1981Cobain often drew during classes.",
"When given a caricature assignment for an art course, Cobain drew Michael Jackson but was told by the teacher that the image was inappropriate for a school hallway.",
"He then drew an image of then-President Ronald Reagan that was seen as \"unflattering\".",
"Through art and electronics classes, Cobain met Roger \"Buzz\" Osborne, singer and guitarist of the Melvins, who became his friend and introduced him to punk rock and hardcore music.",
"As attested to by several of Cobain's classmates and family members, the first concert he attended was Sammy Hagar and Quarterflash, held at the Seattle Center Coliseum in 1983.Cobain, however, claimed that the first live show he attended was the Melvins, when they played a free concert outside the Thriftway supermarket where Osborne worked.",
"Cobain wrote in his journals of this experience, as well as in interviews, singling out the impact it had on him.",
"As a teenager living in Montesano, Washington, Cobain eventually found escape through the thriving Pacific Northwest punk scene, going to punk rock shows in Seattle.During his second year in high school, Cobain began living with his mother in Aberdeen.",
"Two weeks prior to graduation, he dropped out of Aberdeen High School upon realizing that he did not have enough credits to graduate.",
"His mother gave him an ultimatum: find employment or leave.",
"After one week, Cobain found his clothes and other belongings packed away in boxes.",
"Feeling banished, Cobain stayed with friends, occasionally sneaking back into his mother's basement.",
"Cobain also claimed that, during periods of homelessness, he lived under a bridge over the Wishkah River, an experience that inspired the song \"Something in the Way\".",
"His future bandmate Krist Novoselic later said, \"He hung out there, but you couldn't live on those muddy banks, with the tides coming up and down.",
"That was his own revisionism.\"",
"In late 1986, Cobain moved into an apartment, paying his rent by working at the Polynesian Resort, a themed resort on the Pacific coast at Ocean Shores, Washington approximately west of Aberdeen.",
"During this period, he traveled frequently to Olympia, Washington, to go to rock concerts.",
"During his visits to Olympia, Cobain formed a relationship with Tracy Marander.",
"Their relationship was close but strained by financial problems and Cobain's absence when touring.",
"Marander supported the couple by working at the cafeteria of the Boeing plant in Auburn, Washington, often stealing food.",
"Cobain spent most of his time sleeping into the late evening, watching television, and concentrating on art projects.Marander's insistence that he get a job caused arguments that influenced Cobain to write the song \"About a Girl\", which appeared on the Nirvana album ''Bleach''.",
"Marander is credited with having taken the cover photo for the album, as well as the front and back cover photos of their Blew single.",
"She did not become aware that Cobain wrote \"About a Girl\" about her until years after his death.",
"Soon after his separation from Marander, Cobain began dating Tobi Vail, an influential punk zinester of the riot grrrl band Bikini Kill who embraced the DIY ethos.",
"After meeting Vail, Cobain vomited, overwhelmed with anxiety caused by his infatuation with her.",
"This event inspired the lyric \"love you so much it makes me sick\" in the song \"Aneurysm\".",
"While Cobain regarded Vail as his female counterpart, his relationship with her waned; he desired the maternal comfort of a traditional relationship, which Vail regarded as sexist within a countercultural punk rock community.",
"Vail's lovers were described by her friend Alice Wheeler as \"fashion accessories\".",
"Cobain wrote many of his songs about Vail."
],
[
"Career",
"=== Early musical projects ===On his 14th birthday on February 20, 1981, Cobain's uncle offered him either a bike or a used guitar; Kurt chose the guitar.",
"Soon, he was trying to play Led Zeppelin's song \"Stairway to Heaven\".",
"He also learned how to play \"Louie Louie\", Queen's \"Another One Bites the Dust\", and the Cars' \"My Best Friend's Girl\", before he began working on his own songs.",
"Cobain played left-handed, despite being forced to write right-handed.In early 1985, Cobain formed Fecal Matter after he had dropped out of Aberdeen High School.",
"One of \"several joke bands\" that arose from the circle of friends associated with the Melvins, it initially featured Cobain singing and playing guitar, Melvins drummer Dale Crover playing bass, and Greg Hokanson playing drums.",
"They spent several months rehearsing original material and covers, including songs by the Ramones, Led Zeppelin, and Jimi Hendrix.=== Nirvana ===During high school, Cobain rarely found anyone with whom he could play music.",
"While hanging out at the Melvins' practice space, he met Krist Novoselic, a fellow devotee of punk rock.",
"Novoselic's mother owned a hair salon, and the pair occasionally practiced in the upstairs room of the salon.",
"A few years later, Cobain tried to convince Novoselic to form a band with him by lending him a copy of a home demo recorded by Fecal Matter.",
"After months of asking, Novoselic agreed to join Cobain, forming the beginnings of Nirvana.",
"Religion appeared to remain a significant muse to Cobain during this time as he often used Christian imagery in his work and developed an interest in Jainism and Buddhist philosophy.Cobain became disenchanted after early touring because of the band's inability to draw substantial crowds and the difficulty in supporting themselves financially.",
"During their first few years playing together, Novoselic and Cobain were hosts to a succession of drummers.",
"Eventually, the band settled on Chad Channing with whom Nirvana recorded the album ''Bleach'', released on Sub Pop Records in 1989.Cobain, however, became dissatisfied with Channing's style and subsequently fired him.",
"He and Novoselic eventually hired Dave Grohl to replace Channing.",
"Grohl helped the band record their 1991 major-label debut, ''Nevermind''.",
"With ''Nevermind''s lead single, \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\", Nirvana quickly entered the mainstream, popularizing a subgenre of alternative rock called \"grunge\".",
"Since their debut, Nirvana has sold over 28 million albums in the United States alone and over 75 million worldwide.",
"The success of ''Nevermind'' provided numerous Seattle bands, such as Alice in Chains, Pearl Jam, and Soundgarden, access to wider audiences.",
"As a result, alternative rock became a dominant genre on radio and music television in the U.S. during the first half of the 1990s.",
"Nirvana was considered the \"flagship band of Generation X\", and Cobain found himself reluctantly anointed by the media as the generation's \"spokesman\".",
"He resented this characterization since he believed his artistic message had been misinterpreted by the public.Cobain struggled to reconcile the massive success of Nirvana with his underground roots and vision.",
"He also felt persecuted by the media, comparing himself to Frances Farmer whom he named a song after.",
"He began to harbor resentment against people who claimed to be fans of the band yet refused to acknowledge, or misinterpreted, the band's social and political views.",
"A vocal opponent of sexism, racism, sexual assault, and homophobia, he was publicly proud that Nirvana had played at a gay rights benefit concert that was held to oppose Oregon's 1992 Ballot Measure 9, which would have directed Oregon schools to teach that homosexuality was \"abnormal, wrong, unnatural and perverse\".",
"Cobain was a vocal supporter of the pro-choice movement, and Nirvana was involved in L7's Rock for Choice campaign.",
"He received death threats from a small number of anti-abortion activists for participating in the pro-choice campaign, with one activist threatening to shoot Cobain as soon as he stepped on a stage.=== Other collaborations ===In 1989, members of Nirvana and fellow American alternative rock band Screaming Trees formed a side project known as the Jury.",
"The band featured Cobain on vocals and guitar, Mark Lanegan on vocals, Krist Novoselic on bass, and Mark Pickerel on drums.",
"Over two days of recording sessions, on August 20 and 28, 1989, the band recorded four songs also performed by Lead Belly; \"Where Did You Sleep Last Night?",
"\", an instrumental version of \"Grey Goose\", \"Ain't It a Shame\", and \"They Hung Him on a Cross\", the latter of which featured Cobain performing solo.",
"Cobain was inspired to record the songs after receiving a copy of ''Lead Belly's Last Sessions'' from friend Slim Moon; after hearing it, he \"felt a connection to Leadbelly's almost physical expressions of longing and desire.",
"\"In 1990, Cobain and his girlfriend, Tobi Vail of the riot grrrl band Bikini Kill, collaborated on a musical project called Bathtub is Real in which they both sang and played guitar and drums.",
"They recorded their songs on a four-track tape machine that belonged to Vail's father.",
"In Everett True's 2009 book ''Nirvana: The Biography'', Vail is quoted as saying that Cobain \"would play the songs he was writing, I would play the songs I was writing and we'd record them on my dad's four-track.",
"Sometimes I'd sing on the songs he was writing and play drums on them ...",
"He was really into the fact that I was creative and into music.",
"I don't think he'd ever played music with a girl before.",
"He was super-inspiring and fun to play with.\"",
"The musician Slim Moon described their sound as \"like the minimal quiet pop songs that Olympia is known for.",
"Both of them sang; it was really good.",
"\"In 1992, Cobain contacted William S. Burroughs about a possible collaboration.",
"Burroughs responded by sending him a recording of \"The Junky's Christmas\" (which he recorded in his studio in Lawrence, Kansas).",
"Two months later at a studio in Seattle, Cobain added guitar backing based on \"Silent Night\" and \"To Anacreon in Heaven\".",
"The two would meet shortly later in Lawrence, Kansas and produce \"The 'Priest' They Called Him\", a spoken word version of \"The Junky's Christmas\"."
],
[
"Musical influences",
"The Beatles were an early and lasting influence on Cobain; his aunt Mari remembers him singing \"Hey Jude\" at the age of two.",
"\"My aunts would give me Beatles records\", Cobain told Jon Savage in 1993, \"so for the most part I listened to the Beatles as a child, and if I was lucky, I'd be able to buy a single.\"",
"Cobain expressed a particular fondness for John Lennon, whom he called his \"idol\" in his posthumously released journals, and he said that he wrote the song \"About a Girl\", from Nirvana's 1989 debut album ''Bleach'', after spending three hours listening to ''Meet the Beatles!",
"''.Cobain was also a fan of 1970s hard rock and heavy metal bands, including Led Zeppelin, AC/DC, Black Sabbath, Aerosmith, Queen, and Kiss.",
"Nirvana occasionally played cover songs by these bands, including Led Zeppelin's \"Heartbreaker\", \"Moby Dick\" and \"Immigrant Song\", Black Sabbath's \"Hand of Doom\", and Kiss' \"Do You Love Me?\"",
"and wrote the ''Incesticide'' song \"Aero Zeppelin\" as a tribute to Led Zeppelin and Aerosmith.",
"Recollecting touring with his band, Cobain stated, \"I used to take a nap in the van and listen to Queen.",
"Over and over again and drain the battery on the van.",
"We'd be stuck with a dead battery because I'd listened to Queen too much\".He was introduced to punk rock and hardcore music by his Aberdeen classmate Buzz Osborne, lead singer and guitarist of the Melvins, who taught Cobain about punk by loaning him records and old copies of the Detroit-based magazine ''Creem''.",
"Punk rock proved to be a profound influence on a teenaged Cobain's attitude and artistic style.",
"His first punk rock album was ''Sandinista!''",
"by The Clash, but he became a bigger fan of fellow 1970s British punk band the Sex Pistols, describing them as \"one million times more important than the Clash\" in his journals.",
"He quickly discovered contemporary American hardcore bands like Black Flag, Bad Brains, Millions of Dead Cops and Flipper.",
"The Melvins themselves were a major early musical influence on Cobain; his admiration for them led him to drive their van on tour and help them to carry their equipment.",
"He and Novoselic watched hundreds of Melvins rehearsals and \"learned almost everything from them\", as stated by Cobain.",
"The Melvins' heavy, grungey sound was mimicked by Nirvana on many songs from ''Bleach''; in an early interview given by Nirvana, Cobain stated that their biggest fear was to be perceived as a \"Melvins rip-off\".",
"After their commercial success, the members of Nirvana would constantly talk about the Melvins' importance to them in the press.Cobain was also a fan of protopunk acts like the Stooges, whose 1973 album ''Raw Power'' he listed as his favorite of all time in his journals, and The Velvet Underground, whose 1968 song \"Here She Comes Now\" the band covered both live and in the studio.The 1980s American alternative rock band Pixies were instrumental in helping an adult Cobain develop his own songwriting style.",
"In a 1992 interview with ''Melody Maker'', Cobain said that hearing their 1988 debut album, ''Surfer Rosa'', \"convinced him to abandon his more Black Flag-influenced songwriting in favor of the Iggy Pop/Aerosmith–type songwriting that appeared on ''Nevermind''.",
"In a 1993 interview with ''Rolling Stone'', he said that \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" was his attempt at \"trying to rip off the Pixies.",
"I have to admit it.",
"When I heard the Pixies for the first time, I connected with that band so heavily that I should have been in that band—or at least a Pixies cover band.",
"We used their sense of dynamics, being soft and quiet and then loud and hard\".Cobain's appreciation of early alternative rock bands also extended to Sonic Youth and R.E.M., both of which the members of Nirvana befriended and looked up to for advice.",
"It was under recommendation from Sonic Youth's Kim Gordon that Nirvana signed to DGC in 1990, and both bands did a two-week tour of Europe in the summer of 1991, as documented in the 1992 documentary, ''1991: The Year Punk Broke''.",
"In 1993, Cobain said of R.E.M.",
": \"If I could write just a couple of songs as good as what they've written...",
"I don't know how that band does what they do.",
"God, they're the greatest.",
"They've dealt with their success like saints, and they keep delivering great music\".After attaining mainstream success, Cobain became a devoted champion of lesser known indie bands, covering songs by The Vaselines, Meat Puppets, Wipers and Fang onstage and/or in the studio, wearing Daniel Johnston T-shirts during photo shoots, having the K Records logo tattooed on his forearm, and enlisting bands like Butthole Surfers, Shonen Knife, Chokebore and Half Japanese along for the ''In Utero'' tour in late 1993 and early 1994.Cobain even invited his favorite musicians to perform with him: ex-Germs guitarist Pat Smear joined the band in 1993, and the Meat Puppets appeared onstage during Nirvana's 1993 ''MTV Unplugged'' appearance to perform three songs from their second album, ''Meat Puppets II''.Nirvana's ''Unplugged'' set includes renditions of \"The Man Who Sold the World\", by David Bowie, and the American folk song, \"Where Did You Sleep Last Night\", as adapted by Lead Belly.",
"Cobain introduced the latter by calling Lead Belly his favorite performer, and in a 1993 interview revealed he had been introduced to him from reading the American author William S. Burroughs, saying: \"I remember Burroughs saying in an interview, 'These new rock'n'roll kids should just throw away their guitars and listen to something with real soul, like Leadbelly.'",
"I'd never heard about Leadbelly before so I bought a couple of records, and now he turns out to be my absolute favorite of all time in music.",
"I absolutely love it more than any rock'n'roll I ever heard.\"",
"The album ''MTV Unplugged in New York'' was released posthumously in 1994.It has drawn comparisons to R.E.M.",
"'s 1992 release, ''Automatic for the People''.",
"In 1993, Cobain had predicted that the next Nirvana album would be \"pretty ethereal, acoustic, like R.E.M.",
"'s last album\".",
"\"Yeah, he talked a lot about what direction he was heading in\", Cobain's friend, R.E.M.",
"'s lead singer Michael Stipe, told ''Newsweek'' in 1994.",
"\"I mean, I know what the next Nirvana recording was going to sound like.",
"It was going to be very quiet and acoustic, with lots of stringed instruments.",
"It was going to be an amazing fucking record, and I'm a little bit angry at him for killing himself.",
"He and I were going to record a trial run of the album, a demo tape.",
"It was all set up.",
"He had a plane ticket.",
"He had a car picking him up.",
"And at the last minute he called and said, 'I can't come.",
"Stipe was chosen as the godfather of Cobain's and Courtney Love's daughter, Frances Bean Cobain."
],
[
"Artistry",
"The Lake Placid Blue Fender Mustang played by Cobain during the filming of the video for \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\", shown at the Museum of Pop Culture in SeattleAccording to Grohl, Cobain believed that music comes first and lyrics second; he focused primarily on the melodies.",
"He complained when fans and rock journalists attempted to decipher his singing and extract meaning from his lyrics, writing: \"Why in the hell do journalists insist on coming up with a second-rate Freudian evaluation of my lyrics, when 90 percent of the time they've transcribed them incorrectly?\"",
"Though Cobain insisted on the subjectivity and unimportance of his lyrics, he labored and procrastinated in writing them, often changing the content and order of lyrics during performances.",
"Cobain would describe his own lyrics as \"a big pile of contradictions.",
"They're split down the middle between very sincere opinions that I have and sarcastic opinions and feelings that I have and sarcastic and hopeful, humorous rebuttals toward cliché bohemian ideals that have been exhausted for years.",
"\"Cobain originally wanted ''Nevermind'' to be divided into two sides: a \"Boy\" side, for the songs written about the experiences of his early life and childhood, and a \"Girl\" side, for the songs written about his dysfunctional relationship with Vail.",
"Charles R. Cross wrote, \"In the four months following their break-up, Kurt would write a half dozen of his most memorable songs, all of them about Tobi Vail.\"",
"Though Cobain wrote \"Lithium\" before meeting Vail, he wrote the lyrics to reference her.",
"Cobain said in an interview with ''Musician'' that he wrote about \"some of my very personal experiences, like breaking up with girlfriends and having bad relationships, feeling that death void that the person in the song is feeling.",
"Very lonely, sick.\"",
"While Cobain regarded ''In Utero'' as \"for the most part very impersonal\", its lyrics deal with his parents' divorce, his newfound fame and the public image and perception of himself and Courtney Love on \"Serve the Servants\", with his enamored relationship with Love conveyed through lyrical themes of pregnancy and the female anatomy on \"Heart-Shaped Box.",
"\"alt=Cobain was affected enough to write \"Polly\" from ''Nevermind'' after reading a newspaper story of an incident in 1987, when a 14-year-old girl was kidnapped after attending a punk rock show then raped and tortured with a blowtorch.",
"She escaped after gaining the trust of her captor Gerald Friend through flirting with him.",
"After seeing Nirvana perform, Bob Dylan cited \"Polly\" as the best of Nirvana's songs, and said of Cobain, \"the kid has heart\".",
"Patrick Süskind's novel ''Perfume: The Story of a Murderer'' inspired Cobain to write the song \"Scentless Apprentice\" from ''In Utero''.",
"The book is a historical horror novel about a perfumer's apprentice born with no body odor of his own but with a highly developed sense of smell, and who attempts to create the \"ultimate perfume\" by killing virginal women and taking their scent.Cobain immersed himself in artistic projects throughout his life, as much so as he did in songwriting.",
"The sentiments of his artwork followed the same subjects of his lyrics, often expressed through a dark and macabre sense of humor.",
"Noted were his fascination with physiology, his own rare medical conditions, and the human anatomy.",
"According to Novoselic, \"Kurt said that he never liked literal things.",
"He liked cryptic things.",
"He would cut out pictures of meat from grocery-store fliers, then paste these orchids on them ... And all this stuff on ''In Utero'' about the body – there was something about anatomy.",
"He really liked that.",
"You look at his art – there are these people, and they're all weird, like mutants.",
"And dolls – creepy dolls.",
"\"Cobain contributed backing guitar for a spoken word recording of beat poet William S. Burroughs' entitled ''The \"Priest\" They Called Him''.",
"Cobain regarded Burroughs as a hero.",
"During Nirvana's European tour Cobain kept a copy of Burroughs' ''Naked Lunch'', purchased from a London bookstall.",
"Cobain met with Burroughs at his home in Lawrence, Kansas in October 1993.Burroughs expressed no surprise at Cobain's death: \"It wasn't an act of will for Kurt to kill himself.",
"As far as I was concerned, he was dead already.\""
],
[
"Equipment",
"In a ''Guitar World'' retrospective, Cobain's guitar tone was deemed \"one of the most iconic\" in the history of the electric guitar, while noting that rather than relying on expensive or vintage items, Cobain used \"an eccentric cache of budget models, low-end imports and pawn shop prizes.\"",
"Cobain stated in a 1992 interview, \"Junk is always best,\" but denied this was a punk statement and claimed it was a necessity, as he had trouble finding high quality lefthanded guitars.Cobain's first guitar was a used electric guitar from Sears that he received on his 14th birthday.",
"He took guitar lessons long enough to learn AC/DC's \"Back in Black\" and began playing with local kids.",
"Cobain found the guitar smashed after leaving it in a locker, but he was able to purchase new equipment, including a Peavey amp, by recovering and selling his stepfather's gun collection, which his mother had dumped in a river after discovering his infidelity.",
"Upon forming what would be Nirvana, Cobain was playing a Fender Champ amplifier and a righthanded Univox Hi-Flier guitar he flipped over and strung for lefthanded playing.For the recording of ''Bleach'', Cobain needed to borrow a Fender Twin Reverb due to his main amplifier, a solid-state Randall, being repaired at the time, but as the Twin Reverb's speakers were blown, he was forced to pair it with an external cabinet featuring two 12\" speakers.",
"He used a Boss DS-1 for distortion, while playing Hi-Flier guitars, which cost him $100 each.",
"Nirvana embarked on their first American tour in 1989, at the start of which Cobain played an Epiphone ET270; however, he destroyed the guitar onstage during a show, a subsequent habit that forced label Sub Pop to have to call local pawn shops looking for replacement guitars.",
"Cobain's first acoustic guitar, a Stella 12-string, cost him $31.21.Cobain strung it with six (or sometimes five) strings, and while the guitar's tuners had to be held together with duct tape, it sounded good enough that the guitar was later used to record the ''Nevermind'' tracks \"Polly\" and \"Something in the Way.",
"\"Despite receiving a $287,000 advance upon signing with Geffen Records, Cobain retained a preference for inexpensive gear.",
"He became a fan of Japanese-made Fender guitars ahead of recording ''Nevermind'', due to their slim necks and wide availability in lefthanded orientation.",
"These included several Stratocasters fitted with humbucker pickups in the bridge positions, as well as a 1965 Jaguar with DiMarzio pickups and a 1969 Competition Mustang, the latter of which Cobain cited as his favorite, despite noting, \"They're cheap and totally inefficient, and they sound like crap and are very small.\"",
"For the album, Cobain used a rackmount system featuring a Mesa/Boogie Studio preamp, a Crown power amp, and Marshall cabinets.",
"He also used a Vox AC30 and a Fender Bassman.",
"Producer Butch Vig preferred to avoid pedals, but allowed Cobain to use his Boss DS-1, which Cobain considered a key part of his sound, as well as an Electro-Harmonix Big Muff fuzz pedal and a Small Clone chorus, which can be heard on songs like \"Smells Like Teen Spirit,\" \"Come As You Are,\" and \"Aneurysm.",
"\"Cobain used his '69 Mustang, '65 Jaguar, a custom Jaguar/Mustang, and a Hi-Flier for the ''In Utero'' recording sessions.",
"To tour behind the album, Cobain placed an order for 10 Mustangs split between Fiesta Red and Sonic Blue.",
"As the Fender Custom Shop was new, the guitars were to be shipped out two at a time over a period of months.",
"By the time of his death, Cobain had received six of the guitars.",
"The remaining four, waiting to be shipped, were instead sold as regular stock at Japanese music stores without informing buyers the guitars had been made for Cobain.For Nirvana's ''Unplugged'' performance, Cobain played a righthanded 1959 Martin D-18E acoustic guitar modified for lefthanded playing.",
"The guitar became the most expensive ever sold when it fetched over $6 million at auction in 2020.Cobain's 1969 Competition Mustang, which he also played in the \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" music video, sold at a 2022 auction to Jim Irsay, owner of the Indianapolis Colts, for $4.5 million, with an original estimate of $600,000."
],
[
"Personal life",
"=== Relationships and family ===There are differing accounts of exactly when and how Kurt Cobain first met Courtney Love.",
"In his 1993 authorized biography of Nirvana Michael Azerrad cites a January 21, 1989, Dharma Bums gig in Portland where Nirvana played as support, while the Charles R. Cross 2001 Cobain biography has Love and Cobain meeting at the same Satyricon nightclub venue in Portland but a different Nirvana show, January 12, 1990, when both still led ardent underground rock bands.",
"Love made advances soon after they met, but Cobain was evasive.",
"Early in their interactions, Cobain broke off dates and ignored Love's advances because he was unsure if he wanted a relationship.",
"Cobain noted, \"I was determined to be a bachelor for a few months ...",
"But I knew that I liked Courtney so much right away that it was a really hard struggle to stay away from her for so many months.\"",
"Everett True, who was an associate of both Cobain and Love, disputes those versions of events in his 2006 book, claiming that he himself introduced the couple on May 17, 1991.Cobain was already aware of Love through her role in the 1987 film ''Straight to Hell''.",
"According to True, the pair were formally introduced at an L7 and Butthole Surfers concert in Los Angeles in May 1991.In the weeks that followed, after learning from Grohl that Cobain shared mutual interests with her, Love began pursuing Cobain.",
"In late 1991, the two were often together and bonded through drug use.On February 24, 1992, a few days after the conclusion of Nirvana's \"Pacific Rim\" tour, Cobain and Love were married on Waikiki Beach in Hawaii.",
"Love wore a satin and lace dress once owned by Frances Farmer, and Cobain donned a Guatemalan purse and wore green pajamas, because he had been \"too lazy to put on a tux.\"",
"Eight people were in attendance at the ceremony, including Grohl.",
"Love said she was warned by the Sonic Youth bassist Kim Gordon that marrying Cobain would \"destroy her life\"; Love responded: \"'Whatever!",
"I love him, and I want to be with him!'",
"...",
"It wasn't his fault.",
"He wasn't trying to do that.",
"\"The couple's daughter, Frances Bean Cobain, was born August 18, 1992.A sonogram was included in the artwork for Nirvana's single, \"Lithium.\"",
"In a 1992 ''Vanity Fair'' article'','' Love admitted to a drug binge with Cobain in the early weeks of her pregnancy.",
"At the time, she claimed that ''Vanity Fair'' had misquoted her.",
"Love later admitted to using heroin before knowing she was pregnant.",
"The couple were asked by the press if Frances was addicted to drugs at birth.",
"The Los Angeles County Department of Children's Services visited the Cobains days after Love gave birth and later took them to court, stating that their drug usage made them unfit parents.=== Sexuality ===In October 1992, when asked, \"Well, are you gay?\"",
"by ''Monk Magazine'', Cobain replied, \"If I wasn't attracted to Courtney, I'd be a bisexual.\"",
"In another interview, he described identifying with the gay community in ''The Advocate'', stating, \"I'm definitely gay in spirit and I probably could be bisexual\" and \"if I wouldn't have found Courtney, I probably would have carried on with a bisexual life-style\", but also that he was \"more sexually attracted to women\".",
"He described himself as being \"feminine\" in childhood, and often wore dresses and other stereotypically feminine clothing.",
"Some of his song lyrics, as well as phrases he would use to vandalize vehicles and a bank, included \"God is gay\", \"Jesus is gay\", \"HOMOSEXUAL SEX RULES\", and \"Everyone is gay\".",
"One of his personal journals states, \"I am not gay, although I wish I were, just to piss off homophobes.",
"\"Cobain advocated for LGBTQ+ rights, including traveling to Oregon to perform at a benefit opposing the 1992 Oregon Ballot Measure 9, and supported local bands with LGBTQ+ members.",
"He reported having felt \"different\" from the age of seven, and was a frequent target of homophobic bullying in his school due to his having a \"gay friend\".",
"Cobain was interviewed by two gay magazines, ''Out'' and ''The Advocate''; the 1993 interview with ''The Advocate'' being described as \"the only interview the band's lead singer says he plans to do for ''Incesticide''\", an album whose liner notes included a statement decrying homophobia, racism and misogyny:=== Health and addiction ===Throughout most of his life, Cobain had chronic bronchitis and intense physical pain due to an undiagnosed chronic stomach condition.",
"According to ''The Telegraph'', Cobain had depression.",
"His cousin brought attention to the family history of suicide, mental illness and alcoholism, noting that two of her uncles had died by suicide with guns.He used drugs heavily; his first drug experience was with cannabis in 1980, at age 13.He regularly used the drug during adulthood.",
"Cobain also had a period of consuming \"notable\" amounts of LSD, as observed by Marander, and was prone to alcoholism and solvent abuse.",
"Novoselic said he was \"really into getting fucked up: drugs, acid, any kind of drug\".",
"Cobain first took heroin in 1986, administered to him by a dealer in Tacoma, Washington, who had previously supplied him with oxycodone and aspirin.",
"Cobain used heroin sporadically for several years; by the end of 1990, his use had developed into addiction.",
"Cobain claimed that he was \"determined to get a habit\" as a way to self-medicate his stomach condition.",
"\"It started with three days in a row of doing heroin and I don't have a stomach pain.",
"That was such a relief,\" he said.",
"However, his longtime friend Buzz Osborne disputes this, saying that his stomach pain was more likely ''caused'' by his heroin use: \"He made it up for sympathy and so he could use it as an excuse to stay loaded.",
"Of course he was vomiting—that's what people on heroin do, they vomit.",
"It's called 'vomiting with a smile on your face'.",
"\"Cobain's heroin use began to affect Nirvana's ''Nevermind'' tour.",
"During a 1992 photoshoot with Michael Lavine, he fell asleep several times, having used heroin beforehand.",
"Cobain told biographer Michael Azerrad: \"They're not going to be able to tell me to stop.",
"So I really didn't care.",
"Obviously to them it was like practicing witchcraft or something.",
"They didn't know anything about it so they thought that any second, I was going to die.",
"\"The morning after the band's performance on ''Saturday Night Live'' in 1992, Cobain experienced his first near-death overdose after injecting heroin; Love resuscitated him.",
"Prior to a performance at the New Music Seminar in New York City on July 23, 1993, Cobain suffered another overdose.",
"Rather than calling for an ambulance, Love injected Cobain with naloxone to resuscitate him.",
"Cobain proceeded to perform with Nirvana, giving the public no indication that anything had happened."
],
[
"Death",
"Cobain's suicide note.",
"The final phrase before the valediction, \"It's better to burn out than to fade away\", is a quote from the lyrics of Neil Young's song \"My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue)\".Following a tour stop at Terminal Eins in Munich, Germany, on March 1, 1994, Cobain was diagnosed with bronchitis and severe laryngitis.",
"He flew to Rome the next day for medical treatment, and was joined there by his wife, Courtney Love, on March 3.The next morning, Love awoke to find that Cobain had overdosed on a combination of champagne and Rohypnol.",
"Cobain was rushed to the hospital and was unconscious for the rest of the day.",
"After five days, Cobain was released and returned to Seattle.",
"Love later said that the incident was Cobain's first suicide attempt.On March 18, 1994, Love phoned the Seattle police informing them that Cobain was suicidal and had locked himself in a room with a gun.",
"Police arrived and confiscated several guns and a bottle of pills from Cobain, who insisted that he was not suicidal and had locked himself in the room to hide from Love.Love arranged an intervention regarding Cobain's drug use on March 25, 1994.The ten people involved included musician friends, record company executives, and one of Cobain's closest friends, Dylan Carlson.",
"Cobain reacted with anger, insulting and heaping scorn on the participants, and locked himself in the upstairs bedroom.",
"However, by the end of the day, Cobain agreed to undergo a detox program, and he entered a residential facility in Los Angeles for a few days on March 30, 1994.The following night, Cobain left the facility and flew to Seattle.",
"On the flight, he sat near Duff McKagan of Guns N' Roses.",
"Despite Cobain's animosity towards Guns N' Roses, Cobain \"seemed happy\" to see McKagan.",
"McKagan later said that he knew from \"all of my instincts that something was wrong\".",
"Most of Cobain's friends and family were unaware of his whereabouts.",
"On April 7, amid rumors of Nirvana breaking up, the band pulled out of the 1994 Lollapalooza festival.Cobain's former home, and the site of his death.On April 8, Cobain's body was discovered at his Lake Washington Boulevard home by an electrician, who had arrived to install a security system.",
"A suicide note was found, addressed to Cobain's childhood imaginary friend Boddah, that stated that Cobain had not \"felt the excitement of listening to as well as creating music, along with really writing ... for too many years now\".",
"Cobain's body had been there for days; the coroner's report estimated he died on April 5, 1994, at the age of 27.=== Aftermath ===A public vigil was held on April 10, at a park at Seattle Center, drawing approximately 7,000 mourners.",
"Prerecorded messages by Novoselic and Love were played at the memorial.",
"Love read portions of the suicide note to the crowd, crying and chastising Cobain.",
"Near the end of the vigil, Love distributed some of Cobain's clothing to those who remained.",
"Grohl said that the news of Cobain's death was \"probably the worst thing that has happened to me in my life.",
"I remember the day after that I woke up and I was heartbroken that he was gone.",
"I just felt like, 'Okay, so I get to wake up today and have another day and he doesn't.",
"'\"''Billboard,'' reporting from Seattle on April 23, stated that within a few hours of Cobain's death being confirmed on April 8, the only remaining Nirvana titles at Park Ave Records on Queen Anne Avenue were two \"Heart-Shaped Box\" import CD singles.",
"A marketing director at the three-store Cellophane Square chain said that \"all three stores sold about a few hundred CDs, singles, and vinyl by the morning of April 9\".",
"A buyer at Tower Records on Mercer Street said: \"It's a pathetic scene, everything is going out the door.",
"If people were really fans, they would've had this stuff already.\"",
"In the United Kingdom, sales of Nirvana releases rose dramatically immediately after Cobain's death.Grohl believed that he knew Cobain would die at an early age, saying that \"sometimes you just can't save someone from themselves\", and \"in some ways, you kind of prepare yourself emotionally for that to be a reality\".",
"Dave Reed, who for a short time had been Cobain's foster father, said that \"he had the desperation, not the courage, to be himself.",
"Once you do that, you can't go wrong, because you can't make any mistakes when people love you for being yourself.",
"But for Kurt, it didn't matter that other people loved him; he simply didn't love himself enough.",
"\"A final ceremony was arranged by Cobain's mother on May 31, 1999, and was attended by Love and Tracy Marander.",
"As a Buddhist monk chanted, daughter Frances Bean scattered Cobain's ashes into McLane Creek in Olympia, the city where he \"had found his true artistic muse\".",
"In 2006, Love said she retained Cobain's ashes, kept in a bank vault in Los Angeles because \"no cemetery in Seattle will take them\".A bench in Viretta Park, through tribute graffiti, has become an improvised memorial to Cobain Cobain's death became a topic of public fascination and debate.",
"His artistic endeavors and struggles with addiction, illness and depression, as well as the circumstances of his death, have become a frequent topic of controversy.",
"According to a spokesperson for the Seattle Police Department, the department receives at least one weekly request to reopen the investigation, resulting in the maintenance of the basic incident report on file.In March 2014, the Seattle police developed four rolls of film that had been left in an evidence vault; no reason was provided for why the rolls were not developed earlier.",
"According to the Seattle police, the 35mm film photographs show the scene of Cobain's dead body more clearly than previous Polaroid images taken by the police.",
"Detective Mike Ciesynski, a cold case investigator, was instructed to look at the film because \"it is 20 years later and it's a high media case\".",
"Ciesynski stated that Cobain's death remains a suicide and that the images would not have been released publicly.",
"The photos in question were later released, one by one, weeks before the 20th anniversary of Cobain's death.",
"One photo shows Cobain's arm, still wearing the hospital bracelet from the drug rehab facility he had left just a few days prior to returning to Seattle.",
"Another photo shows Cobain's foot resting next to a bag of shotgun shells, one of which was used in his death."
],
[
"Legacy",
"A minibus in Nepal with a portrait of Cobain on rear windowCobain is remembered as one of the most influential rock musicians in the history of alternative music.",
"His angst-fueled songwriting and anti-establishment persona led him to be referenced as the spokesman of Generation X.",
"In addition, Cobain's songs widened the themes of mainstream rock music of the 1980s to discussion of personal reflection and social issues.",
"On April 10, 2014, Nirvana was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.",
"Grohl, Novoselic and Love accepted the accolade at the ceremony, where Cobain was also remembered.",
"Cobain is one of the best-known members of the 27 Club, a list of musicians who died when they were 27 years old.",
"''Music & Media'' reporting on April 23, 1994, after Cobain had died, stated that Jorgen Larsen, the president of MCA Music Entertainment International was asked where he thought Cobain stood in terms of his contribution to contemporary music, and Larsen replied that \"If anybody comes out of nowhere to sell 11 or 12 million albums you have to conclude that there's something there.",
"He wasn't just a one-hit wonder.",
"\"According to music journalist Paul Lester, who worked at ''Melody Maker'' at the time, Cobain's suicide triggered an immediate reappraisal of his work.",
"He wrote: \"The general impression offered by ''In Utero'' was that Cobain was some kind of whiny, self-absorbed, grunge, misery guts who could make routinely powerful music but was hardly a suffering godhead.",
"You could almost hear a collective sigh of relief after April 5, 1994, that Cobain could no longer further sully his reputation; that the myth-making machinery could finally be cranked into action.",
"\"Billy Corgan of the Smashing Pumpkins referred to Cobain as \"the Michael Jordan of our generation\", and said that Cobain opened the door for everyone in the 1990s alternative rock scene.",
"Lars Ulrich of Metallica reflected on Cobain's influence stating that \"with Kurt Cobain you felt you were connecting to the real person, not to a perception of who he was — you were not connecting to an image or a manufactured cut-out.",
"You felt that between you and him there was nothing — it was heart-to-heart.",
"There are very few people who have that ability.\"",
"In 1996, the Church of Kurt Cobain was established in Portland, Oregon, but it was later claimed by some media outlets to have been a media hoax.",
"Reflecting on Cobain's death over 10 years later, MSNBC's Eric Olsen wrote, \"In the intervening decade, Cobain, a small, frail but handsome man in life, has become an abstract Generation X icon, viewed by many as the 'last real rock star'... a messiah and martyr whose every utterance has been plundered and parsed.",
"\"In 2003, David Fricke of ''Rolling Stone'' ranked Cobain the 12th greatest guitarist of all time.",
"He was later ranked the 73rd greatest guitarist and 45th greatest singer of all time by the same magazine, and by MTV as seventh in the \"22 Greatest Voices in Music\".",
"In 2006, he was placed at number twenty by ''Hit Parader'' on their list of the \"100 Greatest Metal Singers of All Time\".In 2005, a sign was put up in Aberdeen, Washington, that reads \"Welcome to Aberdeen – Come As You Are\" as a tribute to Cobain|alt=In 2005, a sign was put up in Aberdeen, Washington, that read \"Welcome to Aberdeen – Come As You Are\" as a tribute to Cobain.",
"The sign was paid for and created by the Kurt Cobain Memorial Committee, a non-profit organization created in May 2004 to honor Cobain.",
"The Committee planned to create a Kurt Cobain Memorial Park and a youth center in Aberdeen.",
"Because Cobain was cremated and his remains scattered into the Wishkah River in Washington, many Nirvana fans visit Viretta Park, near Cobain's former Lake Washington home to pay tribute.",
"On the anniversary of his death, fans gather in the park to celebrate his life and memory.",
"Controversy erupted in July 2009 when a monument to Cobain in Aberdeen along the Wishkah River included the quote \"...",
"Drugs are bad for you.",
"They will fuck you up.\"",
"The city ultimately decided to sandblast the monument to replace the expletive with \"f---\", but fans immediately drew the letters back in.",
"In December 2013, the small city of Hoquiam, where Cobain once lived, announced that April 10 would become the annual Nirvana Day.",
"Similarly, in January 2014, Cobain's birthday, February 20, was declared annual \"Kurt Cobain Day\" in Aberdeen.In June 2020, the 1959 Martin D-18E acoustic-electric guitar used by Cobain for Nirvana's ''MTV Unplugged'' performance sold at auction for $6,010,000 to Peter Freedman the chairman of Røde Microphones.",
"It was the most expensive guitar and the most expensive piece of band memorabilia ever sold.",
"In May 2022, Cobain's Lake Placid Blue Fender Mustang guitar sold at auction for $4.5 million to Jim Irsay, making it the second-most valuable guitar ever sold and the most valuable electric guitar.In July 2021, the Washington State Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation confirmed that Cobain's childhood home in Aberdeen would be included on their Heritage Register, and that the owner would be making it into an exhibit for people to visit."
],
[
"Media",
"=== Books ===Prior to Cobain's death, Michael Azerrad published ''Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana'', a book chronicling Nirvana's career from its beginning, as well as the personal histories of the band members.",
"The book explored Cobain's drug addiction, as well as the countless controversies surrounding the band.",
"After Cobain's death, Azerrad republished the book to include a final chapter discussing the last year of Cobain's life.",
"The book involved the band members themselves, who provided interviews and personal information to Azerrad specifically for the book.",
"In 2006, Azerrad's taped conversations with Cobain were transformed into a documentary about Cobain, titled ''Kurt Cobain: About a Son''.",
"Though this film does not feature any music by Nirvana, it has songs by the artists that inspired Cobain.Journalists Ian Halperin and Max Wallace published their investigation of any possible conspiracy surrounding Cobain's death in their 1998 book ''Who Killed Kurt Cobain?''.",
"Halperin and Wallace argued that, while there was not enough evidence to prove a conspiracy, there was more than enough to demand that the case be reopened.",
"The book included the journalists' discussions with Tom Grant, who had taped nearly every conversation that he had undertaken while he was in Love's employ.",
"Over the next several years, Halperin and Wallace collaborated with Grant to write a second book, 2004's ''Love and Death: The Murder of Kurt Cobain''.In 2001, writer Charles R. Cross published a biography of Cobain, titled ''Heavier Than Heaven''.",
"For the book, Cross conducted over 400 interviews, and was given access by Courtney Love to Cobain's journals, lyrics, and diaries.",
"Cross' biography was met with criticism, including allegations of Cross accepting secondhand (and incorrect) information as fact.",
"Friend Everett True – who derided the book as being inaccurate, omissive, and highly biased – said ''Heavier than Heaven'' was \"the Courtney-sanctioned version of history\" or, alternatively, Cross's \"Oh, I think I need to find the new Bruce Springsteen now\" Kurt Cobain book.",
"However, beyond the criticism, the book contained details about Cobain and Nirvana's career that would have otherwise been unnoted.",
"In 2008, Cross published ''Cobain Unseen'', a compilation of annotated photographs and creations and writings by Cobain throughout his life and career.In 2002, a sampling of Cobain's writings was published as ''Journals''.",
"The book fills 280 pages with a simple black cover; the pages are arranged somewhat chronologically (although Cobain generally did not date them).",
"The journal pages are reproduced in color, and there is a section added at the back with explanations and transcripts of some of the less legible pages.",
"The writings begin in the late 1980s and were continued until his death.",
"A paperback version of the book, released in 2003, included a handful of writings that were not offered in the initial release.",
"In the journals, Cobain talked about the ups and downs of life on the road, made lists of what music he was enjoying, and often scribbled down lyric ideas for future reference.",
"Upon its release, reviewers and fans were conflicted about the collection.",
"Many were elated to be able to learn more about Cobain and read his inner thoughts in his own words, but were disturbed by what was viewed as an invasion of his privacy.In 2019, on the 25th anniversary of Cobain's death, former Nirvana manager, Danny Goldberg, published ''Serving the Servant: Remembering Kurt Cobain''.",
"In promotion of the book, Goldberg stated:=== Film and television ===In the 1998 documentary ''Kurt & Courtney'', filmmaker Nick Broomfield investigated Tom Grant's claim that Cobain was actually murdered.",
"He took a film crew to visit a number of people associated with Cobain and Love; Love's father, Cobain's aunt, and one of the couple's former nannies.",
"Broomfield also spoke to Mentors bandleader Eldon \"El Duce\" Hoke, who claimed Love offered him $50,000 to kill Cobain.",
"Although Hoke claimed he knew who killed Cobain, he failed to mention a name, and offered no evidence to support his assertion.",
"Broomfield inadvertently captured Hoke's last interview, as he died days later, reportedly hit by a train.",
"However, Broomfield felt he had not uncovered enough evidence to conclude the existence of a conspiracy.",
"In a 1998 interview, Broomfield summed it up by saying:Broomfield's documentary was noted by ''The New York Times'' to be a rambling, largely speculative and circumstantial work, relying on flimsy evidence as was his later documentary ''Biggie & Tupac''.The documentary ''Teen Spirit: The Tribute to Kurt Cobain'' was released in July 1994 as a home video, re-released in 1996, and on DVD in 2001.",
"''The Vigil'' is a 1998 comedy film about a group of young people who travel from Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada to Seattle in the United States to attend the memorial vigil for Cobain in 1994.It stars Donny Lucas and Trevor White.Gus Van Sant loosely based his 2005 movie ''Last Days'' on the events in the final days of Cobain's life, starring Michael Pitt as the main character Blake who was based on Cobain.",
"In 2006, the Jon Brewer directed documentary, ''All Apologies: Kurt Cobain 10 Years On'', and the BBC documentary, ''The Last 48 Hours of Kurt Cobain'', were released.",
"In January 2007, Love began to shop the biography ''Heavier Than Heaven'' to various movie studios in Hollywood to turn the book into an A-list feature film about Cobain and Nirvana.A Brett Morgen film, entitled ''Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck'', premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2015, followed by small-screen and cinema releases.",
"Morgen said that documentary \"will be this generation's ''The Wall''\".",
"''Soaked in Bleach'' is a 2015 American docudrama directed by Benjamin Statler.",
"The film details the events leading up to the death of Kurt Cobain, as seen through the perspective of Tom Grant, the private detective who was hired by Courtney Love to find Cobain, her husband, shortly before his death in 1994.It also explores the premise that Cobain's death was not a suicide.",
"The film stars Tyler Bryan as Cobain and Daniel Roebuck as Grant, with Sarah Scott portraying Courtney Love and August Emerson as Dylan Carlson.",
"Love's legal team issued a cease-and-desist letter against theaters showing the documentary.Regarding the depiction of Nirvana, and in particular Kurt Cobain, the indie rock author Andrew Earles wrote:Matt Reeves' film ''The Batman'' depicts a version of Bruce Wayne, performed by Robert Pattinson, that was loosely inspired by Cobain.",
"Reeves stated, \"when I write, I listen to music, and as I was writing the first act, I put on Nirvana's 'Something in the Way,' that's when it came to me that, rather than make Bruce Wayne the playboy version we've seen before, there's another version who had gone through a great tragedy and become a recluse.",
"So I started making this connection to Gus Van Sant's ''Last Days'', and the idea of this fictionalised version of Kurt Cobain being in this kind of decaying manor.\"",
"\"Something in the Way\" was used in trailers to promote ''The Batman'' prior to its release and is featured twice in the film.=== Theatre ===In September 2009, the Roy Smiles play ''Kurt and Sid'' debuted at the Trafalgar Studios in London's West End.",
"The play, set in Cobain's greenhouse on the day of his suicide, revolves around the ghost of Sid Vicious visiting Cobain to try to convince him not to kill himself.",
"Cobain was played by Shaun Evans.=== Video games ===Cobain was included as a playable character in the 2009 video game ''Guitar Hero 5''; he can be used to play songs by Nirvana and other acts.",
"Novoselic and Grohl released a statement condemning the inclusion and urging the developer, Activision, to alter it, saying they had no control over the use of Cobain's likeness.",
"Love denied that she had given permission, saying it was \"the result of a cabal of a few assholes' greed\", and threatened to sue.",
"The vice-president of Activision said that Love had contributed photos and videos to the development and had been \"great to work with\"."
],
[
"Discography",
"===Nirvana===''For a complete list of all Nirvana releases see Nirvana discography''* ''Bleach'' (1989)* ''Nevermind'' (1991)* ''In Utero'' (1993)=== Posthumous albums ===+Kurt Cobain albumsTitleAlbum detailsChart positionsUSBE (Ultratop Flanders)BE (Ultratop Wallonia)ESFRITLNLSWIUK''Montage of Heck: The Home Recordings''* Released: November 13, 2015* Label: Universal Music* Formats: CD, LP, cassette (CS)1214278946547514751=== Posthumous singles ===+Kurt Cobain singlesSongYearPeak chart positionsAlbumUS(physical sales)UK (physical sales)\"And I Love Her\"/\"Sappy\"201522''Montage of Heck: The Home Recordings''=== Posthumous videos ===* ''Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck'' (DVD and Blu-ray) (2015)=== Collaborations ===+Musical collaborations of Kurt CobainReleaseArtistYearComments\"Where Did You Sleep Last Night?",
"\"The Jury1989In 1989, members of Nirvana and fellow band Screaming Trees formed a side project known as the Jury (a Lead Belly cover band).",
"\"Where Did You Sleep Last Night?\"",
"was later released on Mark Lanegan's album, ''The Winding Sheet'', in 1990.",
"\"Grey Goose\", \"Ain't It a Shame\" and \"They Hung Him on a Cross\" were later released on Nirvana's B-sides collection, ''With the Lights Out'', in 2004.",
"\"Grey Goose\"\"Ain't It a Shame\"\"They Hung Him on a Cross\"\"Scratch It Out\" / \"Bikini Twilight\"The Go Team1989''The Winding Sheet''Mark Lanegan1990Background vocals on \"Down in the Dark\" and guitar on \"Where Did You Sleep Last Night\".Earth's demoEarthLead vocals for song \"Divine Bright Extraction\" and backing vocals for \"A Bureaucratic Desire For Revenge\".",
"Lead vocals for a cover song \"Private Affair\" (original by The Saints), but that was never released.",
"''The \"Priest\" They Called Him''William S. Burroughs and Kurt Cobain1993Background guitar noise.",
"''Houdini''MelvinsCo-producer, Guitar on \"Sky Pup\" and percussion on \"Spread Eagle Beagle\"."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * The Kurt Cobain Equipment FAQ info on his guitars, amplifiers & effects* Official police reports into Cobain's death at The Smoking Gun"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kent Beck"
],
[
"Introduction",
" Kent Beck speaking in 2001'''Kent Beck''' (born 1961) is an American software engineer and the creator of extreme programming, a software development methodology that eschews rigid formal specification for a collaborative and iterative design process.",
"Beck was one of the 17 original signatories of the Agile Manifesto, the founding document for agile software development.",
"Extreme and Agile methods are closely associated with Test-Driven Development (TDD), of which Beck is perhaps the leading proponent.Beck pioneered software design patterns, as well as the commercial application of Smalltalk.",
"He wrote the SUnit unit testing framework for Smalltalk, which spawned the xUnit series of frameworks, notably JUnit for Java, which Beck wrote with Erich Gamma.",
"Beck popularized CRC cards with Ward Cunningham, the inventor of the wiki.He lives in San Francisco, California and previously worked at Facebook.",
"In 2019, Beck joined Gusto as a software fellow and coach, where he coaches engineering teams as they build out payroll systems for small businesses."
],
[
"History",
"Beck attended the University of Oregon between 1979 and 1987, receiving B.S.",
"and M.S.",
"degrees in computer and information science.In 1996 Beck was hired to work on the Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System.",
"Beck in turn brought in Ron Jeffries.",
"In March 1996 the development team estimated the system would be ready to go into production around one year later.",
"In 1997 the development team adopted a way of working which is now formalized as extreme programming.",
"The one-year delivery target was nearly achieved, with actual delivery being only a couple of months late."
],
[
"Publications",
"=== Books ===* 1996.",
"''Kent Beck's Guide to Better Smalltalk : A Sorted Collection''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"()* 1997.",
"''Smalltalk Best Practice Patterns''.",
"Prentice Hall.",
"()* 2000.",
"''Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change''.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
"Winner of the Jolt Productivity Award.",
"()* 2000.",
"''Planning Extreme Programming''.",
"With Martin Fowler.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
"()* 2002.",
"''Test-Driven Development by Example''.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
"Winner of the Jolt Productivity Award.",
"()*: Beck's concept of test-driven development centers on two basic rules:*:# Never write a single line of code unless you have a failing automated test.",
"*:# Eliminate duplication.The book illustrates the use of unit testing as part of the methodology, including examples in Java and Python.",
"One section includes using test-driven development to develop a unit testing framework.",
"* 2003.",
"''Contributing to Eclipse: Principles, Patterns, and Plugins''.",
"With Erich Gamma.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
"()* 2004.",
"''JUnit Pocket Guide''.",
"O'Reilly.",
"()* 2004.",
"''Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change, 2nd Edition''.",
"With Cynthia Andres.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
"Completely rewritten.",
"()* 2008.",
"''Implementation Patterns''.",
"Addison-Wesley.",
"()* 2023.",
"''Tidy First?",
": A Daily Exercise in Empirical Software Design''.",
"O'Reilly.",
"()=== Selected papers ===* 1987.\"",
"Using Pattern Languages for Object-Oriented Programs\".",
"With Ward Cunningham.",
"OOPSLA'87.",
"* 1989.\"",
"A Laboratory For Teaching Object-Oriented Thinking\".",
"With Ward Cunningham.",
"OOPSLA'89.",
"* 1989.\"",
"Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns\".",
"SUnit framework, origin of xUnit frameworks."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* KentBeck on the WikiWikiWeb* Sample chapter of Kent's book, IMPLEMENTATION PATTERNS* TalkWare Podcast interview with Kent Beck* FLOSS Weekly interview with Kent Beck* Kent Beck's Notes at Facebook* Kent Beck on unit testing* Being Human Podcast - A conversation with Kent Beck* Kent Beck website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Swedish krona"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''krona''' (; plural: ''kronor''; sign: '''kr'''; code: '''SEK''') is the currency of the Kingdom of Sweden.",
"It is one of the currencies of the European Union.",
"Both the ISO code \"SEK\" and currency sign \"kr\" are in common use for the krona; the former precedes or follows the value, the latter usually follows it but, especially in the past, it sometimes preceded the value.",
"In English, the currency is sometimes referred to as the '''Swedish crown''', as means \"crown\" in Swedish.",
"The Swedish krona was the ninth-most traded currency in the world by value in April 2016.One krona is subdivided into 100 ''öre'' (singular; plural ''öre'' or ''ören'', where the former is always used after a cardinal number, hence \"50 öre\", but otherwise the latter is often preferred in contemporary speech).",
"Coins as small as 1 öre were formerly in use, but the last coin smaller than 1 krona was discontinued in 2010.Goods can still be priced in ''öre'', but all sums are rounded to the nearest krona when paying with cash.",
"The word ''öre'' is ultimately derived from the Latin word for gold (''aurum'')."
],
[
"History",
"The introduction of the krona, which replaced the riksdaler at par, was a result of the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which came into effect in 1876 and lasted until the beginning of World War I.",
"The parties to the union were the Scandinavian countries, where the name was ''krona'' in Sweden and ''krone'' in Denmark and Norway, which in English literally means \"crown\".",
"The three currencies were on the gold standard, with the krona/krone defined as of a kilogram of pure gold.The mutual equivalence of all three currencies ended in World War I when their convertibility to gold was suspended.",
"While their gold parities remained during most of the interwar period, these currencies were generally quoted at varying market rates."
],
[
"Coins",
"=== Contemporary ===On 11September 2012, the Riksbank announced a new series of coins with new sizes to replace the 1-krona and 5-kronor coins; the new coins arrived in October 2016.The design of the coins follows the theme of singer-songwriter Ted Gärdestad's song, \"\" (English: \"Sun, wind and water\"), with the designs depicting the elements on the reverse side of the coins.",
"This also included the reintroduction of the 2-kronor coin, while the current 10-kronor coin remained the same.",
"The new coins also have a new portrait of the king in their design.",
"One of the reasons for a new series of coins was to end the use of nickel (for allergy reasons).",
"Vending machines and parking meters have to a fairly high degree stopped accepting coins and accept only bank cards or mobile phone payments.+ Swedish krona coins and volume in circulation as of 30 June 2020 Value Diameter Thickness Weight Composition Current designissued since Volume Value SEK 1 krona 19.5 mm 1.79 mm 3.6 g Copper-plated steel 2016 190 million 190 million 2 kronor 22.5 mm 1.79 mm 4.8 g Copper-plated steel 2016 331 million 662 million 5 kronor 23.75 mm 1.95 mm 6.1 g Nordic gold 2016 482 million 2,410 million 10 kronor 20.5 mm 2.9 mm 6.6 g Nordic gold 1991 2,095 million 20,950 millionNordic gold is 89% Cu, 5% Al, 5% Zn, 1% Sn.=== History ===Two golden 20 kr coins from the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which were based on a gold standard.",
"The coin to the left is Swedish; the right is Danish.Between 1873 and 1876, coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, and 50 öre and 1, 2, 10, and 20 kronor were introduced.",
"The 1, 2 and 5 öre were in bronze, the 10, 25, 50 öre and 1 krona and 2 kronor were in silver, and the 10 and 20 kronor were in gold.",
"Gold 5-kronor coins were added in 1881.In 1873 the Scandinavian Monetary Union currency was fixed so that 2,480 kronor purchased 1 kg of gold.",
"In 2017 the price of gold is 365,289 kronor per kg.",
"So one öre in 1873 bought as much gold as 1.47 kronor in 2017.So if it is reasonable to have the smallest denomination coin 1 krona today, in 1873 a reasonable smallest denomination coin was 1 öre.",
"A 10 kr gold coin weighed 4.4803 grams with 900 fineness so that the fine weight was 4.03327 grams or exactly 1/248th of a kilogram.In 1902, production of gold coins ceased, and was briefly restarted in 1920 and 1925 before ceasing entirely.",
"Due to metal shortages during World War I, iron replaced bronze between 1917 and 1919.Nickel-bronze replaced silver in the 10, 25 and 50 öre in 1920, with silver returning in 1927.Metal shortages due to World War II again led to changes in the Swedish coinage.",
"Between 1940 and 1947, the nickel-bronze 10, 25 and 50 öre were again issued.",
"In 1942, iron again replaced bronze (until 1952) and the silver content of the other coins was reduced.",
"In 1962, cupronickel replaced silver in the 10-öre, 25-öre and 50-öre coins.In 1968, the 2-kronor switched to cupronickel and the 1-krona switched to cupronickel-clad copper (it was replaced entirely by cupronickel in 1982).",
"Nonetheless, all previous mintages of the 1-krona (since 1875) and 2-kronor (since 1876) were still legal tender until 2017, though 2-kronor coins were extremely rarely seen in circulation as they have not been issued since 1971.The 2-kronor coins contained 40% silver until 1966, which meant they had been for several years worth much more than face value, so most have been bought and melted down by arbitrageurs, and the rest are kept by collectors.In 1954, 1955 and 1971, 5-kronor silver coins were produced, with designs similar to contemporary 1-krona and 2-kronor coins.",
"In 1972, a new, smaller 5-kronor coin was introduced, struck in cupronickel-clad nickel.",
"The current design has been produced since 1976.5-kronor coins minted since 1954 are legal tender but tend to be kept by collectors for their silver content.The royal motto of the monarch is also inscribed on many of the coins.",
"A new 5-kronor coin was designed in 1974, at a time when there were political efforts to abandon the monarchy and the young inexperienced king.",
"The monarchy remained, but the 5-kronor was not given a portrait.",
"Coins minted before 1974 have the same size, but contain the portrait of King Gustav VI Adolf and his royal motto.",
"'''Cash rounding''' (Swedish: ), commonly called '''Swedish rounding''', is a legally-enforced method of rounding off change, up or down, to the nearest unit of physical currency, while retaining the as pricing and accounting unit.",
"It was required in conjunction with the phaseout of smaller coins, as follows:* 1971: 1- and 2-öre phased out; change rounded to nearest 5-öre.",
"* 1984: 5- and 25-öre phased out; change rounded to nearest 10-öre.",
"* 1991: 10-öre phased out; change rounded to nearest 50-öre.",
"* 2010: 50-öre phased out; change rounded to nearest 1-krona.In 1971 the 2-kronor coin ceased production.",
"In 1972 the sizes of the 5-öre and 5-kronor coins were reduced.In 1991, aluminium-brass (\"Nordic gold\") 10-kronor coins were introduced; previous 10-kronor coins are not legal tender.",
"In the same year bronze-coloured 50-öre coins were introduced.On 18December 2008, the Riksbank announced a proposal to phase out the 50-öre, the final öre coin, by 2010.The öre would still remain a subdivision unit for electronic payments.",
"The reasons may have included low purchasing power, higher production and distribution cost than the value and the coins cannot be used in most parking machines and vending machines.",
"On 25 March 2009, the Riksdag formally decided to enact the law to abolish 50-öre coins as legal tender.",
"Under that law, the final date payments could be made with 50-öre coins was 30 September 2010.Remaining 50-öre coins could be exchanged at banks until the end of March 2011.After the launch of the current coin series in 2016, all the old kronor coins have been invalid since 2017.They cannot be used for payments, nor can they be exchanged for legal tender at any bank, and are instead instructed to be recycled as metal.Jubilee and commemorative coins have been minted, and those since 1897 are also legal tender."
],
[
"Banknotes",
"=== Contemporary ===+ Valid banknotes: ''Cultural Journey'' series Image Value Dimensions Main color Description Obverse Reverse Obverse Reverse 20 kronor 120 × 66 mm Purple Astrid Lindgren, Pippi Longstocking, Three Crowns Småland, Linnaea 50 kronor 126 × 66 mm Orange Evert Taube, Three Crowns Bohuslän, Rock Carvings in Tanum, Honeysuckle 100 kronor 133 × 66 mm Blue Greta Garbo, Three Crowns Stockholm 200 kronor 140 × 66 mm Green Ingmar Bergman, Three Crowns Gotland, Rauks 500 kronor 147 × 66 mm Red Birgit Nilsson, Three Crowns Öresund Bridge, Ox-eye daisy, Skåne 1,000 kronor 154 × 66 mm Brown Dag Hammarskjöld, United Nations Secretariat Building, Flag of the United Nations, Three Crowns Laponian area, Lappland=== History ===In 1874, notes were introduced by the Riksbank in denominations of 1 krona and 5, 10, 50, 100 and 1,000 kronor.",
"The 1 krona was only initially issued for two years, although it reappeared between 1914 and 1920.In 1939 and 1958, 10,000-kronor notes were issued.Production of the 5-kronor note ceased in 1981, although a coin had been issued since 1972.With the introduction of a 10-krona coin in 1991, production of 10-kronor notes ceased and a 20-kronor note was introduced.All remaining one krona banknotes became invalid after 31 December 1987.All remaining five krona and ten krona banknotes became invalid after 31 December 1998.An exhaustive list of every banknote design since 1874 is not included, but the following five designs were or will be retired in 2016–2017.The oldest design began to be printed in 1985.A 20-kronor banknote (a new denomination) was printed 1991–1995 with a portrait of the writer Selma Lagerlöf and on the reverse was an engraved interpretation of a passage from the book ''The Wonderful Adventures of Nils''.",
"The banknote became invalid after 31 December 2005.A more secure version with the same portrait was printed from 1997 to 2008 and became invalid after 30 June 2016.A 50-kronor banknote (3rd design since 1896) was printed 1996–2003 with a portrait of the singer Jenny Lind and on the reverse was a picture of a silver harp and its tonal range.",
"The banknote became invalid after 31 December 2013.A more secure version with the same portrait was printed from 2006 to 2011 and became invalid after 30 June 2016.A 100-kronor banknote (3rd design since 1898) was printed 1986–2000 with a portrait of the botanist Carl Linnaeus and on the reverse was a drawing of a bee pollinating a flower.",
"The banknote became invalid after 31 December 2005.A more secure version with the same portrait was introduced in 2001 and became invalid after 30 June 2017.A 500-kronor banknote (a new denomination) in a blue shade was introduced in 1985 with a portrait of King Charles XI and on the reverse an engraving depicts Christopher Polhem, the \"father of Swedish engineering\".",
"These banknotes became invalid on 31 December 1998.A 500-kronor banknote (red, but without foil strips) with the same portrait was printed 1989–2000.This banknote became invalid after 31 December 2005.A more secure version with the same portrait was introduced in 2001 and became invalid after 30 June 2017.The banknote had some controversy in 1985 because of the executions of \"Snapphane\" guerrilla warriors that King Charles XI ordered.The first two designs of 1,000-kronor banknotes (printed from 1894 to 1950 and 1952–1973) became invalid on 31 December 1987.The third design with portrait of Jöns Jacob Berzelius (printed 1976–1988) and declared invalid on 31 December 1998.In preparation for retirement of the 10,000-kronor banknotes a new 1,000-kronor banknotes (of the 4th design / without foil strips) was printed from 1989 to 1991 with a portrait of Gustav Vasa and on the reverse a harvest picture from Olaus Magnus's Description of the Northern Peoples from 1555.Circulation peaked at over 48 million in 2001.On 15 March 2006, the Riksbank introduced a new, more secure 1,000-kronor banknote with the same portrait and the Riksbank became the first central bank in the world to use the security feature of MOTION (a moving image in the striped band) on the new 1,000-kronor banknote.",
"When the banknote is tilted, the picture in the striped band appears to move.",
"The Vasa banknote without security thread became invalid after 31 December 2013 at which time there was only 10 million in circulation.",
"The Vasa banknotes with the security thread became invalid after 30 June 2016 at which time there was under 4 million in circulation.",
"Replacement banknotes featuring Dag Hammarskjöld became valid on 1 October 2015, but were circulated in considerably fewer quantities (less than 3.5 million), thus reducing the supply of cash in Sweden.The 10,000 krona banknote was always printed in small quantities as it was one of the most valuable banknotes in the world.",
"The first design featuring the Head of Mercury was printed in 1939 and became invalid after 31 December 1987.The second design was printed 1958 and featured a portrait of Gustav VI Adolf, and became invalid after 31 December 1991.Invalid banknotes can be redeemed via the Riksbank, with an administration fee of 200 kronor.=== 2015 series ===On 6April 2011, the Riksbank announced the names of the persons whose portraits would decorate the new series of banknotes that would be introduced in 2015.This would also include a new 200-kronor banknote.",
"These are:*Astrid Lindgren on the 20-kronor banknote; purple*Evert Taube on the 50-kronor banknote; orange*Greta Garbo on the 100-kronor banknote; blue*Ingmar Bergman on the 200-kronor banknote; green*Birgit Nilsson on the 500-kronor banknote; red*Dag Hammarskjöld on the 1,000-kronor banknote; brownOn 24April 2012, the Riksbank announced the base for the new designs of the banknotes, based on Göran Österlund's entry titled ''Cultural Journey''.The first banknotes, the 20, 50, 200, and 1,000 krona, were issued on 1 October 2015 with the other two notes, the 100 and 500 krona, to follow on 3October 2016.==== 500 kr banknote controversy ====Opera singer Malena Ernman has criticized the Riksbank for choosing a design where Birgit Nilsson has been depicted performing ''Die Walküre'' by Richard Wagner.",
"She pointed out that it was very inappropriate to include something by Wagner, whose works were associated with Nazi Germany, in a time of increasing problems with antisemitism in Sweden.",
"Wagner died long before the Nazi era, and the association is that Hitler liked his music.",
"The Riksbank replied saying that it is \"unfortunate that the choice of design is seen as negative\", and stated that it is not going to be changed.",
"journalist Björn Wiman went further in his criticism, condemning the Riksbank for selecting Nilsson at all for the 500-kronor banknote.",
"He brings up an example from Nilsson's 1995 autobiography, where she described Mauritz Rosengarten from Decca using antisemitic jokes about greed."
],
[
"Exchange rate",
"USD/Krona exchange rateThe cost of one Euro in Swedish krona (from 1999)To see where Swedish krona ranks in \"most traded currencies\", read the article on the Foreign exchange market.The exchange rate of the Swedish krona against other currencies has historically been dependent on the monetary policy pursued by Sweden at the time.",
"Since the Swedish banking rescue, a managed float regimen has been upheld.The weakest the krona has been relative to the euro was 6 March 2009 when one euro bought 11.6465 SEK.",
"The strongest the krona has been relative to the euro was on 13 August 2012 when one euro bought 8.2065 SEK.",
"The weakness in the euro was due to the crisis in Greece which began in July 2012 and fear of further spreading to Italy and Spain.",
"The average exchange rate since the beginning of 2002 when the euro banknote and coins were issued and 1 March 2017 was 9.2884 SEK/EUR.",
"Year USD EUR GBP CHF 1993 7.2768 9.1042 11.6993 5.2784 1994 7.6494 9.1390 11.8094 5.6536 1995 6.8301 9.2275 11.2644 6.0401 1996 6.7412 8.3996 10.4606 5.4377 1997 7.6342 8.6249 12.5048 5.2618 1998 8.0048 8.9306 13.1715 5.4966 1999 8.2010 8.8076 13.3720 5.5041 2000 9.4139 8.4465 13.8640 5.4254 2001 10.5702 9.2516 14.8691 6.1274 2002 9.8761 9.1627 14.5797 6.2448 2003 8.2107 9.1250 13.1946 6.0042 2004 7.5739 9.1268 13.4560 5.9125 2005 7.6133 9.2848 13.5782 5.9970 2006 7.4021 9.2549 13.5752 5.8842 2007 6.8221 9.2481 13.5281 5.6314 2008 6.5808 9.6055 12.0912 6.0585 2009 7.6458 10.6213 11.9260 7.0342 2010 7.2049 9.5413 11.1256 6.9114 2011 6.4969 9.0335 10.4115 7.3454 2012 6.7754 8.7053 10.7340 7.2227 2013 6.5140 8.6494 10.1863 7.0255 2014 6.8577 9.0969 11.2917 7.4903 2015 8.4350 9.3562 12.8962 8.7655 2016 8.5613 9.4704 11.5664 8.6882 2017 8.5380 9.6326 10.9896 8.6692 2018 8.6921 10.2567 11.5928 8.8836 2019 9.4604 10.5892 12.0658 9.5185 2020 9.2037 10.4867 11.7981 9.7978 2021 8.5815 10.1449 11.8022 9.3844 2022 10.1245 10.6317 12.4669 10.5949 2023 10.6128 11.4765 13.1979 11.8173"
],
[
"Relationship to the euro",
"According to the 1994 accession treaty (effective 1 January 1995), Sweden is required to join the eurozone and therefore must convert to the euro once the convergence criteria are met.",
"Notwithstanding this, on 14 September 2003, a consultative Swedish referendum was held on the euro, in which 56% of voters were opposed to the adoption of the currency, out of an overall turnout of 82.6%.",
"The Swedish government has argued such a course of action is possible since one of the requirements for eurozone membership is a prior two-year membership of the ERM II.",
"By simply not joining the exchange rate mechanism, the Swedish government is provided a formal loophole avoiding the theoretical requirement of adopting the euro.Some of Sweden's major parties continue to believe it would be in the national interest to join, but all parties have pledged to abide by the results of the referendum, and none have shown any interest in raising the issue again.",
"There was an agreement among the parties not to discuss the issue before the 2010 general election.",
"In a poll from May 2007, 33.3% were in favour, while 53.8% were against and 13.0% were uncertain.In February 2009, Fredrik Reinfeldt, the prime minister of Sweden, stated that a new referendum on the euro issue will not be held until support is gained from the people and all the major parties.",
"Therefore, the timing is now at the discretion of the Social Democrats.",
"He added, the request of Mona Sahlin, former leader of the Social Democratic Party, for deferral of a new referendum until after the 2010 mandate period should be respected., support for Swedish membership of the euro among the general population is low.",
"In September 2013, support fell as low as 9%.",
"The only party in the Riksdag that supports Swedish entry in the euro (as of 2015) is the Liberal Party."
],
[
"Banknotes and coins per capita in circulation",
"Sweden is a wealthy country and in the 1970s and 1980s the value of banknotes and coins per capita was one of the highest in the world.",
"In 1991, the largest banknote worth 10,000kr that was in circulation since 1958 was declared invalid and no longer was legal tender.",
"For a discussion of the financial and banking crisis that hit Sweden in the early 1990s see the article History of Sweden (1991–present) and Swedish banking rescue.Unlike the United States, which by policy never declares issued money invalid, Sweden and most other European countries have a date when older series of banknotes or older coin designs are invalid and are no longer legal tender.",
"Invalid old banknotes of any age can, however, be deposited in the Riksbank, and the value be sent to a bank account.From the years 2001 to 2008 banknotes and coins were circulated at a near constant level of around 12,000 krona per capita, but in 2006 a modified 1,000-krona banknote with a motion security strip was produced.",
"Within seven years the banknotes without the strip were declared invalid, leaving only a radically reduced number of banknotes with foil valid.",
"The Vasa 1,000-krona banknote without the foil strip became invalid after 31 December 2013, and the pieces with the foil strip are invalid after 30 June 2016.Also the Swish mobile payment system was established in Sweden in 2012 and become a popular alternative to cash payments.Although many countries are performing larger and larger share of transactions by electronic means, Sweden is unique in that it is also reducing its cash in circulation by a significant percentage.",
"According to Bank for International Settlements the last year Sweden was surpassed in cash on a per capita basis converted to United States dollars by the US in 1993, the Euro Area in 2003, Australia in 2007, Canada in 2009, United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia in 2013, South Korea in 2014, Russia in 2016, and Mexico in 2019.As of 2019 Sweden was still circulating more cash per person (converted to USD) than Argentina, Brazil, Turkey, India, Indonesia, and South Africa.The tables show the value of the banknotes and coins per capita for participating countries on Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures (CPMI).",
"Local currency is converted to US dollars using end of the year rates.+ Banknotes and coin in circulation in Sweden at end of year Year Per capita % in 1000 SEK banknotes End-of-year SEK/USD Equivalent USD Surpassing Sweden %GDP 1988 6,459 kr not largest note 6.1325 $1,053 1989 7,118 kr not largest note 6.2270 $1,143 1990 7,174 kr not largest note 5.6980 $1,259 1991 8,828 kr not largest note 5.5500 $1,591 1992 8,529 kr 53.1% 7.0500 $1,210 1993 8,684 kr 52.6% 8.3325 $1,042 USA 1994 8,696 kr 51.8% 7.4615 $1,166 1995 8,682 kr 49.4% 6.6177 $1,312 1996 9,139 kr 47.8% 6.8859 $1,327 4.4% 1997 9,360 kr 47.4% 7.9082 $1,184 4.3% 1998 9,750 kr 47.5% 8.0770 $1,207 4.5% 1999 11,120 kr 47.5% 8.5233 $1,305 4.9% 2000 11,013 kr 47.0% 9.4909 $1,160 4.4% 2001 12,039 kr 45.2% 10.5540 $1,141 4.7% 2002 11,989 kr 43.8% 8.7278 $1,374 4.6% 2003 12,161 kr 41.9% 7.1892 $1,692 Euro Area 4.3% 2004 12,107 kr 41.8% 6.6226 $1,828 4.1% 2005 12,301 kr 41.0% 7.9584 $1,546 4.1% 2006 12,375 kr 37.6% 6.8644 $1,803 3.9% 2007 12,494 kr 34.0% 6.4136 $1,948 Australia 3.7% 2008 12,130 kr 30.6% 7.8106 $1,553 3.5% 2009 11,681 kr 28.7% 7.1165 $1,641 Canada 3.5% 2010 11,106 kr 27.3% 6.7097 $1,655 3.1% 2011 10,515 kr 25.2% 6.8877 $1,527 2.8% 2012 10,059 kr 22.3% 6.5045 $1,547 2.6% 2013 8,849 kr 11.3% 6.4238 $1,378 Saudi Arabia, UK 2.3% 2014 8,578 kr 9.4% 7.7366 $1,109 Korea 2.1% 2015 7,362 kr 7.7% 8.4408 $872 China 1.7% 2016 6,242 kr 7.7% 9.0622 $689 Russia 1.4% 2017 5,731 kr 8.3% 8.2080 $698 1.3% 2018 6,111 kr 7.3% 8.9562 $682 1.3% 2019 6,175 kr 6.6% 9.299 $664 Mexico 1.3% 2020 5,768 kr 6.2% 8.177 $742 1.3%The circulation levels in the table above were reported to the Bank for International Settlements.",
"Possible discrepancies with these statistics and other sources may be because some sources exclude \"commemorative banknotes and coins\" (3.20% of total for Sweden in 2015) and other sources exclude \"banknotes and coin held by banks\" (2.68% of total for Sweden in 2015) as opposed \"banknotes and coin in circulation outside banks\".Circulation levels of cash on a per capita basis, are reduced by 51% from the high in 2007 compared to 2018.Speculation about Sweden declaring all banknotes and coins invalid at some future date is widespread in the media with Björn Ulvaeus as a celebrity advocate of a cashless Sweden which he believes will result in a safer society because simple robbery will involve stealing goods that must be fenced.The value of the payments between households, companies and authorities in Sweden amounts to about 20,000 kronor annual per capita in cash.",
"In shops, almost one in seven payments is made in cash.",
"More than half of the adult population has the Swish payment app.",
"Annual withdrawals from Swedish ATMs in 2015 amount to 15,300 kronor per capita.",
"According to Skingsley, \"what some consumers, smaller companies and local clubs often see as a problem, is not so much getting hold of cash, but being able to deposit it in a bank account.",
"\"To see how circulation of the Swedish krona ranks compared to other currencies see Bank for International Settlements#Red Books."
],
[
"The e-krona",
"The e-krona (electronic krona) is a proposed electronic currency to be issued directly by the Riksbank.",
"It is different from the electronic transfers using commercial bank money as central bank money has no nominal credit risk, as it stands for a claim on the central bank, which cannot go bankrupt, at least not for debts in Swedish krona.The declining use of cash in Sweden is going to be reinforced cyclically.",
"As more businesses find that they can function without accepting cash, the number of businesses refusing to accept cash will increase.",
"That will re-enforce the need for more and more citizens to get the Swish app which is already used by half the population.",
"Cash machines, which are controlled by a Swedish bank consortium, are being dismantled by the hundreds, especially in rural areas.The Riksbank has not taken a decision on issuing e-krona.",
"First, the Riksbank needs to investigate a number of technical, legal and practical issues.",
"\"The declining use of cash in Sweden means that this is more of a burning issue for us than for most other central banks.",
"Although it may appear simple at first glance to issue e-krona, this is something entirely new for a central bank and there is no precedent to follow\".",
"If the Riksbank chooses to issue e-krona, it is not to replace cash, but to act as a complement to it.",
"\"The Riksbank will continue issuing banknotes and coins as long as there is demand for them in society.",
"It is our statutory duty and we will of course continue to live up to it,\" concluded Deputy Governor Cecilia Skingsley.In December 2020, Sweden's Minister for Financial Markets Per Bolund announced a government review to explore the feasibility of moving to a digital currency that was expected to be completed by the end of November in 2022.Anna Kinberg Batra, a former chairwoman of the Riksbank's finance committee, was announced as the leader of the review.",
"As of 2023, no decision has been made."
],
[
"See also",
"* Economy of Sweden* Fyrk * List of currencies in Europe* Monetary policy of Sweden* Scandinavian Monetary Union* Swedish National Debt Office* Tables of historical exchange rates to the United States dollar"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"**"
],
[
"External links",
"* Sveriges Riksbank * Swedish monetary standards in historical perspective* Historical and current banknotes of Sweden"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Krone"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Krone''' (the cognate of '''Crown''') may refer to:"
],
[
"General",
"* Crown (headgear)* ADC KRONE & The KRONE Group in ADC Telecommunications* KRONE LSA-PLUS, a popular telecommunications connector, or krone tool* Krone an der Brahe, the German name for Koronowo, Poland* ''Diu Crône'', a medieval poem* ''Kronen Zeitung'', an Austrian tabloid* The Krone Group, manufacturer * Krone (mountain), in the Alps* Bernard Krone Holding, a German company"
],
[
"Name",
"* Fred Krone (1930–2010), American actor and stuntman* Heinrich Krone (1895-1989), German politician* Julie Krone, American jockey* Sigismund Ernst Richard Krone (1861 – 1917), German naturalist* Hermann Krone (1827 – 1916), German photographer* Roger Krone, CEO of Leidos"
],
[
"Currency",
"* Named by European monarchies:** Scandinavia:*** Danish krone****Krone (Danish coin)*** Norwegian krone*** Swedish krona** Austro-Hungarian krone** Faroese króna** Fiume krone** Yugoslav krone* Named by republics:** Czech koruna** Estonian kroon** Icelandic króna** Slovak koruna"
],
[
"See also",
"* Krona (disambiguation)* Koruna (disambiguation)* Crown (British coin)* Crown (currency)* Crone, a stock character in folklore and fairy tale, an old woman* Lower Croan, a farmstead in Cornwall, England, UK* Crohn's disease, a type of inflammatory bowel disease"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kattegat"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Kattegat''' (; ) is a sea area bounded by the Jutlandic peninsula in the west, the Danish Straits islands of Denmark and the Baltic Sea to the south and the provinces of Bohuslän, Västergötland, Halland and Skåne in Sweden in the east.",
"The Baltic Sea drains into the Kattegat through the Danish Straits.",
"The sea area is a continuation of the Skagerrak and may be seen as a bay of the North Sea, but in traditional Scandinavian usage, this is not the case.The Kattegat is a rather shallow sea and can be very difficult and dangerous to navigate because of the many sandy and stony reefs and tricky currents, which often shift.",
"In modern times, artificial seabed channels have been dug, many reefs have been dredged by either sand pumping or stone fishing, and a well-developed light signaling network has been installed to safeguard the very heavy international traffic on this small sea.There are several large cities and major ports on the Kattegat, including, in descending size, Gothenburg, Aarhus, Aalborg, Halmstad, and Frederikshavn."
],
[
"Geography",
"Älvsborg at Gothenburg, a sea fortress in the KattegatAccording to the definition established in a 1932 convention signed by Denmark, Norway and Sweden (registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series 1933–1934), the northern boundary between the Kattegat and Skagerrak are found at the northernmost point of Skagen on Jutland, while the southern boundary towards Øresund is found at the tip of Kullen Peninsula in Scania.Major waterways that drain into the Kattegat are the rivers of Göta älv at Gothenburg, together with the Lagan, Nissan, Ätran and Viskan in the province of Halland on the Swedish side, and the river of Gudenå in Jutland, in Denmark.The main islands of the Kattegat are Samsø, Læsø and Anholt; the latter two are, due to their relatively dry climate, perceived as belonging to \"the Danish desert belt\".A number of noteworthy coastal areas abut the Kattegat, including the Kullaberg Nature Reserve in Scania, Sweden, which contains a number of rare species and a scenic rocky shore, the town of Mölle, which has a picturesque harbour and views into the Kullaberg, and Skagen at the northern tip of Denmark.Since the 1950s, a bridge project usually referred to as ''Kattegatbroen'' (the Kattegat Bridge) connecting Jutland and Zealand across the Kattegat has been considered.",
"Since the late 2000s, the project has seen a renewed interest from several influential politicians in Denmark.",
"The bridge is usually envisioned as connecting Hov (a village south of Odder in the Aarhus area) with Samsø and Kalundborg.===Extent===The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the \"Kattegat, Sound and Belts\" (that is, the Kattegat, Øresund, Great Belt, and Little Belt) as follows:"
],
[
"Etymology",
"According to ''Den Store Danske Encyklopædi'' and '''', the name derives from the Dutch words '''' 'cat's' and '''' 'gate, passage'.",
"It derives from late medieval navigation jargon, in which captains of the Hanseatic trading fleets would compare the Danish Straits to a passage so tight that even a cat would have difficulty squeezing its way through, owing to the many reefs and shoals.",
"At one point, the passable waters were a mere wide.",
"The name of the Copenhagen street ''Kattesundet'' has a comparable etymological meaning, namely 'narrow passage', .An archaic name for both the Skagerrak and Kattegat was the ''Norwegian Sea'' or ''Jutland Sea'' (Knýtlinga saga mentions the name ''Jótlandshaf'').",
"Its ancient Latin name was ''''."
],
[
"History",
"Control of the Kattegat, and access to it, have been important throughout the history of international seafaring.",
"Until the completion of the Eider Canal in 1784, the Kattegat was the only sea route into and out of the Baltic region.Beginning in 1429 in the Middle Ages, the Danish royal family – and later the state of Denmark – prospered greatly from the Sound dues, a toll charged for passage through the Øresund, while Copenhagen provided shelter, trade, and repair opportunities and protection from piracy.",
"The dues were eventually lifted in 1857."
],
[
"Biology",
"In the Kattegat, the salinity has a pronounced two-layer structure.",
"The upper layer has a salinity between 18‰ and 26‰ and the lower layer – separated by a strong halocline at around – has a salinity between 32‰ and 34‰.",
"The lower layer consists of inflowing seawater from the Skagerrak, with a salinity on level with most other coastal seawaters, while the upper layer consists of inflowing seawater from the Baltic Sea and has a much lower salinity, comparable to brackish water, but still a great deal higher than the rest of the Baltic sea.",
"These two opposing flows transport a net surplus of seawater from the Baltic to the Skagerrak every year.",
"During stronger winds, the layers in the Kattegat are completely mixed in some places, such as the Great Belt, so the overall salinity is highly variable in this small sea.",
"This sets some unique conditions for the sealife here.Cold seeps, locally known as ''bubbling reefs'' (), are found in the northern Kattegat.",
"Unlike cold seeps in most other places (including the North Sea and Skagerrak), the Kattegat bubbling reefs are at relatively shallow depths, generally between below the surface.",
"The seeps rely on methane deposited during the Eemian period and during calm weather the bubbles can sometimes be seen on the water surface.",
"Carbonate cementation and lithification form slaps or pillars up to tall, and support a rich biodiversity.",
"Because of their unique status, the Kattegat bubbling reefs receive a level of protection and are recognized as a Natura 2000 habitat (type 1180) by the European Union (EU).===Ecological collapse===The Kattegat, characterised by widespread anoxia, was one of the first marine dead zones to be noted in the 1970s, when scientists began studying how intensive industrial activities affected the natural world.",
"Since then, studies and research has provided much insight into processes like eutrophication, and how to deal with it.",
"Denmark and the EU have initiated costly and far-reaching domestic projects in order to stop, repair and prevent these environmentally destructive and economically damaging processes since the first Action Plan for the Aquatic Environment in 1985, and are now busy implementing the fourth Action Plan.",
"The action plans sums up a broad range of initiatives and includes the so-called Nitrate Directives.",
"The action plans have generally been viewed as a success, although the work is not finished and all goals are not completely met yet."
],
[
"Protections and regulation",
"Grenen in Denmark is important for bird migrations and is a protected area.Bjärekusten Nature Reserve with Hovs Hallar in Sweden.Due to the very heavy sea traffic and many large coastal settlements, the Kattegat has been designated as a Sulphur Emission Control Area as part of the Baltic Sea since 2006.As from 1 January 2016 the benchmark for sulphur in fuels was lowered to 0.1%.Several larger areas of the Kattegat are designated as Natura 2000 and under various bird protections such as the Ramsar Convention.",
"The remaining larger shallow reefs are among the protections, as they are important spawning and feeding grounds for fish and marine mammals and they support a thriving but threatened biodiversity.",
"Protected areas includes:'''Denmark'''* Grenen* The Bay of Aalborg, comprising a shallow sea area.",
"* Beach meadows on Læsø and the stony reefs south of the island* Anholt and the sea north of the island.",
"'''Sweden'''* The Nordre älv estuary north of Gothenburg.",
"An important spot for migratory birds and fish.",
"* The Vrångö archipelago (Swedish: ''Vrångöskärgården''), part of the Archipelago of Gothenburg.",
"An important reproduction area for seabirds and seals.",
"* Kungsbacka Fjord.",
"A shallow water fjord between Gothenburg and Varberg, including important salt marshes.",
"* Hovs Hallar * Kullaberg Nature Reserve"
],
[
"Gallery",
"Anholt Havmøllepark.jpg|There are several offshore windfarms in the Kattegat.Bianca Rambow (North of Funen).2.ajb.jpg|Some of the world's busiest shipping lanes pass through the Kattegat.Fladen Light.PNG|The larger shallow sand and stony reefs have been equipped with light signaling in modern times.",
"Kungälv Municipality from the air.jpg|There are several small archipelagos near the mainland in the Swedish part of the Kattegat.Barakullen.jpg|The Swedish coasts in the Kattegat are rocky shores, like this one in Kullaberg, or sandy or gravel beaches.Grenå Strand.JPG|All the Danish coasts in the Kattegat are sandy or gravel beaches with no exposed bedrock."
],
[
"See also",
"* Øresund Bridge"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kolmogorov–Smirnov test"
],
[
"Introduction",
"CDF, the blue line is an empirical CDF, and the black arrow is the KS statistic.In statistics, the '''Kolmogorov–Smirnov test''' ('''K–S test''' or '''KS test''') is a nonparametric test of the equality of continuous (or discontinuous, see Section 2.2), one-dimensional probability distributions that can be used to test whether a sample came from a given reference probability distribution (one-sample K–S test), or to test whether two samples came from the same distribution (two-sample K–S test).",
"Intuitively, the test provides a method to qualitatively answer the question \"How likely is it that we would see a collection of samples like this if they were drawn from that probability distribution?\"",
"or, in the second case, \"How likely is it that we would see two sets of samples like this if they were drawn from the same (but unknown) probability distribution?",
"\".It is named after Andrey Kolmogorov and Nikolai Smirnov.The Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic quantifies a distance between the empirical distribution function of the sample and the cumulative distribution function of the reference distribution, or between the empirical distribution functions of two samples.",
"The null distribution of this statistic is calculated under the null hypothesis that the sample is drawn from the reference distribution (in the one-sample case) or that the samples are drawn from the same distribution (in the two-sample case).",
"In the one-sample case, the distribution considered under the null hypothesis may be continuous (see Section 2), purely discrete or mixed (see Section 2.2).",
"In the two-sample case (see Section 3), the distribution considered under the null hypothesis is a continuous distribution but is otherwise unrestricted.",
"However, the two sample test can also be performed under more general conditions that allow for discontinuity, heterogeneity and dependence across samples.",
"The two-sample K–S test is one of the most useful and general nonparametric methods for comparing two samples, as it is sensitive to differences in both location and shape of the empirical cumulative distribution functions of the two samples.The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test can be modified to serve as a goodness of fit test.",
"In the special case of testing for normality of the distribution, samples are standardized and compared with a standard normal distribution.",
"This is equivalent to setting the mean and variance of the reference distribution equal to the sample estimates, and it is known that using these to define the specific reference distribution changes the null distribution of the test statistic (see Test with estimated parameters).",
"Various studies have found that, even in this corrected form, the test is less powerful for testing normality than the Shapiro–Wilk test or Anderson–Darling test.",
"However, these other tests have their own disadvantages.",
"For instance the Shapiro–Wilk test is known not to work well in samples with many identical values."
],
[
"One-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic",
"The empirical distribution function ''F''''n'' for ''n'' independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.)",
"ordered observations ''Xi'' is defined as::where is the indicator function, equal to 1 if and equal to 0 otherwise.The Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic for a given cumulative distribution function ''F''(''x'') is:where sup''x'' is the supremum of the set of distances.",
"Intuitively, the statistic takes the largest absolute difference between the two distribution functions across all ''x'' values.By the Glivenko–Cantelli theorem, if the sample comes from distribution ''F''(''x''), then ''D''''n'' converges to 0 almost surely in the limit when goes to infinity.",
"Kolmogorov strengthened this result, by effectively providing the rate of this convergence (see Kolmogorov distribution).",
"Donsker's theorem provides a yet stronger result.In practice, the statistic requires a relatively large number of data points (in comparison to other goodness of fit criteria such as the Anderson–Darling test statistic) to properly reject the null hypothesis."
],
[
"Kolmogorov distribution",
"PDFThe Kolmogorov distribution is the distribution of the random variable:where ''B''(''t'') is the Brownian bridge.",
"The cumulative distribution function of ''K'' is given by:which can also be expressed by the Jacobi theta function .",
"Both the form of the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test statistic and its asymptotic distribution under the null hypothesis were published by Andrey Kolmogorov, while a table of the distribution was published by Nikolai Smirnov.",
"Recurrence relations for the distribution of the test statistic in finite samples are available.Under null hypothesis that the sample comes from the hypothesized distribution ''F''(''x''),:in distribution, where ''B''(''t'') is the Brownian bridge.",
"If ''F'' is continuous then under the null hypothesis converges to the Kolmogorov distribution, which does not depend on ''F''.",
"This result may also be known as the Kolmogorov theorem.",
"The accuracy of this limit as an approximation to the exact cdf of when is finite is not very impressive: even when , the corresponding maximum error is about ; this error increases to when and to a totally unacceptable when .",
"However, a very simple expedient of replacing by:in the argument of the Jacobi theta function reduces these errors to , , and respectively; such accuracy would be usually considered more than adequate for all practical applications.The ''goodness-of-fit'' test or the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test can be constructed by using the critical values of the Kolmogorov distribution.",
"This test is asymptotically valid when It rejects the null hypothesis at level if:where ''K''''α'' is found from:The asymptotic power of this test is 1.Fast and accurate algorithms to compute the cdf or its complement for arbitrary and , are available from:* and for continuous null distributions with code in C and Java to be found in.",
"* for purely discrete, mixed or continuous null distribution implemented in the KSgeneral package of the R project for statistical computing, which for a given sample also computes the KS test statistic and its p-value.",
"Alternative C++ implementation is available from.===Test with estimated parameters===If either the form or the parameters of ''F''(''x'') are determined from the data ''X''''i'' the critical values determined in this way are invalid.",
"In such cases, Monte Carlo or other methods may be required, but tables have been prepared for some cases.",
"Details for the required modifications to the test statistic and for the critical values for the normal distribution and the exponential distribution have been published, and later publications also include the Gumbel distribution.",
"The Lilliefors test represents a special case of this for the normal distribution.",
"The logarithm transformation may help to overcome cases where the Kolmogorov test data does not seem to fit the assumption that it came from the normal distribution.Using estimated parameters, the question arises which estimation method should be used.",
"Usually this would be the maximum likelihood method, but e.g.",
"for the normal distribution MLE has a large bias error on sigma.",
"Using a moment fit or KS minimization instead has a large impact on the critical values, and also some impact on test power.",
"If we need to decide for Student-T data with df = 2 via KS test whether the data could be normal or not, then a ML estimate based on H0 (data is normal, so using the standard deviation for scale) would give much larger KS distance, than a fit with minimum KS.",
"In this case we should reject H0, which is often the case with MLE, because the sample standard deviation might be very large for T-2 data, but with KS minimization we may get still a too low KS to reject H0.In the Student-T case, a modified KS test with KS estimate instead of MLE, makes the KS test indeed slightly worse.",
"However, in other cases, such a modified KS test leads to slightly better test power.===Discrete and mixed null distribution===Under the assumption that is non-decreasing and right-continuous, with countable (possibly infinite) number of jumps, the KS test statistic can be expressed as::From the right-continuity of , it follows that and and hence, the distribution of depends on the null distribution , i.e., is no longer distribution-free as in the continuous case.",
"Therefore, a fast and accurate method has been developed to compute the exact and asymptotic distribution of when is purely discrete or mixed, implemented in C++ and in the KSgeneral package of the R language.",
"The functions disc_ks_test(), mixed_ks_test() and cont_ks_test() compute also the KS test statistic and p-values for purely discrete, mixed or continuous null distributions and arbitrary sample sizes.",
"The KS test and its p-values for discrete null distributions and small sample sizes are also computed in as part of the dgof package of the R language.",
"Major statistical packages among which SAS PROC NPAR1WAY, Stata ksmirnov implement the KS test under the assumption that is continuous, which is more conservative if the null distribution is actually not continuous (see )."
],
[
"Two-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test",
"Illustration of the two-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic.",
"Red and blue lines each correspond to an empirical distribution function, and the black arrow is the two-sample KS statistic.The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test may also be used to test whether two underlying one-dimensional probability distributions differ.",
"In this case, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic is:where and are the empirical distribution functions of the first and the second sample respectively, and is the supremum function.For large samples, the null hypothesis is rejected at level if:Where and are the sizes of first and second sample respectively.",
"The value of is given in the table below for the most common levels of 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.001 1.073 1.138 1.224 1.358 1.48 1.628 1.731 1.949and in general by:so that the condition reads:Here, again, the larger the sample sizes, the more sensitive the minimal bound: For a given ratio of sample sizes (e.g.",
"), the minimal bound scales in the size of either of the samples according to its inverse square root.",
"Note that the two-sample test checks whether the two data samples come from the same distribution.",
"This does not specify what that common distribution is (e.g.",
"whether it's normal or not normal).",
"Again, tables of critical values have been published.",
"A shortcoming of the univariate Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is that it is not very powerful because it is devised to be sensitive against all possible types of differences between two distribution functions.",
"Some argue that the Cucconi test, originally proposed for simultaneously comparing location and scale, can be much more powerful than the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test when comparing two distribution functions.Two-sample KS tests have been applied in economics to detect asymmetric effects and to study natural experiments."
],
[
"Setting confidence limits for the shape of a distribution function",
"While the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is usually used to test whether a given ''F''(''x'') is the underlying probability distribution of ''F''''n''(''x''), the procedure may be inverted to give confidence limits on ''F''(''x'') itself.",
"If one chooses a critical value of the test statistic ''D''''α'' such that P(''D''''n'' > ''D''''α'') = ''α'', then a band of width ±''D''''α'' around ''F''''n''(''x'') will entirely contain ''F''(''x'') with probability 1 − ''α''."
],
[
"The Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic in more than one dimension",
"A distribution-free multivariate Kolmogorov–Smirnov goodness of fit test has been proposed by Justel, Peña and Zamar (1997).",
"The test uses a statistic which is built using Rosenblatt's transformation, and an algorithm is developed to compute it in the bivariate case.",
"An approximate test that can be easily computed in any dimension is also presented.The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test statistic needs to be modified if a similar test is to be applied to multivariate data.",
"This is not straightforward because the maximum difference between two joint cumulative distribution functions is not generally the same as the maximum difference of any of the complementary distribution functions.",
"Thus the maximum difference will differ depending on which of or or any of the other two possible arrangements is used.",
"One might require that the result of the test used should not depend on which choice is made.One approach to generalizing the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic to higher dimensions which meets the above concern is to compare the cdfs of the two samples with all possible orderings, and take the largest of the set of resulting KS statistics.",
"In ''d'' dimensions, there are 2''d'' − 1 such orderings.",
"One such variation is due to Peacock (see also Gosset for a 3D version)and another to Fasano and Franceschini (see Lopes et al.",
"for a comparison and computational details).",
"Critical values for the test statistic can be obtained by simulations, but depend on the dependence structure in the joint distribution.In one dimension, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic is identical to the so-called star discrepancy D, so another native KS extension to higher dimensions would be simply to use D also for higher dimensions.",
"Unfortunately, the star discrepancy is hard to calculate in high dimensions.In 2021 the functional form of the multivariate KS test statistic was proposed, which simplified the problem of estimating the tail probabilities of the multivariate KS test statistic, which is needed for the statistical test.",
"For the multivariate case, if ''F''''i'' is the ''i''th continuous marginal from a probability distribution with ''k'' variables, then:so the limiting distribution does not depend on the marginal distributions."
],
[
"Implementations",
"The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is implemented in many software programs.",
"Most of these implement both the one and two sampled test.",
"* Mathematica has KolmogorovSmirnovTest.",
"* MATLAB's Statistics Toolbox has kstest and kstest2 for one-sample and two-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests, respectively.",
"* The R package \"KSgeneral\" computes the KS test statistics and its p-values under arbitrary, possibly discrete, mixed or continuous null distribution.",
"* R's statistics base-package implements the test as ks.test {stats} in its \"stats\" package.",
"* SAS implements the test in its PROC NPAR1WAY procedure.",
"* In Python, the SciPy package implements the test in the scipy.stats.kstest function.",
"* SYSTAT (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL)* Java has an implementation of this test provided by Apache Commons.",
"* KNIME has a node implementing this test based on the above Java implementation.",
"*Julia has the package HypothesisTests.jl with the function ExactOneSampleKSTest(x::AbstractVector{<:Real}, d::UnivariateDistribution).",
"*StatsDirect (StatsDirect Ltd, Manchester, UK) implements all common variants.",
"* Stata (Stata Corporation, College Station, TX) implements the test in ksmirnov (Kolmogorov–Smirnov equality-of-distributions test) command.",
"* PSPP implements the test in its KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV (or using KS shortcut function).",
"* The Real Statistics Resource Pack for Excel runs the test as KSCRIT and KSPROB.",
"* Phitter: distribution-fitting online software."
],
[
"See also",
"*Lepage test*Cucconi test*Kuiper's test*Shapiro–Wilk test*Anderson–Darling test*Cramér–von Mises test*Wasserstein metric"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * **"
],
[
"External links",
"** Short introduction * KS test explanation* JavaScript implementation of one- and two-sided tests* Online calculator with the KS test* Open-source C++ code to compute the Kolmogorov distribution and perform the KS test*Paper on Evaluating Kolmogorov's Distribution; contains C implementation.",
"This is the method used in Matlab.",
"*Paper on Computing the Two-Sided Kolmogorov–Smirnov Distribution; computing the cdf of the KS statistic in C or Java.",
"*Paper powerlaw: A Python Package for Analysis of Heavy-Tailed Distributions; Jeff Alstott, Ed Bullmore, Dietmar Plenz.",
"Among others, it also performs the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test.",
"Source code and installers of powerlaw package are available at PyPi."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kansas"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kansas''' () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States.",
"Kansas is a landlocked state which borders Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the west.",
"Kansas is named after the Kansas River, in turn named after the Kansa people.",
"Its capital is Topeka, and its most populous city is Wichita, however the largest urban area is the bi-state Kansas City, MO–KS metropolitan area.For thousands of years, what is now Kansas was home to numerous and diverse Indigenous tribes.",
"The first settlement of non-indigenous people in Kansas occurred in 1827 at Fort Leavenworth.",
"The pace of settlement accelerated in the 1850s, in the midst of political wars over the slavery debate.",
"When it was officially opened to settlement by the U.S. government in 1854 with the Kansas–Nebraska Act, conflict between abolitionist Free-Staters from New England and pro-slavery settlers from neighboring Missouri broke out over the question of whether Kansas would become a free state or a slave state, in a period known as Bleeding Kansas.",
"On January 29, 1861, Kansas entered the Union as a free state, hence the unofficial nickname \"The Free State\".",
"Passage of the Homestead Acts in 1862 brought a further influx of settlers, and the booming cattle trade of the 1870s attracted some of the Wild West's most iconic figures to western Kansas.As of 2015, Kansas was among the most productive agricultural states, producing high yields of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans.",
"In addition to its traditional strength in agriculture, Kansas possesses an extensive aerospace industry.",
"Kansas, which has an area of is the 15th-largest state by area, the 36th most-populous of the 50 states, with a population of 2,940,865 according to the 2020 census, and the 10th least densely populated.",
"Residents of Kansas are called ''Kansans''.",
"Mount Sunflower is Kansas's highest point at ."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The name ''Kansas'' derives from the Algonquian term, ''Akansa'', for the Quapaw people.",
"These were a Dhegiha Siouan-speaking people who settled in Arkansas around the 13th century.",
"The stem -''kansa'' is named after the Kaw people, also known as the ''Kansa'', a federally recognized Native American tribe.",
"The tribe's name (natively '''') is often said to mean \"people of the (south) wind\" although this was probably not the term's original meaning."
],
[
"History",
"Before European colonization, Kansas was occupied by the Caddoan Wichita and later the Siouan Kaw people.",
"Tribes in the eastern part of the state generally lived in villages along the river valleys.",
"Tribes in the western part of the state were semi-nomadic and hunted large herds of bison.",
"The first European to set foot in present-day Kansas was the Spanish conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, who explored the area in 1541.Between 1763 and 1803 the territory of Kansas was integrated into Spanish Louisiana.",
"The governor Luis de Unzaga 'le Conciliateur', during that period, promoted expeditions and good relations with the Amerindians, among the explorers were Antoine de Marigny and others who continued trading across the Kansas River, especially at its confluence with the Missouri River, tributaries of the Mississippi River.In 1803, most of modern Kansas was acquired by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase.",
"Southwest Kansas, however, was still a part of Spain, Mexico, and the Republic of Texas until the conclusion of the Mexican–American War in 1848, when these lands were ceded to the United States.",
"From 1812 to 1821, Kansas was part of the Missouri Territory.",
"The Santa Fe Trail traversed Kansas from 1821 to 1880, transporting manufactured goods from Missouri and silver and furs from Santa Fe, New Mexico.",
"Wagon ruts from the trail are still visible in the prairie today.In 1827, Fort Leavenworth became the first permanent settlement of white Americans in the future state.",
"The Kansas–Nebraska Act became law on May 30, 1854, establishing Nebraska Territory and Kansas Territory, and opening the area to broader settlement by whites.",
"Kansas Territory stretched all the way to the Continental Divide and included the sites of present-day Denver, Colorado Springs, and Pueblo.=== Bleeding Kansas and the Civil War ===The first non-military settlement of Euro-Americans in Kansas Territory consisted of abolitionists from Massachusetts and other Free-Staters who founded the town of Lawrence and attempted to stop the spread of slavery from neighboring Missouri.Missouri and Arkansas continually sent settlers into Kansas Territory along its eastern border to sway votes in favor of slavery prior to Kansas statehood elections.",
"Directly presaging the American Civil War these forces collided, entering into skirmishes and guerrilla conflicts that earned the territory the nickname Bleeding Kansas.",
"These included John Brown's Pottawatomie massacre of 1856.Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state on January 29, 1861, making it the 34th state to join the United States.",
"By that time, the violence in Kansas had largely subsided, but during the Civil War, on August 21, 1863, William Quantrill led several hundred of his supporters on a raid into Lawrence, destroying much of the city and killing nearly 200 people.",
"He was roundly condemned by both the conventional Confederate military and the partisan rangers commissioned by the Missouri legislature.",
"His application to that body for a commission was flatly rejected due to his pre-war criminal record.=== Settlement and the Wild West ===Passage of the Homestead Acts in 1862 accelerated settlement and agricultural development in the state.",
"After the Civil War, many veterans constructed homesteads in Kansas.",
"Many African Americans also looked to Kansas as the land of \"John Brown\" and, led by freedmen like Benjamin \"Pap\" Singleton, began establishing black colonies in the state.",
"Leaving southern states in the late 1870s because of increasing discrimination, they became known as Exodusters.At the same time, the Chisholm Trail was opened and the Wild West era commenced in Kansas.",
"Storied lawman Wild Bill Hickok was a deputy marshal at Fort Riley and a marshal at Hays and Abilene.",
"Dodge City was home to both Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp, who worked as lawmen in the town.",
"The Dalton Gang robbed trains and banks throughout Kansas and the Southwest and maintained a hideout in Meade.",
"In one year alone, eight million head of cattle from Texas boarded trains in Dodge City bound for the East, earning Dodge the nickname \"Queen of the Cowtowns\".=== 20th century ===In response to demands of Methodists and other evangelical Protestants, in 1881 Kansas became the first U.S. state to adopt a constitutional amendment prohibiting all alcoholic beverages, which was repealed in 1948.Anti-saloon activist Carrie Nation vandalized her first saloon in Kiowa in 1900.In 1922, suffragist Ella Uphay Mowry became the first female gubernatorial candidate in the state when she ran as \"Mrs. W.D.",
"Mowry\".",
"She later stated that, \"Someone had to be the pioneer.",
"I firmly believe that some day a woman will sit in the governor's chair in Kansas.",
"\"Kansas suffered severe and environmental damage in the 1930s due to the combined effects of the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, and large numbers of people left southwestern Kansas in particular for better opportunities elsewhere.",
"The outbreak of World War II spurred rapid growth in aircraft manufacturing near Wichita in the so-called Battle of Kansas, and the aerospace sector remains a significant portion of the Kansan economy to this day."
],
[
"Geography",
"The Great Plains of KansasKanopolis State ParkKansas is bordered by Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the west.",
"The state is divided into 105 counties with 628 cities, with its largest county by area being Butler County.",
"Kansas is located equidistant from the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.",
"The geographic center of the 48 contiguous states is in Smith County near Lebanon.",
"Until 1989, the Meades Ranch Triangulation Station in Osborne County was the geodetic center of North America: the central reference point for all maps of North America.",
"The geographic center of Kansas is in Barton County.===Geology===Kansas is underlain by a sequence of horizontal to gently westward dipping sedimentary rocks.",
"A sequence of Mississippian, Pennsylvanian and Permian rocks outcrop in the eastern and southern part of the state.",
"The state's western half has exposures of Cretaceous through Tertiary sediments, the latter derived from the erosion of the uplifted Rocky Mountains to the west.",
"These are underlain by older Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments which correlate well with the outcrops to the east.",
"The state's northeastern corner was subjected to glaciation in the Pleistocene and is covered by glacial drift and loess.===Topography===The western two-thirds of the state, lying in the great central plain of the United States, has a generally flat or undulating surface, while the eastern third has many hills and forests.",
"The land gradually rises from east to west; its altitude ranges from along the Verdigris River at Coffeyville in Montgomery County, to at Mount Sunflower, from the Colorado border, in Wallace County.",
"It is a common misconception that Kansas is the flattest state in the nation—in 2003, a tongue-in-cheek study famously declared the state \"flatter than a pancake\".",
"In fact, Kansas has a maximum topographic relief of , making it the 23rd flattest U.S. state measured by maximum relief.===Rivers===Spring River, KansasAround of the state's northeastern boundary is defined by the Missouri River.",
"The Kansas River (locally known as the Kaw), formed by the junction of the Smoky Hill and Republican rivers at appropriately-named Junction City, joins the Missouri River at Kansas City, after a course of across the northeastern part of the state.The Arkansas River (pronunciation varies), rising in Colorado, flows with a bending course for nearly across the western and southern parts of the state.",
"With its tributaries, (the Little Arkansas, Ninnescah, Walnut, Cow Creek, Cimarron, Verdigris, and the Neosho), it forms the southern drainage system of the state.Kansas's other rivers are the Saline and Solomon Rivers, tributaries of the Smoky Hill River; the Big Blue, Delaware, and Wakarusa, which flow into the Kansas River; and the Marais des Cygnes, a tributary of the Missouri River.",
"Spring River is located between Riverton and Baxter Springs.===National parks and historic sites===Areas under the protection of the National Park Service include:* Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site in Topeka* Fort Larned National Historic Site in Larned* Fort Scott National Historic Site in Bourbon County* Nicodemus National Historic Site at Nicodemus* Pony Express National Historic Trail* Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve near Strong City===Flora and fauna===In Kansas, there are currently 238 species of rare animals and 400 rare plants.",
"Among those include: Smooth rockress, Virginia rail, Western Grotto Salamander, Royal Fern, Turkey-tangle, Bobolink, Cave salamander, Snowy Plover, Strecker's Chorus Frog, Peregrine falcon, and Black-footed ferret.",
"Common animal species and grasses include: Crows, Deer, Lesser prairie chicken, Mice, Moles, Virginia Opossum, Prairie dogs, Raccoon, Eastern Gama Grass, Prairie Dropseed, Indian Grass, Little Bluestem, Switch grass, Northern Sea Oats, Tussock Sedge, Sideoats grama, and Big Bluestem.===Climate===Köppen climate types of Kansas, using 1991–2020 climate normalsClouds in northeastern KansasKansas summer wheat and storm panoramaIn the Köppen climate classification, Kansas has three climates: humid continental, semi-arid steppe, and humid subtropical.",
"The eastern two-thirds of the state (especially the northeastern portion) has a humid continental climate, with cool to cold winters and hot, often humid summers.",
"Most of the precipitation falls during both the summer and the spring.",
"The USDA hardiness zones for Kansas range from Zone 5b (−15 °F to −10 °F) in the North to Zone 7a (0 °F to 5 °F) in the South.The western third of the state—from roughly the U.S. Route 83 corridor westward—has a semi-arid steppe climate.",
"Summers are hot, often very hot, and generally less humid.",
"Winters are highly changeable between warm and very cold.",
"The western region receives an average of about of precipitation per year.",
"Chinook winds in the winter can warm western Kansas all the way into the range.The south-central and southeastern portions of the state, including the Wichita area, have a humid subtropical climate with hot and humid summers, milder winters, and more precipitation than elsewhere in Kansas.",
"Some features of all three climates can be found in most of the state, with droughts and changeable weather between dry and humid not uncommon, and both warm and cold spells in the winter.Temperatures in areas between U.S.",
"Routes 83 and 81, as well as the southwestern portion of the state along and south of U.S. 50, reach or above on most days of June, July, and August.",
"High humidity added to the high temperatures sends the heat index into life-threatening territory, especially in Wichita, Hutchinson, Salina, Russell, Hays, and Great Bend.",
"Temperatures are often higher in Dodge City, Garden City, and Liberal, but the heat index in those three cities is usually lower than the actual air temperature.Although temperatures of or higher are not as common in areas east of U.S. 81, higher humidity and the urban heat island effect lead most summer days to heat indices between and in Topeka, Lawrence, and the Kansas City metropolitan area.",
"Also, combined with humidity between 85 and 95 percent, dangerous heat indices can be experienced at every hour of the day.Precipitation ranges from about annually in the state's southeast corner to about in the southwest.",
"Snowfall ranges from around in the fringes of the south, to in the far northwest.",
"Frost-free days range from more than 200 days in the south, to 130 days in the northwest.",
"Thus, Kansas is the country's ninth or tenth sunniest state, depending on the source.",
"Western Kansas is as sunny as parts of California and Arizona.Kansas is prone to severe weather, especially in the spring and the early-summer.",
"Despite the frequent sunshine throughout much of the state, due to its location at a climatic boundary prone to intrusions of multiple air masses, the state is vulnerable to strong and severe thunderstorms.",
"Some of these storms become supercell thunderstorms; these can produce some tornadoes, occasionally those of EF3 strength or higher.",
"Kansas averages more than 50 tornadoes annually.",
"Severe thunderstorms sometimes drop some very large hail over Kansas as well.",
"Furthermore, these storms can even bring in flash flooding and damaging straight line winds.According to NOAA, the all-time highest temperature recorded in Kansas is () on July 24, 1936, near Alton in Osborne County, and the all-time low is on February 13, 1905, near Lebanon in Smith County.",
"Alton and Lebanon are approximately apart.Kansas's record high of ties with North Dakota for the fifth-highest record high in an American state, behind California (), Arizona (), Nevada (), and New Mexico ().+ Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Kansas cities (°F) City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Concordia 36/17 43/22 54/31 64/41 74/52 85/62 91/67 88/66 80/56 68/44 51/30 40/21 Dodge City 41/19 48/24 57/31 67/41 76/52 87/62 93/67 91/66 82/56 70/44 55/30 44/22 Goodland 39/16 45/20 53/26 63/35 72/46 84/56 89/61 87/60 78/50 66/38 50/25 41/18 Topeka 37/17 44/23 55/33 66/43 75/53 84/63 89/68 88/65 80/56 69/44 53/32 41/22 Wichita 40/20 47/25 57/34 67/44 76/54 87/64 93/69 92/68 82/59 70/47 55/34 43/24"
],
[
"Settlement",
"Known as rural flight, the last few decades have been marked by a migratory pattern out of the countryside into cities.",
"Out of all the cities in these Midwestern states, 89% have fewer than 3,000 people, and hundreds of those have fewer than 1,000.In Kansas alone, there are more than 6,000 ghost towns and dwindling communities, according to one Kansas historian, Daniel C. Fitzgerald.",
"At the same time, some of the communities in Johnson County (metropolitan Kansas City) are among the fastest-growing in the country.+'''Cities with population of at least 15,000''' CityPopulation*Growth rate**Metro area1Wichita397,5323.97%Wichita2Overland Park197,23813.77%Kansas City, MO-KS3Kansas City156,6077.42%Kansas City4Olathe141,29012.25%Kansas City5Topeka126,587−0.70%Topeka6Lawrence94,9348.32%Lawrence7Shawnee67,3118.20%Kansas City8Lenexa57,43419.18% Kansas City9Manhattan54,1003.48%Manhattan10Salina46,889-1.71% ‡11Hutchinson40,006−4.93% ‡12Leavenworth37,3515.96%Kansas City13Leawood33,9026.39%Kansas City14Garden City28,1515.60% ‡15Dodge City27,7881.64% ‡16Derby25,62515.65% Wichita17Emporia24,139-3.12% ‡18Gardner23,28721.77%Kansas City19Prairie Village22,9577.04%Kansas City20Junction City22,932-1.80%Manhattan21Hays21,1162.95% ‡22Pittsburg20,6462.04% ‡23Liberal19,825−3.41% ‡24Newton18,602−2.77%Wichita*2020 census**Growth rate 2010–2020‡Defined as a micropolitan areaKansas has 627 incorporated cities.",
"By state statute, cities are divided into three classes as determined by the population obtained \"by any census of enumeration\".",
"A city of the third class has a population of less than 5,000, but cities reaching a population of more than 2,000 may be certified as a city of the second class.",
"The second class is limited to cities with a population of less than 25,000, and upon reaching a population of more than 15,000, they may be certified as a city of the first class.",
"First and second class cities are independent of any township and are not included within the township's territory.===Birth data===''Note: Births in table don't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.",
"''+ Live Births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother Race 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 White: 34,178 (88.0%) 34,420 (87.7%) 34,251 (87.5%) ... ... ... ... ... ... > Non-Hispanic White 28,281 (72.8%) 28,504 (72.7%) 28,236 (72.1%) 26,935 (70.8%) 25,594 (70.1%) 25,323 (69.8%) 24,549 (69.4%) 23,663 (68.8%) 24,056 (69.3%) Black 2,967 (7.6%) 3,097 (7.9%) 3,090 (7.9%) 2,543 (6.7%) 2,657 (7.3%) 2,575 (7.1%) 2,458 (6.9%) 2,412 (7.0%) 2,316 (6.7%) Asian 1,401 (3.6%) 1,359 (3.5%) 1,483 (3.8%) 1,299 (3.4%) 1,255 (3.4%) 1,228 (3.4%) 1,216 (3.4%) 1,146 (3.3%) 1,031 (3.0%) American Indian 293 (0.7%) 347 (0.9%) 330 (0.8%) 173 (0.5%) 248 (0.7%) 217 (0.6%) 214 (0.6%) 162 (0.5%) 183 (0.5%) ''Hispanic'' (of any race) ''6,143'' (15.8%) ''6,132'' (15.6%) ''6,300'' (16.1%) ''6,298'' (16.5%) ''5,963'' (16.3%) ''5,977'' (16.5%) ''6,071'' (17.2%) ''5,970'' (17.4%) ''6,122'' (17.6%) '''Total Kansas''' '''38,839''' (100%) '''39,223''' (100%) '''39,154''' (100%) '''38,053''' (100%) '''36,519''' (100%) '''36,261''' (100%) '''35,395''' (100%) '''34,376''' (100%) '''34,705''' (100%)* Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one ''Hispanic'' group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.===Life expectancy===The residents of Kansas have a life expectancy near the U.S. national average.",
"In 2013, males in Kansas lived an average of 76.6 years compared to a male national average of 76.7 years and females lived an average of 81.0 years compared to a female national average of 81.5 years.",
"Increases in life expectancy between 1980 and 2013 were below the national average for males and near the national average for females.",
"Male life expectancy in Kansas between 1980 and 2014 increased by an average of 5.2 years, compared to a male national average of a 6.7-year increase.",
"Life expectancy for females in Kansas between 1980 and 2014 increased by 4.3 years, compared to a female national average of a 4.0 year increase.Using 2017–2019 data, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation calculated that life expectancy for Kansas counties ranged from 75.8 years for Wyandotte County to 81.7 years for Johnson County.",
"Life expectancy for the state as a whole was 78.5 years.",
"Life expectancy for the United States as a whole in 2019 was 78.8 years.===Regions=======Northeast Kansas====The northeastern portion of the state, extending from the eastern border to Junction City and from the Nebraska border to south of Johnson County is home to more than 1.5 million people in the Kansas City (Kansas portion), Manhattan, Lawrence, and Topeka metropolitan areas.",
"Overland Park, a young city incorporated in 1960, has the largest population and the largest land area in the county.",
"It is home to Johnson County Community College.Olathe is the county seat and home to Johnson County Executive Airport.",
"The cities of Olathe, Shawnee, De Soto and Gardner have some of the state's fastest growing populations.",
"The cities of Overland Park, Lenexa, Olathe, De Soto, and Gardner are also notable because they lie along the former route of the Santa Fe Trail.",
"Among cities with at least one thousand residents, Mission Hills has the highest median income in the state.Several institutions of higher education are located in Northeast Kansas including Baker University (the oldest university in the state, founded in 1858 and affiliated with the United Methodist Church) in Baldwin City, Benedictine College (sponsored by St. Benedict's Abbey and Mount St. Scholastica Monastery and formed from the merger of St. Benedict's College (1858) and Mount St. Scholastica College (1923)) in Atchison, MidAmerica Nazarene University in Olathe, Ottawa University in Ottawa and Overland Park, Kansas City Kansas Community College and KU Medical Center in Kansas City, and KU Edwards Campus in Overland Park.",
"Less than an hour's drive to the west, Lawrence is home to the University of Kansas, the largest public university in the state, and Haskell Indian Nations University.To the north, Kansas City, with the second largest land area in the state, contains a number of diverse ethnic neighborhoods.",
"Its attractions include the Kansas Speedway, Sporting Kansas City, Kansas City Monarchs, and The Legends at Village West retail and entertainment center.",
"Nearby, Kansas's first settlement Bonner Springs is home to several national and regional attractions including the Providence Medical Center Amphitheather, the National Agricultural Center and Hall of Fame, and the annual Kansas City Renaissance Festival.",
"Further up the Missouri River, the city of Lansing is the home of the state's first maximum-security prison.",
"Historic Leavenworth, founded in 1854, was the first incorporated city in Kansas.",
"North of the city, Fort Leavenworth is the oldest active Army post west of the Mississippi River.",
"The city of Atchison was an early commercial center in the state and is well known as the birthplace of Amelia Earhart.To the west, nearly a quarter million people reside in the Topeka metropolitan area.",
"Topeka is the state capital and home to Washburn University and Washburn Institute of Technology.",
"Built at a Kansas River crossing along the old Oregon Trail, this historic city has several nationally registered historic places.",
"Further westward along Interstate 70 and the Kansas River is Junction City with its historic limestone and brick buildings and nearby Fort Riley, well known as the home to the U.S. Army's 1st Infantry Division (nicknamed \"the Big Red One\").",
"A short distance away, the city of Manhattan is home to Kansas State University, the second-largest public university in the state and the nation's oldest land-grant university, dating back to 1863.South of the campus, Aggieville dates back to 1889 and is the state's oldest shopping district of its kind.====South Central Kansas====In south-central Kansas, the Wichita metropolitan area is home to more than 600,000 people.",
"Wichita is the largest city in the state in terms of both land area and population.",
"'The Air Capital' is a major manufacturing center for the aircraft industry and the home of Wichita State University.",
"Before Wichita was 'The Air Capital' it was a Cowtown.",
"With a number of nationally registered historic places, museums, and other entertainment destinations, it has a desire to become a cultural mecca in the Midwest.",
"Wichita's population growth has grown by double digits and the surrounding suburbs are among the fastest growing cities in the state.",
"The population of Goddard has grown by more than 11% per year since 2000.Other fast-growing cities include Andover, Maize, Park City, Derby, and Haysville.Wichita was one of the first cities to add the city commissioner and city manager in their form of government.",
"Wichita is also home of the nationally recognized Sedgwick County Zoo.Up river (the Arkansas River) from Wichita is the city of Hutchinson.",
"The city was built on one of the world's largest salt deposits (of what would form Strataca), and it has the world's largest and longest wheat elevator.",
"It is also the home of Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center, Prairie Dunes Country Club and the Kansas State Fair.",
"North of Wichita along Interstate 135 is the city of Newton, the former western terminal of the Santa Fe Railroad and trailhead for the famed Chisholm Trail.",
"To the southeast of Wichita are the cities of Winfield and Arkansas City with historic architecture and the Cherokee Strip Museum (in Ark City).",
"The city of Udall was the site of the deadliest tornado in Kansas on May 25, 1955; it killed 80 people in and near the city.====Southeast Kansas====Southeast Kansas has a unique history with a number of nationally registered historic places in this coal-mining region.",
"Located in Crawford County (dubbed the Fried Chicken Capital of Kansas), Pittsburg is the largest city in the region and the home of Pittsburg State University.",
"The neighboring city of Frontenac in 1888 was the site of the worst mine disaster in the state in which an underground explosion killed 47 miners.",
"\"Big Brutus\" is located outside the city of West Mineral.",
"Along with the restored fort, historic Fort Scott has a national cemetery designated by President Lincoln in 1862.The region also shares a Media market with Joplin, Missouri, a city in Southwest Missouri.====Central and North-Central Kansas====Salina is the largest city in central and north-central Kansas.",
"South of Salina is the small city of Lindsborg with its numerous Dala horses.",
"Much of the architecture and decor of this town has a distinctly Swedish style.",
"To the east along Interstate 70, the historic city of Abilene was formerly a trailhead for the Chisholm Trail and was the boyhood home of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and is the site of his Presidential Library and the tombs of the former president, First Lady and son who died in infancy.",
"To the west is Lucas, the Grassroots Art Capital of Kansas.====Northwest Kansas====Monument Rocks at night|alt=Milky Way over Monument Rocks, Kansas, US|leftWestward along the Interstate, the city of Russell, traditionally the beginning of sparsely-populated northwest Kansas, was the base of former U.S.",
"Senator Bob Dole and the boyhood home of U.S.",
"Senator Arlen Specter.",
"The city of Hays is home to Fort Hays State University and the Sternberg Museum of Natural History, and is the largest city in the northwest with a population of around 20,001.Two other landmarks are located in smaller towns in Ellis County: the \"Cathedral of the Plains\" is located east of Hays in Victoria, and the boyhood home of Walter Chrysler is west of Hays in Ellis.",
"West of Hays, population drops dramatically, even in areas along I-70, and only two towns containing populations of more than 4,000: Colby and Goodland, which are located apart along I-70.====Southwest Kansas====Dodge City, famously known for the cattle drive days of the late 19th century, was built along the old Santa Fe Trail route.",
"The city of Liberal is located along the southern Santa Fe Trail route.",
"The first wind farm in the state was built east of Montezuma.",
"Garden City has the Lee Richardson Zoo.",
"In 1992, a short-lived secessionist movement advocated the secession of several counties in southwest Kansas.====Around the state====Gove County BadlandsLocated midway between Kansas City, Topeka, and Wichita in the heart of the Bluestem Region of the Flint Hills, the city of Emporia has several nationally registered historic places and is the home of Emporia State University, well known for its Teachers College.",
"It was also the home of newspaper man William Allen White."
],
[
"Demographics",
"=== Population ===A population density map of KansasThe United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Kansas was 2,913,314 on July 1, 2019, a 2.11% increase since the 2010 United States census and an increase of 58,387, or 2.05%, since 2010.This includes a natural increase since the last census of 93,899 (246,484 births minus 152,585 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 20,742 people out of the state.",
"Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 44,847 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 65,589 people.",
"At the 2020 census, its population was 2,937,880.In 2018, The top countries of origin for Kansas's immigrants were Mexico, India, Vietnam, Guatemala and China.The population density of Kansas is 52.9 people per square mile.",
"The center of population of Kansas is located in Chase County, at , approximately north of the community of Strong City.The focus on labor-efficient grain-based agriculture—such as a large wheat farm that requires only one or a few people with large machinery to operate, rather than a vegetable farm that requires many people—is causing the de-population of rural areas across Kansas.According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 2,397 homeless people in Kansas.===Race and ethnicity===Ethnic origins in KansasAccording to the 2021 United States census estimates, the racial makeup of the population was: White American, non-Hispanic (74.7%), Hispanic or Latino (12.7%), Black or African American (6.2%), Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander (0.1%), two or more races (3.3%), Asian (3.2%), and American Indian and Alaska Native (1.2%).",
"At the 2020 census, its racial and ethnic makeup was 75.6% White, 5.7% African American, 2.9% Asian American, 1.1% Native American, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 4.9% some other race, and 9.5% two or more races.+ Kansas ethnic breakdown of population Racial composition 1990 2000 20102020 White 90.1% 86.1% 83.8% 75.6% Black 5.8% 5.8% 5.9% 5.7% Asian 1.3% 1.7% 2.4% 2.9% Native 0.9% 0.9% 1.0% 1.1% Native Hawaiian andother Pacific Islander – – 0.1% 0.1% Other race 2.0% 3.4% 3.9% 4.9% Two or more races – 2.1% 3.0% 9.5%Map of counties in Kansas by racial plurality, per the 2020 U.S. censusAs of 2004, the population included 149,800 foreign-born (5.5% of the state population).",
"The ten largest reported ancestry groups, which account for nearly 90% of the population, in the state are: German (33.75%), Irish (14.4%), English (14.1%), American (7.5%), French (4.4%), Scottish (4.2%), Dutch (2.5%), Swedish (2.4%), Italian (1.8%), and Polish (1.5%).",
"German descendants are especially present in the northwest and northeast with German immigrants settling and founding towns such as Nortonville, Holton, Sabetha and Horton.",
"Descendants of English and of white Americans from other states are especially present in the southeast.",
"Kansas is also home to a large Czech community.Mexicans are present in the southwest and make up nearly half the population in certain counties.",
"Many African Americans in Kansas are descended from the Exodusters, newly freed blacks who fled the South for land in Kansas following the Civil War.There is a growing Asian community in Kansas.",
"Since 1965, more and more Asian families have moved to Kansas from countries such as the Philippines, China, Korea, India, and Vietnam.As of 2011, 35.0% of Kansas's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry).===Language===English is the most-spoken language in Kansas, with 91.3% of the population speaking only English at home as of the year 2000.5.5% speak Spanish, 0.7% speak German, and 0.4% speak Vietnamese.===Religion===Reverend Charles Sheldon, Topeka resident and coiner of the phrase \"What would Jesus do?",
"\"|leftThe 2014 Pew Religious Landscape Survey showed the religious makeup of adults in Kansas was as follows: 57% Protestant, 18% Catholic, 1% Mormon, 1% Jehovah's Witness, 20% unaffiliated, 1% Buddhism, and 2% other religions.",
"In 2010, the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) reported that the Catholic Church had the highest number of adherents in Kansas (at 426,611), followed by the United Methodist Church with 202,989 members, and the Southern Baptist Convention, reporting 99,329 adherents.In 2020, ARDA reported 414,939 Catholics, 165,658 United Methodists, and 164,486 Southern Baptists.",
"In 2022, the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI)'s study revealed 74% of the total population were Christian; among them, 59% were Protestant, 13% Catholic, and 2% Mormon.",
"The religiously unaffiliated were 23% of the population, Unitarian Universalists 1%, and New Agers 1%.Kansas's capital Topeka is sometimes cited as the home of Pentecostalism as it was the site of Charles Fox Parham's Bethel Bible College, where glossolalia was first claimed as the evidence of a spiritual experience referred to as the baptism of the Holy Spirit in 1901.It is also the home of Reverend Charles Sheldon, author of ''In His Steps'', and was the site where the question \"What would Jesus do?\"",
"originated in a sermon of Sheldon's at Central Congregational Church.Kansas is the location of the second Baha'i community west of Egypt, when the Baha'i community of Enterprise, KS was started in 1897.From that beginning the Baha'i Faith spread across Kansas.Topeka is also home of the Westboro Baptist Church, a hate group according to the Southern Poverty Law Center.",
"The church has garnered worldwide media attention for picketing the funerals of U.S. servicemen and women for what church members claim as \"necessary to combat the fight for equality for gays and lesbians\".",
"They have sometimes successfully raised lawsuits against the city of Topeka."
],
[
"Economy",
"Total Employment of the metropolitan areas in the State of Kansas by total Non-farm Employment in 2016*Kansas Portion of the Kansas City MO-KS MSA: 468,400 non-farm, accounting for 40.9% of state GDP in 2015*Wichita, KS MSA: 297,300 non-farm*Topeka, KS MSA: 112,600 non-farm*Lawrence KS, MSA: 54,000 non-farm*Manhattan, KS MSA: 44,200 non-farm*Total employment: 1,184,710Total Number of employer establishments in 2016: 74,884The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Kansas's total gross domestic product in 2014 was billion.",
"In 2015, the job growth rate was 0.8%, among the lowest rates in America with only \"10,900 total nonfarm jobs\" added that year.",
"According to the Kansas Department of Labor's 2016 report, the average annual wage was $42,930 in 2015.As of April 2016, the state's unemployment rate was 4.2%.The State of Kansas had a $350 million budget shortfall in February 2017.In February 2017, S&P downgraded Kansas's credit rating to AA−.Nearly 90% of Kansas's land is devoted to agriculture.",
"The state's agricultural outputs are cattle, sheep, wheat, sorghum, soybeans, cotton, hogs, corn, and salt.",
"As of 2018, there were 59,600 farms in Kansas, 86 (0.14%) of which are certified organic farms.",
"The average farm in the state is about 770 acres (more than a square mile), and in 2016, the average cost of running the farm was $300,000.By far, the most significant agricultural crop in the state is wheat.",
"Eastern Kansas is part of the Grain Belt, an area of major grain production in the central United States.",
"Approximately 40% of all winter wheat grown in the US is grown in Kansas.",
"Roughly 95% of the wheat grown in the state is hard red winter wheat.",
"During 2016, farmers of conventionally grown wheat farmed 8.2 million acres and harvested an average of 57 bushels of wheat per acre.The industrial outputs are transportation equipment, commercial and private aircraft, food processing, publishing, chemical products, machinery, apparel, petroleum, and mining.+ Largest private employers (as of 2016) Rank Business Employees Location Industry 1 Spirit AeroSystems 12,000 Wichita Aviation 2 Sprint Corporation 7,600 Overland Park Telecommunications 3 Textron Aviation 6,812 Wichita Aviation 4 General Motors 4,000 Kansas City Automotive manufacturing 5 Bombardier Aerospace 3,500 Wichita Aviation 6 Black & Veatch 3,500 Overland Park Engineering Consulting 7 National Beef 3,500 Liberal Food Products 8 Tyson Foods 3,200 Holcomb Food Products 9 Performance Contracting 2,900 Lenexa Roofing & siding 10 National Beef 2,500 Dodge City Food ProductsThe state's economy is also heavily influenced by the aerospace industry.",
"Several large aircraft corporations have manufacturing facilities in Wichita and Kansas City, including Spirit AeroSystems, Bombardier Aerospace (LearJet), and Textron Aviation (a merger of the former Cessna, Hawker, and Beechcraft brands).",
"Boeing ended a decades-long history of manufacturing in Kansas between 2012 and 2013.Major companies headquartered in Kansas include the Garmin (Olathe), YRC Worldwide (Overland Park), Payless Shoes (national headquarters and major distribution facilities in Topeka), and Koch Industries (with national headquarters in Wichita), and Coleman (headquarters in Wichita).Kansas is also home to three major military installations: Fort Leavenworth (Army), Fort Riley (Army), and McConnell Air Force Base (Air Force).",
"Approximately 25,000 active duty soldiers and airmen are stationed at these bases which also employ approximately 8,000 civilian DoD employees.",
"The US Army Reserve also has the 451st Expeditionary Sustainment Command headquartered in Wichita that serves reservists and their units from around the region.",
"The Kansas Air National Guard has units at Forbes Field in Topeka and the 184th Intelligence Wing in Wichita.",
"The Smoky Hill Weapons Range, a detachment of the Intelligence Wing, is one of the largest and busiest bombing ranges in the nation.",
"During World War II, Kansas was home to numerous Army Air Corps training fields for training new pilots and aircrew.",
"Many of those airfields live on today as municipal airports.===Energy===Kansas has vast renewable resources and is a top producer of wind energy in the US, with an installed capacity of about 6,100 Megawatts (MW) from nearly 3,200 wind turbines in 2019.Wind generated the largest share of electricity from the state at 41%.",
"An additional 700 MW of capacity was scheduled to come online during 2020.Kansas is also a leading national producer of renewable ethanol and biodiesel fuels at nearly 600 million gallons per year.Kansas is ranked eighth in US petroleum extraction.",
"Production has experienced a steady decline as the state's limited economical reserves especially from the Anadarko Basin are depleted.",
"Since oil prices bottomed in 1999, oil production in Kansas has remained fairly constant, with an average monthly rate of about in 2004.The recent higher prices have made carbon dioxide sequestration and other oil recovery techniques more economical.Kansas is also ranked eighth in US natural gas production.",
"Production has steadily declined since the mid-1990s with the gradual depletion of the Hugoton Natural Gas Field—the state's largest field which extends into Oklahoma and Texas.",
"In 2004, slower declines in the Hugoton gas fields and increased coalbed methane production contributed to a smaller overall decline.",
"Average monthly production was over .===Taxes===Tax is collected by the Kansas Department of Revenue.Revenue shortfalls resulting from lower than expected tax collections and slower growth in personal income following a 1998 permanent tax reduction have contributed to the substantial growth in the state's debt level as bonded debt increased from $1.16 billion in 1998 to $3.83 billion in 2006.Some increase in debt was expected as the state continues with its 10-year Comprehensive Transportation Program enacted in 1999.In 2003, Kansas had three income brackets for income tax calculation, ranging from 3.5% to 6.45%.The state sales tax in Kansas is 6.15%.",
"Various cities and counties in Kansas have an additional local sales tax.",
"Except during the 2001 recession (March–November 2001), when monthly sales tax collections were flat, collections have trended higher as the economy has grown and two rate increases have been enacted.",
"If there had been no change in sales tax rates or in the economy, the total sales tax collections for 2003 would have been $1,797 million, compared to $805.3 million in 1990.However, they instead amounted to $1,630 million an inflation-adjusted reduction of 10%.",
"The state sales tax is a combined destination-based tax, meaning a single tax is applied that includes state, county, and local taxes, and the rate is based on where the consumer takes possession of the goods or services.",
"Thanks to the destination structure and the numerous local special taxing districts, Kansas has 920 separate sales tax rates ranging from 6.5% to 11.5%.",
"This taxing scheme, known as \"Streamlined Sales Tax\" was adopted on October 1, 2005, under the governorship of Kathleen Sebelius.",
"Groceries are subject to sales tax in the state.",
"All sales tax collected is remitted to the state department of revenue, and local taxes are then distributed to the various taxing agencies.As of June 2004, Moody's Investors Service ranked the state 14th for net tax-supported debt per capita.",
"As a percentage of personal income, it was at 3.8%—above the median value of 2.5% for all rated states and having risen from a value of less than 1% in 1992.The state has a statutory requirement to maintain cash reserves of at least 7.5% of expenses at the end of each fiscal year; however, lawmakers can vote to override the rule, and did so during the most recent budget agreement.During his campaign for the 2010 election, Governor Sam Brownback called for a complete \"phase out of Kansas's income tax\".",
"In May 2012, Governor Brownback signed into law the '''Kansas Senate Bill Substitute HB 2117'''.",
"Starting in 2013, the \"ambitious tax overhaul\" trimmed income tax, eliminated some corporate taxes, and created pass-through income tax exemptions, he raised the sales tax by one percent to offset the loss to state revenues but that was inadequate.",
"He made cuts to education and some state services to offset lost revenue.",
"The tax cut led to years of budget shortfalls, culminating in a $350 million budget shortfall in February 2017.From 2013 to 2017, 300,000 businesses were considered to be pass-through income entities and benefited from the tax exemption.",
"The tax reform \"encouraged tens of thousands of Kansans to claim their wages and salaries as income from a business rather than from employment.",
"\"The economic growth that Brownback anticipated never materialized.",
"He argued that it was because of \"low wheat and oil prices and a downturn in aircraft sales\".",
"The state general fund debt load was $83 million in fiscal year 2010 and by fiscal year 2017 the debt load sat at $179 million.",
"In 2016, Governor Brownback earned the title of \"most unpopular governor in America\".",
"Only 26 percent of Kansas voters approved of his job performance, compared to 65 percent who said they did not.",
"In the summer of 2016 S&P Global Ratings downgraded Kansas's credit rating.",
"In February 2017, S&P lowered it to AA−.In February 2017, a bi-partisan coalition presented a bill that would repeal the pass-through income exemption, the \"most important provisions of Brownback's overhaul\", and raise taxes to make up for the budget shortfall.",
"Brownback vetoed the bill but \"45 GOP legislators had voted in favor of the increase, while 40 voted to uphold the governor's veto.\"",
"On June 6, 2017, a coalition of Democrats and newly elected Republicans overrode Brownback's veto and implemented tax increases to a level close to what it was before 2013.Brownback's tax overhaul was described in a June 2017 article in ''The Atlantic'' as the United States' \"most aggressive experiment in conservative economic policy\".",
"The drastic tax cuts had \"threatened the viability of schools and infrastructure\" in Kansas."
],
[
"Transportation",
"===Highways===Kansas Highway MapthumbKansas is served by two Interstate highways with one beltway, two spur routes, and three bypasses, with over in all.",
"The first section of Interstate in the nation was opened on Interstate 70 (I-70) just west of Topeka on November 14, 1956.I-70 is a major east–west route connecting to Denver, Colorado and Kansas City, Missouri.",
"Cities along this route (from west to east) include Colby, Hays, Salina, Junction City, Topeka, Lawrence, Bonner Springs, and Kansas City.I-35 is a major north–south route connecting to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma and Des Moines, Iowa.",
"Cities along this route (from south to north) include Wichita, El Dorado, Emporia, Ottawa, and Kansas City (and suburbs).Spur routes serve as connections between the two major routes.",
"I-135, a north–south route, connects I-35 at Wichita to I-70 at Salina.",
"I-335, a southwest–northeast route, connects I-35 at Emporia to I-70 at Topeka.",
"I-335 and portions of I-35 and I-70 make up the Kansas Turnpike.",
"Bypasses include I-470 around Topeka, I-235 around Wichita, and I-670 in downtown Kansas City.",
"I-435 is a beltway around the Kansas City metropolitan area while I-635 bypasses through Kansas City.U.S.",
"Route 69 (US-69) travels south to north, from Oklahoma to Missouri.",
"The highway passes through the eastern section of Kansas, traveling through Baxter Springs, Pittsburg, Frontenac, Fort Scott, Louisburg, and the Kansas City area.Kansas also has the country's third largest state highway system after Texas and California.",
"This is because of the high number of counties and county seats (105) and their intertwining.In January 2004, the Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT) announced the new Kansas 511 traveler information service.",
"By dialing 511, callers will get access to information about road conditions, construction, closures, detours and weather conditions for the state highway system.",
"Weather and road condition information is updated every 15 minutes.====Interstate Highways====* ** (formerly known as I-35W)** ** ** ** * ** ** ====U.S.",
"Routes====* * * * * * * ** * * * ** * * * * ** * ** * ** ** * ===Aviation===The state's only major commercial (Class C) airport is Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport, located along US-54 on the western edge of the city.",
"Manhattan Regional Airport in Manhattan offers daily flights to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport and Chicago's O'Hare International Airport, making it the second-largest commercial airport in the state.",
"Most air travelers in northeastern Kansas fly out of Kansas City International Airport, located in Platte County, Missouri, as well as Topeka Regional Airport in the state's capital.In the state's southeastern part, people often use Tulsa International Airport in Tulsa, Oklahoma or Joplin Regional Airport in Joplin, Missouri.",
"For those in the far western part of the state, Denver International Airport is a popular option.",
"Connecting flights are also available from smaller Kansas airports in Dodge City, Garden City, Hays, Hutchinson, Liberal, or Salina.Dotted across the state are smaller regional and municipal airports, including the Lawrence Municipal Airport, which houses many aircraft for the city of Lawrence and the University of Kansas, Miami County Airport, Wamego Airport, Osage City Municipal Airport, which is the headquarters of ''Skydive Kansas'', Garden City Regional Airport, Manhattan Regional Airport, and Dodge City Regional Airport.===Rail===1915–1918 Kansas railroad mapUp through the mid 20th century, railroads connected most cities in Kansas.",
"During World War II, less profitable links were abandoned for scrap metal drives, then additional mileage was reduced as passenger service was halted caused by the wide spread use of automobiles and trucking on the expanding highway system.For passenger service, currently the ''Southwest Chief'' Amtrak route runs through the state on its route from Chicago, Illinois to Los Angeles, California on the BNSF railway.",
"Stops in Kansas include Lawrence, Topeka, Newton, Hutchinson, Dodge City, and Garden City.",
"An Amtrak Thruway connects Newton to the ''Heartland Flyer'' in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.",
"There has been proposals to modify the Amtrak routing through Kansas, such as: removing rail service from the ''Southwest Chief'' between Albuquerque, New Mexico and Dodge City, and extending rail service for the ''Heartland Flyer'' from Oklahoma City to Newton with new stops at Arkansas City and Wichita.For freight service, there are three Class I railroads in Kansas: BNSF, Union Pacific, and Kansas City Southern; as well as many shortline railroads.===Transit=== Local transit map"
],
[
"Law and government",
"===State and local politics==='''Executive branch''': The executive branch consists of one officer and five elected officers.",
"The governor and lieutenant governor are elected on the same ticket.",
"The attorney general, secretary of state, state treasurer, and state insurance commissioner are each elected separately.",
"'''Legislative branch''': The bicameral Kansas Legislature consists of the Kansas House of Representatives, with 125 members serving two-year terms, and the Kansas Senate, with 40 members serving four-year terms.",
"'''Judicial branch''': The judicial branch of the state government is headed by the Kansas Supreme Court.",
"The court has seven judges.",
"A vacancy is filled by the Governor picking one of three nominees selected by the nine-member Kansas Supreme Court Nominating Commission.",
"The board consists of five Kansas lawyers elected by other Kansas lawyers and four members selected by the governor."
],
[
"Political culture",
"Since the 1930s, Kansas has remained one of the most socially conservative states in the nation.",
"The 1990s brought the defeat of prominent Democrats, including Dan Glickman, and the Kansas State Board of Education's 1999 decision to eliminate evolution from the state teaching standards, a decision that was later reversed.",
"In 2005, voters accepted a constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage.",
"The next year, the state passed a law setting a minimum age for marriage at 15 years.",
"Kansas's path to a solid Republican state has been examined by journalist and historian Thomas Frank in his 2004 book ''What's the Matter with Kansas?",
"''.=== 20th-century state politics ===Kansas was the first state to institute a system of workers' compensation (1910) and to regulate the securities industry (1911).",
"Kansas also permitted women's suffrage in 1912, almost a decade before the federal constitution was amended to require it.",
"Suffrage in all states would not be guaranteed until ratification of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920.The council–manager government model was adopted by many larger Kansas cities in the years following World War I while many American cities were being run by political machines or organized crime, notably the Pendergast Machine in neighboring Kansas City, Missouri.",
"Kansas was also at the center of ''Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka'', a 1954 Supreme Court decision that banned racially segregated schools throughout the U.S., though, infamously, many Kansas residents opposed the decision, and it led to protests in Topeka after the verdict.The state backed Republican Presidential Candidates Wendell Willkie and Thomas E. Dewey in 1940 and 1944, respectively, breaking ranks with the majority of the country in the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt.",
"Kansas also supported Dewey in 1948 despite the presence of incumbent president Harry S. Truman, who hailed from Independence, Missouri, approximately east of the Kansas–Missouri state line.",
"After Roosevelt carried Kansas in 1936, only one Democrat has won the state since, Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964.=== 21st-century state politics ===+ Voter Registration as of November 2023 Party Number of voters Percentage Republican 869,391 44.48% Unaffiliated 554,236 28.35% Democratic 506,640 25.92% Libertarian 24,088 1.23% Total 1,954,355 100.00%In 2008, Democrat Governor Kathleen Sebelius vetoed permits for the construction of new coal-fired energy plants in Kansas, saying: \"We know that greenhouse gases contribute to climate change.",
"As an agricultural state, Kansas is particularly vulnerable.",
"Therefore, reducing pollutants benefits our state not only in the short term—but also for generations of Kansans to come.\"",
"However, shortly after Mark Parkinson became governor in 2009 upon Sebelius's resignation to become Secretary of U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Parkinson announced a compromise plan to allow construction of a coal-fired plant.In 2010, Republican Sam Brownback was elected governor with 63 percent of the state vote.",
"He was sworn in as governor in 2011, Kansas's first Republican governor in eight years.",
"Brownback had established himself as a conservative member of the U.S. Senate in years prior, but made several controversial decisions after becoming governor, leading to a 23% approval rating among registered voters – the lowest of any governor in the United States.",
"In May 2011, much to the opposition of art leaders and enthusiasts in the state, Brownback eliminated the Kansas Arts Commission, making Kansas the first state without an arts agency.",
"In July 2011, Brownback announced plans to close the Lawrence branch of the Kansas Department of Social and Rehabilitation Services as a cost-saving measure.",
"Hundreds rallied against the decision.",
"Lawrence City Commission later voted to provide the funding needed to keep the branch open.Democrat Laura Kelly defeated former Secretary of State of Kansas Kris Kobach in the 2018 election for Governor with 48.0% of the vote.In August 2022, Kansas voters rejected the controversial Value Them Both Amendment, which would have eliminated the right to an abortion in the state constitution.",
"The vote was the first referendum on abortion since Roe v. Wade was overturned earlier that summer, and the result was hailed as a landmark victory for pro-choice advocates in the traditionally socially conservative state.In a 2020 study, Kansas was ranked as the 13th hardest state for citizens to vote in.===National politics===Charles Curtis (R) was born near Topeka and served as a State Legislator, Congressman and Senator, before becoming Vice President (1929–33).",
"He is the only Native American elected to the Executive Branch (he was born into the Kaw Nation).upright=1.4The state's current delegation to the Congress of the United States includes Republican Senators Jerry Moran of Manhattan, and Roger Marshall of Great Bend.",
"In the House of Representatives, Kansas is represented by Republican Representatives Tracey Mann of Quinter (District 1), Jake LaTurner of Pittsburg (District 2), Ron Estes of Wichita (District 4), and Democratic Representative Sharice Davids of Kansas City (District 3) Davids is the second Native American to represent Kansas in Congress, after Republican Charles Curtis (Kaw).Historically, Kansas has been strongly Republican, dating from the Antebellum age when the Republican Party was created out of the movement opposing the extension of slavery into Kansas Territory.",
"Kansas has not elected a Democrat to the U.S. Senate since the 1932 election, when Franklin D. Roosevelt won his first term as president in the wake of the Great Depression.",
"This is the longest Senate losing streak for either party in a single state.",
"Senator Sam Brownback was a candidate for the Republican party nomination for president in 2008.Brownback was not a candidate for re-election to a third full term in 2010, but he was elected Governor in that year's general election.",
"Moran defeated Tiahrt for the Republican nomination for Brownback's seat in the August 2010 primary, then won a landslide general election victory over Democrat Lisa Johnston.The only non-Republican presidential candidates Kansas has given its electoral vote to are Populist James Weaver and Democrats William Jennings Bryan (once), Woodrow Wilson, Franklin Roosevelt (twice), and Lyndon Johnson.",
"In 2004, George W. Bush won the state's six electoral votes by an overwhelming margin of 25 percentage points with 62% of the vote.",
"The only two counties to support Democrat John Kerry in that election were Wyandotte, which contains Kansas City, and Douglas, home to the University of Kansas, located in Lawrence.",
"The 2008 election brought similar results as John McCain won the state with 57% of the votes.",
"Douglas, Wyandotte, and Crawford County were the only counties in support of President Barack Obama.Abilene was the boyhood home to Republican president Dwight D. Eisenhower, and he maintained lifelong ties to family and friends there.",
"Kansas was the adult home of two losing Republican candidates (Governor Alf Landon in 1936 and Senator Bob Dole in 1996).The ''New York Times'' reported in September 2014 that as the Democratic candidate for Senator has tried to drop out of the race, independent Greg Orman has attracted enough bipartisan support to seriously challenge the reelection bid of Republican Pat Roberts::Kansas politics have been roiled in recent years.",
"The rise of the Tea Party and the election of President Obama have prompted Republicans to embrace a purer brand of conservatism and purge what had long been a robust moderate wing from its ranks.",
"Mr. Roberts has sought to adapt to this new era, voting against spending bills that included projects for the state that he had sought.===State laws===The legal drinking age in Kansas is 21.In lieu of the state retail sales tax, a 10% Liquor Drink Tax is collected for liquor consumed on the licensed premises and an 8% Liquor Enforcement Tax is collected on retail purchases.",
"Although the sale of cereal malt beverage (also known as 3.2 beer) was legalized in 1937, the first post-Prohibition legalization of alcoholic liquor did not occur until the state's constitution was amended in 1948.The following year the Legislature enacted the Liquor Control Act which created a system of regulating, licensing, and taxing, and the Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control (ABC) was created to enforce the act.",
"The power to regulate cereal malt beverage remains with the cities and counties.",
"Liquor-by-the-drink did not become legal until passage of an amendment to the state's constitution in 1986 and additional legislation the following year.",
"As of November 2006, Kansas still has 29 dry counties and only 17 counties have passed liquor-by-the-drink with no food sales requirement.",
"Today there are more than 2,600 liquor and 4,000 cereal malt beverage licensees in the state.On May 12, 2022, Gov.",
"Laura Kelly signed legislation (Senate Bill 84) that legalizes sports betting in the state, making Kansas the 35th state to approve sports wagering in the US.",
"This would give the four state-owned casinos the right to partner with online bookmakers and up to 50 retailers, including gas stations and restaurants, to engage in sports betting."
],
[
"Education",
"Education in Kansas is governed at the primary and secondary school level by the Kansas State Board of Education.",
"The state's public colleges and universities are supervised by the Kansas Board of Regents.Twice since 1999 the Board of Education has approved changes in the state science curriculum standards that encouraged the teaching of intelligent design.",
"Both times, the standards were reversed after changes in the composition of the board in the next election."
],
[
"Culture",
"Overland Park===Music===The rock band Kansas was formed in the state capital of Topeka, the hometown of several of the band's members.Joe Walsh, guitarist for the famous rock band the Eagles, was born in Wichita.",
"Danny Carey, drummer for the band Tool, was raised in Paola.Singers from Kansas include Leavenworth native Melissa Etheridge, Sharon native Martina McBride, Chanute native Jennifer Knapp (whose first album was titled ''Kansas''), Kansas City native Janelle Monáe, Prairie Village native Joyce DiDonato, and Liberal native Jerrod Niemann.The state anthem is the American classic Home on the Range, written by Kansan Brewster Higley.",
"Another song, the official state march adopted by the Kansas Legislature in 1935 is called ''The Kansas March'', which features the lyrics, \"Blue sky above us, silken strands of heat, Rim of the far horizon, where earth and heaven meet, Kansas as a temple, stands in velvet sod, Shrine which the sunshine, sanctifies to God.",
"\"===Literature===The state's most famous appearance in literature was as the home of Dorothy Gale, the main character in the novel ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'' (1900).",
"Laura Ingalls Wilder's ''Little House on the Prairie'', published in 1935, is another well-known tale about Kansas.Kansas was also the setting of the 1965 best-seller ''In Cold Blood'', described by its author Truman Capote as a \"nonfiction novel\".",
"Mixing fact and fiction, the book chronicles the events and aftermath of the 1959 murder of a wealthy farmer and his family who lived in the small West Kansas town of Holcomb in Finney County.The fictional town of Smallville, Kansas is the childhood home of Clark Kent/Superman in American comic books published by DC Comics.",
"Also Keystone City is a Kansas city where The Flash works and lives.The science fiction novella ''A Boy and His Dog'', as well as the film based on it, take place in post-apocalyptic Topeka.The winner of the 2011 Newbery Medal for excellence in children's literature, ''Moon Over Manifest'', tells the story of a young and adventurous girl named Abilene who is sent to the fictional town of Manifest, Kansas, by her father in the summer of 1936.It was written by Kansan Clare Vanderpool.Lawrence is the setting for a number of science fiction writer James Gunn's novels.===Film===Ottawa is the oldest operating movie theater in the world.HutchinsonThe first film theater in Kansas was the Patee Theater in Lawrence.",
"Most theaters at the time showed films only as part of vaudeville acts but not as an exclusive and stand alone form of entertainment.",
"Though the Patee family had been involved in vaudeville, they believed films could carry the evening without other variety acts, but to show the films it was necessary for the Patee's to establish a generating plant (back in 1903 Lawrence was not yet fully electrified).",
"The Patee Theater was one of the first of its kind west of the Mississippi River.",
"The specialized equipment like the projector came from New York City.Kansas has been the setting of many award-winning and popular American films, as well as being the home of some of the oldest operating cinemas in the world.",
"The Plaza Cinema in Ottawa, Kansas, located in the northeastern portion of the state, was built on May 22, 1907, and it is listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest operating cinema in the world.",
"In 1926, The Jayhawk Theatre, an art-deco movie house in Topeka opened its doors for the first time to movie going audiences, and today, in addition to screenings of independent films, the theatre acts as a venue for plays and concerts.",
"The Fox Theater in Hutchinson was built in 1930, and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.Like the other theaters listed here, The Fox still plays first run movies to this day.",
"* As was the case with the novel, Dorothy Gale (portrayed by Judy Garland) in the 1939 fantasy film ''The Wizard of Oz'' was a young girl who lived in Kansas with her aunt and uncle.",
"The line, \"We're not in Kansas anymore\", has entered into the English lexicon as a phrase describing a wholly new or unexpected situation.",
"* The 1967 feature film ''In Cold Blood'', like the book on which it was based, was set in various locations across Kansas.",
"Many of the scenes in the film were filmed at the exact locations where the events profiled in the book took place.",
"A 1996 TV miniseries was also based on the book.",
"* The 1988 film ''Kansas'' starred Andrew McCarthy as a traveler who met up with a dangerous wanted drifter played by Matt Dillon.",
"* The 2005 film ''Capote'', for which Philip Seymour Hoffman was awarded the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of the title character, profiled the author as he traveled across Kansas while writing ''In Cold Blood'' (although most of the film itself was shot in the Canadian province of Manitoba).",
"* The setting of ''The Day After'', a 1983 made-for-television movie about a fictional nuclear attack, was the city of Lawrence.",
"* Due to the super hero Superman growing up in the fictional Smallville, Kansas, multiple films featuring the super hero have been entirely or at least partially set in Kansas including ''Superman'' (1978), ''Superman III'' (1983), ''Man of Steel'' (2013), ''Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice'' (2016), and ''Justice League'' (2017).",
"* The 2012 film ''Looper'' is set in Kansas.",
"* The 1973 film ''Paper Moon'' in which Tatum O'Neal won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress (The youngest to win an Academy Award) was based in and filmed in Kansas.",
"The film was shot in the small towns of Hays; McCracken; Wilson; and St. Joseph, Missouri.",
"Various shooting locations include the Midland Hotel at Wilson; the railway depot at Gorham; storefronts and buildings on Main Street in White Cloud; Hays; sites on both sides of the Missouri River; Rulo Bridge; and Saint Joseph, Missouri.",
"* Scenes of the 1996 film Mars Attacks!",
"took place in the fictional town of Perkinsville.",
"Scenes taking place in Kansas were filmed in Burns, Lawrence, and Wichita.",
"* The 2007 film ''The Lookout'' is set mostly in Kansas (although filmed in Canada).",
"Specifically two locations; Kansas City and the fictional town of Noel, Kansas.",
"* The 2012 documentary ''The Gridiron'' was filmed at The University of Kansas* The 2014 ESPN documentary ''No Place Like Home'' was filmed in Lawrence and the countryside of Douglas County, Kansas* The 2017 film ''Thank You for Your Service'' is primarily set in Kansas, including the cities of Topeka and Junction City.",
"* The 2017 documentary ''When Kings Reigned'' was filmed in Lawrence.",
"* The 2019 film ''Brightburn'' took place in the fictional town of Brightburn.",
"As is evident with scenes in the film depicting mountains (Kansas has no mountain ranges), it was filmed in Georgia instead of in Kansas.===Television===* The protagonist brothers of the 2005 TV show ''Supernatural'' hail from Lawrence, with the city referenced numerous times on the show.",
"* Most of the second season of the TV Series ''Prison Break'' had scenes that took place in Kansas.",
"Specifically the towns of Ness City and Tribune as the character T–Bag searches for his for his ex-girlfriend who turned him in to the police.",
"A season 1 episode also briefly took place in Topeka.",
"* 2006 TV series ''Jericho'' was based in the fictitious town of Jericho, Kansas, surviving post-nuclear America.",
"* Early seasons of ''Smallville'', about Superman as a teenager, were based in a fictional town of Smallville, Kansas.",
"Unlike most other adaptations of the Superman story, the series also places the fictional city of Metropolis in western Kansas, a few hours from Smallville.",
"* ''Gunsmoke'', a radio series western, ran from 1952 to 1961, took place in Dodge City, Kansas.",
"* ''Gunsmoke'', television series, the longest running prime time show of the 20th century, ran from September 10, 1955, to March 31, 1975, for a total of 635 episodes.",
"* The 2009 Showtime series ''United States of Tara'' is set in Overland Park, a suburb of Kansas City.===Sports=======Professional====Kansas City Team Sport League City Sporting Kansas City Soccer Major League Soccer Kansas City Sporting Kansas City II Soccer MLS Next Pro Kansas City Kansas City Monarchs Baseball American Association Kansas City Garden City Wind Baseball Pecos League Garden City Kaw Valley FC Soccer USL League Two Lawrence, and Topeka Salina Liberty Indoor football Champions Indoor Football Salina Southwest Kansas Storm Indoor football Champions Indoor Football Dodge City Topeka Tropics Indoor football Champions Indoor Football Topeka Wichita Thunder Ice hockey ECHL Wichita Wichita Force Indoor football Arena Football Association Wichita Wichita Wind Surge Baseball Double-A Central WichitaSporting Kansas City, who have played their home games at Village West in Kansas City, since 2008, are the first top-tier professional sports league and first Major League Soccer team to be located within Kansas.",
"In 2011 the team moved to their new home, a $165 million soccer specific stadium now known as Children's Mercy Park.Historically, Kansans have supported the major league sports teams of Kansas City, Missouri, including the Kansas City Royals (MLB), and the Kansas City Chiefs (NFL), in part because the home stadiums for these teams are a few miles from the Kansas border.",
"The Chiefs and the Royals play at the Truman Sports Complex, located about from the Kansas–Missouri state line.",
"FC Kansas City, a charter member of the National Women's Soccer League, played the 2013 season, the first for both the team and the league, on the Kansas side of the metropolitan area, but played on the Missouri side until folding after the 2017 season.",
"From 1973 to 1997 the flagship radio station for the Royals was WIBW in Topeka.Some Kansans, mostly from the westernmost parts of the state, support the professional sports teams of Denver, particularly the Denver Broncos of the NFL.Two major auto racing facilities are located in Kansas.",
"The Kansas Speedway located in Kansas City hosts races of the NASCAR, IndyCar, and ARCA circuits.",
"Also, the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) holds drag racing events at Heartland Park Topeka.",
"The Sports Car Club of America has its national headquarters in Topeka.=====History=====The history of professional sports in Kansas probably dates from the establishment of the minor league baseball Topeka Capitals and Leavenworth Soldiers in 1886 in the Western League.",
"The African-American Bud Fowler played on the Topeka team that season, one year before the \"color line\" descended on professional baseball.In 1887, the Western League was dominated by a reorganized Topeka team called the Golden Giants: a high-priced collection of major leaguer players, including Bug Holliday, Jim Conway, Dan Stearns, Perry Werden and Jimmy Macullar, which won the league by 15.5 games.",
"On April 10, 1887, the Golden Giants also won an exhibition game from the defending World Series champions, the St. Louis Browns (the present-day Cardinals), by a score of 12–9.However, Topeka was unable to support the team, and it disbanded after one year.The first night game in the history of professional baseball was played in Independence on April 28, 1930, when the Muscogee (Oklahoma) Indians beat the Independence Producers 13–3 in a minor league game sanctioned by the Western League of the Western Baseball Association with 1,500 fans attending the game.",
"The permanent lighting system was first used for an exhibition game on April 17, 1930, between the Independence Producers and House of David semi-professional baseball team of Benton Harbor, Michigan with the Independence team winning 9–1 before a crowd of 1,700 spectators.====College====David Booth Kansas Memorial Stadium is the oldest football stadium west of the Mississippi River, and one of the oldest standing football stadiums in the country.",
"Built in 1921, it is home to the Kansas Jayhawks football team.The governing body for intercollegiate sports in the United States, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), was headquartered in Johnson County, Kansas from 1952 until moving to Indianapolis in 1999.=====NCAA Division I schools=====Allen Fieldhouse at University of Kansas in LawrenceTyler Field in Eck Stadium at Wichita State University in WichitaWhile there are no franchises of the four major professional sports within the state, many Kansans are fans of the state's major college sports teams, especially the Jayhawks of the University of Kansas (KU), and the Wildcats of Kansas State University (KSU or \"K-State\").",
"The teams are rivals in the Big 12 Conference.Both KU and K-State have tradition-rich programs in men's basketball.",
"The Jayhawks are a perennial national power, ranking first in all-time victories among NCAA programs.",
"The Jayhawks have won six national titles, including NCAA tournament championships in 1952, 1988, 2008, and 2022.They also were retroactively awarded national championships by the Helms Foundation for 1922 and 1923.K-State also had a long stretch of success on the hardwood, lasting from the 1940s to the 1980s, making four Final Fours during that stretch.",
"In 1988, KU and K-State met in the Elite Eight, KU taking the game 71–58.After a 12-year absence, the Wildcats returned to the NCAA tournament in 2008, and advanced to the Elite Eight in 2010 and 2018.KU is fifth all-time with 15 Final Four appearances, while K-State's four appearances are tied for 17th.Conversely, success on the gridiron has been less frequent for both KSU and KU.",
"However, there have been recent breakthroughs for both schools' football teams.",
"The Jayhawks won the Orange Bowl for the first time in three tries in 2008, capping a 12–1 season, the best in school history.",
"And when Bill Snyder arrived to coach at K-State in 1989, he turned the Wildcats from one of the worst college football programs in America, into a national force for most of the 1990s and early 2000s.",
"The team won the Fiesta Bowl in 1997, achieved an undefeated (11–0) regular season and No.1 ranking in 1998, and took the Big 12 Conference championship in 2003.After three seasons in which K-State football languished, Snyder came out of retirement in 2009 and guided them to the top of the college football ranks again, finishing second in the Big 12 in 2011 and earning a berth in the Cotton Bowl, and winning the Big 12 again in 2012.Wichita State University, which also fields teams (called the Shockers) in Division I of the NCAA, is best known for its baseball and basketball programs.",
"In baseball, the Shockers won the College World Series in 1989.In men's basketball, they appeared in the Final Four in 1965 and 2013, and entered the 2014 NCAA tournament unbeaten.",
"The school also fielded a football team from 1897 to 1986.The Shocker football team is tragically known for a plane crash in 1970 that killed 31 people, including 14 players.=====NCAA Division II schools=====Notable success has also been achieved by the state's smaller schools in football.",
"Pittsburg State University, an NCAA Division II participant, has claimed four national titles in football, two in the NAIA and most recently the 2011 NCAA Division II national title.",
"Pittsburg State became the winningest NCAA Division II football program in 1995.PSU passed Hillsdale College at the top of the all-time victories list in the 1995 season on its march to the national runner-up finish.",
"The Gorillas, in 96 seasons of intercollegiate competition, have accumulated 579 victories, posting a 579–301–48 overall mark.Washburn University, in Topeka, won the NAIA Men's Basketball Championship in 1987.The Fort Hays State University men won the 1996 NCAA Division II title with a 34–0 record, and the Washburn women won the 2005 NCAA Division II crown.",
"St. Benedict's College (now Benedictine College), in Atchison, won the 1954 and 1967 Men's NAIA Basketball Championships.The Kansas Collegiate Athletic Conference has its roots as one of the oldest college sport conferences in existence and participates in the NAIA and all ten member schools are in the state of Kansas.",
"Other smaller school conferences that have some members in Kansas are the Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association the Midlands Collegiate Athletic Conference, the Midwest Christian College Conference, and the Heart of America Athletic Conference.",
"Many junior colleges also have active athletic programs.Emporia State's women's basketball team, under head coach Brandon Schneider, who is now serving as the women's basketball coach at the University of Kansas, has seen success as well.",
"In 2010 the team won the NCAA Division II National Championship.",
"Emporia State and Washburn in Topeka share a heated rivalry in all sports, mostly due to the close proximity of both cities.=====Junior colleges=====The Kansas Jayhawk Community College Conference has been heralded as one of the best conferences in all of NJCAA football, with Garden City Community College, Independence Community College, and Butler County Community College all consistently in contention for national championships.====High school====The Kansas State High School Activities Association (KSHSAA) is the organization which oversees interscholastic competition in the state of Kansas at the high school level.",
"It oversees both athletic and non-athletic competition, and sponsors championships in several sports and activities."
],
[
"See also",
"* Index of Kansas-related articles* Outline of Kansas* List of Kansas landmarks* List of people from Kansas* National Register of Historic Places listings in Kansas* USS ''Kansas'', 2 ships"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* ; 559 pages.",
"* ; 535 pages.",
"* ; 1204 pages.",
"* ; 5 volumes; 2731 pages; ( Vol1), ( Vol2), ( Vol3), ( Vol4), ( Vol5); the 1919 edition contains additional biographies.",
"* ; 369 pages.",
"* ; 3 volumes; 2723 pages; ( Vol1), ( Vol2), ( Vol3)* ; 610 pages.",
"* ; 3 volumes; 1616 pages; ( Hathi Trust) ( Internet Archive)*"
],
[
"External links",
"* State of Kansas* * Kansas Travel and Tourism Division* Kansas Historical Society* Kansas Memory—documents, photographs, and other primary sources provided by the Kansas Historical Society* Kansas State Agency Databases—Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Kansas state agencies* USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Kansas* Kansas State Facts from USDA'''Maps'''* Kansas Department of Transportation maps:* .",
":* .",
"* .",
"* * ."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"K"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''K''', or '''k''', is the eleventh letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide.",
"Its name in English is ''kay'' (pronounced ), plural ''kays''.",
"The letter K usually represents the voiceless velar plosive."
],
[
"History",
" Egyptian hieroglyph D Proto-Sinaitic K Proto-Canaanite''kap'' Phoenician ''kaph'' Greek ''Kappa'' Latin Kd 25px 25px 25px 40px Latin KThe letter K comes from the Greek letter Κ (kappa), which was taken from the Semitic kaph, the symbol for an open hand.",
"This, in turn, was likely adapted by Semitic tribes who had lived in Egypt from the hieroglyph for \"hand\" representing /ḏ/ in the Egyptian word for hand, ⟨ḏ-r-t⟩ (likely pronounced in Old Egyptian).",
"The Semites evidently assigned it the sound value instead, because their word for hand started with that sound.K was brought into the Latin alphabet with the name ''ka'' /kaː/ to differentiate it from C, named ''ce'' (pronounced /keː/) and Q, named ''qu'' and pronounced /kuː/.",
"In the earliest Latin inscriptions, the letters C, K and Q were all used to represent the sounds and (which were not differentiated in writing).",
"Of these, Q was used before a rounded vowel (e.g.",
"'ego'), K before /a/ (e.g.",
"'calendis'), and C elsewhere.",
"Later, the use of C and its variant G replaced most usages of K and Q. K survived only in a few fossilized forms such as ''Kalendae'', \"the calends\".After Greek words were taken into Latin, the Kappa was transliterated as a C. Loanwords from other alphabets with the sound were also transliterated with C. Hence, the Romance languages generally use C, in imitating Classical Latin's practice, and have K only in later loanwords from other language groups.",
"The Celtic languages also tended to use C instead of K, and this influence carried over into Old English."
],
[
"Pronunciation and use",
"+Pronunciations of KkLanguageDialect(s)Pronunciation (IPA)EnvironmentNotesEsperantohardFaroesehardsoftGreeksoftLatinizationhardLatinizationIcelandicsoftsoft, lenitedhardhard, lenitedMandarinStandardPinyin latinizationNorwegiansofthardSwedishhardsoftTurkishsofthard=== English ===English is now the only Germanic language to productively use \"hard\" (outside the digraph ) rather than (although Dutch uses it in loan words of Latin origin, and the pronunciation of these words follows the same hard/soft distinction as in English).The letter is silent at the start of an English word when it comes before the letter , as in the words ''knight'', ''knife'', ''knot'', ''know'', and ''knee''.Like J, X, Q, and Z, the letter K is not used very frequently in English.",
"It is the fifth least frequently used letter in the English language, with a frequency in words of about 0.8%.=== Number ===In the International System of Units (SI), the SI prefix for one thousand is '''kilo-''', officially abbreviated as '''k''': for example, prefixed to ''metre''/''meter'' or its abbreviation ''m'', ''kilometre'' or ''km'' signifies a thousand metres.",
"As such, people occasionally represent numbers in a non-standard notation by replacing the last three zeros of the general numeral with '''K''', as in 30K for 30,000.=== Other languages ===In most languages where it is employed, this letter represents the sound (with or without aspiration) or some similar sound.=== Other systems ===The International Phonetic Alphabet uses for the voiceless velar plosive."
],
[
"Related characters",
"=== Ancestors, descendants and siblings ===* 𐤊 : Semitic letter Kaph, from which the following symbols originally derive* Κ κ/ϰ : Greek letter Kappa, from which K derives* К к : Cyrillic letter Ka, also derived from Kappa* K with diacritics: Ƙ ƙ, Ꝁ ꝁ, Ḱ ḱ, Ǩ ǩ, Ḳ ḳ, Ķ ķ, ᶄ, Ⱪ ⱪ, Ḵ ḵ** Ꞣ and ꞣ were used in Latvian orthography before 1921*The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet uses various forms of the letter K:*******ₖ : Subscript small k was used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet prior to its formal standardization in 1902*Ʞ ʞ : Turned capital and small k were used in transcriptions of the Dakota language in publications of the American Board of Ethnology in the late 19th century.",
"Turned small k was also used for a velar click in the International Phonetic Alphabet but its use was withdrawn in 1970.",
"*𝼐 : Small capital turned k is used as a click letter*𝼃 : Small letter reversed k is used as a Voice Quality Symbol (VoQS)=== Ligatures and abbreviations ===* ₭ : Lao kip* Ꝃ ꝃ, Ꝅ ꝅ : Various forms of K were used for medieval scribal abbreviations"
],
[
"Computing codes",
": 1"
],
[
"Other representation"
],
[
"Other usage",
"* \"K\" replacing \"C\" in satiric misspelling.",
"* K is the unit symbol for the kelvin, used to measure thermodynamic temperature (note: degree sign is not used with this symbol).",
"* K is the chemical symbol for element potassium (from its Latin name ).",
"* Triangle K.* Unit prefix k, meaning 1000 times.",
"* Josef K is the name of the principal character in Franz Kafka's novel ''The Trial''.",
"* In chess notation, the letter '''K''' represents the King (WK for White King, BK for Black King).",
"* In baseball scoring, the letter '''K''' is used to represent a strikeout.",
"A forwards oriented '''K''' represents a \"strikeout swinging\"; a backwards oriented K (9px) represents a \"strikeout looking\".",
"* As abbreviation for OK, often used in emails and short text messages.",
"* K is used as a slang term for Ketamine among recreational drug users.",
"* In the CMYK color model, '''K''' represents black ink.",
"* In International Morse code it is used to mean \"over\".",
"* In fracture mechanics, ''K'' is used to represent the stress intensity factor.",
"* In physics, ''k'' usually stands for the Boltzmann constant.",
"* In argentinian politcs, K is used as a symbol for Kirchnerism* K (logic).",
"* K is used colloquially to mean kilometre (as in \"a 10K run\").",
"* K is used to indicate thousands, especially when expressing amounts of money, e.g.",
"$20K = twenty thousand dollars.",
"* In the United Kingdom under the old system (before 2001), a licence plate that begins with \"K\" for example \"K123 XYZ\" would correspond to a vehicle registered between August 1, 1992, and July 31, 1993.Again under the old system, a licence plate that ends with \"K\" for example \"ABC 123K\" would correspond to a vehicle that was registered between August 1, 1971, and July 31, 1972.",
"* On Idaho license plates, an initial K in the plate number indicates it was issued in Kootenai County."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kappa (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kappa''' is a letter of the Greek alphabet.",
"'''Kappa''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Measurement",
"* Cohen's kappa, also known as Kappa statistic* Fleiss' kappa, another measure of inter-annotator agreement* Kappa number, a measure of lignin content in wood pulp"
],
[
"Companies",
"* Kappa (brand), an Italian sportswear brand* Kappa Publishing Group, publishing company"
],
[
"Automotive",
"* GM Kappa platform, subcompact rear-wheel drive automobile platform* Lancia Kappa, an executive car* Hyundai Kappa engine, automobile engine series"
],
[
"Places",
"* Kappa, Illinois, a village* Kappa Island, Antarctic island"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Kappa (folklore), a Japanese turtle-like humanoid* ''Kappa'' (novel), by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa* Kappa (''Dungeons & Dragons''), a game creature*''Death Kappa'', a Japanese kaiju film* Kappa (rocket), a family of Japanese sounding rockets* Kappa TV, a TV channel based in Kerala* Knowledge and Power Preparatory Academy IV or KAPPA IV, a middle school in the Bronx, New York City* \"Kappa\", a 1999 song by Mogwai from the album ''Come On Die Young''* Kappa chain, a type of immunoglobulin light chain, part of the human immune system* Kappa, one of the most popular emotes on live streaming platform Twitch* Kappa effect, a sensory illusion relating to the human perception of time* SARS-CoV-2 Kappa variant, one of the variants of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19"
],
[
"See also",
"* Honda Capa, a car sold in Japan* Kalpa (aeon)* Kapa (disambiguation)* κ-opioid receptor* ''Kappaphycus alvarezii'', a type of seaweed*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kuiper's test"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kuiper's test''' is used in statistics to test that whether a given distribution, or family of distributions, is contradicted by evidence from a sample of data.",
"It is named after Dutch mathematician Nicolaas Kuiper.Kuiper's test is closely related to the better-known Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (or K-S test as it is often called).",
"As with the K-S test, the discrepancy statistics ''D''+ and ''D''− represent the absolute sizes of the most positive and most negative differences between the two cumulative distribution functions that are being compared.",
"The trick with Kuiper's test is to use the quantity ''D''+ + ''D''− as the test statistic.",
"This small change makes Kuiper's test as sensitive in the tails as at the median and also makes it invariant under cyclic transformations of the independent variable.",
"The Anderson–Darling test is another test that provides equal sensitivity at the tails as the median, but it does not provide the cyclic invariance.This invariance under cyclic transformations makes Kuiper's test invaluable when testing for cyclic variations by time of year or day of the week or time of day, and more generally for testing the fit of, and differences between, circular probability distributions."
],
[
"Definition",
"Illustration of the two-sample Kuiper Test statistic.",
"Red and blue lines each correspond to an empirical distribution function, and the black arrows show the points distances which sum to the Kuiper Statistic.The test statistic, ''V'', for Kuiper's test is defined as follows.",
"Let ''F'' be the continuous cumulative distribution function which is to be the null hypothesis.",
"Denote the sample of data which are independent realisations of random variables, having ''F'' as their distribution function, by ''xi'' (''i''=1,...,''n'').",
"Then define:::and finally,:Tables for the critical points of the test statistic are available, and these include certain cases where the distribution being tested is not fully known, so that parameters of the family of distributions are estimated."
],
[
"Example",
"We could test the hypothesis that computers fail more during some times of the year than others.",
"To test this, we would collect the dates on which the test set of computers had failed and build an empirical distribution function.",
"The null hypothesis is that the failures are uniformly distributed.",
"Kuiper's statistic does not change if we change the beginning of the year and does not require that we bin failures into months or the like.",
"Another test statistic having this property is the Watson statistic, which is related to the Cramér–von Mises test.However, if failures occur mostly on weekends, many uniform-distribution tests such as K-S and Kuiper would miss this, since weekends are spread throughout the year.",
"This inability to distinguish distributions with a comb-like shape from continuous uniform distributions is a key problem with all statistics based on a variant of the K-S test.",
"Kuiper's test, applied to the event times modulo one week, is able to detect such a pattern.",
"Using event times that have been modulated with the K-S test can result in different results depending on how the data is phased.",
"In this example, the K-S test may detect the non-uniformity if the data is set to start the week on Saturday, but fail to detect the non-uniformity if the week starts on Wednesday."
],
[
"See also",
"* Kolmogorov–Smirnov test"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kirk Hammett"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kirk Lee Hammett''' (born November 18, 1962) is an American musician who has been the lead guitarist of heavy metal band Metallica since 1983.Prior to joining Metallica, he co-formed the thrash metal band Exodus in 1979.In 2003, Hammett, along with bandmate James Hetfield, was ranked 23rd on ''Rolling Stone''s list of Greatest Guitarists of All Time.",
"In 2009, Hammett was ranked number 15 in Joel McIver's book ''The 100 Greatest Metal Guitarists''."
],
[
"Early life",
"Hammett was born on November 18, 1962, in San Francisco, California, and raised in the town of El Sobrante.",
"He is the son of Teofila \"Chefela\" (born Oyao) and Dennis L. Hammett (a Merchant Mariner).",
"His mother is of Filipino descent and his father was of English, German, Scottish, and Irish ancestry.",
"He attended De Anza High School in Richmond, California.",
"While attending De Anza High School, he met Les Claypool of Primus, and they remain close friends.Hammett has a well-known passion for horror movies that stretches back to the late 1960s.",
"After spraining his arm in a fight with his sister at age five, Hammett's parents placed him in front of the television.",
"It was during this time that he first watched ''The Day of the Triffids''.",
"After that, Hammett found himself drawn to his brother's Frankenstein figures and began spending his milk money on horror magazines.",
"For the better part of the next decade, Hammett dove deep into the horror scene.Hammett began showing an interest in music after listening to his brother Rick's extensive record collection (which included Jimi Hendrix, Led Zeppelin, and UFO).",
"He began selling his horror magazines to buy music records, which led him to properly picking up the guitar at age 15.Hammett's first guitar was (in his own words) a \"wholly unglamorous\" Montgomery Ward catalog special, which was accompanied by a shoebox (with a four-inch speaker) for an amp.",
"After purchasing a 1978 Fender Stratocaster copy, Hammett attempted to customize his sound with various guitar parts before eventually buying a 1974 Gibson Flying V."
],
[
"Career",
"===Exodus (1979–1983)===Hammett's musical interests eventually drew him into the fledgling thrash metal genre.",
"In 1979, he formed the band Exodus at the age of sixteen, along with vocalist Paul Baloff, guitarist Tim Agnello, bassist Geoff Andrews, and drummer Tom Hunting.",
"Hammett named Exodus after the Leon Uris novel of the same name, and played on the band's ''1982 Demo'' and its successor ''Die By His Hand'' from 1983.Exodus was an influential band in the Bay Area thrash movement.=== Metallica (1983–present) ===In 1983, Metallica traveled to the east coast to record its debut album, ''Kill 'Em All''.",
"Due to lead guitarist Dave Mustaine's substance abuse and violent tendencies, he was fired shortly after their arrival, and would eventually form the band Megadeth.",
"Hammett received a phone call from Metallica on April 1, and flew out to New York for an audition on April 11, the same day Mustaine was let go.",
"Vocalist/guitarist James Hetfield said: \"The first song we played was \"Seek and Destroy\", and Kirk pulled off this solo, and it was like ... things are going to be alright!\".",
"Hammett was instantly asked to join the band.Hammett performing live in London in 2008Hammett has written a number of riffs for Metallica since ''Ride the Lightning'' (the band's second album).",
"One of his riffs was used on \"Enter Sandman\" - which went on to become one of Metallica's most popular songs.",
"It was the first track and the first single on the band's self-titled album (also known as ''The Black Album''), and was ranked 399th on ''Rolling Stone''s list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.",
"The bridge for \"Creeping Death\" was originally an Exodus riff that Hammett took with him to Metallica.In 1986, during the band's European leg of their tour to support ''Master of Puppets'', the group had a dispute over sleeping arrangements on their tour bus.",
"The outcome of the dispute was decided by a card draw, which Cliff Burton won by picking the Ace of Spades.",
"Once the draw was completed, Burton looked at Hammett and said \"I want your bunk\", to which Hammett complied, saying that he might be able to sleep better in the front of the bus anyway.",
"In the early hours of the following morning, Metallica's tour bus slid off the road and overturned in Sweden.",
"Burton was thrown through the window of the bus, which fell on top of Burton and subsequently killed him.",
"Hammett has stated in an interview that he once thought that it easily could have been him who was killed instead, since Burton was sleeping in what was considered to be Hammett's bunk.",
"In Kirk's own words: \"You know to this day I just think, it could have been me or it couldn't have been me but ... it's never left me to this day.",
"\"Between the end of touring (and promoting) the ''Black Album'' and the start of touring in promotion of ''Load'', he studied at San Francisco State University, focusing on film and Asian arts.",
"Hammett went through a \"blues period\" around this time - which had some influence on Metallica's ''Load'' and ''Reload'' albums.",
"He also began listening to a lot of jazz music.",
"Hammett described this period of his life as \"great education\", because he was able to discover where all of his own rock influences had gotten their own guitar licks.",
"However, even though jazz music had a profound effect on his improvisation skills and solos, Hammett felt that he was delving too deep into the genre.",
"Since ''Death Magnetic'', Hammett has gone back to being \"primarily\" a metal guitarist, but some of his influences of jazz and blues music still remain.Hammett wanted to have guitar solos on Metallica's 2003 album, ''St.",
"Anger'', but drummer Lars Ulrich and producer Bob Rock thought that the solos did not sound right in the songs.",
"He later admitted himself, \"We tried to put in solos but they sounded like an afterthought so we left them out\".",
"Recording for ''St.",
"Anger'' was halted in 2001 so that Metallica frontman James Hetfield could enter rehab for alcohol abuse.",
"Due to tensions within the band (which were well-documented in the Metallica documentary ''Some Kind of Monster'') at the time, Hammett expressed interest in working on a solo album.",
"According to Hammett, if he ever worked on a solo album, it wouldn't be \"super-duty\" heavy metal, and may include some classical guitarists.",
"When he was asked about his experiences of recording ''St.",
"Anger'', Hammett said:On April 4, 2009, Hammett, along with Metallica bandmates Lars Ulrich, James Hetfield, and Robert Trujillo and former Metallica bandmates Jason Newsted and the deceased Cliff Burton, were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.",
"In 2009, Hammett provided the foreword to British author Joel McIver's book ''To Live Is to Die: The Life and Death of Metallica's Cliff Burton''.Hammett in 2013In April 2015, Hammett admitted to losing his phone - which contained 250 new \"ideas\" for Metallica's upcoming studio release.",
"The incident happened about six months prior to the admission (around November 2014).",
"The phone was not backed up and Hammett can only remember eight out of the 250 \"ideas\" he had.",
"On the subject, Hammett said:In 2016, Hammett provided the foreword to author Greg Prato's book ''German Metal Machine: Scorpions in the '70s''.On February 8, 2022, it was announced that Hammett would release an extended play entitled ''Portals''.",
"Said to be inspired by \"classical music, soundtracks, horror movies and maybe a little Ennio Morricone\", the play is his solo debut and was released on April 23, 2022.===Other appearances===He also appeared on the ''Kichigai'' EP by punk band Septic Death.",
"He played additional lead guitar on the title track.Hammett can be seen in the background in Primus' \"John the Fisherman\" video fishing off of Les Claypool's boat.",
"Hammett has been friends with Primus bassist and lead vocalist Les Claypool since childhood.",
"Claypool even auditioned for Metallica after the tragic death of Cliff Burton.Hammett played guitar on the track \"Satan\" with Orbital for the ''Spawn: The Album'' soundtrack released in July 1997.Hammett plays a guitar solo on Pansy Division's song \"Headbanger\" which appears on the EP ''For Those About to Suck Cock''.In 2005, Hammett was featured playing the guitar roles on the Carlos Santana track \"Trinity\" alongside steel-pedal guitarist Robert Randolph.",
"Santana personally asked Hammett to contribute to his then-upcoming album ''All That I Am''.",
"Hammett previously worked with Santana in 2001 at a live show benefit in San Francisco.",
"Metallica had also invited Santana into the studio while recording ''St.",
"Anger''.In 2006, Hammett voiced himself on ''The Simpsons'' (\"The Mook, the Chef, the Wife and Her Homer\").",
"He also provided various voices on the Adult Swim show ''Metalocalypse'', including a two fingered fan (\"The Curse of Dethklok\"), The Queen of Denmark (\"Happy Dethday\"), and a Finnish barkeep (\"Dethtroll\").Hammett also appeared as a guest in an episode of ''Space Ghost Coast to Coast'' titled \"Jacksonville\", alongside fellow Metallica member James Hetfield.He appeared as a guest guitarist on K'Naan's 2006 song \"If Rap Gets Jealous\" off of the ''Troubadour'' album.After performing a set with Metallica at Bonnaroo in June 2008, Hammett played one song with My Morning Jacket and a couple songs with the annual Superjam collaboration, which also included Les Claypool and members of Gogol Bordello playing primarily Tom Waits songs.Hammett is one of the main characters in ''Guitar Hero: Metallica'', along with the rest of the current line-up of Metallica.In 2011, Hammett appeared in an episode of ''Jon Benjamin Has a Van'' as an actor and guitarist.Hammett has appeared as himself, representing the character Kevin's conscience, in the 2022 American teen comedy-drama Metal Lords.In May 2023, Hammett performed at the Jeff Beck tribute concerts held at the Royal Albert Hall in London, sharing the stage with Eric Clapton, Rod Stewart, Ronnie Wood, Billy Gibbons and Johnny Depp among others."
],
[
"Book",
"On October 1, 2012, Abrams Image published Hammett's first book, ''Too Much Horror Business'' (a collection of photos detailing Hammett's lifelong love of monster movies and horror memorabilia).",
"Hammett has said that the book is \"basically\" all of the horror memorabilia he has managed to amass over the last 30 years.",
"In an interview with ''Guitar World'', Hammett said that he has such a huge horror collection and thought it was the right time to share it with everyone.",
"The 228 page hardcover features more than 300 images of Hammett's horror collection.",
"Among these images are the costumes from the Bela Lugosi movies ''White Zombie'' and ''The Black Cat'' (which also starred Boris Karloff), original movie posters (ranging from ''Nosferatu'' to ''Hellraiser''), rare horror-themed toys (including the 'Great Garloo' and 'Frankenstein Tricky Walkers'), movie props (including the 'Dr.",
"Tongue' zombie from George A. Romero's ''Day of the Dead''), original Basil Gogos ''Famous Monsters'' art, and fantasy paintings by Frank Frazetta.",
"In addition to the images from Hammett's horror collection, ''Too Much Horror Business'' contains three conversations with the guitarist about his childhood, the nature of his horror collection, and the connection between Metallica's music and horror movies.",
"On the book, Hammett has been quoted saying:"
],
[
"''Kirk Von Hammett's Fear FestEvil''",
"''Kirk Von Hammett's Fear FestEvil'' is an annual horror convention created by Kirk Hammett.",
"The first ''Fear FestEvil'' took place at the Regency Ballroom in San Francisco - over a three-day period (from February 6–8, 2014).",
"Hammett was inspired to create his own horror convention after experiencing the enjoyment of making his \"crypt\" at the ''Orion Music + More'' festival.",
"The convention features live music, signings, interactive displays, vending, live talks, and guest appearances.",
"At the 2014 event, guests included Sara Karloff (daughter of actor Boris Karloff), Bela G. Lugosi (son of actor Bela Lugosi), make-up artist Gregory Nicotero (who worked on George A. Romero's ''Day of the Dead''), actor Tom Savini (who portrayed ''Sex Machine'' in From Dusk Till Dawn and worked on many of George A. Romero's movies), Heather Langenkamp (who portrayed Nancy in Wes Craven's ''A Nightmare on Elm Street''), Kane Hodder (who portrayed Jason Voorhees in the ''Friday the 13th'' film series), and Haruo Nakajima (of Godzilla fame).",
"Other guests in attendance included Hammett's former band Exodus, Death Angel, Orchid, Metallica band member Robert Trujillo, Richard Christy, Stephen Perkins, Slash, and Scott Ian.",
"Exodus played on-stage with Carcass on the Friday, whilst Death Division and Orchid played before Death Angel on the Saturday.",
"Hammett joined Exodus and Death Angel on-stage for their encores.The second annual ''Fear FestEvil'' took place between April 10–12, 2015, at the ''Rockbar Theater'' in San Jose, California.",
"Meshuggah headlined the event, whilst High on Fire, Blues Pills, Agnostic Front, and Asada Messiah also made appearances.",
"Orchid also made a second appearance at the ''Fear FestEvil''.",
"On April 10, VIPs were able to attend the ''Dinner and Murder Mystery'' - along with Hammett - at the Winchester Mystery House."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Hammett has been married twice.",
"His first marriage to Rebecca lasted three years, having ended in 1990, during the recording of ''Metallica''.",
"Hammett has been married to his second wife Lani since 1998.They have two sons, Angel (b. September 29, 2006) and Vincenzo (b. June 28, 2008).",
"He resides in Sonoma, California and Hawaii.In addition to playing guitar and collecting horror memorabilia, Hammett's hobbies include reading comic books and surfing.===Substance abuse===At one point in his life, Hammett spent a \"lot of money\" on drugs.",
"Hammett has said that he used drugs because he thought they would be fun.",
"During the Damaged Justice tour, he had a cocaine addiction.",
"Hammett eventually pulled out of the addiction because cocaine made him feel depressed, but relapsed during the ''Load'' era.",
"One of the reasons Hammett said he spent a lot of money on comic books is because he finds them to be a more enjoyable and healthier alternative to drugs.",
"He also smoked heroin a few times, but \"didn't like it\".=== Politics and environmentalism ===Although the other members of Metallica do not speak publicly about their politics, Hammett has expressed his disagreement with statements by former president Donald Trump.",
"In an interview with ''Billboard'' magazine in December 2016 (one month after Trump's election), Hammett said that he was \"just waiting to get into a personal Twitter war with (Trump).\"",
"In the same interview, Hammett stressed the importance of the fight against global warming, which Trump has claimed is a hoax."
],
[
"Equipment and techniques",
"Hammett is known for consistently taping sections of his right (picking) hand in order to protect his skin from abrasions from his use of palm muting and fast picking techniques over lengthy tour cycles.===Guitars===Hammett's touring guitars over the years have included:Morumbi stadium in São Paulo, 2010* '''ESP MM-250/MM-270 \"Zorlac\"''' – Hammett's first custom-made instrument by ESP Guitars was the precursor to the whole KH series.",
"Featuring vertical skulls and crossbones as opposed to the horizontal ones featured on today's KHs, and an upside down Jackson Guitars style headstock which is what Hammett originally intended.",
"The threat of potential lawsuits from Jackson Guitars over this model meant it was withdrawn as a custom shop option forever.",
"As a result, the headstock was changed to the typical modern era ESP style, but flipped upside down, the inlays were rotated 90 degrees and those became the modern -day KH series.",
"* '''ESP KH-2 MM-290 \"Skully\"''' – Hammett's main touring guitar and first modern-era KH model.",
"This signature model is based upon the modifications he made to his original ESP custom model.",
"* '''ESP M-II Standard''' – with EMG and Seymour Duncan pickups.",
"Hammett used this a lot in the studio and live.",
"* '''ESP KH-2 \"Bride of Frankenstein\"''' – New for 2009.",
"* '''ESP KH-4 Chrome''' – New for 2009.A remake of his former KH-4 guitar, with a chrome pickguard, chrome hardware, and chrome EMG pickups.",
"* '''ESP MII-NT''' – New for 2009.It is custom finished with Occult-themed graphics.",
"* '''ESP KH-2 M-II \"Boris Karloff Mummy\" #I''' – This has been Hammett's favourite guitar for many years.",
"It features the Boris Karloff Mummy I graphic of which Hammett owns the rights to.",
"It will not be released by ESP.",
"Hammett has two of these guitars, one with ''Eye of Horus'' inlays and the other with hieroglyphics inlays.",
"* '''ESP KH-2 M-II \"Ouija\"''' – This guitar contains two spelling errors.",
"It sports the words \"WILLIAM FUED TALKING BAARD SET\" but it in fact should say \"WILLIAM FULD TALKING BOARD SET\".",
"Hammett also now plays a white version of this guitar on tour.",
"* '''ESP KH-2 M-II \"Greenburst\"''' A standard KH-2 with a custom green sunburst finish, green inlays, and green logo.",
"* '''ESP KH-3 Eclipse''' – Pushead Spider graphic.",
"It is taken from a classic Les Paul Jr. shape with a Floyd Rose vibrato and EMG pickups.",
"* '''ESP Flying V copy''' – Cherry Red with white pickguard and gold hardware.",
"Hammett uses this live mostly for the song \"Seek & Destroy\".",
"* '''ESP Michael Schenker Flying V'''* '''ESP VIPER Baritone''' – Used for performances of \"The Unnamed Feeling\".",
"* '''Gibson 1968 Les Paul Custom''' – Mostly on ballads such as \"Fade to Black\" and \"Welcome Home (Sanitarium)\".",
"* '''Gibson Les Paul Standard''' – Used on songs from ''St.",
"Anger''.",
"* '''Ibanez RG''' – Used during the Wherever We May Roam American and European tour.",
"It was used as a stunt guitar and for Deep Purple covers.",
"* '''Jackson Randy Rhoads Model RR1T''' – Custom made specifically for Hammett.",
"It is usually tuned one step down from standard tuning, and used for songs like \"Sad but True\" and \"The Memory Remains\".",
"* '''TC Customs Death Magnetic Flying V''' – Used on the World Magnetic Tour.",
"* '''Teuffel Birdfish''' – Designed and produced by German guitar designer/builder, Ulrich Teuffel.",
"The model is limited (500 made) and is made to amplify sound using various pickups.",
"This guitar is used live for \"The Judas Kiss\".",
"* '''Teuffel Tesla'''On the 25th anniversary of Metallica's debut album ''Kill 'Em All'', Hammett appears on the cover of Feb. 2008's ''Guitar World'' sporting his new custom ESP.",
"This model is the KH20, the 20th anniversary model from ESP.In 2014, Hammett purchased \"Greeny\", a 1959 Les Paul formerly used by Gary Moore and Peter Green; using it on tour when playing a cover of Thin Lizzy's version of \"Whiskey in the Jar\".===Amplifiers and cabinets===Throughout Metallica's career, Hammett has used a range of different amplifiers.",
"For the first two albums, he used Marshall amplifiers and cabinets, with occasional effects.",
"For the recording of Metallica's third album, ''Master of Puppets'' (1986), he and James Hetfield bought a Mesa/Boogie MarkIIC+ amplifier, and used Mesa/Boogie Dual Rectifier heads.",
"Even when he made his move to Randall Amplifiers in 2007, he still used Mesa/Boogie amplifiers in his setup, and still does to this day.",
"He currently uses two rackmounted Dual Rectifier 2-channel heads in tandem with his Randalls.In September 2007, Randall Amplifiers announced a partnership with Hammett to design a line of signature amplifiers, heads, combos and preamp modules.In December 2011, it was announced by Fortin Amps that they would team up with Randall to start a new line of tube amplifiers based on the Fortin Meathead amplifier.",
"Hammett is currently using a prototype of the amplifier that he used for the Big 4 show at Yankee Stadium and for all of the shows in India and Asia, and was recently sent a second prototype.",
"* Mesa/Boogie Rackmounted Dual Rectifier (x2)* Randall RM100KH Signature Model (modified version of the MTS series RM100) (x1)* Randall/Fortin Prototype head (x2)* Randall 4x12 Cabinets (x4)* Randall/Fortin 4x12 Cabinet===Effects===To avoid problems with pedals being damaged during live performances, Hammett keeps his effect pedals in a rack along with his amplifiers.",
"His guitar technician controls them through a pedalboard sidestage.",
"The pedal controller allows him to change between different effect pedals and amplifiers.In 2008, Jim Dunlop started working in partnership with Hammett to create a signature Wah-wah pedal, the KH95.Hammett said that the Ibanez Tube Screamer has been an essential part of his sound since he was a teenager, but it was not versatile enough, which started him searching for a better pedal.",
"In 2012, he co-founded KHDK Electronics with sound designer David Karon, hiring Antonin Salva as chief engineer, based in Prague.",
"The company makes guitar pedals in Paducah, Kentucky.",
"They began developing pedals and trying out prototypes.",
"In September 2015, the company launched its first series of pedals, surprising the industry.",
"* TC Electronic G-Major 2 effects processor* Boss NS-2 Noise Suppressor* Dunlop KH95 Kirk Hammett Signature Crybaby* Ibanez Tube Screamer (Keeley modified)* DigiTech Whammy WH-1* Line 6 DL4 Delay Modeler* Line 6 MM4 Modulation Modeler* Shure UR-4D Wireless Receiver* GCX Audio Switcher* Voodoo Lab Ground Control Pro floorboard* DBX 1074 Quad Gate* MXR Eddie Van Halen Flanger* MXR Bass Octave Deluxe* DigiTech Space Station* ToneBone Hot British Tube Distortion===Accessories===* Ernie Ball \"Power Slinky\" strings (.11-.48)* Jim Dunlop Dunlop Jazz III Kirk Hammett (Green, purple sparkle, black sparkle)* Levy Custom Straps* \"Kirk Hammett\" - branded boutique custom straps* Peterson Strobe 420 Tuner* Bridge position: EMG 81* Neck position: Some Guitars EMG 81 Others EMG 60 (EMG 60 usually used for clean and to match harmony sections with James Hetfield)"
],
[
"Discography",
"===Death Angel===* ''Kill as One'' (demo) (producer)===Headbanged===* ''Metal Militia'' (demo)===Exodus===* ''1982 Demo'' (1982)* ''Die by His Hand'' (1983, demo)* ''Tempo of the Damned'' (2004, writing credit on \"Impaler\")* ''Blood In, Blood Out'' (2014, guitar solo on \"Salt the Wound\")===Metallica===* ''Kill 'Em All'' (1983)* ''Ride the Lightning'' (1984)* ''Master of Puppets'' (1986)* ''...And Justice for All'' (1988)* ''Metallica'' (1991)* ''Load'' (1996)* ''ReLoad'' (1997)* ''St.",
"Anger'' (2003)* ''Death Magnetic'' (2008)* ''Hardwired... to Self-Destruct'' (2016)* ''72 Seasons'' (2023)===Solo===* ''Portals'' EP (2022)"
],
[
"See also",
"* ESP Kirk Hammett"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"** Kirk Hammett Guitar Database* Encyclopedia Metallica* USA Today article on the documentary ''Some Kind of Monster''* ''Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame: Metallica'' FuseTV"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kul Tigin"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kul Tigin''' ( , Pinyin: Quètèqín, Wade-Giles: chüeh-t'e-ch'in, AD 684–731) was a general and a prince of the Second Turkic Khaganate."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Necip Asım (1921) for the first time did read his name as ''köl'', based on the etymology of Mahmud al-Kashgari, meaning \"lake, sea\".",
"Radloff did read this word as ''kül'', and Thomsen (1896), Malov (1951) and Tekin (1968) adopted this reading.",
"Bazin (1956) and Hamilton (1962) rejected Radloff's reading and preferred the form ''köl''.",
"However, Chinese sources used the Chinese character 闕 (''què'').",
"Therefore, this word should be read as ''kül'', not ''köl''."
],
[
"Early years",
"He was a second son of Ilterish Qaghan, the Second Turkic Khaganate's founder, and the younger brother of Bilge Kaghan, the fourth kaghan.",
"He was seven when his father died.During the reign of Qapagan Khaghan, Kul Tigin and his older brother earned reputation for their military prowess.",
"They defeated Yenisei Kirghiz, Turgesh, and the Karluks, extending the Kaganate territory all the way to the Iron Gate south of Samarkand.",
"They also subjugated all nine of the Tokuz Oguz tribes.In 705, Tujue forces commanded by Mojilian entered Lingwu, defeating Shazha Chongyi (沙吒忠义).",
"Kul Tigin commanded a unit in battle, in which he lost three horses.In 711, he participated in Battle of Bolchu, which was disastrous for Turgesh.In 713 he participated in subjugation of Karluk tribes with his brother and uncle."
],
[
"As supreme commander",
"Upon the death of Qapagan Khaghan, his son Inel Qaghan attempted to illegally ascend to the throne, defying the traditional Lateral succession law, but Kül Tigin refused to recognize the takeover.",
"He raised an army, attacked, and killed Inel, Ashina Duoxifu and his trusted followers.",
"He placed his elder brother Bilge Khagan on the throne, and took the title of Shad, an equivalent of commander-in-chief of the army, for himself."
],
[
"Death",
"Kul Tigin stele.He died suddenly on 27 February 731.A stele in memory of Kül Tigin, which included inscriptions in both Turkic and Chinese, was erected at his memorial complex of Khoshoo Tsaidam, at the present site of the Orkhon inscriptions.",
"Kül-Tegin is also mentioned in the inscription erected in memory of his older brother Bilge Qaghan at the neighbouring site of Khöshöö-Tsaidam-1.His burial ceremony took place in 1 November 731.He was posthumously renamed '''Inanču Apa Yarğan Tarqan''' () by Bilge Khagan.The head of the Kül Tigin sculpture in the Khöshöö-Tsaidam enclave in (Orkhon, in northern Mongolia) carries a bird with wings spread like an eagle, personifying a raven.",
"The head was found by the Czech archeologie Lumir Jisl during his 1957-1958 expedition to Mongolia."
],
[
"Popular culture",
"He was portrayed by Ham Suk Hun (함석훈) in Korean TV Series ''Dae Jo-yeong.''"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"*Talat Tekin, ''A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic.",
"Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series'', vol.",
"69 (Bloomington/The Hague: Mouton, 1968)*新疆维吾尔自治区民族事务委員会、''新疆民族辞典''， 乌鲁木齐：新疆人民出版社，1995 Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous District Minority People's Committee, ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Xinjiang Minority Peoples'', Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Publishing Company, 1955"
],
[
"External links",
"* The National Museum of Mongolian History* Kül Tiğin Inscriptions complete text ( archived)* Orkhon inscriptions with translations (contains Kül Tiğin inscriptions with translations, archived)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kinky Friedman"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Richard Samet''' \"'''Kinky'''\" '''Friedman''' (born October 31, 1944) is an American singer, songwriter, novelist, humorist, politician, and former columnist for ''Texas Monthly'' who styles himself in the mold of popular American satirists Will Rogers and Mark Twain.Friedman was one of two independent candidates in the 2006 election for the office of Governor of Texas.",
"Receiving 12.6% of the vote, Friedman placed fourth in the six-person race."
],
[
"Biography",
"Richard Samet Friedman was born in Chicago on October 31, 1944 to Jewish parents, Dr. S. Thomas Friedman and his wife Minnie (Samet) Friedman.",
"Both of his parents were the children of Russian Jewish immigrants.",
"When Friedman was young, his family moved to a ranch in Kerrville, Texas in the Texas Hill Country and opened a summer camp called Echo Hill.Friedman had an early interest in both pop music and chess, and was chosen at age seven as one of 50 local players to challenge U.S. grandmaster Samuel Reshevsky to simultaneous games in Houston.",
"Reshevsky won all 50 games, but Friedman was, by far, the youngest competitor.Friedman graduated from Austin High School in Austin, Texas, in 1962.He went on and earned a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Texas at Austin in 1966, majoring in Psychology.",
"He took part in the Plan II Honors program and was a member of the Tau Delta Phi fraternity.",
"During his first year, Chinga Chavin gave Friedman the nickname \"Kinky\" because of his curly hair.Friedman served two years in the United States Peace Corps, teaching in Borneo, Indonesia with John Gross.",
"During his service in the Peace Corps, he met future road manager Dylan Ferrero, with whom he still works.",
"Friedman lives at Echo Hill Ranch, his family's summer camp near Kerrville, Texas.",
"He founded Utopia Animal Rescue Ranch, also located near Kerrville, whose mission is to care for stray, abused and aging animals; more than 1,000 dogs have been saved from animal euthanasia."
],
[
"Music career",
"Friedman formed his first band, King Arthur & the Carrots, while a student at the University of Texas at Austin.",
"The band, which poked fun at surf music, recorded only one single in 1966 (\"Schwinn 24/Beach Party Boo Boo\").By 1973, Friedman had formed his second band, Kinky Friedman and The Texas Jewboys, which many took to be a play on the name of the famous band Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys.",
"In keeping with the band's satirical nature, each member had a comical name: in addition to Kinky there were Little Jewford, Big Nig, Panama Red, Wichita Culpepper, Sky Cap Adams, Rainbow Colours, and Snakebite Jacobs.",
"More conventionally named roadie Jack Slaughter and road manager Dylan Ferrero rounded out the crew and provided most of the driving of the \"tour bus\", a Cadillac with 10-year-old expired license plates and a propensity to break down (but, according to Friedman, her talent lay in her ability to stop on a dime and pick up the change).Friedman's father objected to the name of the band, calling it a \"negative, hostile, peculiar thing\", which gave Kinky even more reason to choose the name.Arriving on the wave of country rock following on from Gram Parsons, The Band, and Eagles, Friedman originally found cult fame as a country and western singer.",
"His break came in 1973 thanks to Commander Cody of Commander Cody and His Lost Planet Airmen, who contacted Vanguard Music on his behalf.",
"Friedman released ''Kinky Friedman'' in 1974 for ABC Records, then toured with Bob Dylan in 1975–1976.His repertoire mixed social commentary (\"We Reserve the Right to Refuse Service to You\") and maudlin ballads (\"Western Union Wire\") with raucous humor (such as \"Get Your Biscuits in the Oven and Your Buns into Bed\").",
"His \"Ride 'Em Jewboy\" was an extended tribute to the victims of the Holocaust.One of his most famous songs is \"They Ain't Makin' Jews Like Jesus Anymore,\" a song in which Kinky verbally and physically beats up a drunken white racist who berates blacks, Jews, Italians, Greeks, and Sigma Nus in a bar, with lyrics such as,Oh, they ain't makin' Jews like Jesus anymore,They ain't makin' carpenters that know what nails are forOther Friedman tunes include \"The Ballad of Charles Whitman,\" in which Friedman lampooned Charles Whitman's sniper attack from the University of Texas at Austin's Main Building tower on August 1, 1966.He also covered Chinga Chavin's \"Asshole from El Paso\", a parody of Merle Haggard's \"Okie from Muskogee\".One of Friedman's most infamous concerts was a 1973 performance in Buffalo, New York; upon performing \"Get Your Biscuits in the Oven and Your Buns into Bed\" (a song that lampoons feminism), a group of what Friedman described as \"cranked-up lesbians\" entered into a fight with the band and forced the concert to end early while Friedman and the band were escorted off stage.",
"The National Organization for Women awarded Friedman the \"Male Chauvinist Pig Award\" later that year, an award Friedman took with pride.",
"Friedman would not return to Buffalo until 2012.Another was at The Boarding House in early-March 1975 when an offended Buffy Sainte-Marie rushed on stage and snatched the war bonnet that Friedman was wearing while he and his band were performing \"Miss Nickelodeon,\" a composition that spoofs the indigenous peoples of the Americas.Friedman and his band taped an ''Austin City Limits'' show on November 11, 1975, which was never aired.",
"According to the show's executive producer, Terry Lickona, this is the first and only time in the show's long history that an episode went unaired.",
"Lickona told the ''Austin Chronicle'' \"I've seen it many times – it's a very popular party tape among friends.",
"I think it was a great show, and it might be as offensive today as it was back then.",
"\"In early 1976, he joined Bob Dylan on the second leg of the Rolling Thunder Revue tour.Friedman was the musical guest on the Season 2 fifth episode of ''Saturday Night Live'' which aired on October 23, 1976.He performed his own composition \"Dear Abbie\".Although hard to verify, given the number of Jewish-origin entertainers in country/hillbilly-tour circles (e.g.",
"Gilbert Maxwell \"Broncho Billy\" Anderson), Friedman claims to have been the first full-blooded Jew to take the stage at the Grand Ole Opry.In February 2007, Sustain Records released a compilation of the songs of Kinky Friedman sung by other artists called ''Why the Hell Not ...'' The compilation includes contributions by Dwight Yoakam, Willie Nelson, Lyle Lovett, and Kelly Willis.On July 20, 2007, Friedman hosted the Concert to Save Town Lake to honor the memory of Lady Bird Johnson and her efforts to protect and preserve the shores of Town Lake in Austin, Texas.On April 27, 2011, Friedman launched his Springtime for Kinky Tour (cf.",
"\"Springtime for Hitler\") in Kansas City, Missouri, at Knuckleheads Saloon; it included dates in Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Kentucky before heading towards the East Coast.",
"This was followed by a tour of Australia with Van Dyke Parks."
],
[
"Writing career",
"After his music career stalled in the 1980s, Friedman shifted his creative focus to writing detective novels.",
"His books have similarities to his song lyrics, featuring a fictionalized version of himself solving crimes in New York City and dispensing jokes, wisdom, recipes, charm and Jameson's whiskey in equal measure.",
"They are written in a straightforward style which owes a debt to Raymond Chandler.",
"The Kinky character views himself as a latter-day Sherlock Holmes and he is aided in his investigations by his close friend Larry Sloman aka Ratso who assumes the role of Dr. Watson.To date, he has written two novels that do not star the Kinky Friedman character: ''Kill Two Birds and Get Stoned'' and ''The Christmas Pig.",
"''Friedman also wrote a regular column for the magazine ''Texas Monthly'' from April 2001 to March 2005 which was suspended during his run for governor of Texas.",
"In 2008, ''Texas Monthly'' brought his column back on a bimonthly basis.Two books have been published collecting some of these nonfiction writings, as well as previously unpublished ones: '''Scuse Me While I Whip This Out'' and ''Texas Hold'em''.",
"He has also published a travelog (''The Great Psychedelic Armadillo Picnic'') and an etiquette guide.Friedman's early books have been republished by Friedman's own Vandam Press as ebooks.",
"During March and April 2011, Vandam released seven of Friedman's early titles including: ''Greenwich Killing Time, A Case of Lone Star, Musical Chairs, When The Cat's Away, Frequent Flyer, Roadkill'' and the rarely seen ''Curse of the Missing Puppet Head''.",
"''Elvis Jesus and Coca-Cola, God Bless John Wayne, Blast From The Past, Armadillos and Old Lace'' and two nonfiction books, ''Drinker With A Writing Problem'' and ''Heroes of A Texas Childhood'' were released in 2011.E-book releases are announced on Friedman's Twitter feed and Facebook page, \"TheRealKinkster\".Friedman also announced (via Jim Bessman's column at examiner.com) the upcoming release of all Vandam Press titles as unabridged audio books \"read by the author\".The recurring character \"Rambam\", a New York private investigator and friend of the Friedman character in the books, is based on the real-life investigator, Steven Rambam, who acts as a technical advisor for the real Friedman.",
"Old Peace Corps friend and long time road manager Dylan Ferrero is also a recurring character in Kinky's mystery novels; his character is known for only speaking in rock and roll quotes, a trait taken from real life."
],
[
"Politics",
"Bastrop during the 2006 Texas gubernatorial campaign.In 1986, Friedman ran for Justice of the Peace in Kerrville, Texas, as a Republican but lost the election.In 2004, Friedman began an ostensibly serious, though colorful, campaign to become the Governor of Texas in 2006.One of his stated goals is the \"dewussification\" of Texas.",
"Among his campaign slogans were \"How Hard Could It Be?",
"\", \"Why The Hell Not?",
"\", \"My Governor is a Jewish Cowboy\", and \"He ain't Kinky, he's my Governor\" (cf.",
"\"He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother\").Friedman had hoped to follow in the footsteps of other entertainers-turned-governors, including Jimmie Davis, Jesse Ventura, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and Ronald Reagan.",
"Jesse Ventura even campaigned with Friedman for his election.",
"When the campaign finance reports came out after the second quarter had ended, Friedman had raised more funds than the Democratic nominee, former Congressman Chris Bell.On election day, Friedman was defeated, receiving 12.6% of the votes in the six-candidate matchup.Friedman released a statement on October 15, 2013, announcing his intent to again run for Texas agriculture commissioner as a Democrat.",
"Friedman previously ran for the post in 2010, losing in the Democratic primary.===Issues and positions===Friedman supports the full legalization and cultivation of hemp and marijuana, declaring that the end of the prohibition is a health, education funding, prison reduction, border security, and state's rights issue.On education, he supports higher pay for teachers and working to lower Texas's dropout rate.",
"He supports more investment in harnessing Texas's alternative fuel resources such as wind and biodiesel.",
"Friedman is opposed to the Trans-Texas Corridor since it relies on toll road construction.On capital punishment, he previously summed up his position, \"I am not anti-death penalty, but I'm damn sure anti-the-wrong-guy-getting-executed.\"",
"More recently, he has clarified his position: \"The system is not perfect.",
"Until it's perfect, let's do away with the death penalty.",
"\"On illegal immigration, Friedman wants to increase the number of Texas National Guard troops on the border (from the current 1,500 to 10,000), impose $25,000 and $50,000 fines on companies that hire illegal immigrants, and require foreign nationals seeking employment to purchase a foreign taxpayer ID card once they have passed a criminal background check.",
"\"Texas can no longer wait for our federal government to solve our illegal immigration problem,\" Friedman said.",
"\"These are steps that Texas can immediately take to help stem the tide of illegal immigrants penetrating our border.\"",
"Had he been elected, he had promised to meet regularly with Governor Bill Richardson of New Mexico and Governor Janet Napolitano of Arizona to develop a coordinated border state plan to supplement federal efforts to curb illegal immigration.",
"Previously, Kinky put forth the \"Five Mexican Generals\" Plan, to pay Mexican officials to halt immigration on their side of the border.",
"Although he originally stated \"When I talk about the five Mexican generals, people think I'm joking but I'm dead serious\", Friedman later told the ''Dallas Morning News'' that the plan, never meant to be carried out, was a joke with an element of seriousness.According to his official website, Friedman's answer to the question \"How does Kinky feel about abortion?\"",
"is \"Kinky believes in a woman's right to choose.\"",
"In person, he hedges his bets, saying \"I'm not pro-life, and I'm not pro-choice.",
"I'm pro-football.\"",
"On social issues, he has supported gay marriage, answering an Associated Press reporter's question on the subject on February 3, 2005, by saying, \"I support gay marriage.",
"I believe they have a right to be as miserable as the rest of us.\"",
"(Friedman himself has never been married.",
")According to ''Cigar Aficionado'' magazine, Friedman plans to roll back \"any and all smoking bans\" if elected.",
"One of his favorite quotes comes from Mark Twain: \"If smoking is not allowed in heaven, I shall not go.\"",
"Friedman supports the decriminalization of marijuana, though he does not advocate making its sale legal.",
"\"I'm not talking about like Amsterdam,\" he noted, \"We've got to clear some of the room out of the prisons so we can put the bad guys in there, like the pedophiles and the politicians.",
"\"===Further political activities===Friedman in 2006On August 9, 2007, the ''Austin American-Statesman'' reported that Friedman was considering another run for governor of Texas in 2010.",
"\"I'm open to running\", Friedman said, adding that he would not make a final decision until after the 2008 elections.",
"On February 10, 2009, Friedman confirmed to the Associated Press that he was still interested in running.In an August 23, 2007 interview with the ''Fort Worth Star-Telegram'' and a February 10, 2009 interview with the Associated Press, Friedman stated that if he did run in 2010, he would run as a Democrat, citing that \"God probably couldn't have won as an Independent\" and that he was a Democrat all his life.On April 14, 2009, Friedman announced in an email to supporters that he intended to make a second gubernatorial run, this time as a Democrat.",
"Friedman then announced on December 14, 2009, that he was leaving the gubernatorial race and would instead seek the party nomination in March 2010 for Texas Agriculture Commissioner.",
"He lost the nomination to rancher Hank Gilbert in the primary held on March 2, 2010.Gilbert was in turn defeated for a second time by the incumbent Republican Todd Staples of Palestine, who vacates the office in January 2015, following his defeat for the Republican nomination for lieutenant governor in the March 4, 2014, primary."
],
[
"Other work and references in popular culture",
"Friedman appeared in the 2004 documentary film ''Barbecue: A Texas Love Story'' by Austin-based director Chris Elley.",
"In the film, narrated by Governor Ann Richards, Kinky exclaims that \"Jesus loved Barbecue\" and analyzes the speech patterns of Texans versus New Yorkers.",
"Raw footage from Friedman's interview appears in the 2005 DVD release of the film.",
"He has appeared in other movies as well including ''Loose Shoes'' and ''The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2''.Friedman's persona as a politically incorrect raconteur has been likened to that of movie critic and commentator John Irving Bloom, better known in print as Joe Bob Briggs, with whom he appeared in the B movie ''The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2''.Friedman prefers to smoke Montecristo No.",
"2 Cigars, the same brand once smoked by Fidel Castro.",
"However, he also smokes Bolivars, noting that \"Simón Bolívar is the only person in history to be exiled from a country named after him.\"",
"Friedman now makes eponymous cigars under the name Kinky Friedman Cigars.Friedman is given brief praise in Joseph Heller's 1976 novel, ''Good as Gold'', in which a governor (meant to satirize Lyndon B. Johnson), tells the main character, Bruce Gold: \"Gold, I like you.",
"You remind me a lot of this famous country singer from Texas I'm crazy about, a fellow calls himself Kinky Friedman, the Original Texas Jewboy.",
"Kinky's smarter, but I like you more.",
"\"Friedman is friends with Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, and he has visited both at the White House.",
"He wrote about his friendships with them in his November 2001 column (\"Hail to the Kinkster\") for ''Texas Monthly''.The play ''Becoming Kinky: The World According to Kinky Friedman'', directed by Ted Swindley (Always...Patsy Cline), starring Jesse Dayton, Little Jewford, Alan Lee, and Andross Bautsch, premiered in Houston, Texas on March 28, 2011.Friedman is responsible for the quote \"you've got to find what you love and let it kill you,\" which is often falsely attributed to the poet and novelist Charles Bukowski.Friedman hosted the live concert music television show \"Texas Roadhouse Live\" around 2011, which would air on over-the-air network television late Saturday night (or midnight Sunday morning) in some Texas markets.On the 2017 album entitled ''Out of All This Blue'', Mike Scott of The Waterboys composed a song called \"Kinky's History Lesson\" where the singer attempts to correct Friedman on a number of false statements he has allegedly made."
],
[
"Discography",
"===Albums=== Year AlbumArtist Label US Chart 1973 ''Sold American''Kinky FriedmanVanguard — 1974 ''Kinky Friedman''Kinky Friedman ABC 132 1976 ''Lasso from El Paso''Kinky Friedman Epic/CBS — 1977 ''Silver Jubilee 1953–1977''Kinky Friedman Echo Hill Ranch — 1982 ''Live from the Lone Star Cafe''Kinky Friedman Bruno-Dean — 1983 ''Under the Double Ego''Kinky Friedman Sunrise — 1992 ''Old Testaments & New Revelations''Kinky Friedman and the Texas Jewboys Fruit of the Tune — 1995 ''From One Good American to Another''Kinky Friedman and the Texas Jewboys — 1998 ''Pearls in the Snow – The Songs Of Kinky Friedman''Kinky Friedman Kinkajou Records — 2003 ''Classic Snatches from Europe''Kinky Friedman Sphincter — 2005 ''Mayhem Aforethought''Kinky Friedman and the Texas Jewboys — ''They Ain't Making Jews Like Jesus Anymore''Kinky Friedman Bear Family — 2006 ''The Last of the Jewish Cowboys: The Best Of''Kinky Friedman Shout!",
"Factory — 2007 ''Live from Austin, Texas''Kinky Friedman New West —2013Lost And Found: The Famous Living Room Tape, 1970Kinky Friedman and the Texas JewboysAvenue A Records 2015 ''The Loneliest Man I Ever Met''Kinky Friedman Avenue A Records —2016''Resurrected''Kinky Friedman(not released on a label) —2018''Circus of Life''Kinky FriedmanEcho Hill Records —===Singles=== Year Single Chart Positions Album US Country CAN Country 1973 \"Sold American\" 69 92 ''Sold American'' 1975 \"Autograph\" — — ''Kinky Friedman'' \"Popeye the Sailor Man\" — — 1976 \"Catfish\" — — ''Lasso from El Paso''"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"===Kinky Friedman Mysteries===* ''Greenwich Killing Time'' (1986, )* ''A Case Of Lone Star'' (1987, )* ''When The Cat's Away'' (1988, )* ''Frequent Flyer'' (1989, )* ''Musical Chairs'' (1991, )* ''Elvis, Jesus and Coca-Cola'' (1993, )* ''Armadillos and Old Lace'' (1994, )* ''God Bless John Wayne'' (1995, )* ''The Love Song of J. Edgar Hoover'' (1996, )* ''Roadkill'' (1997, )* ''Blast From The Past'' (1998, )* ''Spanking Watson'' (1999, )* ''The Mile High Club'' (2000, )* ''Steppin' On A Rainbow'' (2001, )* ''Meanwhile, Back at the Ranch'' (2002, )* ''Curse of the Missing Puppet Head'' (2003, )* ''The Prisoner of Vandam Street'' (2004, )* ''Ten Little New Yorkers'' (2005, )===Other novels===* ''Kill Two Birds and Get Stoned'' (2003, )* ''The Christmas Pig: A Fable (2006, )===Non-fiction & humor===* ''Kinky Friedman's Guide to Texas Etiquette: Or How To Get To Heaven Or Hell Without Going Through Dallas-Fort Worth'' (2002, )* '''Scuse Me While I Whip This Out: Reflections On Country Singers, Presidents, And Other Troublemakers'' (2004, )* ''The Great Psychedelic Armadillo Picnic: A \"Walk\" In Austin'' (2004, )* ''Texas Hold 'Em: How I Was Born In A Manger, Died In The Saddle, And Came Back As A Horny Toad'' (2005, )* ''Cowboy Logic : The Wit And Wisdom Of Kinky Friedman (And Some Of His Friends)'' (2006, )* ''You Can Lead A Politician To Water, But You Can't Make Him Think: Ten Commandments For Texas Politics'' (2007, )* ''What Would Kinky Do?",
"How to Unscrew a Screwed Up World'' (2008, )"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* ** Texas for Kinky Kinky Friedman's campaign website for Texas Agricultural Commissioner"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kurt Gödel"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kurt Friedrich Gödel''' ( , ; April 28, 1906 – January 14, 1978) was a logician, mathematician, and philosopher.",
"Considered along with Aristotle and Gottlob Frege to be one of the most significant logicians in history, Gödel had an effect upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the 20th century, a time when Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and David Hilbert were using logic and set theory to investigate the foundations of mathematics, building on earlier work by Richard Dedekind, Georg Cantor and Gottlob Frege.Gödel's discoveries in the foundations of mathematics led to the proof of his completeness theorem in 1929 as part of his dissertation to earn a doctorate at the University of Vienna, and the publication of Gödel's incompleteness theorems two years later, in 1931.The first incompleteness theorem states that for any ω-consistent recursive axiomatic system powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (for example, Peano arithmetic), there are true propositions about the natural numbers that can be neither proved nor disproved from the axioms.",
"To prove this, Gödel developed a technique now known as Gödel numbering, which codes formal expressions as natural numbers.",
"The second incompleteness theorem, which follows from the first, states that the system cannot prove its own consistency.Gödel also showed that neither the axiom of choice nor the continuum hypothesis can be disproved from the accepted Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, assuming that its axioms are consistent.",
"The former result opened the door for mathematicians to assume the axiom of choice in their proofs.",
"He also made important contributions to proof theory by clarifying the connections between classical logic, intuitionistic logic, and modal logic."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"=== Childhood ===Gödel was born April 28, 1906, in Brünn, Austria-Hungary (now Brno, Czech Republic), into the German-speaking family of Rudolf Gödel (1874–1929), the managing director and part owner of a major textile firm, and Marianne Gödel (née Handschuh, 1879–1966).",
"At the time of his birth the city had a German-speaking majority which included his parents.",
"His father was Catholic and his mother was Protestant and the children were raised as Protestants.",
"The ancestors of Kurt Gödel were often active in Brünn's cultural life.",
"For example, his grandfather Joseph Gödel was a famous singer in his time and for some years a member of the (Men's Choral Union of Brünn).Gödel automatically became a citizen of Czechoslovakia at age 12 when the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed following its defeat in the First World War.",
"According to his classmate , like many residents of the predominantly German , \"Gödel considered himself always Austrian and an exile in Czechoslovakia\".",
"In February 1929, he was granted release from his Czechoslovak citizenship and then, in April, granted Austrian citizenship.",
"When Germany annexed Austria in 1938, Gödel automatically became a German citizen at age 32.In 1948, after World War II, at the age of 42, he became an American citizen.In his family, the young Gödel was nicknamed (\"Mr. Why\") because of his insatiable curiosity.",
"According to his brother Rudolf, at the age of six or seven, Kurt suffered from rheumatic fever; he completely recovered, but for the rest of his life he remained convinced that his heart had suffered permanent damage.",
"Beginning at age four, Gödel suffered from \"frequent episodes of poor health\", which would continue for his entire life.Gödel attended the , a Lutheran school in Brünn from 1912 to 1916, and was enrolled in the from 1916 to 1924, excelling with honors in all his subjects, particularly in mathematics, languages and religion.",
"Although Gödel had first excelled in languages, he later became more interested in history and mathematics.",
"His interest in mathematics increased when in 1920 his older brother Rudolf (born 1902) left for Vienna, where he attended medical school at the University of Vienna.",
"During his teens, Gödel studied Gabelsberger shorthand, and criticisms of Isaac Newton, and the writings of Immanuel Kant.=== Studies in Vienna ===Plaque to Gödel at 43-45 , Vienna, where he discovered his incompleteness theoremsAt the age of 18, Gödel joined his brother at the University of Vienna.",
"He had already mastered university-level mathematics.",
"Although initially intending to study theoretical physics, he also attended courses on mathematics and philosophy.",
"During this time, he adopted ideas of mathematical realism.",
"He read Kant's , and participated in the Vienna Circle with Moritz Schlick, Hans Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap.",
"Gödel then studied number theory, but when he took part in a seminar run by Moritz Schlick which studied Bertrand Russell's book ''Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy'', he became interested in mathematical logic.",
"According to Gödel, mathematical logic was \"a science prior to all others, which contains the ideas and principles underlying all sciences.",
"\"Attending a lecture by David Hilbert in Bologna on completeness and consistency in mathematical systems may have set Gödel's life course.",
"In 1928, Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann published (''Principles of Mathematical Logic''), an introduction to first-order logic in which the problem of completeness was posed: \"Are the axioms of a formal system sufficient to derive every statement that is true in all models of the system?",
"\"This problem became the topic that Gödel chose for his doctoral work.",
"In 1929, aged 23, he completed his doctoral dissertation under Hans Hahn's supervision.",
"In it, he established his eponymous completeness theorem regarding first-order logic.",
"He was awarded his doctorate in 1930, and his thesis (accompanied by additional work) was published by the Vienna Academy of Science."
],
[
"Career",
"Gödel as a student in 1925=== Incompleteness theorems ===In 1930 Gödel attended the Second Conference on the Epistemology of the Exact Sciences, held in Königsberg, 5–7 September.",
"Here he delivered his incompleteness theorems.Gödel published his incompleteness theorems in (called in English \"On Formally Undecidable Propositions of and Related Systems\").",
"In that article, he proved for any computable axiomatic system that is powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (e.g., the Peano axioms or Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice), that:# If a (logical or axiomatic formal) system is omega-consistent, it cannot be syntactically complete.# The consistency of axioms cannot be proved within their own system.These theorems ended a half-century of attempts, beginning with the work of Gottlob Frege and culminating in and Hilbert's Program, to find a non-relatively consistent axiomatization sufficient for number theory (that was to serve as the foundation for other fields of mathematics).The idea at the center of the incompleteness theorem is simple.",
"Gödel constructed a formula that claims it is unprovable in a given formal system.",
"If it were provable, it would be false.",
"Thus there will always be at least one true but unprovable statement.",
"That is, for any computably enumerable set of axioms for arithmetic (that is, a set that can in principle be printed out by an idealized computer with unlimited resources), there is a formula that is true of arithmetic, but not provable in that system.",
"To make this precise, Gödel had to produce a method to encode (as natural numbers) statements, proofs, and the concept of provability; he did this by a process known as Gödel numbering.In his two-page paper (1932) Gödel refuted the finite-valuedness of intuitionistic logic.",
"In the proof, he implicitly used what has later become known as Gödel–Dummett intermediate logic (or Gödel fuzzy logic).=== Mid-1930s: further work and U.S. visits ===Gödel earned his habilitation at Vienna in 1932, and in 1933 he became a (unpaid lecturer) there.",
"In 1933 Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, and over the following years the Nazis rose in influence in Austria, and among Vienna's mathematicians.",
"In June 1936, Moritz Schlick, whose seminar had aroused Gödel's interest in logic, was assassinated by one of his former students, Johann Nelböck.",
"This triggered \"a severe nervous crisis\" in Gödel.",
"He developed paranoid symptoms, including a fear of being poisoned, and spent several months in a sanitarium for nervous diseases.In 1933, Gödel first traveled to the U.S., where he met Albert Einstein, who became a good friend.",
"He delivered an address to the annual meeting of the American Mathematical Society.",
"During this year, Gödel also developed the ideas of computability and recursive functions to the point where he was able to present a lecture on general recursive functions and the concept of truth.",
"This work was developed in number theory, using Gödel numbering.In 1934, Gödel gave a series of lectures at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton, New Jersey, titled ''On undecidable propositions of formal mathematical systems''.",
"Stephen Kleene, who had just completed his PhD at Princeton, took notes of these lectures that have been subsequently published.Gödel visited the IAS again in the autumn of 1935.The travelling and the hard work had exhausted him and the next year he took a break to recover from a depressive episode.",
"He returned to teaching in 1937.During this time, he worked on the proof of consistency of the axiom of choice and of the continuum hypothesis; he went on to show that these hypotheses cannot be disproved from the common system of axioms of set theory.He married (née Porkert, 1899–1981), whom he had known for over 10 years, on September 20, 1938.Gödel's parents had opposed their relationship because she was a divorced dancer, six years older than he was.Subsequently, he left for another visit to the United States, spending the autumn of 1938 at the IAS and publishing ''Consistency of the axiom of choice and of the generalized continuum-hypothesis with the axioms of set theory,'' a classic of modern mathematics.",
"In that work he introduced the constructible universe, a model of set theory in which the only sets that exist are those that can be constructed from simpler sets.",
"Gödel showed that both the axiom of choice (AC) and the generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) are true in the constructible universe, and therefore must be consistent with the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms for set theory (ZF).",
"This result has had considerable consequences for working mathematicians, as it means they can assume the axiom of choice when proving the Hahn–Banach theorem.",
"Paul Cohen later constructed a model of ZF in which AC and GCH are false; together these proofs mean that AC and GCH are independent of the ZF axioms for set theory.Gödel spent the spring of 1939 at the University of Notre Dame.=== Princeton, Einstein, U.S. citizenship ===After the Anschluss on 12 March 1938, Austria had become a part of Nazi Germany.Germany abolished the title , so Gödel had to apply for a different position under the new order.",
"His former association with Jewish members of the Vienna Circle, especially with Hahn, weighed against him.",
"The University of Vienna turned his application down.His predicament intensified when the German army found him fit for conscription.",
"World War II started in September 1939.Before the year was up, Gödel and his wife left Vienna for Princeton.",
"To avoid the difficulty of an Atlantic crossing, the Gödels took the Trans-Siberian Railway to the Pacific, sailed from Japan to San Francisco (which they reached on March 4, 1940), then crossed the US by train to Princeton.",
"There Gödel accepted a position at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS), which he had previously visited during 1933–34.Albert Einstein was also living at Princeton during this time.",
"Gödel and Einstein developed a strong friendship, and were known to take long walks together to and from the Institute for Advanced Study.",
"The nature of their conversations was a mystery to the other Institute members.",
"Economist Oskar Morgenstern recounts that toward the end of his life Einstein confided that his \"own work no longer meant much, that he came to the Institute merely ... to have the privilege of walking home with Gödel\".Gödel and his wife, Adele, spent the summer of 1942 in Blue Hill, Maine, at the Blue Hill Inn at the top of the bay.",
"Gödel was not merely vacationing but had a very productive summer of work.",
"Using volume 15 of Gödel's still-unpublished working notebooks, John W. Dawson Jr. conjectures that Gödel discovered a proof for the independence of the axiom of choice from finite type theory, a weakened form of set theory, while in Blue Hill in 1942.Gödel's close friend Hao Wang supports this conjecture, noting that Gödel's Blue Hill notebooks contain his most extensive treatment of the problem.On December 5, 1947, Einstein and Morgenstern accompanied Gödel to his U.S. citizenship exam, where they acted as witnesses.",
"Gödel had confided in them that he had discovered an inconsistency in the U.S. Constitution that could allow the U.S. to become a dictatorship; this has since been dubbed Gödel's Loophole.",
"Einstein and Morgenstern were concerned that their friend's unpredictable behavior might jeopardize his application.",
"The judge turned out to be Phillip Forman, who knew Einstein and had administered the oath at Einstein's own citizenship hearing.",
"Everything went smoothly until Forman happened to ask Gödel if he thought a dictatorship like the Nazi regime could happen in the U.S. Gödel then started to explain his discovery to Forman.",
"Forman understood what was going on, cut Gödel off, and moved the hearing on to other questions and a routine conclusion.Gödel became a permanent member of the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton in 1946.Around this time he stopped publishing, though he continued to work.",
"He became a full professor at the Institute in 1953 and an emeritus professor in 1976.During his time at the institute, Gödel's interests turned to philosophy and physics.",
"In 1949, he demonstrated the existence of solutions involving closed timelike curves, to Einstein's field equations in general relativity.",
"He is said to have given this elaboration to Einstein as a present for his 70th birthday.",
"His \"rotating universes\" would allow time travel to the past and caused Einstein to have doubts about his own theory.",
"His solutions are known as the Gödel metric (an exact solution of the Einstein field equation).He studied and admired the works of Gottfried Leibniz, but came to believe that a hostile conspiracy had caused some of Leibniz's works to be suppressed.",
"To a lesser extent he studied Immanuel Kant and Edmund Husserl.",
"In the early 1970s, Gödel circulated among his friends an elaboration of Leibniz's version of Anselm of Canterbury's ontological proof of God's existence.",
"This is now known as Gödel's ontological proof."
],
[
"Awards and honours",
"Gödel was awarded (with Julian Schwinger) the first Albert Einstein Award in 1951, and was also awarded the National Medal of Science, in 1974.Gödel was elected a resident member of the American Philosophical Society in 1961 and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1968.He was a Plenary Speaker of the ICM in 1950 in Cambridge, Massachusetts."
],
[
"Later life and death",
"Gravestone of Kurt and Adele Gödel in the Princeton, N.J., cemeteryLater in his life, Gödel suffered periods of mental instability and illness.",
"Following the assassination of his close friend Moritz Schlick, Gödel developed an obsessive fear of being poisoned, and would eat only food prepared by his wife Adele.",
"Adele was hospitalized beginning in late 1977, and in her absence Gödel refused to eat; he weighed when he died of \"malnutrition and inanition caused by personality disturbance\" in Princeton Hospital on January 14, 1978.He was buried in Princeton Cemetery.",
"Adele died in 1981."
],
[
"Religious views",
"Gödel believed that God was personal, and called his philosophy \"rationalistic, idealistic, optimistic, and theological\".Gödel believed in an afterlife, saying, \"Of course this supposes that there are many relationships which today's science and received wisdom haven't any inkling of.",
"But I am convinced of this the afterlife, independently of any theology.\"",
"It is \"possible today to perceive, by pure reasoning\" that it \"is entirely consistent with known facts.\"",
"\"If the world is rationally constructed and has meaning, then there must be such a thing as an afterlife.",
"\"In an unmailed answer to a questionnaire, Gödel described his religion as \"baptized Lutheran (but not member of any religious congregation).",
"My belief is ''theistic'', not pantheistic, following Leibniz rather than Spinoza.\"",
"Of religion(s) in general, he said: \"Religions are, for the most part, bad—but religion is not\".",
"According to his wife Adele, \"Gödel, although he did not go to church, was religious and read the Bible in bed every Sunday morning\", while of Islam, he said, \"I like Islam: it is a consistent or consequential idea of religion and open-minded.\""
],
[
"Legacy",
"Douglas Hofstadter wrote the 1979 book to celebrate the work and ideas of Gödel, M. C. Escher and Johann Sebastian Bach.",
"It partly explores the ramifications of the fact that Gödel's incompleteness theorem can be applied to any Turing-complete computational system, which may include the human brain.The Kurt Gödel Society, founded in 1987, is an international organization for the promotion of research in logic, philosophy, and the history of mathematics.",
"The University of Vienna hosts the Kurt Gödel Research Center for Mathematical Logic.",
"The Association for Symbolic Logic has held an annual Gödel Lecture each year since 1990.Gödel's Philosophical Notebooks are edited at the Kurt Gödel Research Centre which is situated at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities in Germany.Five volumes of Gödel's collected works have been published.",
"The first two include his publications; the third includes unpublished manuscripts from his , and the final two include correspondence.In 2005 John Dawson published a biography of Gödel, ''Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel'' (A. K. Peters, Wellesley, MA, ).",
"Stephen Budiansky's book about Gödel's life, ''Journey to the Edge of Reason: The Life of Kurt Gödel'' (W. W. Norton & Company, New York City, NY, ), was a ''New York Times'' Critics' Top Book of 2021.Gödel was also one of four mathematicians examined in David Malone's 2008 BBC documentary ''Dangerous Knowledge''.The Gödel Prize is given annually for an outstanding paper in theoretical computer science.In the 2023 movie Oppenheimer, Gödel, played by James Urbaniak, briefly appears walking with Einstein in the gardens of Princeton."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"=== Important publications ===In German:* 1930, \"Die Vollständigkeit der Axiome des logischen Funktionenkalküls.\"",
"''Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik'' '''37''': 349–60.",
"* 1931, \"Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der ''Principia Mathematica'' und verwandter Systeme, I.\"",
"''Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik'' '''38''': 173–98.",
"* 1932, \"Zum intuitionistischen Aussagenkalkül\", ''Anzeiger Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien'' '''69''': 65–66.In English:* 1940.",
"''The Consistency of the Axiom of Choice and of the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis with the Axioms of Set Theory.''",
"Princeton University Press.",
"* 1947.",
"\"What is Cantor's continuum problem?\"",
"''The American Mathematical Monthly 54'': 515–25.Revised version in Paul Benacerraf and Hilary Putnam, eds., 1984 (1964).",
"''Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings''.",
"Cambridge Univ.",
"Press: 470–85.",
"* 1950, \"Rotating Universes in General Relativity Theory.\"",
"''Proceedings of the international Congress of Mathematicians in Cambridge,'' Vol.",
"1, pp.",
"175–81.In English translation:* Kurt Gödel, 1992.",
"''On Formally Undecidable Propositions Of Principia Mathematica And Related Systems'', tr.",
"B. Meltzer, with a comprehensive introduction by Richard Braithwaite.",
"Dover reprint of the 1962 Basic Books edition.",
"* Kurt Gödel, 2000.",
"''On Formally Undecidable Propositions Of Principia Mathematica And Related Systems'', tr.",
"Martin Hirzel* Jean van Heijenoort, 1967.",
"''A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931''.",
"Harvard Univ.",
"Press.",
"** 1930.",
"\"The completeness of the axioms of the functional calculus of logic,\" 582–91.",
"** 1930.",
"\"Some metamathematical results on completeness and consistency,\" 595–96.Abstract to (1931).",
"** 1931.",
"\"On formally undecidable propositions of ''Principia Mathematica'' and related systems,\" 596–616.",
"** 1931a.",
"\"On completeness and consistency,\" 616–17.",
"* ''Collected Works'': Oxford University Press: New York.",
"Editor-in-chief: Solomon Feferman.",
"** Volume I: Publications 1929–1936 / Paperback: ,** Volume II: Publications 1938–1974 / Paperback: ,** Volume III: Unpublished Essays and Lectures / Paperback: ,** Volume IV: Correspondence, A–G ,** Volume V: Correspondence, H–Z .",
"* ''Philosophische Notizbücher / Philosophical Notebooks'': De Gruyter: Berlin/München/Boston.",
"Editor: .",
"** Volume 1: Philosophie I Maximen 0 / Philosophy I Maxims 0 .",
"** Volume 2: Zeiteinteilung (Maximen) I und II / Time Management (Maxims) I and II .",
"** Volume 3: Maximen III / Maxims III .",
"** Volume 4: Maximen IV / Maxims IV .",
"** Volume 5: Maximen V / Maxims V ."
],
[
"See also",
"* Original proof of Gödel's completeness theorem* Gödel fuzzy logic* Gödel–Löb logic* Gödel Prize* Gödel's ontological proof* Infinite-valued logic* List of Austrian scientists* List of pioneers in computer science* Mathematical Platonism* Primitive recursive functional* Strange loop* Tarski's undefinability theorem* World Logic Day* Gödel machine"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* .",
"* .",
"* *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Stephen Budiansky, 2021.",
"''Journey to the Edge of Reason: The Life of Kurt Gödel''.",
"W.W. Norton & Company.",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* Ivor Grattan-Guinness, 2000.",
"''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940''.",
"Princeton Univ.",
"Press.",
"* * Jaakko Hintikka, 2000.",
"''On Gödel''.",
"Wadsworth.",
"* Douglas Hofstadter, 1980.",
"''Gödel, Escher, Bach''.",
"Vintage.",
"* Stephen Kleene, 1967.",
"''Mathematical Logic''.",
"Dover paperback reprint c.",
"2001.",
"* Stephen Kleene, 1980.",
"''Introduction to Metamathematics''.",
"North Holland (Ishi Press paperback.",
"2009.",
")* J.R. Lucas, 1970.",
"''The Freedom of the Will''.",
"Clarendon Press, Oxford.",
"* Ernest Nagel and Newman, James R., 1958.",
"''Gödel's Proof.''",
"New York Univ.",
"Press.",
"* Ed Regis, 1987.",
"''Who Got Einstein's Office?''",
"Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.* Raymond Smullyan, 1992.",
"''Godel's Incompleteness Theorems''.",
"Oxford University Press.",
"* Olga Taussky-Todd, 1983.Remembrances of Kurt Gödel.",
"Engineering & Science, Winter 1988.",
"* Yourgrau, Palle, 1999.",
"''Gödel Meets Einstein: Time Travel in the Gödel Universe.''",
"Chicago: Open Court.",
"* Yourgrau, Palle, 2004.",
"''A World Without Time: The Forgotten Legacy of Gödel and Einstein.''",
"Basic Books.",
".",
"(Reviewed by John Stachel in the ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society'' ('''54''' (7), pp.",
"861–68)."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * Time Bandits: an article about the relationship between Gödel and Einstein by Jim Holt* Notices of the AMS, April 2006, Volume 53, Number 4 Kurt Gödel Centenary Issue* Paul Davies and Freeman Dyson discuss Kurt Godel (transcript)* \"Gödel and the Nature of Mathematical Truth\" Edge: A Talk with Rebecca Goldstein on Kurt Gödel.",
"* It's Not All In The Numbers: Gregory Chaitin Explains Gödel's Mathematical Complexities.",
"* Gödel photo gallery.",
"(archived)* Kurt Gödel MacTutor History of Mathematics archive page* National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Karl Marx"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Karl Marx''' (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German-born philosopher, economist, political theorist, historian, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist.",
"His best-known works are the 1848 pamphlet ''The Communist Manifesto'' (with Friedrich Engels) and the three-volume (1867–1894); the latter employs his critical approach to historical materialism in an analysis of capitalism and is the culmination of his intellectual efforts.",
"Marx's ideas and theories and their subsequent development, collectively known as Marxism, have exerted enormous influence on modern intellectual, economic and political history.Born in Trier in the Kingdom of Prussia, Marx studied at the universities of Bonn, Berlin, and Jena, and received a doctorate in philosophy from the latter in 1841.A Young Hegelian, he was influenced by the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and both critiqued and developed Hegel's ideas in works such as ''The German Ideology'' (written 1846) and the ''Grundrisse'' (written 1857–1858).",
"While in Paris in 1844, Marx wrote his ''Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts'' and met Engels, a lifelong friend and collaborator.",
"After moving to Brussels in 1845, they were active in the Communist League, and in 1848 wrote ''The Communist Manifesto'', which expresses Marx's ideas and lays out a programme for revolution.",
"Marx was expelled from Belgium and Germany, and in 1849 moved to London, where he wrote ''The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte'' (1852) and .",
"In 1864, Marx helped found the International Workingmen's Association (First International), in which he sought to fight the influence of anarchists led by Mikhail Bakunin.",
"In his ''Critique of the Gotha Programme'' (1875), Marx wrote on revolution, the state and the transition to communism.",
"He died stateless in 1883 and was buried in Highgate Cemetery.Marx's critiques of history, society and political economy hold that human societies develop through class conflict.",
"In the capitalist mode of production, this manifests itself in the conflict between the ruling classes (known as the bourgeoisie) that control the means of production and the working classes (known as the proletariat) that enable these means by selling their labour power in return for wages.",
"Employing his historical materialist approach, Marx predicted that capitalism produced internal tensions like previous socioeconomic systems and that these tensions would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system known as the socialist mode of production.",
"For Marx, class antagonisms under capitalism—owing in part to its instability and crisis-prone nature—would eventuate the working class's development of class consciousness, leading to their conquest of political power and eventually the establishment of a classless, communist society constituted by a free association of producers.",
"Marx actively pressed for its implementation, arguing that the working class should carry out organised proletarian revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic emancipation.Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and his work has been both lauded and criticised.",
"Marxism has exerted major influence on socialist thought and political movements, and during the 20th century revolutionary governments identifying as Marxist took power in many countries and established socialist states including the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China.",
"A number of theoretical variants such as Leninism, Marxism–Leninism, Trotskyism, and Maoism have been developed.",
"Marx's work in economics has a strong influence on modern heterodox theories of labour and its relation to capital, and he is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern social science."
],
[
"Biography",
"=== Childhood and early education: 1818–1836 ===Marx's birthplace, now Brückenstraße 10, in Trier.",
"The family occupied two rooms on the ground floor and three on the first floor.",
"Purchased by the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928, it now houses a museum devoted to him.Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and Henriette Pressburg.",
"He was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, an ancient city then part of the Kingdom of Prussia's Province of the Lower Rhine.",
"Marx's family was originally non-religious Jewish but had converted formally to Christianity before his birth.",
"His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Trier's rabbis since 1723, a role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi Marx.",
"His father, as a child known as Herschel, was the first in the line to receive a secular education.",
"He became a lawyer with a comfortably upper middle class income and the family owned a number of Moselle vineyards, in addition to his income as an attorney.",
"Prior to his son's birth and after the abrogation of Jewish emancipation in the Rhineland, Herschel converted from Judaism to join the state Evangelical Church of Prussia, taking on the German forename Heinrich over the Yiddish Herschel.Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and Voltaire.",
"A classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, which was then an absolute monarchy.",
"In 1815, Heinrich Marx began working as an attorney and in 1819 moved his family to a ten-room property near the Porta Nigra.",
"His wife, Henriette Pressburg, was a Dutch Jew from a prosperous business family that later founded the company Philips Electronics.",
"Her sister Sophie Pressburg (1797–1854) married Lion Philips (1794–1866) and was the grandmother of both Gerard and Anton Philips and great-grandmother to Frits Philips.",
"Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London.Little is known of Marx's childhood.",
"The third of nine children, he became the eldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819.Marx and his surviving siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie, and Caroline, were baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824, and their mother in November 1825.Marx was privately educated by his father until 1830 when he entered Trier High School (), whose headmaster, Hugo Wyttenbach, was a friend of his father.",
"By employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government.",
"Subsequently, police raided the school in 1832 and discovered that literature espousing political liberalism was being distributed among the students.",
"Considering the distribution of such material a seditious act, the authorities instituted reforms and replaced several staff during Marx's attendance.In October 1835 at the age of 16, Marx travelled to the University of Bonn wishing to study philosophy and literature, but his father insisted on law as a more practical field.",
"Due to a condition referred to as a \"weak chest\", Marx was excused from military duty when he turned 18.While at the University at Bonn, Marx joined the Poets' Club, a group containing political radicals that were monitored by the police.",
"Marx also joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society () where many ideas were discussed and at one point he served as the club's co-president.",
"Additionally, Marx was involved in certain disputes, some of which became serious: in August 1836 he took part in a duel with a member of the university's Borussian Korps.",
"Although his grades in the first term were good, they soon deteriorated, leading his father to force a transfer to the more serious and academic University of Berlin.=== Hegelianism and early journalism: 1836–1843 ===Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830sSpending summer and autumn 1836 in Trier, Marx became more serious about his studies and his life.",
"He became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, an educated member of the petty nobility who had known Marx since childhood.",
"As she had broken off her engagement with a young aristocrat to be with Marx, their relationship was socially controversial owing to the differences between their religious and class origins, but Marx befriended her father Ludwig von Westphalen (a liberal aristocrat) and later dedicated his doctoral thesis to him.",
"Seven years after their engagement, on 19 June 1843, they married in a Protestant church in Kreuznach.In October 1836, Marx arrived in Berlin, matriculating in the university's faculty of law and renting a room in the Mittelstrasse.",
"During the first term, Marx attended lectures of Eduard Gans (who represented the progressive Hegelian standpoint, elaborated on rational development in history by emphasising particularly its libertarian aspects, and the importance of social question) and of Karl von Savigny (who represented the Historical School of Law).",
"Although studying law, he was fascinated by philosophy and looked for a way to combine the two, believing that \"without philosophy nothing could be accomplished\".",
"Marx became interested in the recently deceased German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose ideas were then widely debated among European philosophical circles.",
"During a convalescence in Stralau, he joined the Doctor's Club (), a student group which discussed Hegelian ideas, and through them became involved with a group of radical thinkers known as the Young Hegelians in 1837.They gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer, with Marx developing a particularly close friendship with Adolf Rutenberg.",
"Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel's metaphysical assumptions but adopted his dialectical method to criticise established society, politics and religion from a left-wing perspective.",
"Marx's father died in May 1838, resulting in a diminished income for the family.",
"Marx had been emotionally close to his father and treasured his memory after his death.By 1837, Marx was writing both fiction and non-fiction, having completed a short novel, ''Scorpion and Felix''; a drama, ''Oulanem''; as well as a number of love poems dedicated to his wife.",
"None of this early work was published during his lifetime.",
"The love poems were published posthumously in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 1''.",
"Marx soon abandoned fiction for other pursuits, including the study of both English and Italian, art history and the translation of Latin classics.",
"He began co-operating with Bruno Bauer on editing Hegel's ''Philosophy of Religion'' in 1840.Marx was also engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, ''The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature'', which he completed in 1841.It was described as \"a daring and original piece of work in which Marx set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of philosophy\".",
"The essay was controversial, particularly among the conservative professors at the University of Berlin.",
"Marx decided instead to submit his thesis to the more liberal University of Jena, whose faculty awarded him his Ph.D. in April 1841.As Marx and Bauer were both atheists, in March 1841 they began plans for a journal entitled (''Atheistic Archives''), but it never came to fruition.",
"In July, Marx and Bauer took a trip to Bonn from Berlin.",
"There they scandalised their class by getting drunk, laughing in church and galloping through the streets on donkeys.Marx was considering an academic career, but this path was barred by the government's growing opposition to classical liberalism and the Young Hegelians.",
"Marx moved to Cologne in 1842, where he became a journalist, writing for the radical newspaper (''Rhineland News''), expressing his early views on socialism and his developing interest in economics.",
"Marx criticised right-wing European governments as well as figures in the liberal and socialist movements, whom he thought ineffective or counter-productive.",
"The newspaper attracted the attention of the Prussian government censors, who checked every issue for seditious material before printing, which Marx lamented: \"Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be sniffed at, and if the police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian, the newspaper is not allowed to appear\".",
"After the published an article strongly criticising the Russian monarchy, Tsar Nicholas I requested it be banned and Prussia's government complied in 1843.=== Paris: 1843–1845 ===In 1843, Marx became co-editor of a new, radical left-wing Parisian newspaper, the (''German-French Annals''), then being set up by the German activist Arnold Ruge to bring together German and French radicals.",
"Therefore Marx and his wife moved to Paris in October 1843.Initially living with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue Vaneau, they found the living conditions difficult, so moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844.Although intended to attract writers from both France and the German states, the was dominated by the latter and the only non-German writer was the exiled Russian anarchist collectivist Mikhail Bakunin.",
"Marx contributed two essays to the paper, \"Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right\" and \"On the Jewish Question\", the latter introducing his belief that the proletariat were a revolutionary force and marking his embrace of communism.",
"Only one issue was published, but it was relatively successful, largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine's satirical odes on King Ludwig of Bavaria, leading the German states to ban it and seize imported copies (Ruge nevertheless refused to fund the publication of further issues and his friendship with Marx broke down).",
"After the paper's collapse, Marx began writing for the only uncensored German-language radical newspaper left, (''Forward!'').",
"Based in Paris, the paper was connected to the League of the Just, a utopian socialist secret society of workers and artisans.",
"Marx attended some of their meetings but did not join.",
"In , Marx refined his views on socialism based upon Hegelian and Feuerbachian ideas of dialectical materialism, at the same time criticising liberals and other socialists operating in Europe.Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; the two became lifelong friends and collaborators.On 28 August 1844, Marx met the German socialist Friedrich Engels at the Café de la Régence, beginning a lifelong friendship.",
"Engels showed Marx his recently published ''The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844'', convincing Marx that the working class would be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history.",
"Soon, Marx and Engels were collaborating on a criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marx's former friend, Bruno Bauer.",
"This work was published in 1845 as ''The Holy Family''.",
"Although critical of Bauer, Marx was increasingly influenced by the ideas of the Young Hegelians Max Stirner and Ludwig Feuerbach, but eventually Marx and Engels abandoned Feuerbachian materialism as well.During the time that he lived at 38 Rue Vaneau in Paris (from October 1843 until January 1845), Marx engaged in an intensive study of political economy (Adam Smith, David Ricardo, James Mill, ''etc.",
"'')'','' the French socialists (especially Claude Henri St. Simon and Charles Fourier) and the history of France.",
"The study of, and critique, of political economy is a project that Marx would pursue for the rest of his life and would result in his major economic workthe three-volume series called ''Das Kapital''.",
"Marxism is based in large part on three influences: Hegel's dialectics, French utopian socialism and British political economy.",
"Together with his earlier study of Hegel's dialectics, the studying that Marx did during this time in Paris meant that all major components of \"Marxism\" were in place by the autumn of 1844.Marx was constantly being pulled away from his critique of political economynot only by the usual daily demands of the time, but additionally by editing a radical newspaper and later by organising and directing the efforts of a political party during years of potentially revolutionary popular uprisings of the citizenry.",
"Still, Marx was always drawn back to his studies where he sought \"to understand the inner workings of capitalism\".An outline of \"Marxism\" had definitely formed in the mind of Karl Marx by late 1844.Indeed, many features of the Marxist view of the world had been worked out in great detail, but Marx needed to write down all of the details of his world view to further clarify the new critique of political economy in his own mind.",
"Accordingly, Marx wrote ''The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts''.",
"These manuscripts covered numerous topics, detailing Marx's concept of alienated labour.",
"By the spring of 1845, his continued study of political economy, capital and capitalism had led Marx to the belief that the new critique of political economy he was espousing—that of scientific socialism—needed to be built on the base of a thoroughly developed materialistic view of the world.The ''Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844'' had been written between April and August 1844, but soon Marx recognised that the ''Manuscripts'' had been influenced by some inconsistent ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach.",
"Accordingly, Marx recognised the need to break with Feuerbach's philosophy in favour of historical materialism, thus a year later (in April 1845) after moving from Paris to Brussels, Marx wrote his eleven \"Theses on Feuerbach\".",
"The \"Theses on Feuerbach\" are best known for Thesis 11, which states that \"philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways, the point is to change it\".",
"This work contains Marx's criticism of materialism (for being contemplative), idealism (for reducing practice to theory), and, overall, philosophy (for putting abstract reality above the physical world).",
"It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx's historical materialism, an argument that the world is changed not by ideas but by actual, physical, material activity and practice.",
"In 1845, after receiving a request from the Prussian king, the French government shut down , with the interior minister, François Guizot, expelling Marx from France.=== Brussels: 1845–1848 ===Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany, Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Belgium in February 1845.However, to stay in Belgium he had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics.",
"In Brussels, Marx associated with other exiled socialists from across Europe, including Moses Hess, Karl Heinzen and Joseph Weydemeyer.",
"In April 1845, Engels moved from Barmen in Germany to Brussels to join Marx and the growing cadre of members of the League of the Just now seeking home in Brussels.",
"Later, Mary Burns, Engels' long-time companion, left Manchester, England to join Engels in Brussels.In mid-July 1845, Marx and Engels left Brussels for England to visit the leaders of the Chartists, a working-class movement in Britain.",
"This was Marx's first trip to England and Engels was an ideal guide for the trip.",
"Engels had already spent two years living in Manchester from November 1842 to August 1844.Not only did Engels already know the English language, but he had also developed a close relationship with many Chartist leaders.",
"Indeed, Engels was serving as a reporter for many Chartist and socialist English newspapers.",
"Marx used the trip as an opportunity to examine the economic resources available for study in various libraries in London and Manchester.In collaboration with Engels, Marx also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of historical materialism, ''The German Ideology''.",
"In this work, Marx broke with Ludwig Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, Max Stirner and the rest of the Young Hegelians, while he also broke with Karl Grün and other \"true socialists\" whose philosophies were still based in part on \"idealism\".",
"In ''German Ideology'', Marx and Engels finally completed their philosophy, which was based solely on materialism as the sole motor force in history.",
"''German Ideology'' is written in a humorously satirical form, but even this satirical form did not save the work from censorship.",
"Like so many other early writings of his, ''German Ideology'' would not be published in Marx's lifetime and would be published only in 1932.After completing ''German Ideology'', Marx turned to a work that was intended to clarify his own position regarding \"the theory and tactics\" of a truly \"revolutionary proletarian movement\" operating from the standpoint of a truly \"scientific materialist\" philosophy.",
"This work was intended to draw a distinction between the utopian socialists and Marx's own scientific socialist philosophy.",
"Whereas the utopians believed that people must be persuaded one person at a time to join the socialist movement, the way a person must be persuaded to adopt any different belief, Marx knew that people would tend, on most occasions, to act in accordance with their own economic interests, thus appealing to an entire class (the working class in this case) with a broad appeal to the class's best material interest would be the best way to mobilise the broad mass of that class to make a revolution and change society.",
"This was the intent of the new book that Marx was planning, but to get the manuscript past the government censors he called the book ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' (1847) and offered it as a response to the \"petty-bourgeois philosophy\" of the French anarchist socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as expressed in his book ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1840).Marx with his daughters and EngelsThese books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels's most famous work, a political pamphlet that has since come to be commonly known as ''The Communist Manifesto''.",
"While residing in Brussels in 1846, Marx continued his association with the secret radical organisation League of the Just.",
"As noted above, Marx thought the League to be just the sort of radical organisation that was needed to spur the working class of Europe toward the mass movement that would bring about a working-class revolution.",
"However, to organise the working class into a mass movement the League had to cease its \"secret\" or \"underground\" orientation and operate in the open as a political party.",
"Members of the League eventually became persuaded in this regard.",
"Accordingly, in June 1847 the League was reorganised by its membership into a new open \"above ground\" political society that appealed directly to the working classes.",
"This new open political society was called the Communist League.",
"Both Marx and Engels participated in drawing up the programme and organisational principles of the new Communist League.The Manifesto of the Communist Party'', published in German in 1848In late 1847, Marx and Engels began writing what was to become their most famous work – a programme of action for the Communist League.",
"Written jointly by Marx and Engels from December 1847 to January 1848, ''The Communist Manifesto'' was first published on 21 February 1848.",
"''The Communist Manifesto'' laid out the beliefs of the new Communist League.",
"No longer a secret society, the Communist League wanted to make aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding its beliefs as the League of the Just had been doing.",
"The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal basis of Marxism: \"The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles\".",
"It goes on to examine the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising in the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie (the wealthy capitalist class) and the proletariat (the industrial working class).",
"Proceeding on from this, the ''Manifesto'' presents the argument for why the Communist League, as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time, was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and to replace it with socialism.Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions, and often violent upheavals that became known as the Revolutions of 1848.In France, a revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the French Second Republic.",
"Marx was supportive of such activity and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father (withheld by his uncle Lionel Philips since his father's death in 1838) of either 6,000 or 5,000 francs he allegedly used a third of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary action.",
"Although the veracity of these allegations is disputed, the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused Marx of it, subsequently arresting him and he was forced to flee back to France, where with a new republican government in power he believed that he would be safe.=== Cologne: 1848–1849 ===Marx and Engels in the printing house of the .",
"E. Capiro, 1895Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to the city and also set up a German Workers' Club with various German socialists living there.",
"Hoping to see the revolution spread to Germany, in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne where he began issuing a handbill entitled the ''Demands of the Communist Party in Germany'', in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the ''Communist Manifesto'', believing that in Germany at that time the bourgeoisie must overthrow the feudal monarchy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow the bourgeoisie.",
"On 1 June, Marx started the publication of a daily newspaper, the , which he helped to finance through his recent inheritance from his father.",
"Designed to put forward news from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events, the newspaper featured Marx as a primary writer and the dominant editorial influence.",
"Despite contributions by fellow members of the Communist League, according to Friedrich Engels it remained \"a simple dictatorship by Marx\".Whilst editor of the paper, Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the police and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions, facing various allegations including insulting the Chief Public Prosecutor, committing a press misdemeanor and inciting armed rebellion through tax boycotting, although each time he was acquitted.",
"Meanwhile, the democratic parliament in Prussia collapsed and the king, Frederick William IV, introduced a new cabinet of his reactionary supporters, who implemented counterrevolutionary measures to expunge left-wing and other revolutionary elements from the country.",
"Consequently, the was soon suppressed, and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May.",
"Marx returned to Paris, which was then under the grip of both a reactionary counterrevolution and a cholera epidemic, and was soon expelled by the city authorities, who considered him a political threat.",
"With his wife Jenny expecting their fourth child and with Marx not able to move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he sought refuge in London.=== Move to London and further writing: 1850–1860 ===Marx moved to London in early June 1849 and would remain based in the city for the rest of his life.",
"The headquarters of the Communist League also moved to London.",
"However, in the winter of 1849–1850, a split within the ranks of the Communist League occurred when a faction within it led by August Willich and Karl Schapper began agitating for an immediate uprising.",
"Willich and Schapper believed that once the Communist League had initiated the uprising, the entire working class from across Europe would rise \"spontaneously\" to join it, thus creating revolution across Europe.",
"Marx and Engels protested that such an unplanned uprising on the part of the Communist League was \"adventuristic\" and would be suicide for the Communist League.",
"Such an uprising as that recommended by the Schapper/Willich group would easily be crushed by the police and the armed forces of the reactionary governments of Europe.",
"Marx maintained that this would spell doom for the Communist League itself, arguing that changes in society are not achieved overnight through the efforts and will power of a handful of men.",
"They are instead brought about through a scientific analysis of economic conditions of society and by moving toward revolution through different stages of social development.",
"In the present stage of development (''circa'' 1850), following the defeat of the uprisings across Europe in 1848 he felt that the Communist League should encourage the working class to unite with progressive elements of the rising bourgeoisie to defeat the feudal aristocracy on issues involving demands for governmental reforms, such as a constitutional republic with freely elected assemblies and universal (male) suffrage.",
"In other words, the working class must join with bourgeois and democratic forces to bring about the successful conclusion of the bourgeois revolution before stressing the working-class agenda and a working-class revolution.After a long struggle that threatened to ruin the Communist League, Marx's opinion prevailed and eventually, the Willich/Schapper group left the Communist League.",
"Meanwhile, Marx also became heavily involved with the socialist German Workers' Educational Society.",
"The Society held their meetings in Great Windmill Street, Soho, central London's entertainment district.",
"This organisation was also racked by an internal struggle between its members, some of whom followed Marx while others followed the Schapper/Willich faction.",
"The issues in this internal split were the same issues raised in the internal split within the Communist League, but Marx lost the fight with the Schapper/Willich faction within the German Workers' Educational Society and on 17 September 1850 resigned from the Society.=== ''New-York Daily Tribune'' and journalism ===In the early period in London, Marx committed himself almost exclusively to his studies, such that his family endured extreme poverty.",
"His main source of income was Engels, whose own source was his wealthy industrialist father.",
"In Prussia as editor of his own newspaper, and contributor to others ideologically aligned, Marx could reach his audience, the working classes.",
"In London, without finances to run a newspaper themselves, he and Engels turned to international journalism.",
"At one stage they were being published by six newspapers from England, the United States, Prussia, Austria, and South Africa.",
"Marx's principal earnings came from his work as European correspondent, from 1852 to 1862, for the ''New-York Daily Tribune'', and from also producing articles for more \"bourgeois\" newspapers.",
"Marx had his articles translated from German by , until his proficiency in English had become adequate.The ''New-York Daily Tribune'' had been founded in April 1841 by Horace Greeley.",
"Its editorial board contained progressive bourgeois journalists and publishers, among them George Ripley and the journalist Charles Dana, who was editor-in-chief.",
"Dana, a fourierist and an abolitionist, was Marx's contact.",
"The ''Tribune'' was a vehicle for Marx to reach a transatlantic public, such as for his \"hidden warfare\" against Henry Charles Carey.",
"The journal had wide working-class appeal from its foundation; at two cents, it was inexpensive; and, with about 50,000 copies per issue, its circulation was the widest in the United States.",
"Its editorial ethos was progressive and its anti-slavery stance reflected Greeley's.",
"Marx's first article for the paper, on the British parliamentary elections, was published on 21 August 1852.On 21 March 1857, Dana informed Marx that due to the economic recession only one article a week would be paid for, published or not; the others would be paid for only if published.",
"Marx had sent his articles on Tuesdays and Fridays, but, that October, the ''Tribune'' discharged all its correspondents in Europe except Marx and B. Taylor, and reduced Marx to a weekly article.",
"Between September and November 1860, only five were published.",
"After a six-month interval, Marx resumed contributions from September 1861 until March 1862, when Dana wrote to inform him that there was no longer space in the ''Tribune'' for reports from London, due to American domestic affairs.In 1868, Dana set up a rival newspaper, the ''New York Sun'', at which he was editor-in-chief.",
"In April 1857, Dana invited Marx to contribute articles, mainly on military history, to the ''New American Cyclopedia'', an idea of George Ripley, Dana's friend and literary editor of the ''Tribune''.",
"In all, 67 Marx-Engels articles were published, of which 51 were written by Engels, although Marx did some research for them in the British Museum.",
"By the late 1850s, American popular interest in European affairs waned and Marx's articles turned to topics such as the \"slavery crisis\" and the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 in the \"War Between the States\".",
"Between December 1851 and March 1852, Marx worked on his theoretical work about the French Revolution of 1848, titled ''The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon''.",
"In this he explored concepts in historical materialism, class struggle, dictatorship of the proletariat, and victory of the proletariat over the bourgeois state.The 1850s and 1860s may be said to mark a philosophical boundary distinguishing the young Marx's Hegelian idealism and the more mature Marx's scientific ideology associated with structural Marxism.",
"However, not all scholars accept this distinction.",
"For Marx and Engels, their experience of the Revolutions of 1848 to 1849 were formative in the development of their theory of economics and historical progression.",
"After the \"failures\" of 1848, the revolutionary impetus appeared spent and not to be renewed without an economic recession.",
"Contention arose between Marx and his fellow communists, whom he denounced as \"adventurists\".",
"Marx deemed it fanciful to propose that \"will power\" could be sufficient to create the revolutionary conditions when in reality the economic component was the necessary requisite.",
"The recession in the United States' economy in 1852 gave Marx and Engels grounds for optimism for revolutionary activity, yet this economy was seen as too immature for a capitalist revolution.",
"Open territories on America's western frontier dissipated the forces of social unrest.",
"Moreover, any economic crisis arising in the United States would not lead to revolutionary contagion of the older economies of individual European nations, which were closed systems bounded by their national borders.",
"When the so-called Panic of 1857 in the United States spread globally, it broke all economic theory models, and was the first truly global economic crisis.=== First International and ''Das Kapital'' ===Das Kapital''Marx continued to write articles for the ''New York Daily Tribune'' as long as he was sure that the ''Tribune''s editorial policy was still progressive.",
"However, the departure of Charles Dana from the paper in late 1861 and the resultant change in the editorial board brought about a new editorial policy.",
"No longer was the ''Tribune'' to be a strong abolitionist paper dedicated to a complete Union victory.",
"The new editorial board supported an immediate peace between the Union and the Confederacy in the Civil War in the United States with slavery left intact in the Confederacy.",
"Marx strongly disagreed with this new political position and in 1863 was forced to withdraw as a writer for the ''Tribune''.In 1864, Marx became involved in the International Workingmen's Association (also known as the First International), to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864.In that organisation, Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred on Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876).",
"Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International.",
"The most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of 1871 when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months.",
"In response to the bloody suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, \"The Civil War in France\", a defence of the Commune.Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers' revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to understand and provide a critique suitable for the capitalist mode of production, and hence spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the British Museum studying.",
"By 1857, Marx had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage labour, the state, and foreign trade, and the world market, though this work did not appear in print until 1939, under the title ''Outlines of the Critique of Political Economy''.In 1859, Marx published ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'', his first serious critique of political economy.",
"This work was intended merely as a preview of his three-volume ''Das Kapital'' (English title: ''Capital: Critique of Political Economy''), which he intended to publish at a later date.",
"In ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'', Marx began to critically examine axioms and categories of economic thinking.",
"The work was enthusiastically received, and the edition sold out quickly.Marx photographed by John Mayall, 1875The successful sales of ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'' stimulated Marx in the early 1860s to finish work on the three large volumes that would compose his major life's work – and the ''Theories of Surplus Value'', which discussed and critiqued the theoreticians of political economy, particularly Adam Smith and David Ricardo.",
"''Theories of Surplus Value'' is often referred to as the fourth volume of and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the history of economic thought.",
"In 1867, the first volume of was published, a work which critically analysed capital.",
"proposes an explanation of the \"laws of motion\" of the mode of production from its origins to its future by describing the dynamics of the accumulation of capital, with topics such as the growth of wage labour, the transformation of the workplace, capital accumulation, competition, the banking system, the tendency of the rate of profit to fall and land-rents, as well as how waged labour continually reproduce the rule of capital.",
"Marx proposes that the driving force of capital is in the exploitation of labor, whose unpaid work is the ultimate source of surplus value.Demand for a Russian language edition of soon led to the printing of 3,000 copies of the book in the Russian language, which was published on 27 March 1872.By the autumn of 1871, the entire first edition of the German-language edition of had been sold out and a second edition was published.Volumes II and III of remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life.",
"Both volumes were published by Engels after Marx's death.",
"Volume II of was prepared and published by Engels in July 1893 under the name ''Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital''.",
"Volume III of was published a year later in October 1894 under the name ''Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole''.",
"''Theories of Surplus Value'' derived from the sprawling ''Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863'', a ''second'' draft for , the latter spanning volumes 30–34 of the ''Collected Works of Marx and Engels''.",
"Specifically, ''Theories of Surplus Value'' runs from the latter part of the ''Collected Works''' thirtieth volume through the end of their thirty-second volume; meanwhile, the larger ''Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863'' run from the start of the ''Collected Works''' thirtieth volume through the first half of their thirty-fourth volume.",
"The latter half of the Collected Works' thirty-fourth volume consists of the surviving fragments of the ''Economic Manuscripts of 1863–1864'', which represented a ''third'' draft for , and a large portion of which is included as an appendix to the Penguin edition of , volume I.",
"A German-language abridged edition of ''Theories of Surplus Value'' was published in 1905 and in 1910.This abridged edition was translated into English and published in 1951 in London, but the complete unabridged edition of ''Theories of Surplus Value'' was published as the \"fourth volume\" of in 1963 and 1971 in Moscow.Marx in 1882During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined, and he became incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous work.",
"He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics, particularly in Germany and Russia.",
"His ''Critique of the Gotha Programme'' opposed the tendency of his followers Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel to compromise with the state socialist ideas of Ferdinand Lassalle in the interests of a united socialist party.",
"This work is also notable for another famous Marx quote: \"From each according to his ability, to each according to his need\".In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881, Marx contemplated the possibility of Russia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village ''mir''.",
"While admitting that Russia's rural \"commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia\", Marx also warned that in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage it \"would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences which are assailing it the rural commune from all sides\".",
"Given the elimination of these pernicious influences, Marx allowed that \"normal conditions of spontaneous development\" of the rural commune could exist.",
"However, in the same letter to Vera Zasulich he points out that \"at the core of the capitalist system ... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production\".",
"In one of the drafts of this letter, Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology, motivated by his belief that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the communism of our prehistoric past.",
"He wrote that \"the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in the European and American countries where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will end in its destruction, in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type – collective production and appropriation\".",
"He added that \"the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc.",
"societies, and, a fortiori, that of modern capitalist societies\".",
"Before he died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which were published in 1884 under the title ''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State''."
],
[
"Personal life",
"=== Family ===Jenny Carolina and Jenny Laura Marx (1869): all the Marx daughters were named Jenny in honour of their mother, Jenny von Westphalen.Marx and von Westphalen had seven children together, but partly owing to the poor conditions in which they lived whilst in London, only three survived to adulthood.",
"Their children were: Jenny Caroline (m. Longuet; 1844–1883); Jenny Laura (m. Lafargue; 1845–1911); Edgar (1847–1855); Henry Edward Guy (\"Guido\"; 1849–1850); Jenny Eveline Frances (\"Franziska\"; 1851–1852); Jenny Julia Eleanor (1855–1898) and one more who died before being named (July 1857).",
"According to his son-in-law, Paul Lafargue, Marx was a loving father.",
"In 1962, there were allegations that Marx fathered a son, Freddy, out of wedlock by his housekeeper, Helene Demuth, but the claim is disputed for lack of documented evidence.Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when renting a house or flat, apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down.",
"While in Paris, he used that of \"Monsieur Ramboz\", whilst in London, he signed off his letters as \"A. Williams\".",
"His friends referred to him as \"Moor\", owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair, while he encouraged his children to call him \"Old Nick\" and \"Charley\".",
"He also bestowed nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family as well, referring to Friedrich Engels as \"General\", his housekeeper Helene as \"Lenchen\" or \"Nym\", while one of his daughters, Jennychen, was referred to as \"Qui Qui, Emperor of China\" and another, Laura, was known as \"Kakadou\" or \"the Hottentot\".=== Health ===Marx drank heavily until his death after joining the Trier Tavern Club drinking society in the 1830s.Marx was afflicted by poor health (what he himself described as \"the wretchedness of existence\") and various authors have sought to describe and explain it.",
"His biographer Werner Blumenberg attributed it to liver and gall problems which Marx had in 1849 and from which he was never afterward free, exacerbated by an unsuitable lifestyle.",
"The attacks often came with headaches, eye inflammation, neuralgia in the head, and rheumatic pains.",
"A serious nervous disorder appeared in 1877 and protracted insomnia was a consequence, which Marx fought with narcotics.",
"The illness was aggravated by excessive nocturnal work and faulty diet.",
"Marx was fond of highly seasoned dishes, smoked fish, caviare, pickled cucumbers, \"none of which are good for liver patients\", but he also liked wine and liqueurs and smoked an enormous amount \"and since he had no money, it was usually bad-quality cigars\".",
"From 1863, Marx complained a lot about boils: \"These are very frequent with liver patients and may be due to the same causes\".",
"The abscesses were so bad that Marx could neither sit nor work upright.",
"According to Blumenberg, Marx's irritability is often found in liver patients:The illness emphasised certain traits in his character.",
"He argued cuttingly, his biting satire did not shrink at insults, and his expressions could be rude and cruel.",
"Though in general Marx had blind faith in his closest friends, nevertheless he himself complained that he was sometimes too mistrustful and unjust even to them.",
"His verdicts, not only about enemies but even about friends, were sometimes so harsh that even less sensitive people would take offence ...",
"There must have been few whom he did not criticize like this ... not even Engels was an exception.According to Princeton historian Jerrold Seigel, in his late teens, Marx may have had pneumonia or pleurisy, the effects of which led to his being exempted from Prussian military service.",
"In later life whilst working on (which he never completed), Marx suffered from a trio of afflictions.",
"A liver ailment, probably hereditary, was aggravated by overwork, a bad diet, and lack of sleep.",
"Inflammation of the eyes was induced by too much work at night.",
"A third affliction, eruption of carbuncles or boils, \"was probably brought on by general physical debility to which the various features of Marx's style of life – alcohol, tobacco, poor diet, and failure to sleep – all contributed.",
"Engels often exhorted Marx to alter this dangerous regime\".",
"In Seigel's thesis, what lay behind this punishing sacrifice of his health may have been guilt about self-involvement and egoism, originally induced in Karl Marx by his father.In 2007, a retrodiagnosis of Marx's skin disease was made by dermatologist Sam Shuster of Newcastle University and for Shuster, the most probable explanation was that Marx suffered not from liver problems, but from hidradenitis suppurativa, a recurring infective condition arising from blockage of apocrine ducts opening into hair follicles.",
"This condition, which was not described in the English medical literature until 1933 (hence would not have been known to Marx's physicians), can produce joint pain (which could be misdiagnosed as rheumatic disorder) and painful eye conditions.",
"To arrive at his retrodiagnosis, Shuster considered the primary material: the Marx correspondence published in the 50 volumes of the ''Marx/Engels Collected Works''.",
"There, \"although the skin lesions were called 'furuncles', 'boils' and 'carbuncles' by Marx, his wife, and his physicians, they were too persistent, recurrent, destructive and site-specific for that diagnosis\".",
"The sites of the persistent 'carbuncles' were noted repeatedly in the armpits, groins, perianal, genital (penis and scrotum) and suprapubic regions and inner thighs, \"favoured sites of hidradenitis suppurativa\".",
"Professor Shuster claimed the diagnosis \"can now be made definitively\".Shuster went on to consider the potential psychosocial effects of the disease, noting that the skin is an organ of communication and that hidradenitis suppurativa produces much psychological distress, including loathing and disgust and depression of self-image, mood, and well-being, feelings for which Shuster found \"much evidence\" in the Marx correspondence.",
"Professor Shuster went on to ask himself whether the mental effects of the disease affected Marx's work and even helped him to develop his theory of alienation.=== Death ===Tomb of Karl Marx, East Highgate Cemetery, LondonFollowing the death of his wife Jenny in December 1881, Marx developed a catarrh that kept him in ill health for the last 15 months of his life.",
"It eventually brought on the bronchitis and pleurisy that killed him in London on 14 March 1883, when he died a stateless person at age 64.Family and friends in London buried his body in Highgate Cemetery (East), London, on 17 March 1883 in an area reserved for agnostics and atheists (George Eliot's grave is nearby).",
"According to Francis Wheen, there were between nine and eleven mourners at his funeral; however, research from contemporary sources identifies thirteen named individuals attending the funeral: Friedrich Engels, Eleanor Marx, Edward Aveling, Paul Lafargue, Charles Longuet, Helene Demuth, Wilhelm Liebknecht, Gottlieb Lemke, Frederick Lessner, G Lochner, Sir Ray Lankester, Carl Schorlemmer and Ernest Radford.",
"A contemporary newspaper account claims that twenty-five to thirty relatives and friends attended the funeral.",
"A writer in ''The Graphic'' noted: 'By a strange blunder ... his death was not announced for two days, and then as having taken place at Paris.",
"The next day the correction came from Paris; and when his friends and followers hastened to his house in Haverstock Hill, to learn the time and place of burial, they learned that he was already in the cold ground.",
"But for this secresy sic and haste, a great popular demonstration would undoubtedly have been held over his grave'.Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, including Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels.",
"Engels' speech included the passage: Marx's surviving daughters Eleanor and Laura, as well as Charles Longuet and Paul Lafargue, Marx's two French socialist sons-in-law, were also in attendance.",
"He had been predeceased by his wife and his eldest daughter, the latter dying a few months earlier in January 1883.Liebknecht, a founder and leader of the German Social Democratic Party, gave a speech in German, and Longuet, a prominent figure in the French working-class movement, made a short statement in French.",
"Two telegrams from workers' parties in France and Spain were also read out.",
"Together with Engels's speech, this constituted the entire programme of the funeral.",
"Non-relatives attending the funeral included three communist associates of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years after the Cologne Communist Trial of 1852; G. Lochner, whom Engels described as \"an old member of the Communist League\"; and Carl Schorlemmer, a professor of chemistry in Manchester, a member of the Royal Society, and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden revolution.",
"Another attendee of the funeral was Ray Lankester, a British zoologist who would later become a prominent academic.Marx left a personal estate valued for probate at £250 (equivalent to £ in ).",
"Upon his own death in 1895, Engels left Marx's two surviving daughters a \"significant portion\" of his considerable estate (valued in 2011 at US$4.8 million).Marx and his family were reburied on a new site nearby in November 1954.The tomb at the new site, unveiled on 14 March 1956, bears the carved message: \"Workers of All Lands Unite\", the final line of ''The Communist Manifesto''; and, from the 11th \"Thesis on Feuerbach\" (as edited by Engels), \"The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various waysthe point however is to change it\".",
"The Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) had the monument with a portrait bust by Laurence Bradshaw erected and Marx's original tomb had only humble adornment.",
"Black civil rights leader and CPGB activist Claudia Jones was later buried beside Karl Marx's tomb.The Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm remarked: \"One cannot say Marx died a failure.\"",
"Although he had not achieved a large following of disciples in Britain, his writings had already begun to make an impact on the left-wing movements in Germany and Russia.",
"Within twenty-five years of his death, the continental European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx's influence on their politics had contributed to significant gains in their representative democratic elections."
],
[
"Thought",
"=== Influences ===Marx's thought demonstrates influence from many sources, including but not limited to:* Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's philosophy* The classical political economy (economics) of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, as well as Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi's critique of laissez-faire economics and analysis of the precarious state of the proletariat* French socialist thought, in particular the thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Henri de Saint-Simon, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Charles Fourier* Earlier German philosophical materialism among the Young Hegelians, particularly that of Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer, as well as the French materialism of the late 18th century, including Diderot, Claude Adrien Helvétius and d'Holbach* Friedrich Engels' analysis of the working class, as well as the early descriptions of class provided by French liberals and Saint-Simonians such as François Guizot and Augustin Thierry* Marx's Judaic legacy has been identified as formative to both his moral outlook and his materialist philosophy.Marx's view of history, which came to be called historical materialism (controversially adapted as the philosophy of dialectical materialism by Engels and Lenin), certainly shows the influence of Hegel's claim that one should view reality (and history) dialectically.",
"However, whereas Hegel had thought in idealist terms, putting ideas in the forefront, Marx sought to conceptualize dialectics in materialist terms, arguing for the primacy of matter over idea.",
"Where Hegel saw the \"spirit\" as driving history, Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification, obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions shaping the world.",
"He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that one needed to set it upon its feet.",
"Despite his dislike of mystical terms, Marx used Gothic language in several of his works: in ''The Communist Manifesto'' he proclaims \"A spectre is haunting Europe – the spectre of communism.",
"All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre\", and in ''The Capital'' he refers to capital as \"necromancy that surrounds the products of labour\".Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought, Marx criticised utopian socialists, arguing that their favoured small-scale socialistic communities would be bound to marginalisation and poverty and that only a large-scale change in the economic system could bring about real change.Other important contributions to Marx's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels's book, ''The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844'', which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of class conflict and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for revolution, as well as from the social democrat Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz, who in described the movement of society as \"flowing from the contradiction between the forces of production and the mode of production.",
"\"Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically, discerning tendencies of history and thereby predicting the outcome of social conflicts.",
"Some followers of Marx, therefore, concluded that a communist revolution would inevitably occur.",
"However, Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his \"Theses on Feuerbach\" that \"philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it\" and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.Marx's theories inspired several theories and disciplines of future, including but not limited to:* Contemporary critique of political economy* Kondratiev wave and Kuznets swing* Theory of Underconsumption* Creative destruction* Crisis theory* Quantitative Economic History* World-systems theory=== Philosophy and social thought ===Marx's polemic with other thinkers often occurred through critique and thus he has been called \"the first great user of critical method in social sciences\".",
"He criticised speculative philosophy, equating metaphysics with ideology.",
"By adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases.",
"This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.==== Human nature ====Like Tocqueville, who described a faceless and bureaucratic despotism with no identifiable despot, Marx also broke with classical thinkers who spoke of a single tyrant and with Montesquieu, who discussed the nature of the single despot.",
"Instead, Marx set out to analyse \"the despotism of capital\".",
"Fundamentally, Marx assumed that human history involves transforming human nature, which encompasses both human beings and material objects.",
"Humans recognise that they possess both actual and potential selves.",
"For both Marx and Hegel, self-development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a subjective agent, renders its potential counterpart an object to be apprehended.",
"Marx further argues that by moulding nature in desired ways the subject takes the object as its own and thus permits the individual to be actualised as fully human.",
"For Marx, the human nature – , or species-being – exists as a function of human labour.",
"Fundamental to Marx's idea of meaningful labour is the proposition that for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object it must first exert influence upon literal, material objects in the subject's world.",
"Marx acknowledges that Hegel \"grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man, authentic because actual, as the result of his \", but characterises Hegelian self-development as unduly \"spiritual\" and abstract.",
"Marx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that \"the fact that man is a corporeal, actual, sentient, objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his nature as objects of his life-expression, or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects\".",
"Consequently, Marx revises Hegelian \"work\" into material \"labour\" and in the context of human capacity to transform nature the term \"labour power\".==== Labour, class struggle and false consciousness ====A monument dedicated to Marx and Engels in Shanghai, ChinaMarx had a special concern with how people relate to their own labour power.",
"He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of alienation.",
"As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception.",
"Capitalism mediates social relationships of production (such as among workers or between workers and capitalists) through commodities, including labour, that are bought and sold on the market.",
"For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour – one's capacity to transform the world – is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature and it is a spiritual loss.",
"Marx described this loss as commodity fetishism, in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behaviour merely adapt.Commodity fetishism provides an example of what Engels called \"false consciousness\", which relates closely to the understanding of ideology.",
"By \"ideology\", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal.",
"Marx and Engels's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths, as they serve an important political function.",
"Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production include not only the production of food or manufactured goods but also the production of ideas (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests).",
"An example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface to his 1843 ''Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right'': Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis at the argued that religion had as its primary social aim the promotion of solidarity, here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of highlighting/preserving political and economic ''status quo'' and inequality.Marx was an outspoken opponent of child labour, saying that British industries \"could but live by sucking blood, and children's blood too\", and that U.S. capital was financed by the \"capitalized blood of children\".==== Critique of political economy, history and society ====Marx's thoughts on labour and its function in reproducing capital were related to the primacy he gave to social relations in determining the society's past, present and future.",
"(Critics have called this economic determinism.)",
"Labour is the precondition for the existence of, and accumulation of capital, which both shape the social system.",
"For Marx, social change was driven by conflict between opposing interests, by parties situated in the historical situation of their mode of production.",
"This became the inspiration for the body of works known as the conflict theory.",
"In his evolutionary model of history, he argued that human history began with free, productive and creative activities that was over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend most apparent under capitalism.",
"Marx noted that this was not an intentional process, but rather due to the immanent logic of the current mode of production which demands more human labour (abstract labour) to reproduce the social relationships of capital.The organisation of society depends on means of production.",
"The means of production are all things required to produce material goods, such as land, natural resources, and technology but not human labour.",
"The relations of production are the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production.",
"Together, these compose the mode of production and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of modes of production.",
"Marx differentiated between base and superstructure, where the base (or substructure) is the economic system and superstructure is the cultural and political system.",
"Marx regarded this mismatch between economic base and social superstructure as a major source of social disruption and conflict.Despite Marx's stress on the critique of capitalism and discussion of the new communist society that should replace it, his explicit critique is guarded, as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones (slavery and feudalism).",
"Marx never clearly discusses issues of morality and justice, but scholars agree that his work contained implicit discussion of those concepts.Marx's view of capitalism was two-sided.",
"On one hand, in the 19th century's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of this system he noted that defining features of capitalism include alienation, exploitation and recurring, cyclical depressions leading to mass unemployment.",
"On the other hand, he characterised capitalism as \"revolutionising, industrialising and universalising qualities of development, growth and progressivity\" (by which Marx meant industrialisation, urbanisation, technological progress, increased productivity and growth, rationality, and scientific revolution) that are responsible for progress, at in contrast to earlier forms of societies.",
"Marx considered the capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in history because it constantly improved the means of production, more so than any other class in history and was responsible for the overthrow of feudalism.",
"Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist has an incentive to reinvest profits in new technologies and capital equipment.According to Marx, capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce.",
"Marx observed that in practically every successful industry, input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices.",
"Marx called the difference \"surplus value\" and argued that it was based on surplus labour, the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive, and what they can produce.",
"Although Marx describes capitalists as vampires sucking worker's blood, he notes that drawing profit is \"by no means an injustice\" since Marx, according to Allen W. Wood \"excludes any trans-epochal standpoint from which one can comment\" on the morals of such particular arrangements.",
"Marx also noted that even the capitalists themselves cannot go against the system.",
"The problem is the \"cancerous cell\" of capital, understood not as property or equipment, but the social relations between workers and owners, (the selling and purchasing of labour power) – the societal system, or rather mode of production, in general.At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable and prone to periodic crises.",
"He suggested that over time capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies and less and less in labour.",
"Since Marx believed that profit derived from surplus value appropriated from labour, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall as the economy grows.",
"Marx believed that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this cycle of growth and collapse.",
"Moreover, he believed that in the long-term, this process would enrich and empower the capitalist class and impoverish the proletariat.",
"In section one of ''The Communist Manifesto'', Marx describes feudalism, capitalism and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process:Outside a factory in Oldham.",
"Marx believed that industrial workers (the proletariat) would rise up around the world.Marx believed that those structural contradictions within capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or a post-capitalistic, communist society:Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such as urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should grow in numbers and develop class consciousness, in time realising that they can and must change the system.",
"Marx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, abolishing the exploiting class and introducing a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises.",
"Marx argued in ''The German Ideology'' that capitalism will end through the organised actions of an international working class: In this new society, the alienation would end and humans would be free to act without being bound by selling their labour.",
"It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population.",
"In such a utopian world, there would also be little need for a state, whose goal was previously to enforce the alienation.",
"Marx theorised that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist/communist system, would exist a period of dictatorship of the proletariat – where the working class holds political power and forcibly socialises the means of production.",
"As he wrote in his ''Critique of the Gotha Program'', \"between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other.",
"Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat\".",
"While he allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in some countries with strong democratic institutional structures (such as Britain, the United States, and the Netherlands), he suggested that in other countries in which workers cannot \"attain their goal by peaceful means\" the \"lever of our revolution must be force\".=== International relations ===Karl Marx Monument in Chemnitz (known as ''Karl-Marx-Stadt'' from 1953 to 1990)Marx viewed Russia as the main counter-revolutionary threat to European revolutions.",
"During the Crimean War, Marx backed the Ottoman Empire and its allies Britain and France against Russia.",
"He was absolutely opposed to Pan-Slavism, viewing it as an instrument of Russian foreign policy.",
"Marx had considered the Slavic nations except Poles as 'counter-revolutionary'.",
"Marx and Engels published in the ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' in February 1849:Marx and Engels sympathised with the Narodnik revolutionaries of the 1860s and 1870s.",
"When the Russian revolutionaries assassinated Tsar Alexander II of Russia, Marx expressed the hope that the assassination foreshadowed 'the formation of a Russian commune'.",
"Marx supported the Polish uprisings against tsarist Russia.",
"He said in a speech in London in 1867:CPI(M) mural in Kerala, IndiaMarx supported the cause of Irish independence.",
"In 1867, he wrote Engels: \"I used to think the separation of Ireland from England impossible.",
"I now think it inevitable.",
"The English working class will never accomplish anything until it has got rid of Ireland.",
"... English reaction in England had its roots ... in the subjugation of Ireland.",
"\"Marx spent some time in French Algeria, which had been invaded and made a French colony in 1830, and had the opportunity to observe life in colonial North Africa.",
"He wrote about the colonial justice system, in which \"a form of torture has been used (and this happens 'regularly') to extract confessions from the Arabs; naturally it is done (like the English in India) by the 'police'; the judge is supposed to know nothing at all about it.\"",
"Marx was surprised by the arrogance of many European settlers in Algiers and wrote in a letter: \"when a European colonist dwells among the 'lesser breeds,' either as a settler or even on business, he generally regards himself as even more inviolable than handsome William I a Prussian king.",
"Still, when it comes to bare-faced arrogance and presumptuousness vis-à-vis the 'lesser breeds,' the British and Dutch outdo the French.",
"\"According to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'': \"Marx's analysis of colonialism as a progressive force bringing modernization to a backward feudal society sounds like a transparent rationalization for foreign domination.",
"His account of British domination, however, reflects the same ambivalence that he shows towards capitalism in Europe.",
"In both cases, Marx recognizes the immense suffering brought about during the transition from feudal to bourgeois society while insisting that the transition is both necessary and ultimately progressive.",
"He argues that the penetration of foreign commerce will cause a social revolution in India.",
"\"Marx discussed British colonial rule in India in the ''New York Herald Tribune'' in June 1853:"
],
[
"Legacy",
"Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels monument in Marx-Engels Forum, Berlin-Mitte, GermanyKarl Marx statue in Trier, GermanyMarx's ideas have had a profound impact on world politics and intellectual thought, in particular in the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution.",
"Followers of Marx have often debated among themselves over how to interpret Marx's writings and apply his concepts to the modern world.",
"The legacy of Marx's thought has become contested between numerous tendencies, each of which sees itself as Marx's most accurate interpreter.",
"In the political realm, these tendencies include political theories such as Leninism, Marxism–Leninism, Trotskyism, Maoism, Luxemburgism, libertarian Marxism, and Open Marxism.",
"Various currents have also developed in academic Marxism, often under influence of other views, resulting in structuralist Marxism, historical materialism, phenomenological Marxism, analytical Marxism, and Hegelian Marxism.From an academic perspective, Marx's work contributed to the birth of modern sociology.",
"He has been cited as one of the 19th century's three masters of the \"school of suspicion\", alongside Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud, and as one of the three principal architects of modern social science along with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber.",
"In contrast to other philosophers, Marx offered theories that could often be tested with the scientific method.",
"Both Marx and Auguste Comte set out to develop scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European secularisation and new developments in the philosophies of history and science.",
"Working in the Hegelian tradition, Marx rejected Comtean sociological positivism in an attempt to develop a ''science of society''.",
"Karl Löwith considered Marx and Søren Kierkegaard to be the two greatest philosophical successors of Hegel.",
"In modern sociological theory, Marxist sociology is recognised as one of the main classical perspectives.",
"Isaiah Berlin considers Marx the true founder of modern sociology \"in so far as anyone can claim the title\".",
"Beyond social science, he has also had a lasting legacy in philosophy, literature, the arts, and the humanities.William Roseberry (1997) ''Marx and Anthropology'' Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol.",
"26: pp.",
"25–46 (October 1997) Social theorists of the 20th and 21st centuries have pursued two main strategies in response to Marx.",
"One move has been to reduce it to its analytical core, known as analytical Marxism.",
"Another, more common move has been to dilute the explanatory claims of Marx's social theory and emphasise the \"relative autonomy\" of aspects of social and economic life not directly related to Marx's central narrative of interaction between the development of the \"forces of production\" and the succession of \"modes of production\".",
"This has been the neo-Marxist theorising adopted by historians inspired by Marx's social theory such as E. P. Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm.",
"It has also been a line of thinking pursued by thinkers and activists such as Antonio Gramsci who have sought to understand the opportunities and the difficulties of transformative political practice, seen in the light of Marxist social theory.",
"Marx's ideas would also have a profound influence on subsequent artists and art history, with avant-garde movements across literature, visual art, music, film, and theatre.Marxist–Leninist or Maoist definition between 1979 and 1983, which marked the greatest territorial extent of socialist statesPolitically, Marx's legacy is more complex.",
"Throughout the 20th century, revolutions in dozens of countries labelled themselves \"Marxist\"most notably the Russian Revolution, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union.",
"Major world leaders including Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Fidel Castro, Salvador Allende, Josip Broz Tito, Kwame Nkrumah, Jawaharlal Nehru, Nelson Mandela, Xi Jinping and Thomas Sankara have all cited Marx as an influence.",
"Beyond where Marxist revolutions took place, Marx's ideas have informed political parties worldwide.",
"In countries associated with Marxism, some events have led political opponents to blame Marx for millions of deaths, while others argue for a distinction between the legacy and influence of Marx specifically, and the legacy and influence of those who have shaped his ideas for political purposes.",
"Arthur Lipow describes Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels as \"the founders of modern revolutionary democratic socialism.",
"\"The cities of Marks, Russia and Karl-Marx-Stadt, Germany (now known as Chemnitz) were named after Marx.In May 2018, to mark the bicentenary of his birth, a 4.5m statue of him by leading Chinese sculptor Wu Weishan and donated by the Chinese government was unveiled in his birthplace of Trier, Germany.",
"The then-European Commission president Jean-Claude Juncker defended Marx's memory, saying that today Marx \"stands for things which he is not responsible for and which he didn't cause because many of the things he wrote down were redrafted into the opposite\".In 2017, a feature film, titled ''The Young Karl Marx'', featuring Marx, his wife Jenny Marx, and Engels, among other revolutionaries and intellectuals prior to the Revolutions of 1848, received good reviews for both its historical accuracy and its brio in dealing with intellectual life.",
"Another fictional representation to coincide with the bicentenary was Jason Barker's novel ''Marx Returns'' which, despite being \"curious, funny, perplexing, and irreverent\", according to philosopher Ray Brassier \"casts unexpected light on Marx's thought.\""
],
[
"Selected bibliography",
"* ''The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature'' (doctoral thesis), 1841* ''The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law'', 1842* ''Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right'', 1843* On the Jewish Question, 1843* Notes on James Mill, 1844* ''Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844'', 1844* ''The Holy Family'', 1845* Theses on Feuerbach, 1845* ''The German Ideology'', 1845* ''The Poverty of Philosophy'', 1847* Wage Labour and Capital, 1847* ''Manifesto of the Communist Party'', 1848* ''The Class Struggles in France'', 1850* ''The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon'', 1852* ''Grundrisse (Foundations of a Critique of Political Economy)'', 1857* ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'', 1859* ''Writings on the U.S. Civil War'', 1861* ''Theories of Surplus Value'', (posthumously published by Kautsky) 3 volumes, 1862* ''Address of the International Working Men's Association to Abraham Lincoln'', 1864* Value, Price and Profit, 1865* ''Capital.",
"Volume I: A Critique of Political Economy The Process of Production of Capital'' (''Das Kapital''), 1867* The Civil War in France, 1871* Critique of the Gotha Program, 1875* Notes on Adolph Wagner, 1883* ''Das Kapital'', Volume II (posthumously published by Engels), 1885* ''Das Kapital'', Volume III (posthumously published by Engels), 1894"
],
[
"See also",
"* 2807 Karl Marx* Criticisms of Marxism* Giovanni Gentile* Karl Marx in film* Marxian class theory* Marx Memorial Library* Marx's method* ''Marx Reloaded''* Mathematical manuscripts of Karl Marx* Pre-Marx socialists* Scientific socialism* Timeline of Karl Marx* ''Why Socialism?",
"'', an article written by Albert Einstein which presented a critique of modern capitalism and advocated for a planned economy."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"=== Biographies ===* Barnett, Vincent.",
"''Marx'' (Routledge, 2009)* Berlin, Isaiah.",
"''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment'' (Oxford University Press, 1963) * Gemkow, Heinrich.",
"''Karl Marx: A Biography''.",
"Dresden: Verlag Zeit im Bild.",
"1968.",
"* * * Liedman, Sven-Eric.",
"''A World to Win: The Life and Works of Karl Marx.''",
"2015 Jeffrey N. Skinner, trans.",
"London: Verso Books, 2018.",
"* McLellan, David.",
"''Karl Marx: his Life and Thought'' Harper & Row, 1973 * Mehring, Franz.",
"''Karl Marx: The Story of His Life'' (Routledge, 2003)* McLellan, David.",
"''Marx before Marxism'' (1980), Macmillan, * * Rubel, Maximilien.",
"''Marx Without Myth: A Chronological Study of his Life and Work'' (Blackwell, 1975) * Segrillo, Angelo.",
"''Two Centuries of Karl Marx Biographies: An Overview'' (LEA Working Paper Series, nº 4, March 2019).",
"* Sperber, Jonathan.",
"''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life.''",
"New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2013.",
"* Stedman Jones, Gareth.",
"''Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion'' (Allen Lane, 2016).",
".",
"* Walker, Frank Thomas.",
"''Karl Marx: a Bibliographic and Political Biography''.",
"(bj.publications), 2009.",
"* Wheen, Francis.",
"''Karl Marx: A Life'', (Fourth Estate, 1999), === Commentaries on Marx ===* Althusser, Louis.",
"''For Marx''.",
"London: Verso, 2005.",
"* Althusser, Louis and Balibar, Étienne.",
"''Reading Capital''.",
"London: Verso, 2009.",
"* Attali, Jacques.",
"''Karl Marx or the thought of the world''.",
"2005* Avineri, Shlomo.",
"''The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx'' (Cambridge University Press, 1968) * Avineri, Shlomo.",
"''Karl Marx: Philosophy and Revolution'' (Yale University Press, 2019) * Axelos, Kostas.",
"''Alienation, Praxis, and Techne in the Thought of Karl Marx'' (translated by Ronald Bruzina, University of Texas Press, 1976).",
"* Blackledge, Paul.",
"''Reflections on the Marxist Theory of History'' (Manchester University Press, 2006)* Blackledge, Paul.",
"''Marxism and Ethics'' (SUNY Press, 2012)* Bottomore, Tom, ed.",
"''A Dictionary of Marxist Thought''.",
"Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.",
"* * Cleaver, Harry.",
"''Reading Capital Politically'' (AK Press, 2000)* G.A.",
"Cohen.",
"''Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence'' (Princeton University Press, 1978) * Collier, Andrew.",
"''Marx'' (Oneworld, 2004)* Draper, Hal, ''Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution'' (4 volumes) Monthly Review Press* Duncan, Ronald and Wilson, Colin.",
"(editors) ''Marx Refuted'', (Bath, UK, 1987) * Eagleton, Terry.",
"''Why Marx Was Right'' (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2011).",
"* Fine, Ben.",
"''Marx's Capital.''",
"5th ed.",
"London: Pluto Press, 2010.",
"* Foster, John Bellamy.",
"''Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature''.",
"New York: Monthly Review Press, 2000.",
"* Gould, Stephen Jay.",
"''A Darwinian Gentleman at Marx's Funeral – E. Ray Lankester'', p. 1, Find Articles.com (1999)* Harvey, David.",
"''A Companion to Marx's Capital.''",
"London: Verso Books, 2010.",
"* Harvey, David.",
"''The Limits of Capital''.",
"London: Verso, 2006.",
"* Henry, Michel.",
"''Marx I'' and ''Marx II''.",
"1976* Holt, Justin P. ''The Social Thought of Karl Marx''.",
"Sage, 2015.",
"* Iggers, Georg G. \"Historiography: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge.",
"\"(Wesleyan University Press, 1997, 2005)* Kołakowski, Leszek.",
"''Main Currents of Marxism'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, OUP, 1978* Kurz, Robert.",
"''Read Marx: The most important texts of Karl Marx for the 21st Century'' (2000) * Little, Daniel.",
"''The Scientific Marx'', (University of Minnesota Press, 1986) * Mandel, Ernest.",
"''Marxist Economic Theory''.",
"New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970.",
"* Mandel, Ernest.",
"''The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx''.",
"New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977.",
"* Miller, Richard W. ''Analyzing Marx: Morality, Power, and History''.",
"Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1984.",
"* Rothbard, Murray.",
"''An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought Volume II: Classical Economics'' (Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 1995) * Saad-Filho, Alfredo.",
"''The Value of Marx: Political Economy for Contemporary Capitalism''.",
"London: Routledge, 2002.",
"* Saito, Kohei.",
"''Karl Marx's Ecosocialism: Capital, Nature, and the Unfinished Critique of Political Economy'', Monthly Review Press 2017.",
"* Schmidt, Alfred.",
"''The Concept of Nature in Marx''.",
"London: NLB, 1971.",
"* * Strathern, Paul.",
"\"Marx in 90 Minutes\", (Ivan R. Dee, 2001)* Thomas, Paul.",
"''Karl Marx and the Anarchists''.",
"London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.",
"* Uno, Kozo.",
"''Principles of Political Economy.",
"Theory of a Purely Capitalist Society'', Brighton, Sussex: Harvester; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities, 1980.",
"* Vianello, F. 1989, \"Effective Demand and the Rate of Profits: Some Thoughts on Marx, Kalecki and Sraffa\", in: Sebastiani, M.",
"(ed.",
"), ''Kalecki's Relevance Today'', London, Macmillan, .",
"* Wendling, Amy.",
"''Karl Marx on Technology and Alienation'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)* Wheen, Francis.",
"''Marx's Das Kapital'', (Atlantic Books, 2006) * Wilson, Edmund.",
"''To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1940=== Fiction works ===*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * Archive of Karl Marx / Friedrich Engels Papers at the International Institute of Social History* The ''Collected Works'' of Marx and Engels, in English translation and in 50 volumes, are published in London by Lawrence & Wishart and in New York by International Publishers.",
"(These volumes were at one time put online by the Marxists Internet Archive, until the original publishers objected on copyright grounds: ) They are available online and searchable, for purchase or through subscribing libraries, in the '' Social Theory'' () collection published by Alexander Street Press in collaboration with the University of Chicago.",
"* \"Marx\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Anthony Grayling, Francis Wheen & Gareth Stedman Jones (''In Our Time'', 14 July 2005)* The 1887 ''NY Times'' review of ''Das Kapital''*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Keno"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A set of keno betting slips'''Keno''' is a lottery-like gambling game often played at modern casinos, and also offered as a game in some lotteries.Players wager by choosing numbers ranging from 1 through (usually) 80.After all players make their wagers, 20 numbers (some variants draw fewer numbers) are drawn at random, either with a ball machine similar to ones used for lotteries and bingo, or with a random number generator.Each casino sets its own series of payouts, called \"paytables\".",
"The player is paid based on how many numbers were chosen (either player selection, or the terminal picking the numbers), the number of matches out of those chosen, and the wager.There are a wide variety of keno paytables depending on the casino, usually with a larger \"house edge\" than other games, ranging from less than 4 percent to over 35 percent in online play, and 20-40% in in-person casinos.",
"By way of comparison, the typical house edge for non-slot casino games is under 5%."
],
[
"History",
"The word \"keno\" has French or Latin roots (Fr.",
"''quine'' \"five winning numbers\", L. ''quini'' \"five each\"), but by all accounts the game originated in China.",
"Legend has it that the invention of the game saved an ancient city in time of war, and its widespread popularity helped raise funds to build the Great Wall of China.",
"In modern China, the idea of using lotteries to fund a public institution was not accepted before the late 19th century.Chinese lottery is not documented before 1847, when the Portuguese government of Macao decided to grant a licence to lottery operators.",
"According to some, results of keno games in great cities were sent to outlying villages and hamlets by carrier pigeons, resulting in its Chinese name 白鸽票 ''báigē piào'', with the literal reading \"white dove tickets\" in Mandarin, but in Southern varieties of Chinese spoken in Guangdong simply meaning \"pigeon tickets\", and pronounced ''baak6-gaap3-piu3'' in Cantonese (on which the Western spelling 'pak-ah-pu' / 'pakapoo' was based).The Chinese played the game using sheets printed with Chinese characters, often the first 80 characters of the ''Thousand Character Classic'', from which the winning characters were selected.",
"Eventually, Chinese immigrants introduced keno to the West when they sailed across the Pacific Ocean to work on construction of the First transcontinental railroad in the 19th century, where the name was Westernized into '''boc hop bu''' and '''puck-apu'''.",
"There were also other, earlier games called Keno, but these were played in the same way as the game now known as \"Bingo\", not the modern game of Keno (for example, see an example from 1866 in Houston, Texas )."
],
[
"Probabilities",
"Keno payouts are based on how many numbers the player chooses and how many of those numbers are \"hit\", multiplied by the proportion of the player's original wager to the \"base rate\" of the paytable.",
"Typically, the more numbers a player chooses and the more numbers hit, the greater the payout, although some paytables pay for hitting a lesser number of spots.",
"For example, it is not uncommon to see casinos paying $500 or even $1,000 for a “catch” of 0 out of 20 on a 20 spot ticket with a $5.00 wager.",
"Payouts vary widely by casino.",
"Most casinos allow paytable wagers of 1 through 20 numbers, but some limit the choice to only 1 through 10, 12 and 15 numbers, or \"spots\" as keno aficionados call the numbers selected.The probability of a player hitting all 20 numbers on a 20 spot ticket is approximately 1 in 3.5 quintillion (1 in 3,535,316,142,212,174,320).Even though it is highly improbable to hit all 20 numbers on a 20 spot ticket, the same player would typically also get paid for hitting “catches” 0, 1, 2, 3, and 7 through 19 out of 20, often with the 17 through 19 catches paying the same as the solid 20 hit.",
"Some of the other paying \"catches\" on a 20 spot ticket or any other ticket with high \"solid catch\" odds are in reality very possible to hit: Hits Probability 0 1 in 843.380 (0.11857057%) 1 1 in 86.446 (1.15678605%) 2 1 in 20.115 (4.97142576%) 3 1 in 8.009 (12.48637168%) 4 1 in 4.877 (20.50318987%) 5 1 in 4.287 (23.32807380%) 6 1 in 5.258 (19.01745147%) 7 1 in 8.826 (11.32954556%) 8 1 in 20.055 (4.98618021%) 9 1 in 61.420 (1.62814048%) 10 1 in 253.801 (0.39401000%) 11 1 in 1,423.822 (0.07023351%) 12 1 in 10,968.701 (0.00911685%) 13 1 in 118,084.920 (0.00084685%) 14 1 in 1,821,881.628 (0.00005489%) 15 1 in 41,751,453.986 (0.00000240%) 16 1 in 1,496,372,110.872 (0.00000007%) 17 1 in 90,624,035,964.712 18 1 in 10,512,388,171,906.553 19 1 in 2,946,096,785,176,811.500 20 1 in 3,535,316,142,212,173,800.000Probabilities change significantly based on the number of spots and numbers that are picked on each ticket.=== Probability calculation ===Keno probabilities come from a hypergeometric distribution.For Keno, one calculates the probability of hitting exactly spots on an -spot ticket by the formula::P(hitting spots) for an -spot ticket.",
"To calculate the probability of hitting 4 spots on a 6-spot ticket, the formula is::where is calculated as , where X!",
"is notation for X factorial.",
"Spreadsheets have the function to calculate .To calculate \"odds-to-1\", divide the probability into 1.0 and subtract 1 from the result."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kenyanthropus"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Kenyanthropus''''' is a genus of extinct hominin identified from the Lomekwi site by Lake Turkana, Kenya, dated to 3.3 to 3.2 million years ago during the Middle Pliocene.",
"It contains one species, '''''K.",
"platyops''''', but may also include the 2 million year old ''Homo rudolfensis'', or '''''K.",
"rudolfensis'''''.",
"Before its naming in 2001, ''Australopithecus afarensis'' was widely regarded as the only australopithecine to exist during the Middle Pliocene, but ''Kenyanthropus'' evinces a greater diversity than once acknowledged.",
"''Kenyanthropus'' is most recognisable by an unusually flat face and small teeth for such an early hominin, with values on the extremes or beyond the range of variation for australopithecines in regard to these features.",
"Multiple australopithecine species may have coexisted by foraging for different food items (niche partitioning), which may be reason why these apes anatomically differ in features related to chewing.The Lomekwi site also yielded the earliest stone tool industry, the Lomekwian, characterised by the rudimentary production of simple flakes by pounding a core against an anvil or with a hammerstone.",
"It may have been manufactured by ''Kenyanthropus'', but it is unclear if multiple species were present at the site or not.",
"The knappers were using volcanic rocks collected no more than from the site.",
"''Kenyanthropus'' seems to have lived on a lakeside or floodplain environment featuring forests and grasslands."
],
[
"Taxonomy",
"===Discovery===Location of Lomekwi, on the western shore of Lake Turkana, KenyaIn August 1998, field technician Blasto Onyango discovered a hominin partial left maxilla (upper jaw), specimen KNM-WT 38350, on the Kenyan Lomekwi dig site by Lake Turkana, overseen by prominent paleoanthropologists Louise and Meave Leakey.",
"In August 1999 at the Lomewki site, research assistant Justus Erus discovered an uncharacteristically flat-faced australopithecine skull, specimen KNM-WT 40000.The 1998–1999 field season subsequently uncovered 34 more craniodental hominin specimens, but the research team was unable to determine if these can be placed into the same species as the former two specimens (that is, if multiple species were present at the site).===Age===The specimens were recovered near the Nabetili tributary of the Lomekwi river in a mudstone layer of the Nachukui Formation.",
"KNM-WT 40000 was recovered from the Kataboi Member, below the 3.4 million year old Tulu Bor Tuff, and above the 3.57 million year old Lokochot Tuff.",
"By linear interpolation, KNM-WT 40000 is approximately 3.5 million years old, dating back to the Middle Pliocene.",
"Only three more specimens were recovered from the Kataboi Member at around the same level, the deepest KNM-WT 38341 probably sitting on 3.53 million year old sediments.",
"KNM-WT 38350 was recovered from the Lomekwi Member above Tulu Bor, and is approximately 3.3 million years old.",
"The other specimens from this member sit above Tulu Bor, roughly 3.3 million years old as well.",
"The highest specimens—KNM-WT 38344, -55, and -56—may be around 3.2 million years old.===Classification===In 2001, Meave Leakey and colleagues assigned the Lomekwi remains to a new genus and species, ''Kenyanthropus platyops'', with KNM-WT 40000 the holotype, and KNM-WT 38350 a paratype.",
"The genus name honours Kenya where Lomekwi and a slew of other major human-ancestor sites have been identified.",
"The species name derives from Ancient Greek ''platus'' \"flat\" and ''opsis'' \"face\" in reference to the unusually flat face for such an early hominin.The classification of early hominins with their widely varying anatomy has been a difficult subject matter.",
"The 20th century generated an overabundance of hominin genera plunging the field into taxonomic turmoil, until German evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr, surveying a \"bewildering diversity of names\", decided to recognise only a single genus, ''Homo'', containing a few species.",
"Though other genera and species have since become popular, his more conservative view of hominin diversity has become the mainstay, and the acceptance of further genera is usually met with great resistance.",
"Since Mayr, hominins are classified into ''Australopithecus'' which gave rise to ''Homo'' (which includes modern humans) and the robust ''Paranthropus'' (which is sometimes not recognised as its own genus), which by definition leaves ''Australopithecus'' polyphyletic (a non-natural group which does not comprise a common ancestor and all of its descendants).",
"In addition to ''Kenyanthropus'', the 1990s saw the introduction of ''A.",
"bahrelghazali'', ''Ardipithecus'', ''Orrorin'', and ''Sahelanthropus'', which has complicated discussions of hominin diversity, though the latter three have not been met with much resistance on account of their greater age (all predating ''Australopithecus'').At the time ''Kenyanthropus'' was discovered, ''Australopithecus afarensis'' was the only recognised australopithecine to have existed between 4 and 3 million years ago, aside from its probable ancestor ''A.",
"anamensis'', making ''A.",
"afarensis'' the likely progenitor of all other australopithecines as they diversified in the late Pliocene and into the Pleistocene.",
"Leakey and colleagues considered ''Kenyanthropus'' to be evidence of a greater diversity of Pliocene australopithecines than previously acknowledged.",
"In 2015, Ethiopian palaeoanthropologist Yohannes Haile-Selassie and colleagues erected a new species, ''A.",
"deyiremeda'', which lived in the same time and region as ''Kenyanthropus'' and ''A.",
"afarensis''.H.",
"rudolfensis'' KNM-ER 1470, which resembles ''Kenyanthropus'' KNM-WT 40000Meave Leakey and colleagues drew attention to namely the flat face and small cheek teeth, in addition to several other traits, to distinguish the genus from earlier ''Ardipithecus'', contemporary and later ''Australopithecus'', and later ''Paranthropus''.",
"''Kenyanthropus'' lacks any of the derived traits seen in ''Homo''.",
"They conceded ''Kenyanthropus'' could be subsumed into ''Australopithecus'' if the widest definition of the latter is used, but this conservative approach to hominin diversity leaves ''Australopithecus'' a grade taxon, a non-natural grouping of similar-looking species whereby it effectively encompasses all hominins not classifiable into ''Ardipithecus'' or ''Homo'' regardless of how they may be related to each other.",
"Leakey and colleagues further drew parallels with KNM-WT 40000 and the 2 million year old KNM-ER 1470 assigned to ''Homo rudolfensis'', attributing differences in braincase and nasal anatomy to archaicness.",
"They suggested ''H.",
"rudolfensis'' may be better classified as ''K.",
"rudolfensis''.In 2003, American palaeoanthropologist Tim D. White was concerned that KNM-WT 40000 was far too distorted to obtain any accurate metrics for classification purposes, especially because the skull was splintered into over 1,100 pieces often measuring less than across.",
"Because such damage is rarely even seen, he argues that it cannot be reliably reconstructed.",
"Because the skulls of modern ape species vary widely, he suggested further fossil discoveries in the region may prove the Lomekwi hominins to be a local variant of ''A.",
"afarensis'' rather than a distinct genus or species.",
"In response, anthropologist Fred Spoor and Meave and Louise Leakey produced much more detailed digital topographical scans of the KNM-WT 40000 maxilla in 2010, permitting the comparison of many more anatomical landmarks on the maxillae of all other early hominins, modern humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas, in order to more accurately correct the distortion.",
"The new reconstruction more convincingly verifies the distinctness of ''Kenyanthropus''.In 2003, Spanish writer Camilo José Cela Conde and evolutionary biologist Francisco J. Ayala proposed resurrecting the genus \"''Praeanthropus''\" to house all australopithecines which are not ''Ardipithecus'', ''Paranthropus'', or ''A.",
"africanus'', though they opted to synonymise ''Kenyanthropus'' with ''Homo'' as \"''H.",
"platyops''\".",
"Their recommendations have been largely rejected."
],
[
"Anatomy",
"KNM-WT 40000 has been heavily distorted during the fossilisation process, the braincase shifted downwards and backwards, the nasal region to the right, and the mouth and cheek region forward.",
"It is unclear if the specimen represents a male or a female.",
"''Kenyanthropus'' has a relatively flat face, including subnasally, between the nose and the mouth (the nasoalveolar clivus).",
"The clivus inclines at 45° (there is relaxed sub-nasal prognathism), steeper than almost all other australopithecine specimens (on the upper end of variation for ''Paranthropus''), more comparable to ''H.",
"rudolfensis'' and ''H.",
"habilis''.",
"This is the earliest example of a flat face in the hominin fossil record.",
"Unlike ''A.",
"afarensis'', ''Kenyanthropus'' lacks the anterior pillars, bony columns running down from the nasal aperture (nose hole).",
"It is also one of the longest early hominin clivi discovered at .",
"The nasal aperture (nose hole) is narrow compared to that of ''Australopithecus'' and ''Paranthropus''.",
"The cheekbones are tall and steep, and the anterior surface (where the cheeks juts out the most) is positioned above the premolars, more frequently seen in ''Paranthropus'' than other hominins.",
"The zygomaticoalveolar crest (stretching between the cheek and the teeth) is low and curved.",
"Overall, the face resembles ''H.",
"rudolfensis'', though has longer nasal bones, a narrower nasal aperture, a shorter postcanine (the molars and premolars) tooth row, and a less steeply inclined (less flat, more prognathic) midfacial region.",
"Much later ''Paranthropus'' are also characterised by relatively flat faces, but this is generally considered to be an adaptation to maximise bite force through enormous teeth, which ''Kenyanthropus'' enigmatically does not have.Among all the specimens, only the M2 (2nd upper left molar) and the tooth sockets of the left side of the mouth of KNM-WT 40000 are preserved well enough to measure and study.",
"With dimensions of , a surface area of , it is the smallest M2 ever discovered for an early hominin.",
"For comparison, those of ''A.",
"afarensis'' in the comparative sample Leakey and colleagues used ranged from about , ''H.",
"habilis'' and ''H.",
"rudolfensis'' , and the robust ''P.",
"boisei'' (with the largest molars among hominins) about .",
"The reconstructed dimensions of KNM-WT 38350's M1 are for a surface area of , which is on the lower end of variation for ''A.",
"anamensis'', ''A.",
"afarensis'' and ''H.",
"habilis''.",
"The thick molar enamel is on par with that of ''A.",
"anamensis'' and ''A.",
"afarensis''.",
"KNM-WT40000 retains the ancestral ape premolar tooth root morphology, with a single lingual root (on the tongue side) and two buccal roots (towards the cheeks), though the P4 of KNM-WT 38350 may only have a single buccal root; the ancestral pattern is frequent in ''Paranthropus'' and variable in ''Australopithecus''.",
"Individuals of more derived species typically have single-rooted premolars.",
"The canine jugum is not visible (a line of bone in the maxilla corresponding to the canine tooth root), which may mean the canines were not that large.",
"The cross-sectional area of the I2 (2nd upper incisor) is 90% the size of that of I1, whereas it is usually 50 to 70% in other great apes.",
"The tooth roots of the incisors do not appear to be orientated out (there was probably no alveolar prognathism, the front teeth did not jut forward).Brain volume is uncalculable due to distortion of the braincase, but it was probably similar to that of ''Australopithecus'' and ''Paranthropus''.",
"A sample of five ''A.",
"afarensis'' averaged 445 cc.",
"Like ''Paranthropus'', there is no frontal trigon (a triangle formed by the conjunction of the temporal lines behind the brow ridge).",
"Unlike ''H.",
"habilis'' but like ''H.",
"rudolfensis'', there is no sulcus (trench) behind the brow ridge.",
"The degree of postorbital constriction, the narrowing of the braincase in the frontal lobe region, is on par with that of ''Australopithecus'', ''H.",
"rudolfensis'', and ''H.",
"habilis'', but less than ''P.",
"boisei''.",
"Like the earlier ''A.",
"anamensis'' and ''Ar.",
"ramidus'', the tympanic bone retains the ancestral hominin ear morphology, lacking the petrous crest, and bearing a narrow ear canal with a small opening.",
"The foramen magnum, where the skull connects to the spine, was probably oval shaped as opposed to the heart-shaped one of ''P.",
"boisei''."
],
[
"Technology",
"In 2015, French archaeologist Sonia Harmand and colleagues identified the Lomekwian stone-tool industry at the Lomekwi site.",
"The tools are attributed to ''Kenyanthropus'' as it is the only hominin identified at the site, but in 2015, anthropologist Fred Spoor suggested that at least some of the indeterminate specimens may be assignable to ''A.",
"deyiremeda'' as the two species have somewhat similar maxillary anatomy.",
"At 3.3 million years old, it is the oldest proposed industry.",
"The assemblage comprises 83 cores, 35 flakes, 7 possible anvils, 7 possible hammerstones, 5 pebbles (which may have also been used as hammers), and 12 indeterminant fragments, of which 52 were sourced from basalt, 51 from phonolite, 35 from trachyphonolite (intermediate composition of phonolite and trachyte), 3 from vesicular basalt, 2 from trachyte, and 6 indeterminant.",
"These materials could have originated at a conglomerate only from the site.The cores are large and heavy, averaging and .",
"Flakes ranged in length, normally shorter than later Oldowan industry flakes.",
"Anvils were heavy, up to .",
"Flakes seem to have been cleaved off primarily using the passive hammer technique (directly striking the core on the anvil) and/or the bipolar method (placing the core on the anvil and striking it with a hammerstone).",
"They produced both unifaces (the flake was worked on one side) and bifaces (both sides were worked).",
"Though they may have been shaping cores beforehand to make them easier to work, the knappers more often than not poorly executed the technique, producing incomplete fractures and fissures on several cores, or requiring multiple blows to flake off a piece.",
"Harmand and colleagues suggested such rudimentary skills may place the Lomekwian as an intermediate industry between simple pounding techniques probably used by earlier hominins, and the flaking Oldowan industry developed by ''Homo''.It is typically assumed that early hominins were using stone tools to cut meat in addition to other organic materials.",
"Wild chimpanzees and black-striped capuchins have been observed to make flakes by accident while using hammerstones to crack nuts on anvils, but the Lomekwi knappers were producing multiple flakes from the same core, and flipped over flakes to work the other side, which speak to the intentionality of their production.",
"In 2016, Spanish archaeologists Manuel Domínguez-Rodrigo and Luis Alcalá argued Harmand and colleagues did not convincingly justify that the tools were discovered ''in situ'', that is, the tools may be much younger and were reworked into an older layer.",
"If the date of 3.3 million years is accepted, then there is a 700,000 year gap between the next solid evidence of stone tools, at Ledi-Geraru associated with the earliest ''Homo'' LD 350-1, the Oldowan industry, reported by American palaeoanthropologist David Braun and colleagues in 2019.This gap can either be interpreted as the loss and reinvention of stone tool technology, or preservation bias (that tools from this time gap either did not preserve for whatever reason, or sit undiscovered), the latter implying the Lomekwian evolved into the Oldowan."
],
[
"Palaeoecology",
"A. afarensis'' (\"Lucy\" above)From 4.5 to 4 million years ago, Lake Turkana may have swelled to upwards of , in comparison to today's ; the lake at what is now the Koobi Fora site possibly sat at minimum below the surface.",
"Volcanic hills by Lomekwi pushed basalt into the lake sediments.",
"The lake broke up and from 3.6 to 3.2 million years ago, the region was probably characterised by a series of much smaller lakes, each covering no more than .",
"Similarly, the bovid remains at Lomekwi are suggestive of a wet mosaic environment featuring both grasslands and forests on a lakeside or floodplain.",
"''Theropithecus brumpti'' is the most common monkey at the site as well as the rest of the Turkana Basin at this time; this species tends to live in more forested and closed environments.",
"At the fossiliferous ''A.",
"afarensis'' Hadar site in Ethiopia, ''Theropithecus darti'' is the most common monkey, which tends to prefer drier conditions conducive to wood- or grassland environments.",
"Leakey and colleagues argued this distribution means ''Kenyanthropus'' was living in somewhat more forested environments than more northerly ''A.",
"afarensis''.",
"''Kenyanthropus'', ''A.",
"afarensis'', and ''A.",
"deyiremeda'' all coexisted in the same time and region, and, because their anatomy largely diverges in areas relevant to chewing, they may have practised niche partitioning and foraged for different food items."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of fossil sites *List of human evolution fossils"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
" * The flat faced man of Kenya (''Nature'')* BBC Science article* A picture of ''Kenyathropus platyops'' at the American Museum of Natural History* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016)."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Karate"
],
[
"Introduction",
" (; ; Okinawan pronunciation: ), also , is a martial art developed in the Ryukyu Kingdom.",
"It developed from the indigenous Ryukyuan martial arts (called , \"hand\"; ''tī'' in Okinawan) under the influence of Chinese martial arts.",
"While modern karate is primarily a striking art that uses punches and kicks, traditional karate also employs throwing and joint locking techniques.",
"A karate practitioner is called a .The Ryukyu Kingdom had been conquered by the Japanese Satsuma Domain and had become its vassal state since 1609, but was formally annexed to the Empire of Japan in 1879 as Okinawa Prefecture.",
"The Ryukyuan samurai (Okinawan: ''samurē'') who had been the bearers of karate lost their privileged position, and with it, karate was in danger of losing transmission.",
"However, karate gradually regained popularity after 1905, when it began to be taught in schools in Okinawa.During the Taishō era (1912–1926), karate was introduced to mainland Japan by Gichin Funakoshi and Motobu Chōki.",
"Karate's popularity was initially sluggish due to its emphasis on kata practice, but when a magazine reported a story about Motobu defeating a foreign boxer in Kyoto, karate rapidly became well known throughout Japan.In this era of escalating Japanese militarism, the name was changed from (\"Chinese hand\" or \"Tang hand\") to (\"empty hand\") – both of which are pronounced ''karate'' in Japanese – to indicate that the Japanese wished to develop the combat form in Japanese style.",
"After World War II, Okinawa became (1945) an important United States military site and karate became popular among servicemen stationed there.The martial arts movies of the 1960s and 1970s served to greatly increase the popularity of martial arts around the world, and English-speakers began to use the word ''karate'' in a generic way to refer to all striking-based Asian martial arts.",
"Karate schools (''dōjōs'') began appearing around the world, catering to those with casual interest as well as those seeking a deeper study of the art.Karate, like other Japanese martial arts, is considered to be not only about fighting techniques, but also about spiritual cultivation.",
"Many karate schools and ''dōjōs'' have established rules called ''dōjō kun'', which emphasize the perfection of character, the importance of effort, and respect for courtesy.Karate featured at the 2020 Summer Olympics after its inclusion at the Games was supported by the International Olympic Committee.",
"Web Japan (sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims that karate has 50 million practitioners worldwide, while the World Karate Federation claims there are 100 million practitioners around the world."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Originally in Okinawa during the Ryukyu Kingdom period, there existed an indigenous Ryukyuan martial art called ''te'' (Okinawan:''tī'', ).",
"Furthermore, in the 19th century, a Chinese-derived martial art called ''tōde'' (Okinawan:''tōdī'', ) emerged.",
"According to Gichin Funakoshi, a distinction between ''Okinawan-te'' and ''tōde'' existed in the late 19th century.",
"With the emergence of ''tōde'', it is thought that ''te'' also came to be called ''Okinawa-te'' (Okinawan:''Uchinādī'', ).",
"However, this distinction gradually became blurred with the decline of ''Okinawa-te''.Around 1905, when ''karate'' began to be taught in public schools in Okinawa, ''tōde'' was read kun’yomi and called ''karate'' (, ) in the Japanese style.",
"Both ''tōde'' and ''karate'' are written in the same Chinese characters meaning \"Tang/China hand,\" but the former is on'yomi (Chinese reading) and the latter is kun'yomi (Japanese reading).",
"Since the distinction between ''Okinawa-te'' and ''tōde'' was already blurred at that time, karate was used to encompass both.",
"It should be noted, therefore, that ''tōde'' and karate (Tang hand) differ in the scope of meaning of the words.",
"\"Kara (から)\" is a kun’yomi for the character \"唐\" (tō/とう in on'yomi) which is derived from \"Gaya Confederacy (加羅)\" and later included things deriving from China.",
"\"Te (て)\" is a kun’yomi for the character \"手\" (shu/しゅ in on'yomi) which means \"hand\".",
"The Tang dynasty of China ended in AD 907, but the kanji representing it remains in use in Japanese language referring to China generally, in such words as \"\" (''Tōjin machi'') meaning Chinatown.",
"Thus the word ''karate'' was originally a way of expressing \"martial art from China.",
"\"However, this name change did not immediately spread among Okinawan karate practitioners.",
"There were many karate practitioners, such as Chōjun Miyagi, who still used ''te'' in everyday conversation until World War II.When karate was first taught in mainland Japan in the 1920s, Gichin Funakoshi and Motobu Chōki used the name ''karate-jutsu'' (, ) along with karate.",
"The word ''jutsu'' () means art or technique, and in those days it was often used as a suffix to the name of each martial art, as in ''jujutsu'' and ''kenjutsu'' (swordsmanship).The first documented use of a homophone of the logogram pronounced ''kara'' by replacing the Chinese character meaning \"Tang dynasty\" with the character meaning \"empty\" took place in ''Karate Kumite'' () written in August 1905 by Chōmo Hanashiro (1869–1945).",
"In mainland Japan, karate (, empty hand) gradually began to be used from the writings of Gichin Funakoshi and Motobu Chōki in the 1920s.In 1929, the Karate Study Group of Keio University (Instructor Gichin Funakoshi) used this term in reference to the concept of emptiness in the Heart Sutra, and this terminology was later popularized, especially in Tokyo.",
"There is also a theory that the background for this name change was the worsening of Japan-China relations at the time.On October 25, 1936, a roundtable meeting of karate masters was held in Naha, Okinawa Prefecture, and it was officially resolved to use the name karate (empty hand) in the sense of ''kūshu kūken'' (, ).",
"To commemorate this day, the Okinawa Prefectural Assembly passed a resolution in 2005 to decide October 25 as \"Karate Day.",
"\"Another nominal development is the addition of ''dō'' (; ) to the end of the word karate.",
"''Dō'' is a suffix having numerous meanings including road, path, route and way.",
"It is used in many martial arts that survived Japan's transition from feudal culture to modern times.",
"It implies that these arts are not just fighting systems but contain spiritual elements when promoted as disciplines.",
"In this context ''dō'' is usually translated as \"the way of …\".",
"Examples include aikido, judo, kyūdō and kendo.",
"Thus karatedō is more than just empty hand techniques.",
"It is \"the way of the empty hand\".Since the 1980s, the term karate () has been written in katakana instead of Chinese characters, mainly by Kyokushin Karate (founder: Masutatsu Oyama).",
"In Japan, katakana is mainly used for foreign words, giving Kyokushin Karate a modern and new impression.+ '''Name Transition'''15th – 18th century19th century1900s –1920s –1980s –''Te'' (hand)''Te'' or ''Okinawa-te''''Karate'' (Tang hand)''Karate(-jutsu)''''Karate'' (Empty hand) ''Karate'' (カラテ)''Tōde'' (Tang hand)"
],
[
"History",
"=== Origin ===There are several theories regarding the origins of karate, but the main ones are as follows.==== Theory of development from ''mēkata'' ====In Okinawa, there was an ancient martial dance called ''mēkata'' ().",
"The dancers danced to the accompaniment of songs and ''sanshin'' music, similar to karate kata.",
"In the Okinawan countryside, ''mēkata'' remained until the early 20th century.",
"There is a theory that from this ''mēkata'' with martial elements, ''te'' (Okinawan:''tī'', hand) was born and developed into karate.",
"This theory is advocated by Ankō Asato and his student Gichin Funakoshi.==== Theory of introduction by thirty-six families from Min ====It is said that in 1392, a group of professional people known as the \"Thirty-six families from Min\" migrated to Kume Village (now Kume, Naha City) in Naha from Fujian Province in the Ming Dynasty at that time.",
"They brought with them advanced learning and skills to Ryukyu, and there is a theory that Chinese kenpō, the origin of karate, was also brought to Ryukyu at this time.There is also the \"Keichō import theory,\" which states that karate was brought to Ryukyu after the invasion of Ryukyu by the Satsuma Domain (Keichō 14, 1609), as well as the theory that it was introduced by Kōshōkun (Okinawan: Kūsankū) based on the description in ''Ōshima Writing''.==== Other theories ====There are also other theories, such as that it developed from Okinawan sumo (''shima'') or that it originated from jujutsu, which had been introduced from Japan.===Okinawa======= 15th–17th centuries ====King Shō ShinThe reason for the development of unarmed combat techniques in Ryukyu has conventionally been attributed to a policy of banning weapons, which is said to have been implemented on two occasions.",
"The first was during the reign of King Shō Shin (1476–1526; r. 1477–1527), when weapons were collected from all over the country and strictly controlled by the royal government.",
"The second time was after the invasion of Ryukyu by the Satsuma Domain in 1609.Through the two policies, the popular belief that Ryukyuan samurai, who were deprived of their weapons, developed karate to compete with Satsuma's samurai has traditionally been referred to as if it were a historical fact.However, in recent years, many researchers have questioned the causal relationship between the policy of banning weapons and the development of karate.",
"For example, as the basis for King Shō Shin's policy of banning weapons, an inscription on the parapet of the main hall of Shuri Castle (, 1509), which states that \"swords, bows and arrows are to be piled up exclusively as weapons of national defense,\" has been conventionally interpreted as meaning \"weapons were collected and sealed in a warehouse.\"",
"However, in recent years, researchers of Okinawan studies have pointed out that the correct interpretation is that \"swords, bows and arrows were collected and used as weapons of the state.",
"\"It is also known that the policy of banning weapons (a 1613 notice to the Ryukyu royal government), which is said to have been implemented by the Satsuma Domain, only prohibited the carrying of swords and other weapons, but not their possession, and was a relatively lax regulation.",
"This notice stated, \"(1) The possession of guns is prohibited.",
"(2) The possession of weapons owned privately by princes, three magistrates, and samurai is permitted.",
"(3) Weapons must be repaired in Satsuma through the magistrate's office of Satsuma.",
"(4) Swords must be reported to the magistrate's office of Satsuma for approval.\"",
"It did not prohibit the possession of weapons (except guns) or even their practice.",
"In fact, even after subjugation to the Satsuma Domain, a number of Ryukyuan masters of swordsmanship, spearmanship, archery, and other arts are known.",
"Therefore, some researchers criticize the theory that karate developed due to the policy of banning weapons as \"a rumor on the street with no basis at all.",
"\"Karate began as a common fighting system known as ''te'' (Okinawan: ''tī'') among the Ryukyuan samurai class.",
"There were few formal styles of ''te,'' but rather many practitioners with their own methods.",
"One surviving example is Motobu Udundī (), which has been handed down to this day in the Motobu family, one of the branches of the former Ryukyu royal family.",
"In the 16th century, the Ryukyuan history book \"Kyūyō\" (, established around 1745) mentions that Kyō Ahagon Jikki, a favored retainer of King Shō Shin, used a martial art called \"karate\" (, ) to smash both legs of an assassin.",
"This karate is thought to refer to ''te'', not today's karate, and Ankō Asato introduces Kyō Ahagon as a \"prominent martial artist.",
"\"==== 18th century ====However, some believe that Kyō Ahagon's anecdote is a half-legend and that it is unclear whether he was actually a ''te'' master.",
"In the 18th century, the names of Nishinda ''Uēkata'', Gushikawa ''Uēkata'', and Chōken Makabe are known as masters of ''te''.Nishinda ''Uēkata'' and Gushikawa ''Uēkata'' were martial artists active during the reign of King Shō Kei (reigned 1713-1751).",
"Nishinda ''Uēkata'' was good at spear as well as ''te'', and Gushikawa ''Uēkata'' was also good at wooden sword (swordsmanship).Chōken Makabe was a man of the late 18th century.",
"His light stature and jumping ability gave him the nickname \"Makabe ''Chān-gwā''\" (), as he was like a ''chān'' (fighting cock).",
"The ceiling of his house is said to have been marked by his kicking foot.It is known that in \"Ōshima Writing\" (1762), written by Yoshihiro Tobe, a Confucian scholar of the Tosa Domain, who interviewed Ryukyuan samurai who had drifted to Tosa (present-day Kōchi Prefecture), there is a description of a martial art called ''kumiai-jutsu'' () performed by Kōshōkun (Okinawan:Kūsankū).",
"It is believed that Kōshōkun may have been a military officer on a mission from Qing that visited Ryukyu in 1756, and some believe that karate originated with Kōshōkun.In addition, the will (Part I: 1778, Part II: 1783) of Ryukyuan samurai Aka Pēchin Chokushki (1721–1784) mentions the name of a martial art called ''karamutō'' (), along with Japanese Jigen-ryū swordsmanship and jujutsu, indicating that Ryukyuan samurai practiced these arts in the 18th century.In 1609, the Japanese Satsuma Domain invaded Ryukyu and Ryukyu became its vassal state, but it continued to pay tribute to the Ming and Qing Dynasties in China.",
"At the time, China had implemented a policy of sea ban and only traded with tributary countries, so the Satsuma Domain wanted Ryukyu to continue its tribute in order to benefit from it.The envoys of the tribute mission were chosen from among the samurai class of Ryukyu, and they went to Fuzhou in Fujian Province and stayed there for six months to a year and a half.",
"Government-funded and privately-funded foreign students were also sent to study in Beijing or Fuzhou for several years.",
"Some of these envoys and students studied Chinese martial arts in China.",
"The styles of Chinese martial arts they studied are not known for certain, but it is assumed that they studied Fujian White Crane and other styles from Fujian Province.Sōryo Tsūshin (monk Tsūshin), active during the reign of King Shō Kei, was a monk who went to the Qing Dynasty to study Chinese martial arts and was reportedly one of the best martial artists of his time in Ryukyu.==== 19th – early 20th century ====It is not known when the name ''tōde'' (, ) first came into use in the Ryukyu Kingdom, but according to Ankō Asato, it was popularized from Kanga Sakugawa (1786–1867), who was nicknamed \"Tōde Sakugawa.\"",
"Sakugawa was a samurai from Shuri who traveled to Qing China to learn Chinese martial arts.",
"The martial arts he mastered were new and different from te.",
"As ''tōde'' was spread by Sakugawa, traditional ''te'' became distinguished as ''Okinawa-te'' (, ), and gradually faded away as it merged with ''tōde''.It is generally believed that today's karate is a result of the synthesis of ''te'' (''Okinawa-te'') and ''tōde''.",
"Funakoshi writes, \"In the early modern era, when China was highly revered, many martial artists traveled to China to practice Chinese kenpo, and added it to the ancient kenpo, the so-called 'Okinawa-te'.",
"After further study, they discarded the disadvantages of both, adopted their advantages, and added more subtlety, and karate was born.",
"\"Early styles of karate are often generalized as Shuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te, named after the three cities from which they emerged.",
"Each area and its teachers had particular kata, techniques, and principles that distinguished their local version of ''te'' from the others.Karate training in front of Shuri Castle in Naha (1938)Around the 1820s, Matsumura Sōkon (1809–1899) began teaching ''Okinawa-te''.",
"Matsumura was, according to one theory, a student of Sakugawa.",
"Matsumura's style later became the origin of many Shuri-te schools.Itosu Ankō (1831–1915) studied under Matsumura and Bushi Nagahama of Naha-te.",
"He created the ''Pin'an'' forms (\"''Heian''\" in Japanese) which are simplified kata for beginning students.",
"In 1905, Itosu helped to get karate introduced into Okinawa's public schools.",
"These forms were taught to children at the elementary school level.",
"Itosu's influence in karate is broad.",
"The forms he created are common across nearly all styles of karate.",
"His students became some of the most well-known karate masters, including Motobu Chōyū, Motobu Chōki, Yabu Kentsū, Hanashiro Chōmo, Gichin Funakoshi and Kenwa Mabuni.",
"Itosu is sometimes referred to as \"the Grandfather of Modern Karate.",
"\"Karate in Naha before the war; (before 1946)In 1881, Higaonna Kanryō returned from China after years of instruction with Ryu Ryu Ko and founded what would become Naha-te.",
"One of his students was the founder of Gojū-ryū, Chōjun Miyagi.",
"Chōjun Miyagi taught such well-known karateka as Seko Higa (who also trained with Higaonna), Meitoku Yagi, Miyazato Ei'ichi, and Seikichi Toguchi, and for a very brief time near the end of his life, An'ichi Miyagi (a teacher claimed by Morio Higaonna).In addition to the three early ''te'' styles of karate a fourth Okinawan influence is that of Uechi Kanbun (1877–1948).",
"At the age of 20 he went to Fuzhou in Fujian Province, China, to escape Japanese military conscription.",
"While there he studied under Shū Shiwa (Chinese: ''Zhou Zihe'' 周子和 1874–1926).",
"He was a leading figure of Chinese Nanpa Shorin-ken style at that time.",
"He later developed his own style of Uechi-ryū karate based on the Sanchin, Seisan, and Sanseiryu kata that he had studied in China.===Japan===Gichin FunakoshiWhen Shō Tai, the last king of the Ryūkyū Kingdom, was ordered to move to Tokyo in 1879, he was accompanied by prominent karate masters such as Ankō Asato and Chōfu Kyan (father of Chōtoku Kyan).",
"It is unknown if they taught karate to the Japanese in Tokyo, although there are records that Kyan taught his son karate.In 1908, students from the Okinawa Prefectural Middle School gave a karate demonstration at Butokuden in Kyoto, which was also witnessed by Kanō Jigorō (founder of judo).In May 1922, Gichin Funakoshi (founder of Shotokan) presented pictures of karate on two hanging scrolls at the first Physical Education Exhibition in Tokyo.",
"The following June, Funakoshi was invited to the Kodokan to give a karate demonstration in front of Jigoro Kano and other judo experts.",
"This was the beginning of the full-scale introduction of karate in Tokyo.Illustration depicting a match between Motobu Chōki and a foreign boxerIn November 1922, Motobu Chōki (founder of Motobu-ryū) participated in a judo versus boxing match in Kyoto, defeating a foreign boxer.",
"The match was featured in Japan's largest magazine \"King,\" which had a circulation of about one million at the time, and karate and Motobu's name became instantly known throughout Japan.In 1922, Funakoshi published the first book on karate, and in 1926 Motobu published the first technical book on kumite.",
"As karate's popularity grew, karate clubs were established one after another in Japanese universities with Funakoshi and Motobu as instructors.In the Showa era (1926-1989), other Okinawan karate masters also came to mainland Japan to teach karate.",
"These included Kenwa Mabuni, Chōjun Miyagi, Kanken Tōyama, and Kanbun Uechi.With the rise of militarism in Japan, some karate masters gradually came to consider the name karate (, ) undesirable.",
"The name karate (, ) had already been used by Chōmo Hanashiro in Okinawa in 1905, and Funakoshi decided to use this name as well.",
"In addition, the name ''karatedō'' (, ), which was already used by the karate club of Tokyo Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo) in 1929 by adding the suffix ''dō'' (, way) to karate, was also used by Funakoshi, who decided to use the name ''karatedō'' (, ) in the same way.The ''dō'' suffix implies that ''karatedō'' is a path to self-knowledge, not just a study of the technical aspects of fighting.",
"Like most martial arts practised in Japan, karate made its transition from -''jutsu'' to -''dō'' around the beginning of the 20th century.",
"The \"''dō''\" in \"karate-dō\" sets it apart from karate-''jutsu'', as aikido is distinguished from aikijutsu, judo from jujutsu, kendo from kenjutsu and iaido from iaijutsu.On October 25, 1936, a roundtable meeting of karate masters was held in Naha, Okinawa Prefecture, where it was officially decided to change the name of karate from karate (Tang hand) to karate (empty hand).",
"In attendance were Chōmo Hanashiro, Chōki Motobu, Chōtoku Kyan, Jūhatsu Kyoda, Chōjun Miyagi, Shinpan Gusukuma, and Chōshin Chibana.",
"In 2005, the Okinawa Prefectural Assembly passed a resolution to commemorate this decision by designating October 25 as \"Karate Day.",
"\"Masters of karate in Tokyo (), from left to right, Kanken Toyama, Hironori Otsuka, Takeshi Shimoda, Gichin Funakoshi, Chōki Motobu, Kenwa Mabuni, Genwa Nakasone, and Shinken Taira Funakoshi changed the names of many kata and the name of the art itself (at least on mainland Japan), doing so to get karate accepted by the Japanese budō organization Dai Nippon Butoku Kai.",
"Funakoshi also gave Japanese names to many of the kata.",
"The five ''pinan'' forms became known as ''heian'', the three ''naihanchi'' forms became known as ''tekki'', ''seisan'' as ''hangetsu'', ''Chintō'' as ''gankaku'', ''wanshu'' as ''enpi'', and so on.",
"These were mostly political changes, rather than changes to the content of the forms, although Funakoshi did introduce some such changes.",
"Funakoshi had trained in two of the popular branches of Okinawan karate of the time, Shorin-ryū and Shōrei-ryū.",
"In Japan he was influenced by kendo, incorporating some ideas about distancing and timing into his style.",
"He always referred to what he taught as simply karate, but in 1936 he built a dōjō in Tokyo and the style he left behind is usually called Shotokan after this dōjō.",
"''Shoto'', meaning \"pine wave\", was Funakoshi's pen name and ''kan'' meaning \"hall\".The modernization and systemization of karate in Japan also included the adoption of the white uniform that consisted of the kimono and the ''dogi'' or ''keikogi''—mostly called just karategi—and coloured belt ranks.",
"Both of these innovations were originated and popularized by Jigoro Kano, the founder of judo and one of the men Funakoshi consulted in his efforts to modernize karate.A new form of karate called Kyokushin was formally founded in 1957 by Masutatsu Oyama (who was born a Korean, Choi Yeong-Eui 최영의).",
"Kyokushin is largely a synthesis of Shotokan and Gōjū-ryū.",
"It teaches a curriculum that emphasizes aliveness, physical toughness, and full contact sparring.",
"Because of its emphasis on physical, full-force sparring, Kyokushin is now often called \"full contact karate\", or \"Knockdown karate\" (after the name for its competition rules).",
"Many other karate organizations and styles are descended from the Kyokushin curriculum."
],
[
"Practice",
"Karate can be practiced as an art (budō), self defense or as a combat sport.",
"Traditional karate places emphasis on self-development (budō).",
"Modern Japanese style training emphasizes the psychological elements incorporated into a proper ''kokoro'' (attitude) such as perseverance, fearlessness, virtue, and leadership skills.",
"Sport karate places emphasis on exercise and competition.",
"Weapons are an important training activity in some styles of karate.Karate training is commonly divided into ''kihon'' (basics or fundamentals), ''kata'' (forms), and ''kumite'' (sparring).===Kihon===Kihon means basics and these form the base for everything else in the style including stances, strikes, punches, kicks and blocks.",
"Karate styles place varying importance on kihon.",
"Typically this is training in unison of a technique or a combination of techniques by a group of karateka.",
"Kihon may also be prearranged drills in smaller groups or in pairs.===Kata===Chōki Motobu in Naihanchi-dachi, one of the basic karate stancesKata (型:かた) means literally \"shape\" or \"model.\"",
"Kata is a formalized sequence of movements which represent various offensive and defensive postures.",
"These postures are based on idealized combat applications.",
"The applications when applied in a demonstration with real opponents is referred to as a Bunkai.",
"The Bunkai shows how every stance and movement is used.",
"Bunkai is a useful tool to understand a kata.To attain a formal rank the karateka must demonstrate competent performance of specific required kata for that level.",
"The Japanese terminology for grades or ranks is commonly used.",
"Requirements for examinations vary among schools.===Kumite===Bōgutsuki, a form of full-contact karate fought with armour, one of the competition formats for kumiteSparring in Karate is called kumite (組手:くみて).",
"It literally means \"meeting of hands.\"",
"Kumite is practiced both as a sport and as self-defense training.Levels of physical contact during sparring vary considerably.",
"Full contact karate has several variants.",
"Knockdown karate (such as Kyokushin) uses full power techniques to bring an opponent to the ground.",
"Sparring in armour, ''bogu kumite'', allows full power techniques with some safety.",
"Sport kumite in many international competition under the World Karate Federation is free or structured with light contact or semi contact and points are awarded by a referee.In structured kumite (''yakusoku'', prearranged), two participants perform a choreographed series of techniques with one striking while the other blocks.",
"The form ends with one devastating technique (''hito tsuki'').In free sparring (Jiyu Kumite), the two participants have a free choice of scoring techniques.",
"The allowed techniques and contact level are primarily determined by sport or style organization policy, but might be modified according to the age, rank and sex of the participants.",
"Depending upon style, take-downs, sweeps and in some rare cases even time-limited grappling on the ground are also allowed.Free sparring is performed in a marked or closed area.",
"The bout runs for a fixed time (2 to 3 minutes.)",
"The time can run continuously (''iri kume'') or be stopped for referee judgment.",
"In light contact or semi contact kumite, points are awarded based on the criteria: good form, sporting attitude, vigorous application, awareness/''zanshin'', good timing and correct distance.In full contact karate kumite, points are based on the results of the impact, rather than the formal appearance of the scoring technique.===Dōjō Kun===In the bushidō tradition ''dōjō kun'' is a set of guidelines for karateka to follow.",
"These guidelines apply both in the ''dōjō'' (training hall) and in everyday life.===Conditioning===Okinawan karate uses supplementary training known as ''hojo undo''.",
"This uses simple equipment made of wood and stone.",
"The ''makiwara'' is a striking post.",
"The ''nigiri game'' is a large jar used for developing grip strength.",
"These supplementary exercises are designed to increase strength, stamina, speed, and muscle coordination.",
"Sport Karate emphasizes aerobic exercise, anaerobic exercise, power, agility, flexibility, and stress management.",
"All practices vary depending upon the school and the teacher.===Sport=== said, \"There are no contests in karate.\"",
"In pre–World War II Okinawa, kumite was not part of karate training.",
"Shigeru Egami relates that, in 1940, some karateka were ousted from their ''dōjō'' because they adopted sparring after having learned it in Tokyo.Karate is divided into style organizations.",
"These organizations sometimes cooperate in non-style specific sport karate organizations or federations.",
"Examples of sport organizations include AAKF/ITKF, AOK, TKL, AKA, WKF, NWUKO, WUKF and WKC.",
"Organizations hold competitions (tournaments) from local to international level.",
"Tournaments are designed to match members of opposing schools or styles against one another in kata, sparring and weapons demonstration.",
"They are often separated by age, rank and sex with potentially different rules or standards based on these factors.",
"The tournament may be exclusively for members of a particular style (closed) or one in which any martial artist from any style may participate within the rules of the tournament (open).The World Karate Federation (WKF) is the largest sport karate organization and is recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as being responsible for karate competition in the Olympic Games.",
"The WKF has developed common rules governing all styles.",
"The national WKF organizations coordinate with their respective National Olympic Committees.WKF karate competition has two disciplines: sparring (''kumite'') and forms (''kata'').",
"Competitors may enter either as individuals or as part of a team.",
"Evaluation for kata and kobudō is performed by a panel of judges, whereas sparring is judged by a head referee, usually with assistant referees at the side of the sparring area.",
"Sparring matches are typically divided by weight, age, gender, and experience.WKF only allows membership through one national organization/federation per country to which clubs may join.",
"The World Union of Karate-do Federations (WUKF) offers different styles and federations a world body they may join, without having to compromise their style or size.",
"The WUKF accepts more than one federation or association per country.Sport organizations use different competition rule systems.",
"Light contact rules are used by the WKF, WUKO, IASK and WKC.",
"Full contact karate rules used by Kyokushinkai, Seidokaikan and other organizations.",
"Bogu kumite (full contact with protective shielding of targets) rules are used in the World Koshiki Karate-Do Federation organization.",
"Shinkaratedo Federation use boxing gloves.",
"Within the United States, rules may be under the jurisdiction of state sports authorities, such as the boxing commission.==== Olympic Games ====Bronze medal match at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics in Buenos Aires, Argentina.In August 2016, the International Olympic Committee approved karate as an Olympic sport beginning at the 2020 Summer Olympics.",
"Karate also debuted at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics.",
"During this debut of Karate in the Summer Olympics, sixty competitors from around the world competed in the Kumite competition, and twenty competed in the Kata competition.",
"In September 2015, karate was included in a shortlist along with baseball, softball, skateboarding, surfing, and sport climbing to be considered for inclusion in the 2020 Summer Olympics; and in June 2016, the executive board of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced that they would support the proposal to include all of the shortlisted sports in the 2020 Games.",
"Finally, on 3 August 2016, all five sports (counting baseball and softball together as one sport) were approved for inclusion in the 2020 Olympic program.Karate will not be included in the 2024 Olympic Games, although it has made the shortlist for inclusion, alongside nine others, in the 2028 Summer Olympics.Karate, although not widely used in mixed martial arts, has been effective for some MMA practitioners.Various styles of karate are practiced in MMA: Lyoto Machida and John Makdessi practice Shotokan; Bas Rutten and Georges St-Pierre train in Kyokushin; Michelle Waterson holds a black belt in American Free Style Karate; Stephen Thompson practices American Kenpo Karate; and Robert Whittaker practices Gōjū-ryū.===Rank===Karatekas wearing different colored beltsKaratekas at a dojo with different colored beltsIn 1924, Gichin Funakoshi, founder of Shotokan Karate, adopted the Dan system from the judo founder Jigoro Kano using a rank scheme with a limited set of belt colors.",
"Other Okinawan teachers also adopted this practice.",
"In the Kyū/Dan system the beginner grades start with a higher numbered kyū (''e.g.",
"'', 10th Kyū or Jukyū) and progress toward a lower numbered kyū.",
"The Dan progression continues from 1st Dan (Shodan, or 'beginning dan') to the higher dan grades.",
"Kyū-grade karateka are referred to as \"color belt\" or mudansha (\"ones without dan/rank\").",
"Dan-grade karateka are referred to as ''yudansha'' (holders of dan/rank).",
"Yudansha typically wear a black belt.",
"Normally, the first five to six dans are given by examination by superior dan holders, while the subsequent (7 and up) are honorary, given for special merits and/or age reached.Requirements of rank differ among styles, organizations, and schools.",
"Kyū ranks stress stance, balance, and coordination.",
"Speed and power are added at higher grades.Minimum age and time in rank are factors affecting promotion.",
"Testing consists of demonstration of techniques before a panel of examiners or senseis.",
"This will vary by school, but testing may include everything learned at that point, or just new information.",
"The demonstration is an application for new rank (shinsa) and may include basics, kata, bunkai, self-defense, routines, tameshiwari (breaking), and kumite (sparring)."
],
[
"Philosophy",
"In ''Karate-Do Kyohan,'' Funakoshi quoted from the Heart Sutra, which is prominent in Shingon Buddhism: \"Form is emptiness, emptiness is form itself\" (''shiki zokuze kū kū zokuze shiki'').He interpreted the \"kara\" of Karate-dō to mean \"to purge oneself of selfish and evil thoughts ... for only with a clear mind and conscience can the practitioner understand the knowledge which he receives.\"",
"Funakoshi believed that one should be \"inwardly humble and outwardly gentle.\"",
"Only by behaving humbly can one be open to Karate's many lessons.",
"This is done by listening and being receptive to criticism.",
"He considered courtesy of prime importance.",
"He said that \"Karate is properly applied only in those rare situations in which one really must either down another or be downed by him.\"",
"Funakoshi did not consider it unusual for a devotee to use Karate in a real physical confrontation no more than perhaps once in a lifetime.",
"He stated that Karate practitioners must \"never be easily drawn into a fight.\"",
"It is understood that one blow from a real expert could mean death.",
"It is clear that those who misuse what they have learned bring dishonor upon themselves.",
"He promoted the character trait of personal conviction.",
"In \"time of grave public crisis, one must have the courage ... to face a million and one opponents.\"",
"He taught that indecisiveness is a weakness."
],
[
"Styles",
"Karate is divided into many styles, each with their different training methods, focuses, and cultures; though they mainly originate from the historical Okinawan parent styles of Naha-te, Tomari-te and Shuri-te.",
"In the modern era the major four styles of karate are considered to be Gōjū-ryū, Shotokan, Shitō-ryū, and Wadō-ryū.",
"These four styles are those recognised by the World Karate Federation for international kata competition.Other internationally recognised styles include but are not limited to:*Chitō-ryū*Gosoku-ryu*Isshin-ryū*Kyokushin*Motobu-ryu*Shōrin-ryū*Shūkōkai*Uechi-Ryū"
],
[
"World",
"===Africa===Karate has grown in popularity in Africa, particularly in South Africa and Ghana.===Americas=======Canada====Karate began in Canada in the 1930s and 1940s as Japanese people immigrated to the country.",
"Karate was practised quietly without a large amount of organization.",
"During the Second World War, many Japanese-Canadian families were moved to the interior of British Columbia.",
"Masaru Shintani, at the age of 13, began to study Shorin-Ryu karate in the Japanese camp under Kitigawa.",
"In 1956, after 9 years of training with Kitigawa, Shintani travelled to Japan and met Hironori Otsuka (Wado Ryu).",
"In 1958, Otsuka invited Shintani to join his organization Wado Kai, and in 1969 he asked Shintani to officially call his style Wado.In Canada during this same time, karate was also introduced by Masami Tsuruoka who had studied in Japan in the 1940s under Tsuyoshi Chitose.",
"In 1954, Tsuruoka initiated the first karate competition in Canada and laid the foundation for the National Karate Association.In the late 1950s Shintani moved to Ontario and began teaching karate and judo at the Japanese Cultural Centre in Hamilton.",
"In 1966, he began (with Otsuka's endorsement) the Shintani Wado Kai Karate Federation.",
"During the 1970s Otsuka appointed Shintani the Supreme Instructor of Wado Kai in North America.",
"In 1979, Otsuka publicly promoted Shintani to hachidan (8th dan) and privately gave him a kudan certificate (9th dan), which was revealed by Shintani in 1995.Shintani and Otsuka visited each other in Japan and Canada several times, the last time in 1980 two years prior to Otsuka's death.",
"Shintani died 7 May 2000.====United States====After World War II, members of the United States military learned karate in Okinawa or Japan and then opened schools in the US.",
"In 1945, Robert Trias opened the first ''dōjō'' in the United States in Phoenix, Arizona, a Shuri-ryū karate ''dōjō''.",
"In the 1950s, William J. Dometrich, Ed Parker, Cecil T. Patterson, Gordon Doversola, Harold G. Long, Donald Hugh Nagle, George Mattson and Peter Urban all began instructing in the US.Tsutomu Ohshima began studying karate under Shotokan's founder, Gichin Funakoshi, while a student at Waseda University, beginning in 1948.In 1957, Ohshima received his godan (fifth-degree black belt), the highest rank awarded by Funakoshi.",
"He founded the first university karate club in the United States at California Institute of Technology in 1957.In 1959, he founded the Southern California Karate Association (SCKA) which was renamed Shotokan Karate of America (SKA) in 1969.In the 1960s, Anthony Mirakian, Richard Kim, Teruyuki Okazaki, John Pachivas, Allen Steen, Gosei Yamaguchi (son of Gōgen Yamaguchi), Michael G. Foster and Pat Burleson began teaching martial arts around the country.In 1961, Hidetaka Nishiyama, a co-founder of the Japan Karate Association (JKA) and student of Gichin Funakoshi, began teaching in the United States.",
"He founded the International Traditional Karate Federation (ITKF).",
"Takayuki Mikami was sent to New Orleans by the JKA in 1963.In 1964, Takayuki Kubota relocated the International Karate Association from Tokyo to California.===Asia=======Korea====Due to past conflict between Korea and Japan, most notably during the Japanese occupation of Korea in the early 20th century, the influence of karate in Korea is a contentious issue.",
"From 1910 until 1945, Korea was annexed by the Japanese Empire.",
"It was during this time that many of the Korean martial arts masters of the 20th century were exposed to Japanese karate.",
"After regaining independence from Japan, many Korean martial arts schools that opened up in the 1940s and 1950s were founded by masters who had trained in karate in Japan as part of their martial arts training.Won Kuk Lee, a Korean student of Funakoshi, founded the first martial arts school after the Japanese occupation of Korea ended in 1945, called the Chung Do Kwan.",
"Having studied under Gichin Funakoshi at Chuo University, Lee had incorporated taekkyon, kung fu, and karate in the martial art that he taught which he called \"Tang Soo Do\", the Korean transliteration of the Chinese characters for \"Way of Chinese Hand\" (唐手道).",
"In the mid-1950s, the martial arts schools were unified under President Rhee Syngman's order, and became taekwondo under the leadership of Choi Hong Hi and a committee of Korean masters.",
"Choi, a significant figure in taekwondo history, had also studied karate under Funakoshi.",
"Karate also provided an important comparative model for the early founders of taekwondo in the formalization of their art including hyung and the belt ranking system.",
"The original taekwondo ''hyung'' were identical to karate ''kata''.",
"Eventually, original Korean forms were developed by individual schools and associations.",
"Although the World Taekwondo Federation and International Taekwon-Do Federation are the most prominent among Korean martial arts organizations, ''tang soo do'' schools that teach Japanese karate still exist as they were originally conveyed to Won Kuk Lee and his contemporaries from Funakoshi.====Soviet Union====Karate appeared in the Soviet Union in the mid-1960s, during Nikita Khrushchev's policy of improved international relations.",
"The first Shotokan clubs were opened in Moscow's universities.",
"In 1973, however, the government banned karate—together with all other foreign martial arts—endorsing only the Soviet martial art of sambo.",
"Failing to suppress these uncontrolled groups, the USSR's Sport Committee formed the Karate Federation of USSR in December 1978.On 17 May 1984, the Soviet Karate Federation was disbanded and all karate became illegal again.",
"In 1989, karate practice became legal again, but under strict government regulations, only after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 did independent karate schools resume functioning, and so federations were formed and national tournaments in authentic styles began.====Philippines=======Europe===Karate movements in LappeenrantaIn the 1950s and 1960s, several Japanese karate masters began to teach the art in Europe, but it was not until 1965 that the Japan Karate Association (JKA) sent to Europe four well-trained young Karate instructors Taiji Kase, Keinosuke Enoeda, Hirokazu Kanazawa and Hiroshi Shirai.",
"Kase went to France, Enoeada to England and Shirai in Italy.",
"These Masters maintained always a strong link between them, the JKA and the others JKA masters in the world, especially Hidetaka Nishiyama in the US====France====France Shotokan Karate was created in 1964 by Tsutomu Ohshima.",
"It is affiliated with another of his organizations, Shotokan Karate of America (SKA).",
"However, in 1965 Taiji Kase came from Japan along with Enoeda and Shirai, who went to England and Italy respectively, and karate came under the influence of the JKA.====Italy====Hiroshi Shirai, one of the original instructors sent by the JKA to Europe along with Kase, Enoeda and Kanazawa, moved to Italy in 1965 and quickly established a Shotokan enclave that spawned several instructors who in their turn soon spread the style all over the country.",
"By 1970 Shotokan karate was the most spread martial art in Italy apart from Judo.",
"Other styles such as Wado Ryu, Goju Ryu and Shito Ryu, are present and well established in Italy, while Shotokan remains the most popular.====United Kingdom====Vernon Bell, a 3rd Dan Judo instructor who had been instructed by Kenshiro Abbe introduced Karate to England in 1956, having attended classes in Henry Plée's Yoseikan ''dōjō'' in Paris.",
"Yoseikan had been founded by Minoru Mochizuki, a master of multiple Japanese martial arts, who had studied Karate with Gichin Funakoshi, thus the Yoseikan style was heavily influenced by Shotokan.",
"Bell began teaching in the tennis courts of his parents' back garden in Ilford, Essex and his group was to become the British Karate Federation.",
"On 19 July 1957, Vietnamese Hoang Nam 3rd Dan, billed as \"Karate champion of Indo China\", was invited to teach by Bell at Maybush Road, but the first instructor from Japan was Tetsuji Murakami (1927–1987) a 3rd Dan Yoseikan under Minoru Mochizuki and 1st Dan of the JKA, who arrived in England in July 1959.In 1959, Frederick Gille set up the Liverpool branch of the British Karate Federation, which was officially recognised in 1961.The Liverpool branch was based at Harold House Jewish Boys Club in Chatham Street before relocating to the YMCA in Everton where it became known as the Red Triangle.",
"One of the early members of this branch was Andy Sherry who had previously studied Jujutsu with Jack Britten.",
"In 1961, Edward Ainsworth, another blackbelt Judoka, set up the first Karate study group in Ayrshire, Scotland having attended Bell's third 'Karate Summer School' in 1961.Outside of Bell's organisation, Charles Mack traveled to Japan and studied under Masatoshi Nakayama of the Japan Karate Association who graded Mack to 1st Dan Shotokan on 4 March 1962 in Japan.",
"Shotokai Karate was introduced to England in 1963 by another of Gichin Funakoshi's students, Mitsusuke Harada.",
"Outside of the Shotokan stable of karate styles, Wado Ryu Karate was also an early adopted style in the UK, introduced by Tatsuo Suzuki, a 6th Dan at the time in 1964.Despite the early adoption of Shotokan in the UK, it was not until 1964 that JKA Shotokan officially came to the UK.",
"Bell had been corresponding with the JKA in Tokyo asking for his grades to be ratified in Shotokan having apparently learnt that Murakami was not a designated representative of the JKA.",
"The JKA obliged, and without enforcing a grading on Bell, ratified his black belt on 5 February 1964, though he had to relinquish his Yoseikan grade.",
"Bell requested a visitation from JKA instructors and the next year Taiji Kase, Hirokazu Kanazawa, Keinosuke Enoeda and Hiroshi Shirai gave the first JKA demo at the old Kensington Town Hall on 21 April 1965.Hirokazu Kanazawa and Keinosuke Enoeda stayed and Murakami left (later re-emerging as a 5th Dan Shotokai under Harada).In 1966, members of the former British Karate Federation established the Karate Union of Great Britain (KUGB) under Hirokazu Kanazawa as chief instructor and affiliated to JKA.",
"Keinosuke Enoeda came to England at the same time as Kanazawa, teaching at a ''dōjō'' in Liverpool.",
"Kanazawa left the UK after 3 years and Enoeda took over.",
"After Enoeda's death in 2003, the KUGB elected Andy Sherry as Chief Instructor.",
"Shortly after this, a new association split off from KUGB, JKA England.An earlier significant split from the KUGB took place in 1991 when a group led by KUGB senior instructor Steve Cattle formed the English Shotokan Academy (ESA).",
"The aim of this group was to follow the teachings of Taiji Kase, formerly the JKA chief instructor in Europe, who along with Hiroshi Shirai created the World Shotokan Karate-do Academy (WKSA), in 1989 to pursue the teaching of \"Budo\" karate as opposed to what he viewed as \"sport karate\".",
"Kase sought to return the practice of Shotokan Karate to its martial roots, reintroducing amongst other things open hand and throwing techniques that had been side lined as the result of competition rules introduced by the JKA.",
"Both the ESA and the WKSA (renamed the Kase-Ha Shotokan-Ryu Karate-do Academy (KSKA) after Kase's death in 2004) continue following this path today.In 1975, Great Britain became the first team ever to take the World male team title from Japan after being defeated the previous year in the final.=== Oceania ===The World Karate Federation was first introduced to Oceania as the Oceania Karate Federation 1973.==== Australia ====The Australian Karate Federation, under the World Karate Federation, was first introduced in 1970.In 1972 Frank Novak became the first fully qualified Shotokan instructor to arrive in Australia and teach in the country, establishing the first Shotokan Karate dojo in Australia.",
"At karate's debut in the Olympics at the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tsuneari Yahiro became Australia's first Karate Olympian."
],
[
"In film and popular culture",
"Bruce Lee is known for practicing many martial arts styles, including Karate.Karate spread rapidly in the West through popular culture.",
"In 1950s popular fiction, karate was at times described to readers in near-mythical terms, and it was credible to show Western experts of unarmed combat as unaware of Eastern martial arts of this kind.",
"Following the inclusion of judo at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, there was growing mainstream Western interest in Japanese martial arts, particularly karate, during the 1960s.",
"By the 1970s, martial arts films (especially kung fu films and Bruce Lee flicks from Hong Kong) had formed a mainstream genre and launched the \"kung fu craze\" which propelled karate and other Asian martial arts into mass popularity.",
"However, mainstream Western audiences at the time generally did not distinguish between different Asian martial arts such as karate, kung fu and tae kwon do.In the film series 007 (1953–present), the main protagonist James Bond is exceptionally skillful in martial arts.",
"He is an expert in various types of martial arts including Karate, as well as Judo, Aikido, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Filipino Eskrima and Krav Maga.During the late 20th century, specifically during the 80s and 90s, karate saw a rise in mainstream popularity.",
"America in the 80s took hold of the martial arts craze and began to produce more homegrown films in the martial arts genre.",
"Films weren't the only popular visual representation of Karate in the 80s, just as arcades grew in popularity, so did Karate in arcade fighting games.",
"The first video game to feature fist fighting was ''Heavyweight Champ'' in 1976, but it was ''Karate Champ'' that popularized the one-on-one fighting game genre in arcades in 1984.In 1987, Capcom released ''Street Fighter'', featuring multiple Karateka characters.",
"''The Karate Kid'' (1984) and its sequels ''The Karate Kid, Part II'' (1986), ''The Karate Kid, Part III'' (1989) and ''The Next Karate Kid'' (1994) are films relating the fictional story of an American adolescent's introduction into karate.",
"Its television sequel, ''Cobra Kai'' (2018), has led to similar growing interest in karate.",
"The success of ''The Karate Kid'' further popularized karate (as opposed to Asian martial arts more generally) in mainstream American popular culture.",
"''Karate Kommandos'' is an animated children's show, with Chuck Norris appearing to reveal the moral lessons contained in every episode.Dragon Ball's main protagonist Goku uses a variety and hybrid of east Asian martial arts styles, including Karate.",
"''Dragon Ball'' (1984–present) is a Japanese media franchise (Anime) whose characters use a variety and hybrid of east Asian martial arts styles, including Karate and Wing Chun (Kung fu).",
"''Dragon Ball'' was originally inspired by the classical 16th-century Chinese novel ''Journey to the West'', combined with elements of Hong Kong martial arts films, with influences of Jackie Chan and Bruce Lee.In the film series ''The Matrix'', Neo uses a variety of martial arts styles.",
"Neo's skill in martial arts was shown having downloaded into his brain, which granted combat abilities equivalent to a martial artist with decades of experience.",
"Kenpo Karate is one of the many styles Neo learns as part of his computerised combat training.",
"As part of the preparation for the movie, Yuen Woo-ping had Keanu Reeves undertake four months of martial arts training in a variety of different styles.+Film stars and their stylesPractitionerFighting styleShin KoyamadaKeishinkanSonny ChibaKyokushinSean ConneryKyokushinHiroyuki SanadaKyokushinDolph LundgrenKyokushinMichael Jai WhiteKyokushinYasuaki KurataShito-ryuFumio DemuraShitō-ryūDon \"The Dragon\" WilsonGōjū-ryuRichard NortonGōjū-ryuYukari OshimaGōjū-ryuLeung Siu-LungGōjū-ryuWesley SnipesShotokanJean-Claude Van DammeShotokanJim KellyShōrin-ryūJoe LewisShōrin-ryūTadashi YamashitaShōrin-ryūMatt MullinsShōrei-ryūSho KosugiShindō jinen-ryūWeng WengUndeterminedMany other film stars such as Bruce Lee, Chuck Norris, Jackie Chan, Sammo Hung, and Jet Li come from a range of other martial arts."
],
[
"See also",
"*Comparison of karate styles*Japanese martial arts*Karate World Championships*Karate at the Summer Olympics*Karate at the World Games"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* World Karate Federation"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kickboxing"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kickboxing''' ( ) is a full-contact combat sport and a form of boxing based on punching and kicking.",
"The fight takes place in a boxing ring, normally with boxing gloves, mouth guards, shorts, and bare feet to favor the use of kicks.",
"Kickboxing is practiced for self-defense, general fitness, or for competition.",
"Some styles of kickboxing include: Full contact karate, Muay Thai, Japanese kickboxing, Lethwei, Sanda, and Savate.Although since the dawn of humanity people have faced each other in hand-to-hand combat, the first documentation on the use of kicking and punching in sports combat is from ancient Greece and ancient India.",
"But nevertheless, the term kickboxing originated in Japan, in the 1960s, and developed in the late 1950s from karate mixed with boxing, having some influence, with competitions held since then.",
"American kickboxing originated in the 1970s and was brought to prominence in September 1974, when the Professional Karate Association (PKA) held the first World Championships.",
"Historically, kickboxing can be considered a hybrid martial art formed from the combination of elements of various traditional styles.",
"This approach became increasingly popular since the 1970s, and since the 1990s, kickboxing has contributed to the emergence of mixed martial arts via further hybridization with ground fighting techniques from Brazilian jiu-jitsu, and folk wrestling.There is no single international governing body, although some international governing bodies include the World Association of Kickboxing Organizations (also known as WAKO), World Kickboxing Association, the Professional Kickboxing Association (PKA), International Sport Karate Association, International Kickboxing Federation, and World Kickboxing Network, among others.",
"Consequently, there is no single kickboxing world championship, and champion titles are issued by individual promotions, such as Glory, K-1 and ONE Championship among others.",
"Bouts organized under different governing bodies apply different rules, such as allowing the use of knees or clinching etc."
],
[
"Terminology",
"Ebisu, Tokyo.",
"800 year old Cambodian stone carving of an early version of Pradal Serey.",
"Located at the Bayon temple.The term can be used in a narrow and in a broad sense.",
"* The narrow use is restricted to the styles that self-identify as kickboxing, i.e., Japanese kickboxing (with its spin-off styles or rules such as shootboxing and K-1), Dutch kickboxing, and American kickboxing.",
"* In the wider sense, it includes all modern stand-up combat sports that allow both punching and kicking, including those mentioned above, Sanda, Muay Thai, Kun Khmer, Lethwei, Savate, Adithada, Musti-yuddha, and certain styles of karate (especially full contact karate).The term itself was introduced in the 1960s as a Japanese anglicism by Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a hybrid martial art combining Muay Thai and karate which he had introduced in 1958.The term was later also adopted by the American variant.",
"Since there has been a lot of cross-fertilization between these styles, with many practitioners training or competing under the rules of more than one style, the history of the individual styles cannot be seen in isolation from one another.The French term ''Boxe pieds-poings'' (literally \"feet-fists-boxing\") is also used in the sense of \"kickboxing\" in the general meaning, including French boxing (Savate) as well as American, Dutch and Japanese kickboxing, Burmese and Thai boxing, any style of full contact karate, etc.===Styles and descendant arts===Arts labelled as ''kickboxing'' in the general sense include:* Japanese kickboxing — combat style created in Japan, and origin of the term \"kickboxing\".",
"* Any style of Full contact karate* Sanda (Chinese kickboxing) — The applicable component of wushu/kung fu of which takedowns and throws are legal in competition as well as all other sorts of striking (use of arms and legs).",
"* Shootboxing — A Japanese form of kickboxing which allows throwing and submission while standing, similar to Sanda.",
"* American kickboxing — a style originating in the United States.",
"* Dutch Kickboxing — incorporate from three combat arts — Muay Thai, Boxing, and Kyokushin style of Karate.",
"* French Savate — a historical sport which developed in the 19th century.",
"It is mostly known for its foot-kicking techniques.",
"* Ukrainian Combat Hopak is mostly built around punching and kicking techniques.",
"* Indian Musti yuddha (also known as Muki boxing) and Adithada, a form of kickboxing that uses knee, elbow and forehead strikes in Southern kalaripayattu.",
"* Korean Kickboxing - Also Known as Kun Gek Do, it's a martial art created in South Korea which is a mixture of Boxing and Taekwondo.",
"* The Southeast Asian family of kickboxing sports (also known as the ethnic neutral term of \"muay\" at the Southeast Asian Games) including:** Pradal Serey — a combat sport with an emphasis on kicking and extensive use of clinching for elbow techniques (Ring-wise).",
"It is also known as Kun Khmer and based on the fighting techniques of the ancient Khmer Empire.",
"It adopted boxing gloves, the boxing ring and rules inspired by European boxing after the arrival of French colonists in Cambodia.",
"** Thai Muay Boran (Ancient boxing) — Predecessor of Muay Thai, allows the use of headbutts.",
"** Thai kickboxing or Muay Thai — a modern Thai martial art that allows punching, kicking, knee and elbow strikes.",
"** Burmese Lethwei — a traditional Burmese martial art of which has now grown into a popular kickboxing event that allows headbutts, knees and elbow strikes.",
"It bears resemblance to neighboring Muay Thai, but Lethwei uses more punches and less kicks.",
"Head butt, choking and throwing techniques are also used.",
"The fighting intensity and momentum is also considered faster.",
"No boxing gloves are used.",
"There is also no scoring system and knockout is the only way to win a match.",
"** Laotian Muay Lao — Laotian boxing which is similar to Muay Thai** Filipino Yaw-Yan — Sayaw ng Kamatayan (Dance of Death) is the proper name for Yaw-Yan, a Filipino martial art developed by Napoleon Fernandez.",
"The art resembles Muay Thai in a sense, but differs in the hip torquing motion as well as downward-cutting nature of its kicks and with strong emphasis on delivering attacks from long range."
],
[
"History",
"=== Overview ===Panathenaic prize amphora, c. 500 BC.Since kickboxing is a broad term, understanding the history can be somewhat difficult, since combat is an inherent part of being human.",
"Kicking and punching as an act of human aggression have probably existed throughout the world since prehistory.The earliest known depiction of any type of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief in Iraq from the 3rd millennium BC.",
"Forms of kickboxing existed in ancient India.",
"The earliest references to musti-yuddha come from classical Vedic epics such as the ''Ramayana'' and ''Rig Veda,'' compiled in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.",
"The ''Mahabharata'' describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts.",
"Mushti Yuddha has travelled along the Indosphere and has been a preceder and a strong influence in many famous martial arts of Southeast Asia such as Muay Thai, Muay Laos and Pradal Serey (of Cambodia).In the Pankration, a mixed martial art from ancient Greece, a form of kickboxing was used in its Anō Pankration modality, being able to use any extremity to hit.",
"In addition, it is debated whether kicks were allowed in ancient Greek boxing, and while there is some evidence of kicks, this is the subject of debate among scholars.Old picture of ''la boxe française''The French were the first to include boxing gloves into a sport that included kicking and boxing techniques.",
"In 1743, modern boxing gloves were invented by Englishman Jack Broughton.",
"Frenchman Charles Lecour added English boxing gloves to la boxe française.",
"Charles Lecour was a pioneer of modern savate or la boxe française.",
"He created a form where both kicking and punching was used.",
"Lecour was the first to view savate as a sport and self-defense system.",
"The French colonists introduced European boxing gloves into the native Asian martial arts in French Indochina.",
"The use of European boxing gloves spread to neighboring Siam.It was during the 1950s that a Japanese karateka named Tatsuo Yamada first established an outline of a new sport that combined karate and Muay Thai.",
"This was further explored during the early 1960s, when competitions between karate and Muay Thai began, which allowed for rule modifications to take place.",
"In the middle of the decade, the first events with the term kickboxing were held in Osaka.By the 1970s and 1980s, the sport had expanded beyond Japan and had reached North America and Europe.",
"It was during this time that many of the most prominent governing bodies were formed.",
"* In Japan the sport was widely popular and was regularly broadcast on television before going into a dark period during the 1980s.",
"* In North America the sport had unclear rules so kickboxing and full contact karate were essentially the same sport.",
"* In Europe the sport found marginal success but did not thrive until the 1990s.Since the 1990s the sport has been mostly dominated by the Japanese K-1 promotion, with some competition coming from other promotions and mostly pre-existing governing bodies.Along with the growing popularity in competition, there has been an increased amount of participation and exposure in the mass media, fitness, and self-defense.=== Japan ===Tatsuo Yamada (left) and his master Choki Motobu (right), 1926On December 20, 1959, a Muay Thai match among Thai fighters was held at Asakusa town hall in Tokyo.",
"Tatsuo Yamada, who established \"''Nihon Kempo Karate-do''\", was interested in Muay Thai because he wanted to perform karate matches with full-contact rules since practitioners are not allowed to hit each other directly in karate matches.",
"At this time, it was unimaginable to hit each other in karate matches in Japan.",
"He had already announced his plan which was named ''\"The draft principles of project of establishment of a new sport and its industrialization\"'' in November 1959, and he proposed the tentative name of \"karate-boxing\" for this new sport.",
"It is still unknown whether Nak Muay was invited by Yamada, but it is clear that Yamada was the only karateka who was really interested in Muay Thai.",
"Yamada invited a champion Nak Muay (and formerly his son Kan Yamada's sparring partner), and started studying Muay Thai.",
"At this time, the Thai fighter was taken by Osamu Noguchi who was a promoter of boxing and was also interested in Muay Thai.",
"The Thai fighter's photo was on the magazine \"The Primer of Nihon Kempo Karate-do, the first number\" which was published by Yamada.There were \"Karate vs. Muay Thai fights\" on February 12, 1963.The three karate fighters from ''Oyama dojo'' (kyokushin later) went to the Lumpinee Boxing Stadium in Thailand and fought against three Muay Thai fighters.",
"The three kyokushin karate fighters' names are Tadashi Nakamura, Kenji Kurosaki and Akio Fujihira (also known as Noboru Osawa).",
"The Muay Thai team were composed of only one authentic Thai fighter.",
"Japan won by 2–1: Tadashi Nakamura and Akio Fujihira both KOed opponents by punch while Kenji Kurosaki, who fought the Thai, was KOed by elbow.",
"The only Japanese loser Kenji Kurosaki was then a kyokushin instructor rather than a contender and temporarily designated as a substitute for the absent chosen fighter.",
"On June of the same year, karateka and future kickboxer Tadashi Sawamura faced against top Thai fighter Samarn Sor Adisorn, in which Sawamura was knocked down 16 times and defeated.",
"Sawamura would use what he learned in that fight to incorporate in the evolving kickboxing tournaments.Noguchi studied Muay Thai and developed a combined martial art which Noguchi named ''kick boxing'', which absorbed and adopted more rules than techniques from Muay Thai.",
"The main techniques of kickboxing are still derived from a form of Japanese full contact karate where kicks to the legs are allowed, kyokushin.",
"In early competitions, throwing and butting were allowed to distinguish it from Muay Thai.",
"This was later repealed.",
"The ''Kickboxing Association'', the first kickboxing sanctioning body, was founded by Osamu Noguchi in 1966 soon after that.",
"Then the first kickboxing event was held in Osaka on April 11, 1966.Tatsu Yamada died in 1967, but his dojo changed its name to ''Suginami Gym'', and kept sending kickboxers off to support kickboxing.Kickboxing boomed and became popular in Japan as it began to be broadcast on TV.",
"By 1970, kickboxing was telecast in Japan on three different channels three times weekly.",
"The fight cards regularly included bouts between Japanese (kickboxers) and Thai (Muay Thai) boxers.",
"Tadashi Sawamura was an especially popular early kickboxer.",
"In 1971 the All Japan Kickboxing Association (AJKA) was established and it registered approximately 700 kickboxers.",
"The first AJKA Commissioner was Shintaro Ishihara, the longtime Governor of Tokyo.",
"Champions were in each weight division from fly to middle.",
"Longtime Kyokushin practitioner Noboru Osawa won the AJKA bantamweight title, which he held for years.",
"Raymond Edler, an American university student studying at Sophia University in Tokyo, took up kickboxing and won the AJKC middleweight title in 1972; he was the first non-Thai to be officially ranked in the sport of Thai boxing, when in 1972 Rajadamnern ranked him no.",
"3 in the Middleweight division.",
"Edler defended the All Japan title several times and abandoned it.",
"Other popular champions were Toshio Fujiwara and Mitsuo Shima.",
"Most notably, Fujiwara was the first non-Thai to win an official Thai boxing title, when he defeated his Thai opponent in 1978 at Rajadamnern Stadium winning the lightweight championship bout.By 1980, due to poor ratings and then infrequent television coverage, the golden-age of kickboxing in Japan was suddenly finished.Kickboxing had not been seen on TV until K-1 was founded in 1993.In 1993, as Kazuyoshi Ishii (founder of Seidokaikan karate) produced K-1 under special kickboxing rules (no elbow and neck wrestling) in 1993, kickboxing became famous again.In the mid-1980s to early 1990s, before the first k-1, Kazuyoshi Ishii also partook in the formation of glove karate as an amateur sport in Japan.",
"Glove karate is based on knockdown karate rules, but wearing boxing gloves and allowing punches to the head.",
"In effect, it is oriental rules kickboxing with scoring based on knockdowns and aggression rather than the number of hits.",
"As K-1 grew in popularity, Glove karate for a while became the fastest-growing amateur sport in Japan.=== North America ===Hook-punchCount Dante, Ray Scarica and Maung Gyi held the United States' earliestcross-style full-contact style martial arts tournaments as early as 1962.Between 1970 and 1973 a handful of kickboxing promotions were staged across the US.",
"The first recognized bout of this kind occurred on January 17, 1970, and came about when Joe Lewis, a Shorin Ryu stylist who had also studied Jeet Kune Do with the legendary Bruce Lee, and noted champion in the Karate tournament circuit, grew disillusioned with the point-sparring format and sought to create an event that would allow martial artists to fight to the knock out.",
"Enlisting the help of promoter Lee Faulkner, training in boxing and combining the techniques of boxing and Karate for the first time in America, Lewis arranged the bout to be held at the 1st Pro Team Karate Championships.",
"Lewis faced Kenpo stylist Greg \"Om\" Baines, who had defeated two opponents in years pasts.",
"Lewis won the fight by knockout in the second round.",
"The event was advertised as \"Full contact\" but the announcers referred to it as Kickboxing, and rules included knees, elbows and sweeps.",
"Lewis would defend his U.S Heavyweight champion title 10 times, remaining undefeated until he came back from his retirement.",
"In the early days, the rules were never clear; one of the first tournaments had no weight divisions, and all the competitors fought off until one was left.",
"During this early time, kickboxing and full contact karate are essentially the same sport.The institutional separation of American full-contact karate from kickboxing occurred with the formation of the Professional Karate Association (PKA) in 1974 and of the World Kickboxing Association (WKA) in 1976.They were the first organised body of martial arts on a global scale to sanction fights, create ranking systems, and institute a development programme.The International Kickboxing Federation (IKF) and the International Sport Kickboxing Association (ISKA) have been the only organizations to have thrived in the modern era.The International Kickboxing Federation (IKF) was founded in 1992 by Steve Fossum and Dan Stell.",
"Stell eventually stepped down to go back to fighting while Fossum continued with the organization.",
"In 1999 Fossum and Joe Taylor of Ringside Products created the first amateur open North American tournament for Kickboxing and Muay Thai, now the IKF World Classic.After ending its venture with K-1 in 2006, ISKA co-operated the World Combat League with Chuck Norris, and Strikeforce MMA in partnership with Silicon Valley Entertainment (SVE), an investor group who also own the San Jose Sharks.",
"Norris passed the WCL to his son-in-law Damien Diciolli in 2007, and it has since become inactive.",
"Strikeforce MMA was sold to UFC in 2011.The ISKA expanded into sport (tournament) martial arts about 15 years ago, and is a co-operator along with WAKO and Global Marketing Ventures (GMV) in the global Open World Tour (OWT) the first worldwide pro circuit of sport karate professional competitors.",
"It sanctions and assists in the annual US Open & ISKA World Championships that anchors the OWT and the North American-based NASKA Tour.",
"The US Open & ISKA World Championships is broadcast live on ESPN2 and ESPN3 each year.Other kickboxing sanctioning bodies include World Association of Kickboxing Organizations (primarily amateurs) and KICK International.=== Europe === A kickboxing match in München.In West Germany, American-styled kickboxing was promulgated from its inception in the 1970s by Georg F. Bruckner, who in 1976 was the co-founder of the World Association of Kickboxing Organizations.",
"The term \"kickboxing\" as used in German-speaking Europe is therefore mostly synonymous with American kickboxing.",
"The low-kick and knee techniques allowed in Japanese kickboxing, by contrast, were associated with Muay Thai, and Japanese kickboxing went mostly unnoticed in German-speaking Europe before the launch of K-1 in 1993.By contrast, in the Netherlands kickboxing was introduced in its Japanese form, by Jan Plas and Thom Harinck who founded NKBB (The Dutch Kickboxing Association) in 1976.Harinck also founded the MTBN (Dutch Muay Thai Association) in 1983, and the WMTA (World Muay Thai Association) and the EMTA (European Muay Thai Association) in 1984.The most prominent kickboxing gyms in the Netherlands, Mejiro Gym, Chakuriki Gym and Golden Glory, were all derived from or were significantly influenced by Japanese kickboxing and kyokushin karate.Dutch athletes have been very successful in the K-1 competitions.Out of the 19 K-1 World Grand Prix championship titles issued from 1993 to 2012, 15 went to Dutch participants (Peter Aerts, Ernesto Hoost, Remy Bonjasky, Semmy Schilt and Alistair Overeem).",
"The remaining four titles were won by Branko Cikatić of Croatia in 1993, Andy Hug of Switzerland in 1996, Mark Hunt of New Zealand in 2001 and Mirko Filipović of Croatia in 2012."
],
[
"Modern sport",
"=== Kickboxing promotions ===Some of the top kickboxing promotions in the world are: * Glory* K-1 * PKA* ISKA* ONE Championship* Karate Combat* RISE* WAKO* World Kickboxing Network* Enfusion=== Kickboxing promoters ===Some of the notable kickboxing promoters in the world are:* Chatri Sityodtong - ONE Championship* Eduard Irimia - Superkombat* Kazuyoshi Ishii - K-1* Pierre Andurand - Glory* Joe Corley - PKA* Sadaharu Tanikawa - Fighting and Entertainment Group"
],
[
"Kickboxing styles and rulesets",
"Hamid Amni fighting at the Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games 2017 in Full-contact style with full-contact pants.Kickboxing has a number of different rulesets.",
"For example, Oriental/K-1 rules allow punches, high and low kicks and even knee strikes, while American kickboxing is limited to punches and kicks only above the belt (high kicks).In the first two decades of the 21st century, several larger kickboxing promotions such as Glory, One Championship and Bellator Kickboxing have adopted the k1/oriental rule set, which allows knee strikes, kicking and punching.=== Japanese Kickboxing ==='''Oriental rules''' (also known as '''K-1 rules''' or '''unified rules''', and sometimes referred to as '''Japanese kickboxing''') was the first combat sport that adopted the name of \"kickboxing\" in 1966, later termed \"Japanese kickboxing\" as a retronym.",
"Since the 1990s, many of the largest kickboxing promotions such as K-1, ONE Championship, Glory and Bellator Kickboxing adopted this ruleset.",
"Oriental rules began to be developed by the Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi and Karate practitioner Tatsuo Yamada, and it was initially intended as a mix of Karate and Muay Thai, but it was later affected also by the Dutch rules, which were first formalised in the Netherlands in the 1970s.",
"The primary difference between Muay Thai and Oriental Kickboxing was the prohibition of elbow strikes and throws.",
"In addition, the amount of clinch fighting is drastically decreased.",
"These changes were aimed at reducing injuries and making bouts more accessible to TV viewers.",
"Oriental rules bouts were traditionally fought over 5, 3-minute rounds but 3 round bouts have since become popular.",
"The male kickboxers are bare-chested wearing shorts (although trousers and karate gis have been worn) and protective gear including: mouth-guard, hand-wraps, shin-wraps, gloves.Notable fighters under K-1 rules include Semmy Schilt, Badr Hari, Ernesto Hoost, Albert Kraus, Masato, Peter Aerts, Remy Bonjasky, Giorgio Petrosyan, Buakaw and Andy Souwer.Rules:* Fighters are allowed to strike their opponent with punches, kicks, including kicks below the waist, except for the groin, sweeps and knees (only to the body).",
"* Elbow strikes are forbidden.",
"* Very limited or no clinch fighting is allowed (in some competitions clinching is completely illegal, in others only one single strike is allowed before the clinch has to be released, in other promotions just a few seconds of clinch are allowed).",
"* Throws and headbutts are not allowed.",
"* Bouts are 3 to 5 rounds (lasting 3 minutes each) with a 1-minute rest in between rounds.===Korean Kickboxing===Gwon Gyokdo, also known as Kun Gek Do and Kyuk Too Ki is a style of Kickboxing from Korea which was founded by Jung Mo-Do.It is a hybrid style which is composed by Taekwondo, Western Boxing and Muay Thai rules and techniques.Korean Kickboxing uses the basic kicking style of Taekwondo, but also adds typical Muay Thai techniques, as well as footwork and dodging tactics of Western Boxing.Rules:*Punches and kicks are allowed.",
"*Elbow strikes and knee strikes are allowed.",
"*Throwing and clinching is allowed.",
"*Spinning techniques are allowed.=== American Kickboxing ==='''Full Contact''' (also referred to as '''American Kickboxing''') is essentially a mixture of Western boxing and traditional karate.",
"The male kickboxers are bare-chested wearing kickboxing trousers and protective gear including: mouth-guard, hand-wraps, boxing gloves, groin-guard, shin-pads, and kick-boots and protective helmet (for amateurs and those under 16).",
"Female kickboxers will wear a sports bra and chest protection in addition to the male clothing/protective gear.Notable fighters under full contact rules include, Dennis Alexio, Joe Lewis, Rick Roufus, Jean-Yves Thériault, Benny Urquidez, Bill Wallace, Demetrius Havanas, Billy Jackson, Akseli Saurama, Pete Cunningham, and Don \"The Dragon\" WilsonRules:* Opponents are allowed to hit each other with punches and kicks, striking above the waist.",
"* Elbows and knees are forbidden.",
"* Clinch fighting and grappling are forbidden, sweeps are legal boot-to-boot.",
"* Bouts are usually 3 to 10 rounds (lasting 2 minutes each) with a 1-minute rest in between rounds.",
"* The Referee is responsible for fighter safety and keeping to the rules; judges count legal techniques and note the points on the scoring card or with the help of the electronic system.==== Semi Contact ====A Semi Contact match'''Semi Contact''' or '''Points Fighting''', is the variant of American kickboxing most similar to karate, since it consists in fighting for the purpose of scoring points with an emphasis on delivery, speed, and technique.",
"Under such rules, fights are held on the tatami, presenting the belts to classify the fighters in order of experience and ability.",
"The male kickboxers wear shirts and kickboxing trousers as well as protective gear including: mouth-guard, hand-wraps, .",
"boxing gloves, groin-guard, shin-pads, kick-boots, and headgear.",
"The female kickboxers will wear a sports bra and chest protection in addition to the male clothing/protective gear.Notable fighters under semi-contact rules include Raymond Daniels, Michael Page, and Gregorio Di Leo.Rules:* Fighters can score through punches or kicks, striking above the waist, and foot sweeps, executed below the ankle.",
"* Punches, kicks and foot sweeps are awarded 1 point.",
"Kicks to the head or jumping kicks to the body are awarded 2 points.",
"Jumping kicks to the head are awarded 3 points.",
"* Hook kicks and Axe kicks are allowed but must be executed with the sole of the foot.",
"* The use of the shins is seldom allowed, save for jumping and spinning techniques.",
"* Elbows, knees and spinning backfists are forbidden.",
"* Clinch fighting, throws and sweeps (with the exception of foot sweeps) are forbidden.",
"* Bouts are usually 3 rounds (lasting 2–3 minutes each) with a 1-minute rest in between rounds.===Dutch Kickboxing==='''Dutch rules''' (sometimes referred to as '''Dutch Kickboxing''') came about when Japanese kickboxing and Muay Thai were first introduced in Holland in the 70s.",
"European rules began to be developed by the Netherland Kick Boxing Bond in the 1970s when the late Jan Plas brought the sport from Japan to his native country.",
"The primary difference between Dutch rules and full Muay Thai rules was the prohibition of elbow strikes and the limited knees strikes (only to the body).However, elbows were allowed when both parties agree to it.",
"These changes were aimed at reducing injuries and making bouts more accessible to TV viewers.",
"Like the Thai counterpart, the fights are accompanied with the traditional Thai music during a battle.",
"The Dutch kickboxing rules were instrumental to the development of the K-1 rules.Notable fighters under Dutch rules include Alistair Overeem, Bas Rutten, Melvin Manhoef, Gegard Mousasi, Remy Bonjasky and Peter Aerts.Rules:*Rounds are up to 3 and they last 3 minutes.",
"*Punches and kicks are allowed.",
"*Elbow strikes are illegal, but can be allowed if both fighters agree to use them.",
"*Knees are illegal when they're striking the head, but are legal when they're striking the body.",
"*Throws, Sweeps and Trips are forbidden.",
"*Clinching is allowed for 5 seconds at best and it's only legal if it's used to cause damage to the opponent.=== Freestyle Kickboxing ===A teenager Low Kick kickboxing match'''International rules''', or '''freestyle kickboxing''' (also known as '''Low Kick''' in the United States), contrast with full contact rules in that it also allows low kicks.",
"The male kickboxers are bare-chested, wearing kickboxing trousers or shorts and protective gear, including mouth-guard, hand wraps, Boxing gloves, shin guards, and groin guard.",
"The female kickboxers will wear a sports bra and chest protection in addition to the male clothing/protective gear.Notable fighters under international rules include Rick Roufus and Abraham Roqueñi.Rules:* Fighters are allowed to strike their opponent with punches, knees and kicks, including kicks below the waist, except for the groin.",
"* Elbows are forbidden.",
"* Throws and sweeps are forbidden.",
"* Clinch is allowed only for 5 seconds.",
"* Bouts are 3 to 5 rounds for amateurs and 3 to 10 rounds for professionals, all rounds lasting 2–3 minutes each.",
"Each round has a 1-minute rest in between rounds.===WKA Kickboxing===WKA Kickboxing is a style promoted by the World Kickboxing Association, and uses a mixture of Muay Thai, Japanese Kickboxing and Full Contact Kickboxing moves and rulesets.Rules:*World Title bouts consist of 12 rounds, continental bouts consist of 10 rounds and national bouts consist of 5 rounds.",
"*The contestants must wear uniforms, tapes and bandages approved by the association.",
"*The contestants also wear groin protectors, mouthpieces and hair stays.",
"*Standard fouls (eye gouges, groin shots, bites, insults, etc.",
"), are illegal.",
"*Knee Strikes, elbow strikes, back fists, clubbing strikes, headbutts, palm strikes, anti-joint techniques, grabbing the opponent's legs and arms, holding a clinch for too long are all illegal.",
"*Opponents who stall for too long during the fight are warned by the referee.",
"*A Knockout is declared of the fighter doesn't stand up after an 8 count.===ISKA Kickboxing===ISKA Kickboxing is a style promoted by the International Sport Kickboxing association from Europe, and it's a blend of Full Contact, Japanese, Muay Thai and Freestyle Kickboxing rules.Rules:*Fighters must wear an uniform approved by the promotion, and it varies depending on the type of match.",
"*Gloves, footpads, groin protectors and mouthpieces must be worn by all fighters while the use of shinpads, elbowpads and forearm pads isn't allowed.",
"*The use of grappling techniques, except sweeps are forbidden.",
"*Standard fouls are illegal.",
"*Special foul rules are used for spinning back fists, and it often results in penalties.",
"*Blocking an opponent's limb to prevent him/her from striking is illegal.",
"*A knockout is declared after the fighter doesn't get up suring an 8 count.",
"*Surpassing a specific number of Knockdowns during the bout don't determine a TKO win.=== Muay Thai ===A Muay Thai match'''Muay Thai''', or '''Thai boxing''', rules usually sees bouts contested over 5, 3 minute rounds and male fighters bare-chested wearing shorts and protective gear including: mouth-guard, hand-wraps, shin-wraps, boxing gloves, groin-guard and sometimes ''prajioud'' arm bands.",
"4oz MMA-style, open-finger gloves are sometimes used.",
"The female Thaiboxers will wear a sports bra and chest protection in addition to the male clothing/protective gear.",
"Muay Thai is unique in that it is the only style of kickboxing that allows elbows, knees, clinch fighting, throws, sweeps and low kicks.",
"Groin strikes were allowed until the 1980s in international Muay Thai and are still partially allowed in Thailand itself (though the boxers wear cups to lessen the impact).",
"Kicking to mid-body and head are scored highly generating a large number of points on judges' scorecards.",
"Moreover, kicking is still judged highly even if the kick was blocked.",
"In contrast, punching is worth fewer points.Notable fighters under Muay Thai rules include Apidej Sit Hrun, Buakaw Por.",
"Pramuk, Changpuek Kiatsongrit, Rob Kaman, Ramon Dekkers, Coban Lookchaomaesaitong, Dieselnoi Chor Thanasukarn, Saenchai P.K.",
"Saenchaimuaythaigym, Samart Payakaroon and Yodsanklai Fairtex.Rules:* Fighters are allowed to strike their opponent with punches, kicks, including kicks below the waist, elbows and knees.",
"* Clinch fighting is allowed.",
"* Certain throws and sweeps are allowed (however hip throws and sweeps with the back of the ankle are illegal).",
"* Bouts are generally 5 rounds (lasting 3 minutes each) with a 2-minute rest in between, but 3 round fights with a 1-minute rest are used in some promotions.=== Lethwei ==='''Lethwei''' is a type of kickboxing originating from Myanmar that features minimal rules and protective equipment.",
"Lethwei not only allows the use of headbutts but actually emphasizes it, and fighters wear no gloves.",
"Bouts can only be won with a knockout, either a proper or a technical.",
"Uniquely, after one knockout and two minutes rest, the knocked out fighter may still choose to continue the fight once, unless they are knocked out in the final round.",
"There are no points; if no knockout happens before the end of the fifth round, the fight is declared a draw.",
"Male fighters are bare-chested and wear shorts.",
"Protective gear consists of a mouth-guard, groin-guard, and wraps around hands and feet.",
"Female fighters wear a sports bra and chest protection in addition to the male clothing and protective gear.Notable fighters under Lethwei rules include Soe Lin Oo, Tun Tun Min, Dave Leduc, Too Too and Cyrus Washington.Rules:* Opponents are allowed to strike each other with punches, kicks, including kicks below the waist, elbows, knees and headbutts.",
"* Clinch fighting, throws and sweeps are allowed.",
"* Bouts are 5 rounds (lasting 3 minutes each) with a 2-minute rest in between rounds.=== Sanda ===Sanda fighter attempts a double leg takedown on his opponent.",
"Uniquely among kickboxing styles, Sanda allows fighters to perform takedowns and throws'''Sanda''' or '''Sanshou''' (also known as '''Chinese boxing''' and '''Chinese kickboxing''') is a form of kickboxing originally developed by the Chinese military based upon the study and practices of traditional Kung fu and modern combat fighting techniques; it combines traditional kickboxing, which include close range and rapid successive punches and kicks, with wrestling, takedowns, throws, sweeps, kick catches, and in some competitions, even elbow and knee strikes.",
"The male fighters are bare-chested wearing shorts and protective gear including: mouth-guard, hand-wraps, boxing gloves and groin-guard.",
"The female kickboxers will wear a sports bra and chest protection in addition to the male clothing/protective gear.Notable fighters under Sanshou rules include Wei Rui, Fang Bian, Jia Aoqi, Muslim Salikhov, Pat Barry, Zhang Tiequan, Liu Hailong, Cung Le, Shahbulat Shamhalaev and Shamil Zavurov.Rules:* Fighters are allowed to strike their opponent with punches and kicks, including kicks below the waist, except for the groin.",
"* Elbows and knees are forbidden (with the exception of some competitions).",
"* Clinch fighting, throws and sweeps are allowed.",
"* Bouts are 5 rounds (lasting 3 minutes each) with a 1-minute rest in between rounds.=== Shootboxing ==='''Shootboxing''' (also known as '''Standing Vale Tudo''') is a unique style of hybrid kickboxing popular in Japan that utilizes standing submissions such as chokeholds, armlocks and wristlocks in addition to kicks, punches, knees and throws.",
"The male fighters are bare-chested wearing skin tight trousers and protective gear including: mouth-guard, hand-wraps, boxing gloves and groin-guard.",
"The female kickboxers will wear a sports bra and chest protection in addition to the male clothing/protective gear.Notable fighters under shootboxing rules include Rena Kubota, Kenichi Ogata, Hiroki Shishido, Ai Takahashi and Andy Souwer.Rules:* Opponents are allowed to strike each other with punches, kicks, including kicks below the waist, except for the groin, and knees.",
"* Elbows are forbidden (since 2001).",
"* Clinch fighting, throws and sweeps are allowed.",
"* Standing submissions are allowed.",
"* Bouts are 3 rounds (lasting 3 minutes each) with a 1-minute rest in between rounds.===Draka Kickboxing===Draka, also known as Russian Kickboxing, is a hybrid style of Kickboxing which was developed and founded by Igor Ejov in 1992, and its mainly promoted by the World Wide Draka Federation (WWDF) and the International Kickboxing Draka Federation (IKDF).The first event where this style was featured, was held in the U.S by Ejov in association with World Wide Kickboxing Promotions.This style particularly resembles Sanda and Shoot Boxing with Muay Thai, Boxing, Sambo, Judo and Wrestling techniques added to the mixture.",
"*Fighters are allowed to use kicks, knees, punches and elbows.",
"*The use of takedowns, throws and sweeps is also allowed.",
"*Groundfighting and chokeholds are forbidden.",
"===Xtreme Gladiator Kickboxing===Xtreme Gladiator is a hybrid style of Kickboxing created by the International Kickboxing Federation, which is a mixture of Boxing, Muay Thai, Sanshou, Wrestling and Judo techniques.Just like Shoot Boxing, it's also one of the only styles who allows submission techniques like joint locks, chokeholds and strangles borh standing and on the groung, although there's a 30 second or 1 minute limit time for groundfighting.Rules:*Closed, Hemmer, Open Handed fists and strikes are legal.",
"*Forearm strikes and Elbow strikes are legal.",
"*Standing foot stomps are legal.",
"*Oblique kicks to the inside leg are allowed.",
"*Knees are allowed to the head, body and shins when the fight is upright.",
"*Upkicks from the ground are legal.",
"*Every tipe of throw, slam and takedown is allowed.",
"*Chokes and Joint Locks are legal.",
"*Downed stomps are illegal.",
"*Kicks and knees to the head of a grounded opponent are illegal.",
"*12-6 Elbows are illegal.",
"*Standard fouls are illegal."
],
[
"Techniques",
"=== Punching ===Punching techniques are very much identical to boxing punches, including* Jab – straight punch from the front hand.",
"The arm extends from the side of the torso which is quickly turned concurrently with this action.",
"A jab may be directed at an opponent's head or body, and is often used in conjunction with the cross.",
"* Cross – straight punch from the back hand* Hook – rounded punch to either the head or body in an arching motion, usually not scored in points scoring* Uppercut – rising punch striking to the chin* Backfist usually from the front hand, '''reverse-back fist''' and ''' spinning back-fist ''' both usually from the back hand – are strikes to the head, raising the arm and bending the arm at the elbow and then straightening the arm quickly to strike to the side of the head with the rear of the knuckles.",
"* Flying-punch struck usually from the rear hand, the combatant hops on the front foot, kicking back with the rear foot and simultaneously extending the rear hand as a punch, in the form of \"superman\" flying through the sky.",
"* Overhand (''overcut'' or ''drop'') – a semi-circular and vertical punch thrown with the rear hand.",
"It is usually performed when the opponent is bobbing or slipping.",
"The strategic utility of the drop relying on body weight can deliver a great deal of power.",
"* Bolo punch – a combination of a wide uppercut/right cross/swing that was delivered seemingly from the floor.",
"*Haymaker - The Haymaker is a wide angle punch similar to a hook, but instead of getting power from body rotation, it gets its power from its large loop.",
"It is considered an unsophisticated punch, and leaves one open to a counter.=== Kicking ===Roundhouse kickThe standard kicking techniques are:* Roundhouse kick or ''circle kick'' – Striking with the front of the foot or the shin to the head or the body in a ''chopping'' motion* Front kick or ''push Kick/high Kick'' – Striking face or chest on with the balls of the foot* Side kick – Striking with the heel of the foot with leg parallel to the ground, can be performed to either the head, leg or body* Semi-circular kick or ''forty five degree roundhouse kick''There are a large number of special or variant kicking techniques, including spinning kicks, jumping kicks, and other variants such as* Hook kick (heel kick) – Extending the leg out to the side of the body, and hooking the leg back to strike the head with either the heel or sole* Crescent kick and ''forward crescent kick''* Axe kick – is a ''stomp out kick'' or '' axe kick''.",
"The stomp kick normally travels downward, striking with the side or base heel (typically the base heel)* Back kick – is delivered with the base heel of the foot.",
"* Sweeping – One foot or both feet of an opponent may be swept depending upon their position, balance and strength.Spinning versions of the back, side, hook and axe kicks can also be performed along with jumping versions of all kicks.=== Knee ===The knee techniques in Japanese kickboxing, indicative of its Muay Thai heritage, are the main difference that separates this style from other kickboxing rules.See ''ti khao'' for details.",
"* '''Straight knee''' (long-range knee kick or front heel kick).",
"This knee strike is delivered with the back or reverse foot against an opponent's stomach, groin, hip or spine an opponent forward by the neck, shoulder or arm.",
"* '''Flying knee''' – can be delivered with the front or back foot.",
"It makes an explosive snap upwards to strike an opponent's face, chin, throat or chest.",
"* '''Hook knee''' – can be delivered with the front or back foot.",
"It makes a half circle spin and strikes the sides of an opponent.",
"* '''Side knee''' – is a highly-deceptive knee technique used in close-range fighting.",
"The knee is lifted to the toes or lifted up, and is snapped to left and right, striking an opponent's sensitive knee joints, insides of thighs, groin.=== Defense ===There are three main defensive positions (guards or styles) used in kickboxing.",
"Within each style, there is considerable variation among fighters, as some fighters may have their guard higher for more head protection while others have their guard lower to provide better protection against body punches.",
"Many fighters vary their defensive style throughout a bout in order to adapt to the situation of the moment, choosing the position best suited to protect them.",
"* Slip – '''Slipping''' rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head.",
"As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders.",
"This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to \"slip\" past.",
"Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips.",
"* '''Bob and weave''' – '''bobbing''' moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch.",
"As the opponent's punch arrives, the kickboxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left.",
"Once the punch has been evaded, the kickboxer \"weaves\" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm.",
"To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the outside\".",
"To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the inside\".",
"*Blocking – defender's hard blocks to stop a strike in its path so preventing it reaching its target (e.g.",
"the shin block described in more detail below)* Parry/Block – '''Parrying''' or '''blocking''' uses the kickboxer's hands as defensive tools to deflect incoming attacks.",
"As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer delivers a sharp, lateral, open-handed blow to the opponent's wrist or forearm, redirecting the punch.",
"* The cover-up – '''Covering up''' is the last opportunity to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body.",
"Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots.",
"When protecting the body, the kickboxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches \"roll\" off the guard.",
"To protect the head, the kickboxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards.",
"This type of guard is weak against attacks from below.",
"* The clinch – '''Clinching''' is a form of standing grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed.",
"In this situation, the kickboxer attempts to hold or \"tie up\" the opponent's hands or enter neck wrestling position.",
"In one way to perform a clinch, the kickboxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body.",
"In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack.",
"Other forms of clinch involve getting control of opponents neck by collar tie or upper body by underhooks, overhooks and body lock.",
"It is often in the clinch where knee, elbow, sweep and throw techniques are used."
],
[
"Brain injury and CTE",
"Knocking a person unconscious or even causing a concussion may cause permanent brain damage.",
"There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person.",
"Also, contact sports, especially combat sports, are directly related to a brain disease called chronic traumatic encephalopathy, abbreviated CTE.",
"This disease begins to develop during the life of the athlete, and continues to develop even after sports activity has ceased.",
"In addition, repetitive and subconcussive blows to the head, and not just concussions, cause CTE."
],
[
"See also",
"*Boxing (disambiguation)* Kickboxing weight classes* List of kickboxing organizations* List of male kickboxers* List of female kickboxers* Women's kickboxing"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* ''Muay Thai Kickboxing – The Ultimate Guide to Conditioning, Training and Fighting'', Chad Boykin, 2002, Paladin Press, Boulder, Colorado.",
"* ''Thai Kickboxing For Beginners'', Peter Belmar, 2006, Lulu Press."
],
[
"External links",
"* Willem Brunekreef, The Golden Kyokushin and K-1 Encyclopedia, * \"A History of Full Contact Karate* Delmas Alain, Callière Jean-Roger, ''Histoire du Kick-boxing'', FFKBDA, France, 1998* Delmas Alain, ''Définition du Kick-boxing'', FFKBDA, France, 1999"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Korea"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Korea''' (, in South Korea or , in North Korea) is a peninsular region in East Asia.",
"Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, now known as the Korean Demilitarized Zone.",
"In 1948, two states declared independence, both claiming sovereignty over all of Korea: South Korea (Republic of Korea) comprising its southern half and North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half.",
"The region consists of the '''Korean Peninsula''', Jeju Island, and a number of minor islands near the peninsula.",
"The peninsula is bordered by China (Manchuria) to the north and Russia to the northeast, across the Amnok and Duman rivers.",
"It is separated from Japan to the southeast by the Korea Strait.The earliest radiocarbon dates for the Paleolithic sites found in Korea indicate human presence goes back to 40,000 and 30,000 BC.",
"The first state to emerge was Gojoseon, which fell to the Han Dynasty in 108 BC.",
"During the first half of the 1st millennium, Korea was divided between three states, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla, together known as the Three Kingdoms of Korea.",
"In the late 7th century, Silla conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with the aid of the Tang Dynasty, and drove the Tang out of Korea during the Silla-Tang War.",
"Meanwhile, Balhae, formed by Goguryeo remnants and Mohe people, succeeded Goguryeo in the north.",
"Unified Silla eventually collapsed into three separate states due to civil war, known as the Later Three Kingdoms.Toward the end of the Later Three Kingdoms, Goguryeo was resurrected as Goryeo, which defeated the two other states and unified Korea as a single sovereign state.",
"Around this time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince and much of its ruling class fled to Goryeo, unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo.",
"Goryeo (also spelled as ''Koryŏ''), whose name developed into the modern exonym \"Korea\", was a highly cultured state that created the world's first metal movable type in 1234.During the 13th century, the Mongol Empire made Goryeo its vassal state after decades of war.",
"Although Goryeo overthrew Mongol rule, it fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon on 17 July 1392.The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by relative peace, and during this time the Korean alphabet was created by Sejong the Great and Confucianism became increasingly influential in the kingdom.",
"However, this ended with the Japanese invasions of Korea and the 1636, which brought great devastation to Joseon and lead to Korean isolationism.",
"After the end of these invasions, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with cultural and technological development.",
"In Joseon's final years, it experienced turmoil such as the Gapsin Coup, Donghak Peasant Revolution, and the assassination of Empress Myeongseong.",
"In 1897, the Korean Empire was established to protect Korean independence.",
"However, following Japan's victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War, Japan annexed it altogether in 1910.In 1945, Japan relinquished control over Korea after formally surrendering to the Allies, in the aftermath of World War II.",
"The Soviet Union and the United States had agreed to partition Korea along the 38th parallel; these circumstances became the basis for the division of Korea.",
"Tensions between the two Koreas resulted in North Korea invading South Korea and the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950.With involvement by foreign troops, the war ended in a stalemate in 1953, but without a formalised peace treaty.",
"A demilitarized zone was created between the two countries approximating the original partition.This status contributes to the high tensions that continue to divide the peninsula, and both states continue to claim to be the sole legitimate government of Korea.",
"South Korea is a regional power and a developed country, with its economy being ranked as the world's thirteenth-largest by nominal GDP and the fourteenth-largest by GDP (PPP).",
"Its armed forces are ranked as one of the world's strongest militaries, with the world's second-largest standing army by military and paramilitary personnel.",
"In the 21st century, South Korea has been renowned for its globally influential pop culture, particularly in music (K-pop), TV dramas (K-dramas) and cinema, a phenomenon referred to as the Korean Wave.North Korea follows ''Songun'', a \"military first\" policy which prioritizes the Korean People's Army in state affairs and the allocation of resources.",
"It possesses nuclear weapons, and is the country with the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel, with a total of 7.77 million active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel, or approximately of its population.",
"Its active duty army of 1.28 million soldiers is the fourth-largest in the world, consisting of of its population.",
"North Korea is widely considered to have the worst human rights record in the world."
],
[
"Etymology",
"\"Korea\" is the modern spelling of \"Corea\", a name attested in English as early as 1614.",
"\"Corea\" is derived from the name of the ancient kingdom of Goryeo.",
"Korea was transliterated as ''Cauli'' in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'', of the Chinese (MC: ''Kawlej'', mod.",
"''Gāolì'').",
"This was the Hanja for the Korean kingdom of Goryeo (), which ruled most of the Korean peninsula during the 12th century.",
"Korea's introduction to the West resulted from trade and contact with merchants from Arabic lands, with some records dating back as far as the 9th century.",
"Goryeo's name was a continuation of Goguryeo (Koguryŏ) the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, which was officially known as Goryeo beginning in the 5th century.",
"The original name was a combination of the adjectives (\"high, lofty\") with the name of a local Yemaek tribe, whose original name is thought to have been either \"''Guru\"'' (, \"walled city,\" inferred from some toponyms in Chinese historical documents) or \"''Gauri\"'' (, \"center\").",
"With expanding British and American trade following the opening of Korea in the late 19th century, the spelling \"Korea\" appeared and gradually grew in popularity.",
"The name Korea is now commonly used in English contexts by both North and South Korea.In South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as (, , ).",
"The name references ''Samhan'', referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula.",
"Although written in Hanja as , , or , this ''Han'' has no relation to the Chinese place names or peoples who used those characters but was a phonetic transcription (OC: *''Gar'', MC: ''Han'' or ''Gan'') of a native Korean word that seems to have had the meaning \"big\" or \"great\", particularly in reference to leaders.",
"It has been tentatively linked with the title ''khan'' used by the nomads of Manchuria and Central Asia.In North Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as (, , ).",
"is the modern Korean pronunciation of the Hanja , which is also the basis of the word for Korea as a whole in Japan (, ), China (, ), and Vietnam ().",
"\"Great Joseon\" was the name of the kingdom ruled by the Joseon dynasty from 1392 until their declaration of the short-lived Great Korean Empire in 1897.King Taejo had named them for the earlier Gojoseon (), who ruled northern Korea from its legendary prehistory until their conquest in 108 BCE by China's Han Empire.",
"The ''Go-'' in Gojoseon is the Hanja word and simply means \"ancient\" or \"old\"; it is a modern usage to distinguish the ancient Joseon from the later dynasty.",
"It is unclear whether was a transcription of a native Korean name (OC *''Trawser'', MC ''Trjewsjen'') or a partial translation into Chinese of the Korean capital Asadal (), whose meaning has been reconstructed as \"Morning Land\" or \"Mountain\"."
],
[
"History",
"===Prehistory===The Korean Academy claimed ancient hominid fossils originating from about 100,000 BCE in the lava at a stone city site in Korea.",
"Fluorescent and high-magnetic analyses indicate the volcanic fossils may be from as early as 300,000 BCE.",
"The best preserved Korean pottery goes back to the paleolithic times around 10,000 BCE and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 BCE.Beginning around 300 BC, the Japonic-speaking Yayoi people from the Korean Peninsula entered the Japanese islands and displaced or intermingled with the original Jōmon inhabitants.",
"The linguistic homeland of Proto-Koreans is located somewhere in Southern Siberia/Manchuria, such the Liao river area or the Amur region.",
"Proto-Koreans arrived in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC, replacing and assimilating Japonic-speakers and likely causing the Yayoi migration.===Gojoseon===According to Korean legend, Dangun, a descendant of Heaven, established Gojoseon in 2333 BCE.",
"In 108 BCE, the Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon and installed four commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula.",
"Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades, but the Lelang Commandery remained as a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties for four centuries.",
"By 313, Goguryeo annexed all of the Chinese commanderies.===Proto–Three Kingdoms===The Proto–Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Multiple States Period, is the earlier part of what is commonly called the Three Kingdoms Period, following the fall of Gojoseon but before Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla fully developed into kingdoms.This time period saw numerous states spring up from the former territories of Gojoseon, which encompassed northern Korea and southern Manchuria.",
"With the fall of Gojoseon, southern Korea entered the Samhan period.Located in the southern part of Korea, Samhan referred to the three confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan.",
"Mahan was the largest and consisted of 54 states.",
"Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of twelve states, bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan.",
"These three confederacies eventually developed into Baekje, Silla, and Gaya.===Three Kingdoms===7th century Tang dynasty painting of envoys from the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Baekje, Goguryeo, and SillaThe Three Kingdoms of Korea consisted of Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje.",
"Silla and Baekje controlled the southern half of the Korean Peninsula, maintaining the former Samhan territories, while Goguryeo controlled the northern half of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria and the Liaodong Peninsula, uniting Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and other states in the former Gojoseon territories.Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state, and a large empire in East Asia, reaching its zenith in the 5th century when its territories expanded to encompass most of Manchuria to the north, parts of Inner Mongolia to the west, parts of Russia to the east, and the Seoul region to the south.",
"Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu, who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula.",
"In addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many military conflicts with various Chinese dynasties, most notably the Goguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men.",
"In 642, the powerful general Yeon Gaesomun led a coup and gained complete control over Goguryeo.",
"In response, Emperor Tang Taizong of China led a campaign against Goguryeo, but was defeated and retreated.",
"After the death of Tang Taizong, his son Emperor Tang Gaozong allied with the Korean kingdom of Silla and invaded Goguryeo again, but was unable to overcome Goguryeo's stalwart defences and was defeated in 662.However, Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause in 666 and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother, with his eldest son defecting to Tang and his younger brother defecting to Silla.",
"The Tang-Silla alliance finally conquered Goguryeo in 668.After the collapse of Goguryeo, Tang and Silla ended their alliance and fought over control of the Korean Peninsula.",
"Silla succeeded in gaining control over most of the Korean Peninsula, while Tang gained control over Goguryeo's northern territories.",
"However, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo, a Goguryeo general by the name of Dae Joyeong founded the Korean-Mohe state of Balhae and successfully expelled the Tang presence from much of the former Goguryeo territories.Seokguram Grotto from the Silla era, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteThe southwestern Korean kingdom of Baekje was founded around modern-day Seoul by a Goguryeo prince, a son of the founder of Goguryeo.",
"Baekje absorbed all of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the modern provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong, and Jeolla, as well as parts of Hwanghae and Gangwon) to a centralised government; during the expansion of its territory, Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through maritime contacts with the Southern Dynasties.",
"Baekje was a great maritime power; its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan.",
"Historic evidence suggests that Japanese culture, art, and language were influenced by the kingdom of Baekje and Korea itself; Baekje also played an important role in transmitting advanced Chinese culture to the Japanese archipelago.",
"Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, most notably in the 4th century during the rule of Geunchogo when its influence extended across the sea to Liaoxi and Shandong in China, taking advantage of the weakened state of Former Qin, and Kyushu in the Japanese archipelago; however, Baekje was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined.The Three Kingdoms of Korea, at the end of the 5th centuryAlthough later records claim that Silla was the oldest of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, it is now believed to have been the last kingdom to develop.",
"By the 2nd century, Silla existed as a large state in the southeast, occupying and influencing its neighbouring city-states.",
"In 562, Silla annexed the Gaya confederacy, which was located between Baekje and Silla.",
"The Three Kingdoms of Korea often warred with each other and Silla was often dominated by Baekje and Goguryeo.",
"Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.",
"In 660, King Muyeol ordered his armies to attack Baekje.",
"General Kim Yu-shin, aided by Tang forces, conquered Baekje after defeating General Gyebaek at the Battle of Hwangsanbeol.",
"In 661, Silla and Tang attacked Goguryeo but were repelled.",
"King Munmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of General Kim Yu-shin, launched another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year.===North–South States Period===Beginning in the 6th century, Silla's power gradually extended across the Korean Peninsula.",
"Silla first annexed the adjacent Gaya confederacy in 562.By the 640s, Silla formed an alliance with the Tang dynasty of China to conquer Baekje and later Goguryeo.",
"After conquering Baekje and Goguryeo, Silla repulsed Tang China from the Korean peninsula in 676.Even though Silla unified most of the Korean Peninsula, most of the Goguryeo territories to the north of the Korean Peninsula were ruled by Balhae.",
"Former Goguryeo general or chief of Sumo Mohe Dae Jo-yeong led a group of Goguryeo and Mohe refugees to the Jilin and founded the kingdom of Balhae, 30 years after the collapse of Goguryeo, as the successor to Goguryeo.",
"At its height, Balhae's territories extended from southern Manchuria down to the northern Korean peninsula.",
"Balhae was called the \"Prosperous Country in the East\".Unified Silla and Balhae in the 8th century CELater Silla carried on the maritime prowess of Baekje, which acted like the Phoenicia of medieval East Asia, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the time of Jang Bogo; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River.",
"Later Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country, and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju was the fourth largest city in the world.",
"Later Silla experienced a golden age of art and culture, as evidenced by the Hwangnyongsa, Seokguram, and Emille Bell.",
"Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists and contributed to Chinese Buddhism, including: Woncheuk, Wonhyo, Uisang, Musang, and Kim Gyo-gak, a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism.Later Silla fell apart in the late 9th century, giving way to the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period (892–935), and Balhae was destroyed by the Khitans in 926.Goryeo unified the Later Three Kingdoms and received the last crown prince and much of the ruling class of Balhae, thus bringing about a unification of the two successor nations of Goguryeo.===Goryeo dynasty===Goryeo was founded in 918 and replaced Silla as the ruling dynasty of Korea.",
"Goryeo's land was at first what is now South Korea and about 1/3 of North Korea, but later on managed to recover most of the Korean peninsula.",
"Momentarily, Goryeo advanced to parts of Jiandao while conquering the Jurchens, but returned the territories due to the harsh climate and difficulties in defending them.",
"The name \"Goryeo\" (高麗) is a short form of \"Goguryeo\" (高句麗) and was first used during the time of King Jangsu.",
"Goryeo regarded itself as the successor of Goguryeo, hence its name and efforts to recover the former territories of Goguryeo.",
"Wang Geon, the founder of Goryeo, was of Goguryeo descent and traced his ancestry to a noble Goguryeo clan.",
"He made Kaesong, his hometown, the capital.During this period, laws were codified and a civil service system was introduced.",
"Buddhism flourished and spread throughout the peninsula.",
"The development of celadon industries flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries.",
"The publication of the Tripitaka Koreana onto more than 80,000 wooden blocks and the invention of the world's first metal movable type in the 13th century attest to Goryeo's cultural achievements.Goryeo in 1374Goryeo had to defend frequently against attacks by nomadic empires, especially the Khitans and the Mongols.",
"Goryeo had a hostile relationship with the Khitans, because the Khitan Empire had destroyed Balhae, also a successor state of Goguryeo.",
"In 993, the Khitans, who had established the Liao dynasty in 907, invaded Goryeo, demanding that it make amity with them.",
"Goryeo sent the diplomat Seo Hui to negotiate, who successfully persuaded the Khitans to let Goryeo expand to the banks of the Amnok (Yalu) River, citing that in the past the land belonged to Goguryeo, the predecessor of Goryeo.",
"During the Goryeo–Khitan War, the Khitan Empire invaded Korea twice more in 1009 and 1018, but was defeated.After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the Tripitaka Koreana was completed, and there were great developments in printing and publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities that produced famous scholars and scientists.Goryeo was invaded by the Mongols in seven major campaigns from the 1230s until the 1270s, but was never conquered.",
"Exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent its crown prince to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols; Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince, and the dynastic line of Goryeo continued to survive under the overlordship of the Mongol Yuan dynasty as a semi-autonomous vassal state and compulsory ally.",
"The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess.In the 1350s, King Gongmin was free at last to reform the Goryeo government when the Yuan dynasty began to crumble.",
"Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, which included the removal of pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars.",
"During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered Liaoyang in 1356, repulsed two large invasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General Choe Yeong defeated a Mongol tumen in 1364.During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the Wokou threat and used naval artillery created by Choe Museon to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships.===Joseon dynasty===Gyeongbokgung Palace''Donggwoldo''In 1392, the general Yi Seong-gye overthrew the Goryeo dynasty after he staged a coup and defeated General Choe Yeong.",
"Yi Seong-gye named his new dynasty Joseon and moved the capital from Kaesong to Hanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-day Seoul) and built the Gyeongbokgung palace.",
"In 1394, he adopted Confucianism as the country's official ideology, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists.",
"The prevailing philosophy of the Joseon dynasty was Neo-Confucianism, which was epitomised by the seonbi class, scholars who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity.Joseon was a nominal tributary state of China but exercised full sovereignty, and maintained the highest position among China's tributary states, which also included countries such as the Ryukyu Kingdom, Vietnam, Burma, Brunei, Laos, Thailand, and the Philippines, among others.",
"In addition, Joseon received tribute from Jurchens and Japanese until the 17th century, and had a small enclave in the Ryukyu Kingdom that engaged in trade with Siam and Java.During the 15th and 16th centuries, Joseon enjoyed many benevolent rulers who promoted education and science.",
"Most notable among them was Sejong the Great (r. 1418–50), who personally created and promulgated Hangul, the Korean alphabet.",
"This golden age saw great cultural and scientific advancements, including in printing, meteorological observation, astronomy, calendar science, ceramics, military technology, geography, cartography, medicine, and agricultural technology, some of which were unrivaled elsewhere.",
"Joseon implemented a class system that consisted of ''yangban'' the noble class, ''jungin'' the middle class, ''yangin'' the common class, and ''cheonin'' the lowest class, which included occupations such as butchers, tanners, shamans, entertainers, and ''nobi'', the equivalent of slaves, bondservants, or serfs.Depiction of Korean delegates in Peking (Beijing) in 1761, from ''Ten Thousand Nations Coming to Pay Tribute''In 1592 and again in 1597, the Japanese invaded Korea; the Korean military at the time was unprepared and untrained, due to two centuries of peace on the Korean Peninsula.",
"Toyotomi Hideyoshi intended to conquer China and India through the Korean Peninsula, but was defeated by strong resistance from the Righteous Army, the naval superiority of Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his turtle ships, and assistance from Wanli Emperor of Ming China.",
"However, Joseon experienced great destruction, including a tremendous loss of cultural sites such as temples and palaces to Japanese pillaging, and the Japanese brought back to Japan an estimated 100,000–200,000 noses cut from Korean victims.",
"Less than 30 years after the Japanese invasions, the Manchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state and invaded in 1627 and 1637, and then went on to conquer the destabilised Ming dynasty.After normalising relations with the new Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace.",
"Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century.In the 19th century, the royal in-law families gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state, with severe poverty and peasant rebellions spreading throughout the country.",
"Furthermore, the Joseon government adopted a strict isolationist policy, earning the nickname \"the hermit kingdom\", but ultimately failed to protect itself against imperialism and was forced to open its borders, beginning an era leading into Japanese imperial rule.===Korean Empire===The earliest surviving depiction of the Korean flag was printed in a US Navy book ''Flags of Maritime Nations'' in July 1889.Beginning in 1871, Japan began to exert more influence in Korea, forcing it out of China's traditional sphere of influence.",
"As a result of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), the Qing dynasty had to give up such a position according to Article 1 of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which was concluded between China and Japan in 1895.That same year, Empress Myeongseong of Korea was assassinated by Japanese agents.In 1897, the Joseon dynasty proclaimed the Korean Empire (1897–1910).",
"King Gojong became emperor.",
"During this brief period, Korea had some success in modernising the military, economy, real property laws, education system, and various industries.",
"Russia, Japan, France, and the United States all invested in the country and sought to influence it politically.The Russians were pushed out of the fight for Korea following the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905).",
"Korea became a protectorate of Japan shortly afterwards.",
"In Manchuria on 26 October 1909, An Jung-geun assassinated the former Resident-General of Korea, Itō Hirobumi, for his role in trying to force Korea into occupation.===Japanese annexation and occupation of Korea===The memorial tablet for the March 1st Movement in Pagoda Park, SeoulIn 1910, an already militarily occupied Korea was a forced party to the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty.",
"The treaty was signed by Lee Wan-Yong, who was given the General Power of Attorney by the Emperor.",
"However, the Emperor is said to have not actually ratified the treaty according to Yi Tae-jin.",
"There is a long dispute whether this treaty was legal or illegal due to its signing under duress, threat of force and bribes.Korean resistance to the brutal Japanese occupation was manifested in the nonviolent March 1st Movement of 1919, during which 7,000 demonstrators were killed by Japanese police and military.",
"The Korean liberation movement also spread to neighbouring Manchuria and Siberia.Over five million Koreans were conscripted for labour beginning in 1939, and tens of thousands of men were forced into Japan's military.",
"Nearly 400,000 Korean labourers died.",
"Approximately 200,000 girls and women, mostly from China and Korea, were forced into sexual slavery for the Japanese military.",
"In 1993, Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono acknowledged the terrible injustices faced by these euphemistically named \"comfort women\".During the Japanese annexation, the Korean language was suppressed in an effort to eradicate Korean national identity.",
"Koreans were forced to take Japanese surnames, known as Sōshi-kaimei.",
"Traditional Korean culture suffered heavy losses, as numerous Korean cultural artefacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.",
"To this day, valuable Korean artefacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collections.",
"One investigation by the South Korean government identified 75,311 cultural assets that were taken from Korea, 34,369 in Japan and 17,803 in the United States.",
"However, experts estimate that over 100,000 artefacts actually remain in Japan.",
"Japanese officials considered returning Korean cultural properties, but to date this has not occurred.",
"Both Koreas and Japan still dispute the ownership of the Dokdo islets, located east of the Korean Peninsula.There was significant emigration to the overseas territories of the Empire of Japan during the Japanese occupation period, including Korea.",
"By the end of World War II, there were over 850,000 Japanese settlers in Korea.",
"After World War II, most of these overseas Japanese repatriated to Japan.",
"Migrants who remained squatted in informal settlements.===Division and conflict===Satellite image of the Korean Peninsula demonstratng the differences in light pollution between the two Koreas, 2016In 1945, with the surrender of Japan, the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the Soviet Union administering the peninsula north of the 38th parallel and the United States administering the south.",
"The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments, North Korea and South Korea.The aftermath of World War II left Korea partitioned along the 38th parallel on 2 September 1945, with the north under Soviet occupation and the south under US occupation supported by other allied states.",
"Consequently, North Korea, a Soviet-style socialist republic was established in the north, and South Korea, a Western-style regime, was established in the south.North Korea is a one-party state, now centred on Kim Il Sung's ''Juche'' ideology, with a centrally planned industrial economy.",
"South Korea is a multi-party state with a capitalist market economy, alongside membership in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Group of Twenty.",
"The two states have greatly diverged both culturally and economically since their partition, though they still share a common traditional culture and pre-Cold War history.Since the 1960s, the South Korean economy has grown enormously and the economic structure was radically transformed.",
"In 1957, South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2008 it was 17 times as high as Ghana's.According to R. J. Rummel, forced labour, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1948 to 1987; others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone.",
"Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008.In South Korea, as guerrilla activities expanded, the South Korean government used strong measures against peasants, such as forcefully moving their families from guerrilla areas.",
"According to one estimate, these measures resulted in 36,000 people killed, 11,000 people wounded, and 432,000 people displaced.===Korean War===Moon and Kim shaking hands over the demarcation line on 27 April 2018The Korean War broke out when Soviet-backed North Korea invaded South Korea, though neither side gained much territory as a result.",
"The Korean Peninsula remained divided, the Korean Demilitarized Zone being the ''de facto'' border between the two states.In June 1950 North Korea invaded the South, using Soviet tanks and weaponry.",
"During the Korean War (1950–53) more than 1.2 million people died and the three years of fighting throughout the nation effectively destroyed most cities.",
"The war ended with an armistice agreement at approximately the Military Demarcation Line, but the two governments are officially still at war.===North and South Korea===In 2018, the leaders of North Korea and South Korea officially signed the Panmunjom Declaration, announcing that they will work to end the conflict.In November 2020, South Korea and China agreed to work together to mend South Korea's relationship with North Korea.",
"During a meeting between President Moon and China's foreign minister, Wang Yi, Moon expressed his gratitude to China for its role in helping to foster peace in the Korean Peninsula.",
"Moon was quoted telling Wang during their meeting that \"the South Korean government will not stop efforts to put an end (formally) to war on the Korean Peninsula and achieve complete denuclearization and permanent peace together with the international community, including China.\""
],
[
"Geography",
"Satellite image of KoreaMount SeorakDaedongyeojido – this 1861 map of Korea represents the peak of pre-modern mapmaking in the region.Jeju Island seashoreKorea consists of a peninsula and nearby islands located in East Asia.",
"The peninsula extends southwards for about from continental Asia into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan to the east and the Yellow Sea (West Sea) to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the two bodies of water.",
"To the northwest, the Amnok River separates Korea from China and to the northeast, the Duman River separates it from China and Russia.",
"Notable islands include Jeju Island, Ulleung Island, Dokdo.The southern and western parts of the peninsula have well-developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous.",
"The highest mountain in Korea is Mount Paektu (2,744 m), through which runs the border with China.",
"The southern extension of Mount Paektu is a highland called Gaema Heights.",
"This highland was mainly raised during the Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter.",
"To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the peninsula.",
"This mountain range is named Baekdu-daegan.",
"Some significant mountains include Mount Sobaek or Sobaeksan (1,439 m), Mount Kumgang (1,638 m), Mount Seorak (1,708 m), Mount Taebaek (1,567 m), and Mount Jiri (1,915 m).",
"There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdu-daegan.",
"They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are basically northwest.Unlike most ancient mountains on the mainland, many important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the Cenozoic orogeny.",
"Jeju Island, situated off the southern coast, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain, Mount Halla or Hallasan (1,950 m), is the highest in South Korea.",
"Ulleung Island is a volcanic island in the Sea of Japan, the composition of which is more felsic than Jeju.",
"The volcanic islands tend to be younger, the more westward.Because the mountainous region is mostly on the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow westwards.",
"Two exceptions are the southward-flowing Nakdong River and Seomjin River.",
"Important rivers running westward include the Amnok River, the Chongchon River, the Taedong River, the Han River, the Geum River, and the Yeongsan River.",
"These rivers have vast flood plains and provide an ideal environment for wet-rice cultivation.The southern and southwestern coastlines of the peninsula form a well-developed ria coastline, known as ''Dadohae-jin'' in Korean.",
"This convoluted coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming.",
"In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean Peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at Incheon, around the middle of the western coast, the tide can get as high as 9 m).",
"Vast tidal flats have been developing on the south and west coastlines.===Climate===Korea has a temperate climate with comparatively fewer typhoons than other countries in East Asia.",
"Due to the peninsula's position, it has a unique climate influenced by Siberia in the north, the Pacific Ocean in the east and the rest of Eurasia in the west.",
"The peninsula has four distinct seasons: spring, summer, autumn and winter.====Spring====As influence from Siberia weakens, temperatures begin to increase while the high pressure begins to move away.",
"If the weather is abnormally dry, Siberia will have more influence on the peninsula leading to wintry weather such as snow.====Summer====During June at the start of the summer, there tends to be a lot of rain due to the cold and wet air from the Sea of Okhotsk and the hot and humid air from the Pacific Ocean combining.",
"When these fronts combine, it leads to a so-called rainy season with often cloudy days with rain, which is sometimes very heavy.",
"The hot and humid winds from the south west blow causing an increasing amount of humidity and this leads to the fronts moving towards Manchuria in China and thus there is less rain and this is known as midsummer; temperatures can exceed daily at this time of year.====Autumn====Usually, high pressure is heavily dominant during autumn leading to clear conditions.",
"Furthermore, temperatures remain high but the humidity becomes relatively low.====Winter====The weather becomes increasingly dominated by Siberia during winter and the jet stream moves further south causing a drop in temperature.",
"This season is relatively dry with some snow falling at times.===Biodiversity===Animal life of the Korean Peninsula includes a considerable number of bird species and native freshwater fish.",
"Native or endemic species of the Korean Peninsula include Korean hare, Korean water deer, Korean field mouse, Korean brown frog, Korean pine and Korean spruce.",
"The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) with its forest and natural wetlands is a unique biodiversity spot, which harbours eighty-two endangered species.",
"Korea once hosted many Siberian tigers, but as the number of people affected by the tigers increased, the tigers were killed in the Joseon Dynasty and the Siberian tigers in the South Korea became extinct during the Japanese colonial era period.",
"It has been confirmed that Siberian tigers are only on the side of North Korea now.There are also approximately 3,034 species of vascular plants throughout the peninsula."
],
[
"Demographics",
", the combined population of the Koreas is about 77.9 million (North Korea: 26.1 million, South Korea: 51.7 million).",
"Korea is chiefly populated by a highly homogeneous ethnic group, the Koreans, who speak the Korean language.",
"The number of foreigners living in Korea has also steadily increased since the late 20th century, particularly in South Korea, where more than 1 million foreigners reside.",
"It was estimated in 2006 that only 26,700 of the old Chinese community now remain in South Korea.",
"However, in recent years, immigration from mainland China has increased; 624,994 persons of Chinese nationality have immigrated to South Korea, including 443,566 of ethnic Korean descent.",
"Small communities of ethnic Chinese and Japanese are also found in North Korea.===Language===''Hunminjeongeum'', afterwards called Hangul.Korean is the official language of both North and South Korea, and (along with Mandarin) of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in Jilin Province, China.",
"Worldwide, there are up to 80 million speakers of the Korean language.",
"South Korea has around 50 million speakers while North Korea around 25 million.",
"Other large groups of Korean speakers through Korean diaspora are found in China, the United States, Japan, former Soviet Union and elsewhere.Modern Korean is written almost exclusively in the script of the Korean alphabet (known as Hangul in South Korea and Chosungul in China and North Korea), which was invented in the 15th century.",
"Korean is sometimes written with the addition of some Chinese characters called Hanja; however, this is only occasionally seen nowadays."
],
[
"Education",
"The modern South Korean school system consists of six years in elementary school, three years in middle school, and three years in high school.",
"Students are required to go to elementary and middle school, and do not have to pay for their education, except for a small fee called a \"School Operation Support Fee\" that differs from school to school.",
"The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, ranks South Korea's science education as the third best in the world and being significantly higher than the OECD average.Although South Korean students often rank high on international comparative assessments, the education system is criticised for emphasising too much upon passive learning and memorisation.",
"The South Korean education system is rather notably strict and structured as compared to its counterparts in most Western societies.The North Korean education system consists primarily of universal and state funded schooling by the government.",
"The national literacy rate for citizens 15 years of age and above is over 99 per cent.",
"Children go through one year of kindergarten, four years of primary education, six years of secondary education, and then on to universities.",
"The most prestigious university in the DPRK is Kim Il Sung University.",
"Other notable universities include Kim Chaek University of Technology, which focuses on computer science, Pyongyang University of Foreign Studies, which trains working level diplomats and trade officials, and Kim Hyong Jik University of Education, which trains teachers."
],
[
"Science and technology",
"Cheomseongdae, the oldest surviving astronomical observatory in AsiaOne of the best known artefacts of Korea's history of science and technology is the Cheomseongdae (첨성대, ), a 9.4-meter high astronomical observatory built in 634.The earliest known surviving Korean example of woodblock printing is The Great Dharani Sutra.",
"It is believed to have been printed in Korea in 750–51, which if correct, would make it older than the Diamond Sutra.",
"''Jikji'', ''Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters'', the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377.Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris.During the Goryeo Dynasty, metal movable type printing was invented by Choe Yun-ui in 1234.This invention made printing easier, more efficient and also increased literacy, which observed by Chinese visitors was seen to be so important where it was considered to be shameful to not be able to read.",
"The Mongol Empire later adopted Korea's movable type printing and spread as far as Central Asia.",
"There is conjecture as to whether or not Choe's invention had any influence on later printing inventions such as Gutenberg's Printing press.",
"When the Mongols invaded Europe they inadvertently introduced different kinds of Asian technology.During the Joseon period, the Turtle Ship was invented, which were covered by a wooden deck and iron with thorns, as well as other weapons such as the bigyeokjincheolloe cannon (비격진천뢰, ) and the hwacha.The Korean alphabet hangul was also invented during this time by King Sejong the Great."
],
[
"Culture",
"Traditional Korean dance (''Jinju geommu'')In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as \"Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk\" (, ) and \"Eastern Nation of Decorum\" (, ).",
"Individuals are regarded as one year old when they are born, as Koreans reckon the pregnancy period as one year of life for infants, and age increments increase on New Year's Day rather than on the anniversary of birthdays.",
"Thus, one born immediately before New Year's Day may only be a few days old in western reckoning, but two years old in Korea.",
"Accordingly, a Korean person's stated age (at least among fellow Koreans) will be one or two years more than their age according to western reckoning.",
"However, western reckoning is sometimes applied with regard to the concept of legal age; for example, the legal age for purchasing alcohol or cigarettes in the Republic of Korea is 19, which is measured according to western reckoning.===Literature===Korean literature written before the end of the Joseon Dynasty is called \"Classical\" or \"Traditional.\"",
"Literature, written in Chinese characters (hanja), was established at the same time as the Chinese script arrived on the peninsula.",
"Korean scholars were writing poetry in the classical Korean style as early as the 2nd century BCE, reflecting Korean thoughts and experiences of that time.",
"Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of the peninsula, strongly influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism.Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the aristocracy to the common people.",
"Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature.",
"''Sinsoseol'', for instance, are novels written in hangul.The Korean War led to the development of literature centered on the wounds and chaos of war.",
"Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and their struggles with national pain.",
"The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another common theme of the time.===Music===Traditional Korean music includes combinations of the folk, vocal, religious and ritual music styles of the Korean people.",
"Korean music has been practised since prehistoric times.",
"Korean music falls into two broad categories.",
"The first, Hyangak, literally means ''The local music'' or ''Music native to Korea'', a famous example of which is Sujechon, a piece of instrumental music often claimed to be at least 1,300 years old.",
"The second, ''yangak'', represents a more Western style.===Religion===Korean Buddhist architecture''Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas'', Goryeo scroll from the 1300sConfucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions by Buddhism, Taoism, and Korean Shamanism.",
"Since the middle of the 20th century, however, Christianity has competed with Buddhism in South Korea, while religious practice has been suppressed in North Korea.",
"Throughout Korean history and culture, regardless of separation; the influence of traditional beliefs of Korean Shamanism, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism have remained an underlying religion of the Korean people as well as a vital aspect of their culture; all these traditions have coexisted peacefully for hundreds of years up to today despite strong Westernisation from Christian missionary conversions in the South or the pressure from the Juche government in the North.According to 2005 statistics compiled by the South Korean government, about 46% of citizens profess to follow no particular religion.",
"Christians account for 29.2% of the population (of which are Protestants 18.3% and Catholics 10.9%) and Buddhists 22.8%.",
"In North Korea, around 71.3% claim to be non-religious or atheists, 12.9% follow Cheondoism and 12.3% Korean Folk Religion, while Christians count for 2% of the population, and Buddhists as 1.5%.Islam in South Korea is practised by about 45,000 natives (about 0.09% of the population) in addition to some 100,000 foreign workers from Muslim countries.",
"While in North Korea it's estimated to be around 3000 Muslims, which is around 0.01% of the popultation.",
"The Ar-Rahman Mosque is the only mosque in DPRK, and it is located at the Iranian Embassy grounds in Pyongyyang.In 1993, the Korean Overseas Culture and Information Service estimated that around 1,600,000 people practice Korean new religions in both Korean countries.===Cuisine===Gimjang, the process for making kimchiKoreans traditionally believe that the taste and quality of food depend on its spices and sauces, the essential ingredients to making a delicious meal.",
"Therefore, soybean paste, soy sauce, ''gochujang'' or red pepper paste and kimchi are some of the most important staples in a Korean household.Korean cuisine was greatly influenced by the geography and climate of the Korean Peninsula, which is known for its cold autumns and winters, therefore there are many fermented dishes and hot soups and stews.Korean cuisine is probably best known for kimchi, a side dish which uses a distinctive fermentation process of preserving vegetables, most commonly cabbage.",
"Kimchi is said to relieve the pores on the skin, thereby reducing wrinkles and providing nutrients to the skin naturally.",
"It is also healthy, as it provides necessary vitamins and nutrients.",
"Gochujang, a traditional Korean sauce made of red pepper is also commonly used, often as pepper (chilli) paste, earning the cuisine a reputation for spiciness.Bulgogi (roasted marinated meat, usually beef), galbi (marinated grilled short ribs), and samgyeopsal (pork belly) are popular main courses.",
"Fish is also a popular commodity, as it is the traditional meat that Koreans eat.",
"Meals are usually accompanied by a soup or stew, such as galbitang (stewed ribs) or doenjang jjigae (fermented bean paste soup).",
"The center of the table is filled with a shared collection of sidedishes called banchan.Other popular dishes include ''bibimbap'', which literally means \"mixed rice\" (rice mixed with meat, vegetables, and red pepper paste), and naengmyeon (cold noodles).Instant noodles, or ''ramyeon'', is a popular snack food.",
"Koreans also enjoy food from ''pojangmachas'' (street vendors), which serve tteokbokki, rice cake and fish cake with a spicy gochujang sauce; ''gimbap'', made of steamed white rice wrapped in dried green laver seaweed; fried squid; and glazed sweet potato.",
"Soondae, a sausage made of cellophane noodles and pork blood, is widely eaten.Additionally, some other common snacks include \"Choco Pie\", shrimp crackers, \"bbeongtwigi\" (puffed rice grains), and \"nurungji\" (slightly burnt rice).",
"Nurungji can be eaten as it is or boiled with water to make a soup.",
"Nurungji can also be eaten as a snack or a dessert.Korea is unique among Asian countries in its use of metal chopsticks.",
"Metal chopsticks have been discovered in archaeological sites belonging to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla.===Sports===North Korea and South Korea usually compete as two separate nations in international events.",
"There are, however, a few examples of them having competed as one entity, under the name Korea.While association football remains one of the most popular sports in South Korea, the martial art of taekwondo is considered to be the national sport.",
"Baseball and golf are also popular.",
"The board game Go, known in Korea as ''baduk'', has also been popular for over a millennium, first arriving from China in the 5th century CE; ''baduk'' is played both casually and competitively.====Martial arts=========Taekwon-Do=====Taekwon-Do is Korea's most famous martial art and sport.",
"It combines combat techniques, self-defence, sport and exercise.",
"Taekwon-Do has become an official Olympic sport, starting as a demonstration event in 1988 (when South Korea hosted the Games in Seoul) and becoming an official medal event in 2000.The two major Taekwon-Do federations were founded in Korea.",
"The two are the International Taekwon-Do Federation and the World Taekwondo Federation.=====Hapkido=====Hapkido is a modern Korean martial art with a grappling focus that employs joint locks, throws, kicks, punches and other striking attacks like attacks against pressure points.",
"Hapkido emphasises circular motion, non-resisting movements and control of the opponent.",
"Practitioners seek to gain advantage through footwork and body positioning to employ leverage, avoiding the pure use of strength against strength.=====Ssireum=====Ssireum is a traditional form of wrestling that has been practised in Korea for thousands of years, with evidence discovered from Goguryeo of Korea's Three Kingdoms Period (57 BCE to 688).",
"Ssireum is the traditional national sport of Korea.",
"During a match, opponents grip each other by sash belts wrapped around the waist and the thigh, attempting to throw their competitor to the sandy ground of the ring.",
"The first opponent to touch the ground with any body part above the knee or to lose hold of their opponent loses the round.Ssireum competitions are traditionally held twice a year, during the Dano Festival (the 5th day of the fifth lunar month) and Chuseok (the 15th day of the 8th lunar month).",
"Competitions are also held throughout the year as a part of festivals and other events.=====Taekkyon=====Taekkyon is a traditional martial art, considered the oldest form of fighting technique of Korea.",
"Practiced for centuries and especially popular during the Joseon dynasty, two forms co-existed: one for practical use, the other for sport.",
"This form was usually practised alongside Ssireum during festivals and competitions between villages.",
"Nonetheless, Taekkyon almost disappeared during the Japanese Occupation and the Korean War.Though lost in North Korea, Taekkyon has enjoyed a spectacular revival from the 1980s in South Korea.",
"It is the only martial art in the world (with Ssireum) recognised as a National Treasure of South Korea and a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage."
],
[
"Comparison of North and South Korea",
"+ Indicator North Korea South Korea Formal name '''Democratic People's Republic of Korea''' ('''DPRK''') '''Republic of Korea''' ('''ROK''') Flag Emblem 90px 90px Capital Pyongyang Seoul Official languages Korean Official name for Korean alphabet(i.e., same script, different name) Chosŏn'gŭl Hangul Government One-party stateHereditary dictatorship Representative democracyPresidential system Leader General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea President of South Korea Formal declaration 9 September 1948 15 August 1948 Area 120,540 km2 100,210 km2 Population (2023 est.)",
"26,160,821 51,784,059 GDP total (2019 / 2023 est.)",
"$16 billion $1.721 trillion GDP/capita (2019 / 2023 est.)",
"$640 $33,393 Currency Korean People's won (sign: ₩, ISO: KPW) Korean Republic won (sign: ₩, ISO: KRW) Calling code +850 +82 Internet TLD .kp .kr Drives on the right Active military personnel 1,106,000 639,000 Military expenditure (2010/2022) $10 billion $46.4 billion"
],
[
"See also",
"* Inter-Korean summits* Korean name* Korean natural farming* Korean War* List of Korean inventions and discoveries* National Treasures of North Korea* National Treasures of South Korea* North Korea–South Korea relations* Korean reunification"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Bibliography===* .",
"* * .",
"* .",
"* * .",
"* .",
"* ."
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Chun, Tuk Chu.",
"\"Korea in the Pacific Community\".",
"''Social Education'' 52 (March 1988), 182.EJ 368 177.",
"* Cumings, Bruce.",
"''The Two Koreas''.",
"New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1984.",
"* * ''Focus on Asian Studies''.",
"Special Issue: \"Korea: A Teacher's Guide\".",
"No.",
"1, Fall 1986.",
"* .",
"* Hart, Dennis.",
"''From Tradition to Consumption: Construction of a Capitalist Culture in South Korea''.",
"Seoul: Jimoondang, 2003.",
"* * Joe, W.J.",
"& Choe, H.A.",
"''Traditional Korea: A Cultural History'', Seoul: Hollym, 1997.",
"* Joungwon, A.K.",
"''Divided Korea: The Politics of Development'', Harvard University Press, 1975.",
"* Lee Ki-baik.",
"''A New History of Korea''.",
"Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1984.",
"* Lee Sang-sup.",
"\"The Arts and Literature of Korea\".",
"''The Social Studies'' 79 (July–August 1988): 153–60.EJ 376 894.",
"* * Tae-Jin, Y.",
"\"The Illegality of the Forced Treaties Leading to Japan's Annexation of the Great Han Empire\", In the ''Korean National Commission for UNESCO'', Vol.",
"36, No.",
"4, 1996.",
"* .",
"* ."
],
[
"External links",
"* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kleene star"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In mathematical logic and computer science, the '''Kleene star''' (or '''Kleene operator''' or '''Kleene closure''') is a unary operation, either on sets of strings or on sets of symbols or characters.",
"In mathematics,it is more commonly known as the free monoid construction.",
"The application of the Kleene star to a set is written as ''''.",
"It is widely used for regular expressions, which is the context in which it was introduced by Stephen Kleene to characterize certain automata, where it means \"zero or more repetitions\".# If is a set of strings, then '''' is defined as the smallest superset of that contains the empty string and is closed under the string concatenation operation.# If is a set of symbols or characters, then '''' is the set of all strings over symbols in , including the empty string .The set '''' can also be described as the set containing the empty string and all finite-length strings that can be generated by concatenating arbitrary elements of , allowing the use of the same element multiple times.",
"If is either the empty set ∅ or the singleton set , then ; if is any other finite set or countably infinite set, then '''' is a countably infinite set.",
"As a consequence, each formal language over a finite or countably infinite alphabet is countable, since it is a subset of the countably infinite set .The operators are used in rewrite rules for generative grammars."
],
[
"Definition and notation",
"Given a set ,define: (the language consisting only of the empty string),:,and define recursively the set: for each .If is a formal language, then , the -th power of the set , is a shorthand for the concatenation of set with itself times.",
"That is, '''' can be understood to be the set of all strings that can be represented as the concatenation of strings in .The definition of Kleene star on is:This means that the Kleene star operator is an idempotent unary operator: for any set of strings or characters, as for every ."
],
[
"Kleene plus",
"In some formal language studies, (e.g.",
"AFL theory) a variation on the Kleene star operation called the ''Kleene plus'' is used.",
"The Kleene plus omits the term in the above union.",
"In other words, the Kleene plus on is:or:"
],
[
"Examples",
"Example of Kleene star applied to set of strings:: {\"ab\",\"c\"}* = { ε, \"ab\", \"c\", \"abab\", \"abc\", \"cab\", \"cc\", \"ababab\", \"ababc\", \"abcab\", \"abcc\", \"cabab\", \"cabc\", \"ccab\", \"ccc\", ...}.Example of Kleene plus applied to set of characters:: {\"a\", \"b\", \"c\"}+ = { \"a\", \"b\", \"c\", \"aa\", \"ab\", \"ac\", \"ba\", \"bb\", \"bc\", \"ca\", \"cb\", \"cc\", \"aaa\", \"aab\", ...}.Kleene star applied to the same character set:: {\"a\", \"b\", \"c\"}* = { ε, \"a\", \"b\", \"c\", \"aa\", \"ab\", \"ac\", \"ba\", \"bb\", \"bc\", \"ca\", \"cb\", \"cc\", \"aaa\", \"aab\", ...}.Example of Kleene star applied to the empty set::∅* = {ε}.Example of Kleene plus applied to the empty set::∅+ = ∅ ∅* = { } = ∅,where concatenation is an associative and noncommutative product.Example of Kleene plus and Kleene star applied to the singleton set containing the empty string::If , then also for each , hence ."
],
[
"Generalization",
"Strings form a monoid with concatenation as the binary operation and ε the identity element.",
"The Kleene star is defined for any monoid, not just strings.More precisely, let (''M'', ⋅) be a monoid, and ''S'' ⊆ ''M''.",
"Then ''S''* is the smallest submonoid of ''M'' containing ''S''; that is, ''S''* contains the neutral element of ''M'', the set ''S'', and is such that if ''x'',''y'' ∈ ''S''*, then ''x''⋅''y'' ∈ ''S''*.Furthermore, the Kleene star is generalized by including the *-operation (and the union) in the algebraic structure itself by the notion of complete star semiring."
],
[
"See also",
"* Wildcard character* Glob (programming)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Korean language"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Korean''' (South Korean: , ''hangugeo''; North Korean: , ''chosŏnmal'') is the native language for about 81.7 million people, mostly of Korean descent.",
"It is the official and national language of both South Korea and North Korea.",
"The two countries have established standardized norms for Korean, and the differences between them are similar to those between Standard Chinese in mainland China and Taiwan, but political conflicts between the two countries have highlighted the differences between them.",
"South Korean newspaper Daily NK has claimed North Korea criminalizes the use of the South's standard language with the death penalty, and South Korean education and media often portray the North's language as alien and uncomfortable.Beyond Korea, the language is recognised as a minority language in parts of China, namely Jilin Province, and specifically Yanbian Prefecture, and Changbai County.",
"It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin, the Russian island just north of Japan, and by the in parts of Central Asia.",
"The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family.",
"Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible.",
"The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria.",
"The hierarchy of the society from which the language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation.Modern Korean is written in the Korean script ( in South Korea, in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until the 20th century.",
"The script uses 24 basic letters (''jamo'') and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones.",
"When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language; all written records were maintained in Hanmun or classical Chinese along with invented phonetic scripts like as Idu, Gugyeol and Hyangchal.",
"Later, written Chinese characters adapted to the Korean language, ''Hanja'' (), were used to write the language for most of Korea's history and are still used to a limited extent in South Korea, most prominently in the humanities and the study of historical texts.Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports.",
"As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language) is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and the Korean War.",
"Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic, Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense."
],
[
"History",
"Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean, which in turn descends from Old Korean, which descends from the Proto-Koreanic language, which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria.",
"Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them).",
"Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families.Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen, but these minor differences can be found in any of the Korean dialects, which are still largely mutually intelligible.=== Writing systems ===The oldest Korean dictionary (1920)Chinese characters arrived in Korea (see Sino-Xenic pronunciations for further information) together with Buddhism during the Proto-Three Kingdoms era in the 1st century BC.",
"They were adapted for Korean and became known as Hanja, and remained as the main script for writing Korean for over a millennium alongside various phonetic scripts that were later invented such as Idu, Gugyeol and Hyangchal.",
"Mainly privileged elites were educated to read and write in Hanja.",
"However, most of the population was illiterate.In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system known today as Hangul.",
"He felt that Hanja was inadequate to write Korean and that caused its very restricted use; Hangul was designed to either aid in reading Hanja or to replace Hanja entirely.",
"Introduced in the document , it was called (colloquial script) and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea.",
"Hangul was widely used by all the Korean classes but was often treated as (\"script for women\") and disregarded by privileged elites, and Hanja was regarded as (\"true text\").",
"Consequently, official documents were always written in Hanja during the Joseon era.",
"Since few people could understand Hanja, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves.",
"By the 17th century, the elite class of had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era.Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life because of its inconvenience but it is still important for historical and linguistic studies.",
"Neither South Korea nor North Korea opposes the learning of Hanja, but they are no longer officially used in North Korea and their usage in South Korea is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation."
],
[
"Names",
"The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea.",
"The English word \"Korean\" is derived from Goryeo, which is thought to be the first Korean dynasty known to Western nations.",
"Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as or (literally, \"Koryo/Goryeo persons\"), and call the language .",
"Some older English sources also use the spelling \"Corea\" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, \"Korea\" becoming more popular in the late 1800s.In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including (\"Korean language\"), (\"Korean speech\") and (\"our language\"); \"\" is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ().",
"The \"\" () in and is derived from Samhan, in reference to the Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while \"\" and \"\" mean \"language\" and \"speech\", respectively.",
"Korean is also simply referred to as , literally \"national language\".",
"This name is based on the same Han characters ( \"nation\" + \"language\") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages.In North Korea and China, the language is most often called , or more formally, .",
"This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire, which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan.In mainland China, following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term or the short form ''Cháoyǔ'' has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian, whereas ''Hánguóyǔ'' or the short form ''Hányǔ'' is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea."
],
[
"Classification",
"Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language.",
"Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support.",
"The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting a Korean influence on Khitan.The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller.",
"Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list.Some linguists concerned with the issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship, but rather to a ''sprachbund'' effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese.",
"A good example might be Middle Korean ''sàm'' and Japanese ''asá'', meaning \"hemp\".",
"This word seems to be a cognate, but although it is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages, in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group.",
"Also, the doublet ''wo'' meaning \"hemp\" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages.",
"It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term.",
"(See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on a possible relationship.",
")Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre-Nivkh substratum in Korean.",
"According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as ''Amuric'') were once distributed on the Korean peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers."
],
[
"Phonology",
"File:Ko-구매자는 판매자에게 제품 대금으로 20달러를 지급하여야 한다.ogg|thumb|right|Spoken Korean (adult man):구매자는 판매자에게 제품 대금으로 20달러를 지급하여야 한다.",
"''gumaejaneun panmaejaege jepum daegeumeuro isip dalleoreul ($20) jigeuphayeoya handa.",
"''\"The buyer must pay the seller $20 for the product.\"''lit.''",
"the buyer to the seller the product in payment twenty dollars have to pay doKorean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide and final coda surrounding a core vowel.===Consonants===BilabialAlveolarAlveolo-palatalVelarGlottalPlosive/Affricateplain or tense or aspirated or Nasal Fricative plain or tense Approximant Liquid or ====Assimilation and allophony====The IPA symbol (a subscript double straight quotation mark, shown here with a placeholder circle) is used to denote the tensed consonants .",
"Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for \"strong\" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice.",
"The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice, but it is not yet known how typical this is of faucalized consonants.",
"They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx.",
"is aspirated and becomes an alveolo-palatal before or for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language).",
"This occurs with the tense fricative and all the affricates as well.",
"At the end of a syllable, changes to (example: beoseot () 'mushroom').",
"may become a bilabial before or , a palatal before or , a velar before , a voiced between voiced sounds, and a elsewhere.",
"become voiced between voiced sounds.",
"frequently denasalize at the beginnings of words.",
"becomes alveolar flap between vowels, and or at the end of a syllable or next to another .",
"A written syllable-final '', when followed by a vowel or a glide (''i.e.",
"'', when the next character starts with ''), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes .Traditionally, was disallowed at the beginning of a word.",
"It disappeared before , and otherwise became .",
"However, the inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either or .All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release, .Plosive sounds become nasals before nasal sounds.Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains the underlying, partly historical morphology.",
"Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word.The traditional prohibition of word-initial became a morphological rule called \"initial law\" () in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary.",
"Such words retain their word-initial in the pronunciation standards of North Korea.",
"For example,* \"labor\" (勞動) – north: '''''r'''odong'' (), south: '''''n'''odong'' ()* \"history\" (歷史) – north: '''''ry'''eoksa'' (), south: '''''y'''eoksa'' ()* \"female\" (女子) – north: '''''ny'''eoja'' (), south: '''''y'''eoja'' ()===Vowels===Short vowel chartLong vowel chartMonophthongs , , , Vowels preceded by intermediaries,or diphthongs , , , , , , is closer to a near-open central vowel (), though is still used for tradition.===Morphophonemics===Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds.",
"Examples include ''-eun/-neun'' () and ''-i/-ga'' ().Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead.",
"Examples include ''-eul/-reul'' (), ''-euro/-ro'' (), ''-eseo/-seo'' (), ''-ideunji/-deunji'' () and ''-iya/-ya'' ().",
"* However, ''-euro/-ro'' is somewhat irregular, since it will behave differently after a ㄹ (rieul consonant).+ Korean particles After a consonant After a ㄹ (rieul) After a vowel ''-ui'' () ''-eun'' () ''-neun'' ()''-i'' () ''-ga'' () ''-eul'' () ''-reul'' () ''-gwa'' () ''-wa'' () ''-euro'' () ''-ro'' ()Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically."
],
[
"Grammar",
"Korean is an agglutinative language.",
"The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech.",
"Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended.",
"The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the ''verb'' is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages.",
"'''Question''':\"Did you go to the store?\"",
"(\"you\" implied in conversation) gage-e ''ga-syeo-sseo-yo'' store + location marker () go (verb root) () + honorific () + conjugated (contraction rule)() + past () + conjunctive () + polite marker ()'''Response''':\"Yes.\"",
"(or ) ''ye'' (or ''ne'') yesThe relationship between a speaker/writer and their subject and audience is paramount in Korean grammar.",
"The relationship between the speaker/writer and subject referent is reflected in ''honorifics'', whereas that between speaker/writer and audience is reflected in ''speech level''.===Honorifics===When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer usually uses special nouns or verb endings to indicate the subject's superiority.",
"Generally, someone is superior in status if they are an older relative, a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, or an employer, teacher, customer, or the like.",
"Someone is equal or inferior in status if they are a younger stranger, student, employee, or the like.",
"Nowadays, there are special endings which can be used on declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences, and both honorific or normal sentences.Honorifics in traditional Korea were strictly hierarchical.",
"The caste and estate systems possessed patterns and usages much more complex and stratified than those used today.",
"The intricate structure of the Korean honorific system flourished in traditional culture and society.",
"Honorifics in contemporary Korea are now used for people who are psychologically distant.",
"Honorifics are also used for people who are superior in status, such as older people, teachers, and employers.===Speech levels===There are seven verb paradigms or ''speech levels'' in Korean, and each level has its own unique set of verb endings which are used to indicate the level of formality of a situation.",
"Unlike honorifics—which are used to show respect towards the referent (the person spoken of)—''speech levels'' are used to show respect towards a speaker's or writer's audience (the person spoken to).",
"The names of the seven levels are derived from the non-honorific imperative form of the verb (''hada'', \"do\") in each level, plus the suffix (\"che\", Hanja: ), which means \"style\".The three levels with high politeness (very formally polite, formally polite, casually polite) are generally grouped together as ''jondaenmal'' (), whereas the two levels with low politeness (formally impolite, casually impolite) are ''banmal'' () in Korean.",
"The remaining two levels (neutral formality with neutral politeness, high formality with neutral politeness) are neither polite nor impolite.Nowadays, younger-generation speakers no longer feel obligated to lower their usual regard toward the referent.",
"It is common to see younger people talk to their older relatives with banmal ().",
"This is not out of disrespect, but instead it shows the intimacy and the closeness of the relationship between the two speakers.",
"Transformations in social structures and attitudes in today's rapidly changing society have brought about change in the way people speak.===Gender===In general, Korean lacks grammatical gender.",
"As one of the few exceptions, the third-person singular pronoun has two different forms: 그 ''geu'' (male) and 그녀 ''geu-nyeo'' (female).",
"Before 그녀 was invented in need of translating 'she' into Korean, 그 was the only third-person singular pronoun and had no grammatical gender.",
"Its origin causes 그녀 never to be used in spoken Korean but appearing only in writing.To have a more complete understanding of the intricacies of gender in Korean, three models of language and gender that have been proposed: the deficit model, the dominance model, and the cultural difference model.",
"In the deficit model, male speech is seen as the default, and any form of speech that diverges from that norm (female speech) is seen as lesser than.",
"The dominance model sees women as lacking in power due to living within a patriarchal society.",
"The cultural difference model proposes that the difference in upbringing between men and women can explain the differences in their speech patterns.",
"It is important to look at the models to better understand the misogynistic conditions that shaped the ways that men and women use the language.",
"Korean's lack of grammatical gender makes it different from most European languages.",
"Rather, gendered differences in Korean can be observed through formality, intonation, word choice, etc.However, one can still find stronger contrasts between genders within Korean speech.",
"Some examples of this can be seen in: (1) the softer tone used by women in speech; (2) a married woman introducing herself as someone's mother or wife, not with her own name; (3) the presence of gender differences in titles and occupational terms (for example, a ''sajang'' is a company president, and ''yŏsajang'' is a female company president); (4) females sometimes using more tag questions and rising tones in statements, also seen in speech from children.Between two people of asymmetric status in Korean society, people tend to emphasize differences in status for the sake of solidarity.",
"Koreans prefer to use kinship terms, rather than any other terms of reference.",
"In traditional Korean society, women have long been in disadvantaged positions.",
"Korean social structure traditionally was a patriarchically dominated family system that emphasized the maintenance of family lines.",
"That structure has tended to separate the roles of women from those of men.Cho and Whitman (2019) explain that the different categories like male and female in social conditions influence Korean's features.",
"What they noticed was the word ''jagi'' (자기).",
"Before explaining the word ''jagi'', one thing that needs to be clearly distinguished is that ''jagi'' can be used in a variety of situations, not all of which mean the same thing, but they depend on the context.",
"Parallel variable solidarity and affection move the convention of speech style, especially terms of address that Jagi (자기 'you') has emerged as a gender-specific second-person pronoun used by women.",
"However, young Koreans use the word ''jagi'' to their lovers or spouses regardless of gender.",
"Among middle-aged women, the word ''jagi'' is sometimes used to call someone who is close to them.Korean society's prevalent attitude towards men being in public (outside the home) and women living in private still exists today.",
"For instance, the word for ''husband'' is ''bakkat-yangban'' (바깥양반 'outside' 'nobleman'), but a husband introduces his wife as ''an-saram'' (안사람 an 'inside' 'person').",
"Also in kinship terminology, ''we'' (외 'outside' or 'wrong') is added for maternal grandparents, creating ''oe-harabeoji'' and ''oe-hal-meoni'' (외할아버지, 외할머니 'grandfather and grandmother'), with different lexicons for males and females and patriarchal society revealed.",
"Further, in interrogatives to an addressee of equal or lower status, Korean men tend to use ''haennya'' (했냐?",
"'did it?')'",
"in aggressive masculinity, but women use ''haenni'' (했니?",
"'did it?')'",
"as a soft expression.",
"However, there are exceptions.",
"Korean society used the question endings ''-ni'' (니) and ''-nya'' (냐), the former prevailing among women and men until a few decades ago.",
"In fact, ''-nya'' (냐) was characteristic of the Jeolla and Chungcheong dialects.",
"However, since the 1950s, large numbers of people have moved to Seoul from Chungcheong and Jeolla, and they began to influence the way men speak.",
"Recently, women also have used the ''-nya'' (냐).",
"As for ''-ni'' (니), it is usually used toward people to be polite even to someone not close or younger.",
"As for ''-nya'' (냐), it is used mainly to close friends regardless of gender.Like the case of \"actor\" and \"actress\", it also is possible to add a gender prefix for emphasis: ''biseo'' (비서 'secretary') is sometimes combined with ''yeo'' (여 'female') to form ''yeo-biseo'' (여비서 'female secretary'); ''namja'' (남자 'man') often is added to ''ganhosa'' (간호사 'nurse') to form ''namja-ganhosa'' (남자간호사 'male nurse').Another crucial difference between men and women is the tone and pitch of their voices and how they affect the perception of politeness.",
"Men learn to use an authoritative falling tone; in Korean culture, a deeper voice is associated with being more polite.",
"In addition to the deferential speech endings being used, men are seen as more polite as well as impartial, and professional.",
"Compared to women who use a rising tone in conjunction with ''-yo'' (요), they are not perceived to be as polite as men.",
"The ''-yo'' (요) also indicates uncertainty since the ending has many prefixes that indicate uncertainty and questioning.",
"The deferential ending does not have any prefixes and do can indicate uncertainty.",
"The ''-hamnida'' (합니다) ending is the most polite and formal form of Korea, and the ''-yo'' (요) ending is less polite and formal, which causes the perception of women as less professional.Hedges soften an assertion, and their function as a euphemism in women's speech in terms of discourse difference.",
"Women are expected to add nasal sounds ''neyng'', ''neym'', ''ney-e'', more frequently than men do in the last syllable.",
"Often, ''l'' is often added in women's for female stereotypes and so ''igeolo'' (이거로 'this thing') becomes ''igeollo'' (이걸로 'this thing') to refer to a lack of confidence and passive construction.Women use more linguistic markers such as exclamation ''eomeo'' (어머 'oh') and ''eojjeom'' (어쩜 'what a surprise') than men do in cooperative communication."
],
[
"Vocabulary",
"The core of the Korean vocabulary is made up of ''native Korean'' words.",
"However, a significant proportion of the vocabulary, especially words that denote abstract ideas, are ''Sino-Korean'' words (of Chinese origin).",
"To a much lesser extent, some words have also been borrowed from Mongolian and other languages.",
"More recent loanwords are dominated by English.In South Korea, it is widely believed that North Korea wanted to emphasize the use of unique Korean expressions in its language and eliminate the influence of foreign languages.",
"However, according to researchers such as Jeon Soo-tae, who has seen first-hand data from North Korea, the country has reduced the number of difficult foreign words in a similar way to South Korea.In 2021, Moon Sung-guk of Kim Il Sung University in North Korea wrote in his thesis that Kim Jong Il had said that vernacularized Sino-Korean vocabulary should be used as it is, not modified.",
"\"A language is in constant interaction with other languages, and in the process it is constantly being developed and enriched,\" he said.",
"According to the paper, Kim Jong Il argued that academic terms used in the natural sciences and engineering, such as (; computer) and (; hard disk) should remain in the names of their inventors, and that the word (; chocolate) should not be replaced because it had been used for so long.South Korea defines its vocabulary standards through the \" 표준국어대사전\"(\"Standard Korean Language Dictionary\"), and North Korea defines its vocabulary standards through the \" 조선말대사전\"(\"Korean Language Dictionary\").=== Sino-Korean === Number Sino-Korean cardinals Native Korean cardinals Hangul Romanization Hangul Romanization 1 ''il'' ''hana'' 2 ''yi'' ''dul'' 3 ''sam'' ''set'' 4 ''sa'' ''net'' 5 ''o'' ''daseot'' 6 , ''yuk'', ''ryuk'' ''yeoseot'' 7 ''chil'' ''ilgop'' 8 ''pal'' ''yeodeol'' 9 ''gu'' ''ahop'' 10 ''sheep'' ''yeol''Sino-Korean vocabulary consists of:* words directly borrowed from written Chinese, and* compounds coined in Korea or Japan and read using the Sino-Korean reading of Chinese characters.Therefore, just like other words, Korean has two sets of numeral systems.",
"English is similar, having native English words and Latinate equivalents such as ''water-aqua'', ''fire-flame'', ''sea-marine'', ''two-dual'', ''sun-solar'', ''star-stellar''.",
"However, unlike English and Latin which belong to the same Indo-European languages family and bear a certain resemblance, Korean and Chinese are genetically unrelated and the two sets of Korean words differ completely from each other.",
"All Sino-Korean morphemes are monosyllabic as in Chinese, whereas native Korean morphemes can be polysyllabic.",
"The Sino-Korean words were deliberately imported alongside corresponding Chinese characters for a written language and everything was supposed to be written in Hanja, so the coexistence of Sino-Korean would be more thorough and systematic than that of Latinate words in English.The exact proportion of Sino-Korean vocabulary is a matter of debate.",
"Sohn (2001) stated 50–60%.",
"In 2006 the same author gives an even higher estimate of 65%.",
"Jeong Jae-do, one of the compilers of the dictionary ''Urimal Keun Sajeon'', asserts that the proportion is not so high.",
"He points out that Korean dictionaries compiled during the colonial period include many unused Sino-Korean words.",
"In his estimation, the proportion of Sino-Korean vocabulary in the Korean language might be as low as 30%.=== Western loanwords ===The vast majority of loanwords other than Sino-Korean come from modern times, approximately 90% of which are from English.",
"Many words have also been borrowed from Western languages such as German via Japanese (e.g.",
"(''areubaiteu'') \"part-time job\", (''allereugi'') \"allergy\", (''gibseu'' or ''gibuseu'') \"plaster cast used for broken bones\").",
"Some Western words were borrowed indirectly via Japanese during the Japanese occupation of Korea, taking a Japanese sound pattern, for example \"dozen\" > ''dāsu'' > ''daseu''.",
"However, most indirect Western borrowings are now written according to current \"Hangulization\" rules for the respective Western language, as if borrowed directly.",
"In South Korean official use, a number of other Sino-Korean country names have been replaced with phonetically oriented \"Hangeulizations\" of the countries' endonyms or English names.Because of such a prevalence of English in modern South Korean culture and society, lexical borrowing is inevitable.",
"English-derived Korean, or \"Konglish\" (), is increasingly used.",
"The vocabulary of the South Korean dialect of the Korean language is roughly 5% loanwords (excluding Sino-Korean vocabulary).",
"However, due to North Korea's isolation, such influence is lacking in North Korean speech."
],
[
"Writing system",
"The Latin alphabet used in romanization on road signs, for foreigners in South KoreaBefore the creation of the modern Korean alphabet, known as Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea and as Hangul in South Korea, people in Korea (known as Joseon at the time) primarily wrote using Classical Chinese alongside native phonetic writing systems that predate Hangul by hundreds of years, including idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil.",
"Few people in the lower classes had the opportunity to receive an education, and they found it extremely difficult to learn how to write in Chinese characters due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages and the sheer amount of characters that needed to be taught.",
"To assuage that problem, King Sejong () created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people.The Korean alphabet was denounced and looked down upon by the ''yangban'' aristocracy, who deemed it too easy to learn, but it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class.",
"With growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reformists' push, and the promotion of Hangul in schools, in 1894, Hangul displaced Hanja as Korea's national script.",
"Hanja are still used to a certain extent in South Korea, where they are sometimes combined with Hangul, but that method is slowly declining in use even though students learn Hanja in school.=== Symbol chart ===Below is a chart of the Korean alphabet's (Hangul) symbols and their Revised Romanization (RR) and canonical International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) values:+ Consonants Hangul RR ''g'' ''kk'' ''n'' ''d'' ''tt'' ''r (initial)'', ''l (final)'' ''m'' ''b'' ''pp'' ''s'' ''ss'' ''silent (initial), ng (final)'' ''j'' ''jj'' ''ch'' ''k'' ''t'' ''p'' ''h'' IPA , + Vowels Hangul RR ''i'' ''e'' ''oe'' ''ae'' ''a'' ''o'' ''u'' ''eo'' ''eu'' ''ui'' ''ye'' ''yae'' ''ya'' ''yo'' ''yu'' ''yeo'' ''wi'' ''we'' ''wae'' ''wa'' ''wo'' IPA , , The letters of the Korean alphabet are not written linearly like most alphabets, but instead arranged into blocks that represent syllables.",
"So, while the word ''bibimbap'' (Korean rice dish) is written as eight characters in a row in the Latin alphabet, in Korean it is written 비빔밥, as three \"syllabic blocks\" in a row.",
"''Mukbang ('' 'eating show') is seven characters after romanization but only two \"syllabic blocks\" before.Modern Korean is written with spaces between words, a feature not found in Chinese or Japanese (except when Japanese is written exclusively in hiragana, as in children's books).",
"The marks used for Korean punctuation are almost identical to Western ones.",
"Traditionally, Korean was written in columns, from top to bottom, right to left, like traditional Chinese.",
"However, the syllabic blocks are now usually written in rows, from left to right, top to bottom, like English."
],
[
"Dialects",
"Regional dialects of KoreanKorean has numerous small local dialects (called ''mal'' () literally 'speech', ''saturi'' (), or ''bang'eon'' ().",
"South Korean authors claim that the standard language (''pyojun-eo'' or ''pyojun-mal'') of both South Korea and North Korea is based on the dialect of the area around Seoul (which, as Hanyang, was the capital of Joseon-era Korea for 500 years), however since 1966 North Korea officially states that its standard is based on the Pyongyang speech.",
"All dialects of Korean are similar to each other and largely mutually intelligible (with the exception of dialect-specific phrases or non-Standard vocabulary unique to dialects), though the dialect of Jeju Island is divergent enough to be generally considered a separate language.",
"One of the more salient differences between dialects is the use of tone: speakers of the Seoul dialect make use of vowel length, whereas speakers of the Gyeongsang dialect maintain the pitch accent of Middle Korean.",
"Some dialects are conservative, maintaining Middle Korean sounds (such as ''z, β, ə'') which have been lost from the standard language, whereas others are highly innovative., , and suggest that the modern Seoul dialect is currently undergoing tonogenesis, based on the finding that in recent years lenis consonants (ㅂㅈㄷㄱ), aspirated consonants (ㅍㅊㅌㅋ) and fortis consonants (ㅃㅉㄸㄲ) were shifting from a distinction via voice onset time to that of pitch change; however, disagree with the suggestion that the consonant distinction shifting away from voice onset time is due to the introduction of tonal features, and instead proposes that it is a prosodically conditioned change.There is substantial evidence for a history of extensive dialect levelling, or even convergent evolution or intermixture of two or more originally distinct linguistic stocks, within the Korean language and its dialects.",
"Many Korean dialects have basic vocabulary that is etymologically distinct from vocabulary of identical meaning in Standard Korean or other dialects, for example \"garlic chives\" translated into Gyeongsang dialect (; ''jeongguji'') but in Standard Korean, it is (; ''buchu'').",
"This suggests that the Korean Peninsula may have at one time been much more linguistically diverse than it is at present.",
"See also the Japanese–Koguryoic languages hypothesis.The differences among northern and southern dialects have become so significant that many North Korean defectors reportedly have had great difficulty communicating with South Koreans after having initially settled into South Korea.",
"In response to the diverging vocabularies, an app called Univoca was designed to help North Korean defectors learn South Korean terms by translating them into North Korean ones.",
"More information can be found on the page North-South differences in the Korean language.Meanwhile, in South Korea, some South Korean linguists and North Korean defectors have argued that South Korean media and education overemphasize or exaggerate the differences between North Korean and South Korean languages.",
"At the 2014 National Conference of the Korean Language and Literature Association, Yonsei University professor Hong Yun-pyo argued that language differences between North and South Korea were exaggerated in the context of the Cold War.According to Hong, after the Korean War, words like ''dongmu''(동무; comrade, friend) and ''inmin''(인민; people) that had been in common use in South Korea before that disappeared, and if anyone used them, they could be reported to the authorities, which was important evidence of espionage.",
"The language differences between the North and South continued to be exaggerated.",
"The language of the North, the North Korean language, was used to promote anti-communist ideology.",
"He even said that research on North Korean in South Korea \"has not been done with actual language materials.",
"\"Hong had numerous meetings with North Korean scholars for academic conferences and dictionary compilations, but he rarely encountered communication difficulties; rather, he was more likely to encounter communication difficulties with speakers of the Gyeongsang or Jeolla dialects.Journalist Joo Sung-ha, a North Korean defector, and Park No-pyeong, a North Korean defector who worked as a professor in North Korea, claimed that there are exaggerations, such as claiming that vocabulary that is unfamiliar to South Koreans but also unfamiliar to North Koreans is common in North Korea, or claiming vocabulary that is different from the North Korean standard as the standard in North Korea.",
"For example, he said that there are rumors in South Korea that the word ''jeon-gu''(전구; bulb) is called ''bural''(불알; balls) in North Korea, which is not true.",
"Most North Korean defectors spoke the dialect of their homeland, not the standard North Korean language, which has some similarities to the standard South Korean language, and it is believed that many did not even know the standard North Korean language when they arrived in South Korea.In South Korea, the idea that there are linguistic differences between the languages of North and South Korea gained traction until the mid-to-late 2010s.",
"However, as exploration of the actual language of North Korea has progressed, it has been argued that any differences in communication between the two Koreas stem from \"cultural\" differences, such as economic conditions and traditional ways of expression in certain regions.For example, North Korean defectors who have fled the country tend to have more direct communication habits that reveal their true feelings compared to South Korean language etiquette, which is prominent in defectors' hometowns but rare in other areas where defection is rare, such as Pyongyang.Aside from the standard language, there are few clear boundaries between Korean dialects, and they are typically partially grouped according to the regions of Korea.Recently, both North and South Korea's usage rate of the regional dialect have been decreasing due to social factors.",
"In North Korea, the central government is urging its citizens to use Munhwaŏ (the standard language of North Korea, literally 'Cultural language'), to prevent the use of foul language by the people: Kim Jong Un said in a speech \"if your language in life is cultural and polite, you can achieve harmony and comradely unity among people.\"",
"In South Korea, due to relocation in the population to Seoul to find jobs and the usage of standard language in education and media, the prevalence of regional dialects has decreased.",
"Moreover, internationally, due to the increasing popularity of K-pop, the Seoul standard language has become more widely taught and used.The North Korean government has become increasingly wary of the Korean Wave, and as such, has been very wary of slangs that reflect South Korean culture since 2020.In January 2023, North Korea adopted a law that could lead to public execution for excessive use of South Korean slang, which the North's government labeled as \"puppet language\" or \"''koeroemal'' (괴뢰말).\"",
"The word ''oppa''(오빠, originally used by a woman who was the younger sibling in a sibling relationship to refer to a man who was older than her, but in South Korea, also became a way for a younger woman to refer to her male lover in a romantic relationship) was a prime example of this.",
"Standard language Locations of use Pyojuneo () Standard language of ROK.",
"Based on Seoul dialect; very similar to Incheon and most of Gyeonggi, west of Gangwon-do (Yeongseo region); also commonly used among younger Koreans nationwide and in online context.",
"Munhwaŏ () Standard language of DPRK.",
"Claimed politically by the North Korean government as \"the language of Pyongyang(평양말)\",\" but linguistically it is believed to be primarily derived from the Seoul dialect.",
"It also reflects language use in regions of North Korea outside of Pyongyang.",
"Regional dialects Locations of use and example compared to the standard language Hamgyŏng/Northeastern(/) Rasŏn, most of Hamgyŏng region, northeast P'yŏngan, Ryanggang Province (North Korea), Jilin (China).",
"* Koreans who have heard the Hamgyŏng dialect describe it as similar in tone to the Gyeongsang and southern Yeongdong dialects.",
"* It is also the most spoken dialect by North Korean defectors in South Korea, as about 80% of them are from Hamgyŏng Province.",
"* Koryo-Mal, the moribund variety of Korean spoken mainly by elderly in Central Asia and Russia, is descended from the Northern Hamgyong Dialect, as well as the Yukchin Dialect.",
";* Honorific Munhwaŏ Hamgyŏng Ryukjin (''hasibsio'') (''Habso(se)'') (''Habsyo'') (''haeyo'') (''Hao'') (''Hao'');* Ordinary way of speaking (near Hamhung, Hyesan)** The vowel 'ㅔ(e)' is changed to 'ㅓ(eo)'.",
"*** example: \"Your daughter has come.\"",
"Munhwaŏ Hamgyŏng ** When calling a superior person, always put the ending '요(yo)' after the noun.",
"*** example: \"Grandpa, come quickly.\"",
"Munhwaŏ Hamgyŏng ** The ending '-니까(-nikka)' is changed to '-길래(-gilrae)'.",
"*** example: \"Come early because you have to cultivate the field.\"",
"Munhwaŏ Hamgyŏng P'yŏngan/Northwestern(/) P'yŏngan region, P'yŏngyang, Chagang, northern North Hamgyŏng (North Korea), Liaoning (China)* It is also the North Korean dialect best known to South Koreans.",
"However, North Korean defectors also claim that South Koreans have less accurate knowledge of the dialect due to the long division.",
";* Honorific Munhwaŏ Pyongan ;* Ordinary way of speaking** The vowel 'ㅕ(yeo)' is changed to'ㅔ(e)'.",
"*** example: armpit Munhwaŏ Pyongan ** If a Sino-Korean word is preceded by a 'ㄹ(r)' pronunciation, it is pronounced as 'ㄴ(n)'.",
"At the same time, if 'ㄹ(r)' is followed by a diphthong containing the j sound, the j sound is dropped and pronounced as a short vowel.",
"** In the front part of the pure vocabulary of Middle Korean, nj changed to j in the Seoul dialect, which changed to n in this dialect.",
"*** example: 1) Summer 2) Seven 3) Trend Munhwaŏ Pyongan ** When representing the past, there is a dropout phenomenon of 'ㅆ(ss/tt)'.",
"*** example: \"I brought this.\"",
"Munhwaŏ Pyongan Hwanghae/Central(/) Hwanghae region (North Korea).",
"Also in the Islands of Yeonpyeongdo, Baengnyeongdo and Daecheongdo in Ongjin County of Incheon.",
"* Some North Korean scholars, such as Kim Byung-je, do not recognize this distinction and consider the West-North and Gyeonggi dialects to be spoken in the region.",
"* It is known that dialects are spoken that share characteristics of neighboring regional dialects.",
"It is mainly known to have characteristics of both Gyeonggi and Pyeongan dialects.",
";* Honorific Munhwaŏ Hwanghae ;* Ordinary way of speaking** Many of the vowels are pronounced as 'ㅣ(i)'.",
"*** example: habit Munhwaŏ Hwanghae ** '네(ne)' is used as a questionable form.",
"*** example: \"Did you eat?\"",
"Munhwaŏ Hwanghae ** '-누만(-numan)' is often used as an exclamation sentence.",
"*** example: \"It got a lot colder\" Munhwaŏ Hwanghae Areas in Northwest Hwanghae, such as Ongjin County in Hwanghae Province, pronounced 'ㅈ' (''j'''), originally pronounced the letter more closely to ''tz''.",
"However, this has largely disappeared.The rest is almost similar to the Gyeonggi and Pyongan dialect.",
"Gyeonggi/Central(/) Seoul, Incheon, Gyeonggi region (South Korea), as well as Kaeseong, Gaepoong and Changpung in North Korea.",
"*Seoul dialect, which was the basis of Pyojuneo, is a subdialect of Gyeonggi dialect.",
"*About 70% of all Seoul dialect vocabulary has been adopted as Pyojuneo, and only about 10% out of 30% of Seoul dialect vocabulary that has not been adopted in Pyojuneo have been used so far.",
"*Gyeonggi dialect is the least existential dialect in South Korea, and most people do not know that Gyeonggi dialect itself exists.",
"So, Gyeonggi-do residents say they only use standard language, and many people know the language spoken by Gyeonggi-do residents as standard language in other regions.",
"*Recently, young people have come to realize that there is a dialect in Seoul as they are exposed to the Seoul dialect through media such as YouTube.",
"*Among the Gyeonggi dialects, the best known dialect along with Seoul dialect is Suwon dialect.",
"The dialects of Suwon and its surrounding areas are quite different from those of northern Gyeonggi Province and surrounding areas of Seoul.",
"*In some areas of the southern part of Gyeonggi Province, which is close to Chungcheong Province, such as Pyeongtaek and Anseong, it is also included in the Chungcheong dialect area.",
"Local residents living in these areas also admit that they speak Chungcheong dialect.",
"*Traditionally, coastal areas of Gyeonggi, particularly Incheon, Ganghwa, Ongjin and Gimpo have been recorded to have some influence from the dialects of Hwanghae and Chungcheong, due to historic intermixing with the two regions, as well as geographical proximity.",
"This old influence, however, has largely died out among most middle aged and younger locals from the region.",
"*Originally, northern Gyeonggi Province, including Seoul, received influence from Northern dialects (Areas of Kaeseong along the Ryesong River, or Ganghwa Island, received an especially high amount of influence from the Hwanghae dialect), while southern Gyeonggi Province was influenced from Chungcheong dialect.",
"However, as a result of the prolonged division and the large number of migrants from Chungcheong Province and Jeolla Province to Seoul, the current way of speaking in Gyeonggi has been greatly influenced by Chungcheong and Jeolla.",
";* Honorific Pyojuneo Gyeonggi - ;*Ordinary way of speaking** The vowel 'ㅏ(a)' is changed to 'ㅓ(eo)', and 'ㅓ(eo)' is changed to 'ㅡ(eu)'.",
"*** example: 1) \"It hurts.\"",
"2) \"It's dirty\" Pyojuneo Gyeonggi ** The vowel 'ㅏ(a)' and 'ㅓ(eo)' are sometimes changed to 'ㅐ(ae)'.",
"*** example: 1) Sesame oil 2) \"You look like a fool.\"",
"Pyojuneo Gyeonggi ** The vowel 'ㅗ(o)' is mainly changed to 'ㅜ(u)'.",
"*** example: 1) \"What are you doing?\"",
"2) uncle Pyojuneo Gyeonggi *Dialects of Suwon and its surrounding areas.",
"** The ending '~거야(geoya)' ends briefly with '~거(geo)'*** example: \"Where will you go?\"",
"Pyojuneo Suwon Gangwon/Central(/) Yeongseo (Gangwon (South Korea)/Kangwŏn (North Korea) west of the Taebaek Mountains), Yeongdong (Gangwon (South Korea)/Kangwŏn (North Korea), east of the Taebaek Mountains)*Gangwon Province is divided between Yeongseo and Yeongdong due to the Taebaek Mountains, so even if it is the same Gangwon Province, there is a significant difference in dialect between the two regions.",
"*In the case of the Yeongseo dialect, the accent is slightly different from the dialect of Gyeonggi Province, but most of the vocabulary is similar to the dialect of Gyeonggi Province.",
"*Unlike the Yeongseo dialect, Yeongdong dialect has a tone, such as Hamgyeong dialect and Gyeongsang dialect.",
"*Gangwon dialect is the least spoken dialect of all dialects in South Korea except Jeju.",
";* Honorific Pyojuneo Yeongseo Yeongdong -Lack of data- - ;*Ordinary way of speaking** There are pronunciations, such as 'ㆉ(yoi)' and 'ㆌ(yui)', that you cannot hear in most regions of Korea.",
"** The vowel 'ㅠ(yu)' is changed to 'ㅟ(wi)' or 'ㆌ(yui)'.",
"*** example: Vacation Pyojuneo Gangwon ** Use '나(na)' a lot in questionable form.",
"*** example: \"What are you doing lately?\"",
"Pyojuneo Gangwon(Yeongdong) Chungcheong/Central(/) Daejeon, Sejong, Chungcheong region (South Korea)*Chungcheong dialect is considered to be the softest dialect to hear among all dialects of Korean.",
"*Chungcheong dialect is one of the most recognized dialects in South Korea, along with Jeolla dialect and Gyeongsang dialect.",
"*Chungcheong dialect was the most commonly used dialect by aristocrats(Yangban) during the Joseon dynasty, along with dialects in northern Gyeongsang Province.",
"*In the case of Chungcheong dialect, it is a dialect belonging to the central dialect along with Gyeonggi, Gangwon, and Hwanghae dialects, but some scholars view it as a separate dialect separated from the central dialect.",
"In addition, some scholars classify southern Chungcheong dialect regions such as Daejeon, Sejong, and Gongju as the southern dialect such as Jeolla and Gyeongsang dialects.",
";* Honorific Pyojuneo Chungcheong ;*Ordinary way of speaking** The vowel 'ㅑ(ya)' that comes to the ending is changed to 'ㅕ(yeo)'.",
"*** example: 1) \"What are you talking about?\"",
"2) \"What are you doing?\"",
"Pyojuneo Chungcheong ** 'ㅔ(e)' is mainly changed to 'ㅣ(i)', and 'ㅐ(ae)' is mainly changed to 'ㅑ(ya)' or 'ㅕ(yeo)'.",
"*** example: 1) \"He/She/They said he/she/they put it outside.\"",
"2) \"Would you like to eat this?\"",
"3) \"Okay.\"",
"Pyojuneo Chungcheong ** The ending '겠(gett)' is mainly pronounced as '겄(geott)', and the ending'까(kka)' is mainly pronounced as '께(kke)'.",
"*** example: \"I've put it all away, so it'll be okay.\"",
"Pyojuneo Chungcheong The rest is almost similar to the Gyeonggi dialect.",
"Jeolla/Southwestern(/) Gwangju, Jeolla region (South Korea)*Jeolla dialect is a dialect that feels rough along with Gyeongsang dialect.",
"Especially it is well known for its swearing.",
"*Jeolla dialect speakers, along with Gyeongsang dialect speakers, have high self-esteem in their local dialects.",
"*Many Jeolla dialect speakers can be found not only in Jeolla Province but also in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province, because Jeolla Province itself was alienated from development, so many Jeolla residents came to Seoul and Gyeonggi Province.",
"*Much of Northern Jeolla, especially in areas close to Southern Chungcheong like Jeonju, Gunsan and Wanju have traditionally had weaker accents compared to the south, and in some cases, might be more closer to the Chungcheong dialect in terms of vocabulary and intonation.",
";* Honorific Pyojuneo Jeolla ;*Ordinary way of speaking** The vowel 'ㅢ(ui)' is pronounced as 'ㅡ(eu)'.",
"*** example: Doctor Pyojuneo Jeolla ** The ending '지(ji)' is pronounced as '제(je)'.",
"*** example: \"That's right.\"",
"Pyojuneo Jeolla ** Use a lot of '잉(ing)' at the end of words.",
"*** example: \"It's really pretty.\"",
"Pyojuneo Jeolla Famously, natives of Southern Jeolla pronounce certain combinations of vowels in Korean more softly, or omit the latter vowel entirely.",
"Pyojuneo Jeolla However, in the case of '모대(modae)', it is also observed in South Chungcheong Province and some areas of southern Gyeonggi Province close to South Chungcheong Province.The rest is almost similar to the Chungcheong dialect.",
"Gyeongsang/Southeastern(/) Busan, Daegu, Ulsan, Gyeongsang region (South Korea)*Gyeongsang dialect is the best known dialect of all South Korean dialects.",
"This is known not only by Koreans but also by foreigners interested in Korean culture.",
"*Gyeongsang dialect is also known as the most rough and macho-like dialect of all South Korean dialects.",
"*Gyeongsang dialect has a tone like Hamgyeong dialect and Yeongdong dialect.",
"*Gyeongsang dialect is the most common dialect in dramas among all Korean dialects except for Gyeonggi dialect.",
";* Honorific Pyojuneo Gyeongsang ;*Ordinary way of speaking** In question, '노(no)' and '나(na)' are mainly used.",
"Use '나(na)' when asking for a short answer, and '노(no)' when asking for a specific answer.",
"*** example: 1) \"Have you eaten?\"",
"2) \"What did you eat?\"",
"Pyojuneo Gyeongsang ** When talking, the sentence often ends with '~다 아이가(~da aiga)'.",
"*** example: \"You said so.\"",
"Pyojuneo Gyeongsang ** '~하다(~hada)' is pronounced as '~카다(~kada)'.",
"*** example: \"Why are you doing that?\"",
"Pyojuneo Gyeongsang The rest is almost similar to the Jeolla dialect.",
"''Jeju ()''* Jeju Island/Province (South Korea); sometimes classified as a separate language in the Koreanic language family*example: Hangul**Pyojuneo: (''Hangul'')**Jeju: (''Hongul'');* Honorific Pyojuneo Jeju"
],
[
"North–South differences",
"The language used in the North and the South exhibit differences in pronunciation, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.===Pronunciation===In North Korea, palatalization of is optional, and can be pronounced between vowels.Words that are written the same way may be pronounced differently (such as the examples below).",
"The pronunciations below are given in Revised Romanization, McCune–Reischauer and modified Hangul (what the Korean characters would be if one were to write the word as pronounced).",
"Word Meaning Pronunciation North SouthChosungulHangulil'''g'''oto read (continuative form)il'''k'''o il'''k'''oil'''kk'''o il'''kk'''oam'''n'''okgangAmnok Riveram'''r'''okgang am'''r'''okkangam'''n'''okkang am'''n'''okkangdong'''n'''ipindependencedong'''r'''ip tong'''r'''ipdong'''n'''ip tong'''n'''ipgwa'''nn'''yeomidea / sense / conceptiongwa'''ll'''yeom kwa'''ll'''yŏmgwa'''nn'''yeom kwa'''nn'''yŏm*hyeoksin'''j'''eokinnovativehyeoksin'''jj'''eok hyŏksin'''tch'''ŏkhyeoksin'''j'''eok hyŏksin'''j'''ŏk In the North, similar pronunciation is used whenever the hanja \"\" is attached to a Sino-Korean word ending in , or .",
"In the South, this rule only applies when it is attached to any single-character Sino-Korean word.===Spelling===Some words are spelled differently by the North and the South, but the pronunciations are the same.",
"Word Meaning Pronunciation (RR/MR) RemarksNorth spellingSouth spellingsunshinehaeppit (haepit)The \"sai siot\" ('' used for indicating sound change) is almost never written out in the North.cherry blossombeotkkot (pŏtkkot)cannot readmodikda (modikta)Spacing.Hallasanhallasan (hallasan)When a combination is pronounced as ''ll'', the original Hangul spelling is kept in the North, whereas the Hangul is changed in the South.rulesgyuyul (kyuyul)In words where the original hanja is spelt \"\" or \"\" and follows a vowel, the initial is not pronounced in the North, making the pronunciation identical with that in the South where the is dropped in the spelling.===Spelling ''and'' pronunciation===Basically, the standard languages of North and South Korea, including pronunciation and vocabulary, are both linguistically based on the Seoul dialect, but in North Korea, words have been modified to reflect the theories of scholars like Kim Tu-bong, who sought a refined language, as well as political needs.",
"Some differences are difficult to explain in terms of political ideas, such as North Korea's use of the word ''rajio''(라지오).",
":WordMeaningRemarks North spelling North pronun.",
"South spelling South pronun.",
"ryeongryang (ryŏngryang) yeongnyang (yŏngnyang) strength Initial ''r'''s are dropped if followed by ''i'' or ''y'' in the South Korean version of Korean.",
"rodong (rodong) nodong (nodong) work Initial ''r'''s are demoted to an ''n'' if not followed by ''i'' or ''y'' in the South Korean version of Korean.",
"wonssu (wŏnssu) wonsu (wŏnsu) mortal enemy \"Mortal enemy\" and \"field marshal\" are homophones in the South.",
"Possibly to avoid referring to Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il or Kim Jong Un as the enemy, the second syllable of \"enemy\" is written and pronounced in the North.",
"rajio (rajio) radio (radio) radio In South Korea, the expression ''rajio'' is considered a Japanese expression that was introduced during the Japanese colonial rule and does not properly represent the pronunciation of Korean.",
"u (u) wi (wi) on; above anhae (anhae) anae (anae) wife kkuba (kkuba) kuba (k'uba) Cuba When transcribing foreign words from languages that do not have contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated stops, North Koreans generally use tensed stops for the unaspirated ones while South Koreans use aspirated stops in both cases.pe (p'e)pye (p'ye), pe (p'e)lungsIn the case where ''ye'' comes after a consonant, such as in ''hye'' and ''pye'', it is pronounced without the palatal approximate.",
"North Korean orthography reflects this pronunciation nuance.In general, when transcribing place names, North Korea tends to use the pronunciation in the original language more than South Korea, which often uses the pronunciation in English.",
"For example: Original name North Korea transliteration English name South Korea transliteration Spelling Pronunciation Spelling Pronunciation Ulaanbaatar ullanbattareu (ullanbattarŭ) Ulan Bator ullanbatoreu (ullanbat'orŭ) København koeppenhabeun (k'oeppenhabŭn) Copenhagen kopenhagen (k'op'enhagen) al-Qāhirah kkahira (kkahira) Cairo kairo (k'airo)===Grammar===Some grammatical constructions are also different:WordMeaningRemarks North spelling North pronun.",
"South spelling South pronun.",
"doeyeotda (toeyŏtta) doeeotda (toeŏtta) past tense of (doeda/toeda), \"to become\" All similar grammar forms of verbs or adjectives that end in in the stem (i.e.",
", , , , and ) in the North use instead of the South's .",
"gomawayo (komawayo) gomawoyo (komawŏyo) thanks -irregular verbs in the North use (wa) for all those with a positive ending vowel; this only happens in the South if the verb stem has only one syllable.",
"halgayo (halkayo) halkkayo (halkkayo) Shall we do?",
"Although the Hangul differ, the pronunciations are the same (i.e.",
"with the tensed sound).===Punctuation===In the North, guillemets ( and ) are the symbols used for quotes; in the South, quotation marks equivalent to the English ones ( and ) are standard (although and are also used).===Vocabulary===Some vocabulary is different between the North and the South:WordMeaningRemarks North word North pronun.",
"South word South pronun.",
"munhwajutaek (munhwajut'aek) apateu (ap'at'ŭ) Apartment (appateu/appat'ŭ) is also used in the North.",
"joseonmal (chosŏnmal) han-guk'eo (han-guk'ŏ) Korean language The Japanese pronunciation of 조선말 was used throughout Korea and Manchuria during Japanese imperial rule, but after liberation, the government chose the name 대한민국 (Daehanminguk) which was derived from the name immediately prior to Japanese imperial rule.",
"The syllable 한 (Han) was drawn from the same source as that name (in reference to the Han people).",
"Read more.",
"gwakbap (kwakpap) dosirak (tosirak) lunch box dongmu (tongmu) chin-gu (ch'in-gu) Friend was originally a non-ideological word for \"friend\" used all over the Korean peninsula, but North Koreans later adopted it as the equivalent of the Communist term of address \"comrade\".",
"As a result, to South Koreans today the word has a heavy political tinge, and so they have shifted to using other words for friend like ''chingu'' () or ''beot'' ().",
"Today, ''beot'' () is closer to a term used in literature, and ''chingu'' () is the widest-used word for friend.",
"Such changes were made after the Korean War and the ideological battle between the anti-Communist government in the South and North Korea's communism."
],
[
"Geographic distribution",
"Korean is spoken by the Korean people in both South Korea and North Korea, and by the Korean diaspora in many countries including the People's Republic of China, the United States, Japan, and Russia.",
"Currently, Korean is the fourth most popular foreign language in China, following English, Japanese, and Russian.",
"Korean-speaking minorities exist in these states, but because of cultural assimilation into host countries, not all ethnic Koreans may speak it with native fluency.===Official status===File:Pyongyang-Kaesong motorway 02.JPG|Highway sign in Korean,Reunification Highway, Pyongyang, North KoreaFile:AH1sign-Daegu,Korea.jpg|Highway sign in Korean and English,Gyeongbu Expressway, Daegu, South KoreaFile:大石头还有两公里 （吉延高速 ） Jilin-Yanji Highway - panoramio.jpg|Highway sign in Korean and Chinese,Hunwu Expressway, Yanbian, ChinaKorean is the official language of South Korea and North Korea.",
"It, along with Mandarin Chinese, is also one of the two official languages of China's Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.In North Korea, the regulatory body is the Language Institute of the Academy of Social Sciences (, ''Sahoe Gwahagweon Eohag Yeonguso'').",
"In South Korea, the regulatory body for Korean is the Seoul-based National Institute of the Korean Language, which was created by presidential decree on 23 January 1991.===King Sejong Institute===Established pursuant to Article 9, Section 2, of the Framework Act on the National Language, the King Sejong Institute is a public institution set up to coordinate the government's project of propagating Korean language and culture; it also supports the King Sejong Institute, which is the institution's overseas branch.",
"The King Sejong Institute was established in response to:* An increase in the demand for Korean language education;* a rapid increase in Korean language education thanks to the spread of the culture (''hallyu''), an increase in international marriage, the expansion of Korean enterprises into overseas markets, and enforcement of employment licensing system;* the need for a government-sanctioned Korean language educational institution;* the need for general support for overseas Korean language education based on a successful domestic language education program.King Sejong Institute has 59 in Europe, 15 in Africa, 146 in Asia, 34 in the Americas, and 4 in Oceania.=== TOPIK Korea Institute ===The TOPIK Korea Institute is a lifelong educational center affiliated with a variety of Korean universities in Seoul, South Korea, whose aim is to promote Korean language and culture, support local Korean teaching internationally, and facilitate cultural exchanges.The institute is sometimes compared to language and culture promotion organizations such as the King Sejong Institute.",
"Unlike that organization, however, the TOPIK Korea Institute operates within established universities and colleges around the world, providing educational materials.",
"In countries around the world, Korean embassies and cultural centers (한국문화원) administer TOPIK examinations."
],
[
"Foreign language",
"For native English-speakers, Korean is generally considered to be one of the most difficult foreign languages to master despite the relative ease of learning Hangul.",
"For instance, the United States' Defense Language Institute places Korean in Category IV with Japanese, Chinese (Mandarin and Cantonese), and Arabic, requiring 64 weeks of instruction (as compared to just 26 weeks for Category I languages like Italian, French, and Spanish) to bring an English-speaking student to a limited working level of proficiency in which they have \"sufficient capability to meet routine social demands and limited job requirements\" and \"can deal with concrete topics in past, present, and future tense.\"",
"Similarly, the Foreign Service Institute's School of Language Studies places Korean in Category IV, the highest level of difficulty.The study of the Korean language in the United States is dominated by Korean American heritage language students, who in 2007 were estimated to form over 80% of all students of the language at non-military universities.",
"However, Sejong Institutes in the United States have noted a sharp rise in the number of people of other ethnic backgrounds studying Korean between 2009 and 2011, which they attribute to rising popularity of South Korean music and television shows.",
"In 2018, it was reported that the rise in K-Pop was responsible for the increase in people learning the language in US universities.=== Testing ===There are two widely used tests of Korean as a foreign language: the Korean Language Proficiency Test (KLPT) and the Test of Proficiency in Korean (TOPIK).",
"The Korean Language Proficiency Test, an examination aimed at assessing non-native speakers' competence in Korean, was instituted in 1997; 17,000 people applied for the 2005 sitting of the examination.",
"The TOPIK was first administered in 1997 and was taken by 2,274 people.",
"Since then the total number of people who have taken the TOPIK has surpassed 1 million, with more than 150,000 candidates taking the test in 2012.TOPIK is administered in 45 regions within South Korea and 72 nations outside of South Korea, with a significant portion being administered in Japan and North America, which would suggest the targeted audience for TOPIK is still primarily foreigners of Korean heritage.",
"This is also evident in TOPIK's website, where the examination is introduced as intended for Korean heritage students."
],
[
"Example text",
"From Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Korean (Hankuko):"
],
[
"See also",
"* Outline of Korean language* Korean count word* Korean Cultural Center (KCC)* Korean dialects* Korean language and computers* Korean mixed script* Korean particles* Korean proverbs* Korean sign language* Korean romanization** McCune–Reischauer** Revised romanization of Korean** SKATS** Yale romanization of Korean* List of English words of Korean origin* Vowel harmony* History of Korean* Korean films** Cinema of North Korea** Cinema of South Korea"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * In 3 volumes.",
"* * * * * * * Unpublished Harvard University PhD dissertation.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Linguistic and Philosophical Origins of the Korean Alphabet (Hangul)* Sogang University free online Korean language and culture course* Beginner's guide to Korean for English speakers * U.S. Foreign Service Institute Korean basic course* asianreadings.com, Korean readings with hover prompts* Linguistic map of Korea* dongsa.net, Korean verb conjugation tool* Hanja Explorer, a tool to visualize and study Korean vocabulary*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kyle MacLachlan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kyle MacLachlan''' ( ; born February 22, 1959) is an American actor.",
"He is best recognized for his work with American filmmaker David Lynch.",
"The most widely known of these collaborations were MacLachlan's performances as Dale Cooper: first on the television series ''Twin Peaks'' in 1990 and 1991 and again in 2017, for which he was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama; he also portrayed Cooper in the program's theatrical film prequel ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'' (1992).",
"Further collaborations include his portrayals for Lynch of Paul Atreides in ''Dune'' (1984) and Jeffrey Beaumont in ''Blue Velvet'' (1986).",
"MacLachlan's other film roles include Lloyd Gallagher in ''The Hidden'' (1987), Ray Manzarek in ''The Doors'' (1991), Cliff Vandercave in ''The Flintstones'' (1994), Zack Carey in ''Showgirls'' (1995) and the voice of Riley's father in ''Inside Out'' (2015).MacLachlan has had prominent roles on television such as Trey MacDougal on ''Sex and the City'' (2000–2002), Orson Hodge on ''Desperate Housewives'' (2006–2012), The Captain on ''How I Met Your Mother'' (2010–2014) and ''How I Met Your Father'' (2022), the Mayor of Portland on ''Portlandia'' (2011–2018), and Calvin Johnson on ''Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.''",
"(2014–2015)."
],
[
"Early life",
"MacLachlan was born Kyle McLachlan (subsequently changing the spelling of his last name to reflect his Scottish heritage) at Yakima Valley Memorial Hospital in Yakima, Washington.",
"His mother, Catherine (''née'' Stone; 1934–1986), was a public relations director for a school district and a homemaker who was active in community arts programs.",
"His father, Kent Alan McLachlan (1933–2011), was a stockbroker and lawyer.",
"Kyle has Scottish, Cornish, and German ancestry.",
"He grew up in Yakima, the eldest of three boys.",
"His two younger brothers, Craig and Kent Jr., live in the Seattle area.",
"MacLachlan graduated from Eisenhower High School in Yakima.",
"His mother left his father when he was 17, and his parents divorced in his senior year of high school.MacLachlan was introduced to stage acting by his mother when she became director of a youth theater program for teenagers that she helped set up in Yakima.",
"She also sent him to piano lessons from the age of 9 to 14, when he also began to study classical singing.",
"While in high school, he performed in plays and in class musicals, acting in his first play at age 15.In his senior year, he had the lead role of Brindsley Miller in a production of Peter Shaffer's one-act play ''Black Comedy'', and performed as Henry Higgins in ''My Fair Lady''.",
"In 1982, he graduated cum laude with a BFA in drama from the University of Washington (UW) as a student of the Professional Actor Training Program.",
"He initially planned to major in business and also studied classical voice at UW, but changed his focus to acting."
],
[
"Career",
"===1980s===The first film MacLachlan worked on was ''The Changeling'' (1980), part of which was shot on the University of Washington campus.",
"He was paid $10 as an extra.In the summer of 1981, after his sophomore year at college, he played the lead in three roles at the Old Lyric Repertory Theatre in Logan, Utah and the following summer with the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in Ashland, Oregon.MacLachlan made his film debut in ''Dune'' (1984) in the starring role of Paul Atreides.",
"While still in college, MacLachlan was appearing in Molière's ''Tartuffe'' in a Seattle-area theater.",
"A casting agent for ''Dune'' producer Dino de Laurentiis was looking for a young actor to star in the film, and multiple people recommended MacLachlan.",
"After several screen tests, he hit it off with director David Lynch, aided by their common Pacific Northwest backgrounds, and succeeded in winning the part.After ''Dune'' flopped and met with poor reviews from critics, MacLachlan found it difficult to find work.",
"He moved to Los Angeles in 1985, and auditioned for several films, including ''Top Gun'', but failed to win any roles, eventually dropping his agent, Creative Artists Agency.Finally, Lynch cast MacLachlan in the starring role of Jeffrey Beaumont in ''Blue Velvet'' (1986), which was received more positively.",
"Reflecting on his enduring relationship with Lynch in a 2012 interview, MacLachlan remarked: \"David Lynch plucked me from obscurity.",
"He cast me as the lead in ''Dune'' and ''Blue Velvet'', and people have seen me as this boy-next-door-cooking-up-something-weird-in-the-basement ever since.\"",
"Lynch biographer Chris Rodley described MacLachlan as an on-screen incarnation of Lynch's own persona.He starred in the 1987 science fiction action film ''The Hidden'' as FBI agent Lloyd Gallagher.===1990s===MacLachlan and Lara Flynn Boyle arriving at the 43rd Primetime Emmy Awards in August 1991MacLachlan further collaborated with Lynch in the ABC television series ''Twin Peaks'' (1990–91), playing Special Agent Dale Cooper, reprising that role for Lynch's 1992 prequel film ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me''.",
"Lynch commented on those roles in a ''GQ'' story about MacLachlan: \"Kyle plays innocents who are interested in the mysteries of life.",
"He's the person you trust enough to go into a strange world with\".",
"MacLachlan also said he considered Lynch one of his mentors that had a \"monumental impact\" on him.",
"Lynch, who is known to allow his collaborative partners a large degree of control over their roles when working with him, rewrote scenes in ''Blue Velvet'' and ''Twin Peaks'' at the request of MacLachlan, who felt they were not right for his characters.MacLachlan at the 1991 Emmy AwardsMacLachlan appeared as musician Ray Manzarek in Oliver Stone's 1991 film ''The Doors'', about the band of the same name.",
"He had previously turned down Stone's offer to play Chris in the 1986 movie ''Platoon'', which ultimately went to Charlie Sheen.",
"In the 1993 film version of Franz Kafka's ''The Trial'', with a screenplay by Harold Pinter, MacLachlan played the lead role of the persecuted Josef K.MacLachlan co-starred with Samuel L. Jackson as a rookie prison guard in John Frankenheimer's 1994 Emmy-winning HBO film ''Against the Wall'' about the Attica prison riots.",
"In 1994, he was also featured in ''The Flintstones'', a live-action movie adaptation of the animated sitcom of the same name, portraying Cliff Vandercave, the movie's primary antagonist, opposite John Goodman as Fred Flintstone and Rick Moranis as Barney Rubble.",
"He played the role of a killer in ''Tales from the Crypt'', in 1991.In 1995, MacLachlan starred in Paul Verhoeven's ''Showgirls''.",
"The movie was heavily panned by critics and it collected a record seven Golden Raspberry Awards.",
"MacLachlan recalls that when he watched ''Showgirls'' for the first time before the premiere, he thought it was \"horrible\".",
"But he later realised that the movie was \"inadvertently funny\" and embraced for its campiness.",
"According to MacLachlan, although he skipped the movie's press tour, he had sat through the whole screening, contrary to reports that he walked out.===2000s===From 2000 to 2002, MacLachlan had a recurring role in the American television series ''Sex and the City'', portraying Dr. Trey MacDougal, the one-time husband of Charlotte York (Kristin Davis).",
"MacLachlan played King Claudius in the 2000 film ''Hamlet'' based on William Shakespeare's play.",
"In the video game ''Grand Theft Auto III'' released in 2001, he voiced the character of the sociopathic real-estate developer Donald Love.",
"In 2002, he made his West End debut in John Kolvenbach's ''On an Average Day'' with Woody Harrelson.MacLachlan at the 2017 San Diego Comic-ConIn 2003, MacLachlan made his Broadway debut as Aston in Harold Pinter's ''The Caretaker'' with Patrick Stewart.",
"He portrayed the spirit of Cary Grant in the 2004 film ''Touch of Pink''.",
"His resemblance to Grant had been previously noted in an episode of ''Twin Peaks''.",
"That same year he also had a guest role in ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'', in which he played a psychiatrist who shot and killed a sociopathic child who had murdered his son.",
"He was a guest star in the show again in 2011, as a politician whose son is involved in a rape accusation.In 2006, after starring in the short-lived ''In Justice'', MacLachlan appeared in ''Desperate Housewives'' as the mysterious dentist Orson Hodge.",
"He first appeared during the show's second season, and became a full-time cast member at the start of season three.",
"In 2007, MacLachlan was one of the presenters at the London leg of Live Earth benefit concerts.",
"He appeared in the 2008 film ''The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2''.",
"In the English version of the cult 2006 Norwegian animated film ''Free Jimmy'' released in 2008, he voiced the character of \"Marius\", a militant animal rights activist.===2010s===In 2010, after four years of playing Orson Hodge, MacLachlan decided to quit ''Desperate Housewives'' as he found the commute from his home in New York City to the set in Los Angeles increasingly difficult since becoming a father in 2008.However, he returned as a guest star in 2012 for season eight, the final season of ''Desperate Housewives''.",
"He also guest starred as George \"The Captain\" Van Smoot in seasons six, eight and nine of ''How I Met Your Mother'', from 2010 until 2014.He would reprise the role in the first season of the spinoff ''How I Met Your Father'' in 2022.From 2011 to 2018, he played the role of Mayor of Portland, Oregon, in the IFC comedy ''Portlandia''.",
"After the end of the short-lived 2012 series ''Made in Jersey'', where he starred as lawyer Donovan Stark, he was cast as a guest star in ''The Good Wife''.",
"In 2013 and 2014 he appeared as prosecutor Josh Perotti in four episodes of ''The Good Wife''.",
"In 2014 and 2015 he appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe television series ''Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.''",
"as villain Calvin Johnson / The Doctor.",
"In 2015, he voiced Riley Anderson's father in the Pixar animated feature ''Inside Out''.",
"In January 2015, it was announced that MacLachlan would return as Special Agent Dale Cooper for the new limited television series ''Twin Peaks: The Return'', which debuted on May 21, 2017.In an interview, MacLachlan said he doesn't understand all of ''Twin Peaks'', and that fans understand it much more than him.In 2018, MacLachlan starred as the main antagonist Isaac Izard in the fantasy-horror family film ''The House with a Clock in its Walls''."
],
[
"Awards",
"MacLachlan has won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama (1990) and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film in 2017, for playing the role of Dale Cooper in ''Twin Peaks''.",
"He has also been nominated for two Emmy Awards for ''Twin Peaks''.With many nominations for various other acting awards, he won the Dorian Awards for best TV Performance of the Year and the Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television (see list)."
],
[
"Winemaking",
"A dedicated wine lover, Kyle is partners with vintner Eric Dunham in ''Pursued by Bear'', a label of Dunham Cellars in Walla Walla, Washington that started in 2005.The name, suggested over dinner by Fred Savage, comes from a stage direction (\"Exit, pursued by a bear\") in Shakespeare's ''The Winter's Tale''.",
"It is regarded as one of Washington's highest rated wine labels.",
"Pursued By Bear sells five wines: Twin Bear, Pursued by Bear, Baby Bear, Blushing Bear and Bear Cub."
],
[
"Personal life",
"MacLachlan with actress Lara Flynn Boyle, at the 1990 Emmy AwardsMacLachlan was devastated when his mother died of ovarian cancer in 1986, aged 53, shortly before ''Blue Velvet'' was released.",
"She had been diagnosed while he was filming ''Dune'' in 1983, and delayed informing him of the diagnosis.",
"His father died of post-surgery complications in 2011.He was in a relationship with ''Blue Velvet'' co-star Laura Dern for three-and-a-half years, from 1985 to 1989.Subsequently, he was in a relationship with ''Twin Peaks'' co-star Lara Flynn Boyle for two-and-a-half years.",
"In 1992, after his relationship with Boyle ended, he began a relationship with supermodel Linda Evangelista after they met at a photo shoot they did together for Barneys New York.",
"According to MacLachlan, they had been engaged for a few years when their six-year relationship ended in 1998.A year later, he met and began a relationship with publicist Desiree Gruber.",
"Gruber runs her own public relations agency; she became an executive producer of ''Project Runway'' in 2004.MacLachlan moved to New York City because he was filming ''Sex and the City'' and Gruber was based there.",
"They were married on April 20, 2002.Their son was born on July 25, 2008.The family has residences in Los Angeles and New York."
],
[
"Filmography",
"===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1984 ''Dune'' Paul Atreides 1986 ''Blue Velvet'' Jeffrey Beaumont 1987 ''The Hidden'' Lloyd Gallagher 1990 ''Don't Tell Her It's Me'' Trout 1991 ''The Doors'' Ray Manzarek 1992 ''Where the Day Takes You'' Ted 1992 ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'' Special Agent Dale Cooper 1992 ''Rich in Love'' Billy McQueen 1993 ''The Trial'' Josef K. 1994 ''Against the Wall'' Corrections Officer Michael Smith 1994 ''The Flintstones'' Clifford \"Cliff\" Vandercave 1995 ''Showgirls'' Zack Carey 1996 ''The Trigger Effect'' Matthew Kay 1996 ''Mad Dog Time'' Jake Parker 1997 ''One Night Stand'' Vernon Rivers 2000 ''XChange'' James Fisk / Stuart Toffler 2 2000 ''Hamlet'' Claudius 2000 ''Timecode'' Bunny Drysdale 2001 ''Me Without You'' Daniel 2001 ''Perfume'' Business Manager 2002 ''Miranda'' Nailor 2003 ''Northfork'' Mr. Hope 2004 ''Touch of Pink'' Spirit of Cary Grant 2004 ''The Librarian: Quest for the Spear'' Edward Wilde 2008 ''Free Jimmy'' Marius English dub 2008 ''Justice League: The New Frontier'' Superman Voice, direct-to-video 2008 ''The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2'' Bill Kerr Uncredited 2009 ''Mao's Last Dancer'' Charles C. Foster 2009 ''The Smell of Success'' Jimmy St. James 2011 ''Peace, Love & Misunderstanding'' Mark 2013 ''Breathe In'' Peter Sebeck 2015 ''Inside Out'' Mr. Anderson Voice 2015 ''Riley's First Date?''",
"Voice, short film 2018 ''Giant Little Ones'' Ray Winter 2018 ''The House with a Clock in Its Walls'' Isaac Izard 2019 ''High Flying Bird'' David Seton 2019 ''The Staggering Girl'' Matteo / Bruno / Angelo Short film 2020 ''Tesla'' Thomas Edison 2020 ''Capone'' Dr. Karlock 2022 ''Confess, Fletch'' Horan 2023 ''Miranda's Victim'' Chief Justice Earl Warren 2024 ''Inside Out 2'' Mr. Anderson Voice 2024 ''Blink Twice'' Post-production===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1989 ''Dream Breakers'' Bobby O'Connor Television film 1990–1991 ''Twin Peaks'' Dale Cooper 30 episodes 1990 ''Saturday Night Live'' Himself (host) Episode: \"Kyle MacLachlan/Sinéad O'Connor\" 1990 ''The American Experience'' Narrator Episode: \"Insanity on Trial\" 1991 ''Tales from the Crypt'' Earl Raymond Digs Episode: \"Carrion Death\" 1994 ''Against the Wall'' Michael Smith Television film 1994 ''Roswell'' Jesse A. Marcel Television film 1995 ''The Conversation'' Harry Caul Pilot 1996 ''Moonshine Highway'' Jed Muldoon Television film 1997 ''Windsor Protocol'' Sean Dillon Television film 1998 ''Thunder Point'' Television film 1998 ''Route 9'' Booth Parker Television film 1998 ''The Invisible Man'' Jack Griffin Pilot 2000 ''The Spring'' Dennis Conway Television film 2000–2002 ''Sex and the City'' Trey MacDougal 23 episodes 2002 ''Jo'' Role unknown Pilot 2004 ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' Dr. Brett Morton Episode: \"Conscience\" 2004 ''The Librarian: Quest for the Spear'' Edward Wilde Television film 2005 ''Mysterious Island'' Cyrus SmithTelevision film 2006 ''In Justice'' David Swain 13 episodes 2006–2012 ''Desperate Housewives'' Orson Hodge 85 episodes 2010–2014 ''How I Met Your Mother'' George Van Smoot / The Captain 7 episodes 2011 ''The Doctor'' Jason Pilot 2011 ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' Andrew Raines Episode: \"Blood Brothers\" 2011–2018 ''Portlandia'' Mayor of Portland 24 episodes 2012 ''Made in Jersey'' Donovan Stark 8 episodes 2013–2014 ''The Good Wife'' Josh Perotti 4 episodes 2014 ''Believe'' Roman Skouras 12 episodes 2014–2015 ''Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.''",
"Calvin Johnson / The Doctor 13 episodes 2016 ''Gravity Falls'' Bus Driver Voice, episode: \"Weirdmageddon 3: Take Back The Falls\" 2017 ''Twin Peaks'' Dale Cooper 18 episodes 2018 ''American Dad!''",
"Del Voice, episode: \"Paranoid Frandroid\" 2019–2020 ''Carol's Second Act'' Dr.",
"Frost 18 episodes 2020 ''How to With John Wilson'' Himself Episode: \"How to Make Small Talk\"; uncredited 2020 ''Atlantic Crossing'' Franklin D. Roosevelt 8 episodes 2022 ''Joe vs. Carole'' Howard Baskin 8 episodes 2022 ''How I Met Your Father'' George Van Smoot / The Captain 2 episodes 2023 ''Lucky Hank'' Dickie Pope 2 episodes 2023 ''Star Wars: Young Jedi Adventures'' Draiven Bosh Voice, episode: \"Visitor's Day\" 2023 ''Futurama'' Dung Beetle Majordomo Voice, episode: \"Parasites Regained\" 2024 ''Fallout'' Hank Upcoming series===Video games=== Year Title Voice role 2001 ''Grand Theft Auto III'' Donald Love===Theatre=== Year Title Role Notes 1983 ''Tartuffe'' Damis Empty Space Theatre 1988 ''The Palace of Amateurs'' Terrence Beebe Minetta Lane Theatre 2002 ''On An Average Day'' Jack Harold Pinter Theatre 2003–2004 ''The Caretaker'' Aston American Airlines Theatre"
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
" Year Association Category Nominated work Result 1990 Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series ''Twin Peaks'' 1991 Golden Globe Awards Best Actor – Television Series Drama Viewers for Quality Television Best Actor in a Quality Drama Series 1996 Golden Raspberry Awards Worst Actor ''Showgirls'' 2005 Genie Awards Best Supporting Actor ''Touch of Pink'' Saturn Awards Best Supporting Actor on Television ''The Librarian: Quest for the Spear'' 2007 Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series ''Desperate Housewives'' 2008 2009 2018 Golden Globe Awards Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film''Twin Peaks'' Dorian Awards TV Performance of the Year - Actor Empire Awards Best Actor in a TV series Saturn Awards Best Actor on Television"
],
[
"See also",
"*List of celebrities who own wineries and vineyards"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * ''Playbill'' – Kyle MacLachlan: Who's Who Bio"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kevlar"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kevlar''' (para-aramid) is a strong, heat-resistant synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora.",
"Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965, the high-strength material was first used commercially in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires.",
"It is typically spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such, or as an ingredient in composite material components.Kevlar has many applications, ranging from bicycle tires and racing sails to bulletproof vests, all due to its high tensile strength-to-weight ratio; by this measure it is five times stronger than steel.",
"It is also used to make modern marching drumheads that withstand high impact; and for mooring lines and other underwater applications.A similar fiber called Twaron with the same chemical structure was developed by Akzo in the 1970s; commercial production started in 1986, and Twaron is now manufactured by Teijin."
],
[
"History",
"Inventor of Kevlar, Stephanie Kwolek, an American chemistPoly-paraphenylene terephthalamide (K29) – branded Kevlar – was invented by the American chemist Stephanie Kwolek while working for DuPont, in anticipation of a gasoline shortage.",
"In 1964, her group began searching for a new lightweight strong fiber to use for light, but strong, tires.",
"The polymers she had been working with at the time, poly-p-phenylene-terephthalate and polybenzamide, formed liquid crystals while in solution, something unique to those polymers at the time.The solution was \"cloudy, opalescent upon being stirred, and of low viscosity\" and usually was thrown away.",
"However, Kwolek persuaded the technician, Charles Smullen, who ran the spinneret, to test her solution, and was amazed to find that the fiber did not break, unlike nylon.",
"Her supervisor and her laboratory director understood the significance of her discovery and a new field of polymer chemistry quickly arose.",
"By 1971, modern Kevlar was introduced.",
"However, Kwolek was not very involved in developing the applications of Kevlar.",
"In 1971, Lester Shubin, who was then the Director of Science and Technology for the National Institute for Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, suggested using Kevlar to replace nylon in bullet-proof vests.",
"Prior to the introduction of Kevlar, flak jackets made of nylon had provided much more limited protection to users.",
"Shubin later recalled how the idea developed: \"We folded it over a couple of times and shot at it.",
"The bullets didn't go through.\"",
"In tests, they strapped Kevlar onto anesthetized goats and shot at their hearts, spinal cords, livers and lungs.",
"They monitored the goats' heart rate and blood gas levels to check for lung injuries.",
"After 24 hours, one goat died and the others had wounds that were not life threatening.",
"Shubin received a $5 million grant to research the use of the fabric in bullet-proof vests.Kevlar 149 was invented by Jacob Lahijani of Dupont in the 1980s."
],
[
"Production",
"The reaction of 1,4-phenylene-diamine (''para''-phenylenediamine) with terephthaloyl chloride yielding KevlarKevlar is synthesized in solution from the monomers 1,4-phenylene-diamine (''para''-phenylenediamine) and terephthaloyl chloride in a condensation reaction yielding hydrochloric acid as a byproduct.",
"The result has liquid-crystalline behavior, and mechanical drawing orients the polymer chains in the fiber's direction.",
"Hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) was the solvent initially used for the polymerization, but for safety reasons, DuPont replaced it by a solution of ''N''-methyl-pyrrolidone and calcium chloride.",
"As this process had been patented by Akzo (see above) in the production of Twaron, a patent war ensued.Kevlar production is expensive because of the difficulties arising from using concentrated sulfuric acid, needed to keep the water-insoluble polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning.Several grades of Kevlar are available:* ''Kevlar K-29'' – in industrial applications, such as cables, asbestos replacement, tires, and brake linings.",
"* ''Kevlar K49'' – high modulus used in cable and rope products.",
"* ''Kevlar K100'' – colored version of Kevlar* ''Kevlar K119'' – higher-elongation, flexible and more fatigue resistant* ''Kevlar K129'' – higher tenacity for ballistic applications* ''Kevlar K149'' – highest tenacity for ballistic, armor, and aerospace applications* ''Kevlar AP'' – 15% higher tensile strength than K-29* ''Kevlar XP'' – lighter weight resin and KM2 plus fiber combination* ''Kevlar KM2'' – enhanced ballistic resistance for armor applicationsThe ultraviolet component of sunlight degrades and decomposes Kevlar, a problem known as ''UV degradation'', and so it is rarely used outdoors without protection against sunlight."
],
[
"Structure and properties",
"Molecular structure of Kevlar: '''bold''' represents a monomer unit, '''dashed''' lines indicate hydrogen bonds.When Kevlar is spun, the resulting fiber has a tensile strength of about , and a relative density of 1.44 (0.052 lb/in3).",
"The polymer owes its high strength to the many inter-chain bonds.",
"These inter-molecular hydrogen bonds form between the carbonyl groups and N''H'' centers.",
"Additional strength is derived from aromatic stacking interactions between adjacent strands.",
"These interactions have a greater influence on Kevlar than the van der Waals interactions and chain length that typically influence the properties of other synthetic polymers and fibers such as ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene.",
"The presence of salts and certain other impurities, especially calcium, could interfere with the strand interactions and care is taken to avoid inclusion in its production.",
"Kevlar's structure consists of relatively rigid molecules which tend to form mostly planar sheet-like structures rather like silk protein."
],
[
"Thermal properties",
"Kevlar maintains its strength and resilience down to cryogenic temperatures (): in fact, it is slightly stronger at low temperatures.",
"At higher temperatures the tensile strength is immediately reduced by about 10–20%, and after some hours the strength progressively reduces further.",
"For example: enduring for 500 hours, its strength is reduced by about 10%; and enduring for 70 hours, its strength is reduced by about 50%."
],
[
"Applications",
"=== Science ===Kevlar is often used in the field of cryogenics for its low thermal conductivity and high strength relative to other materials for suspension purposes.",
"It is most often used to suspend a paramagnetic salt enclosure from a superconducting magnet mandrel in order to minimize any heat leaks to the paramagnetic material.",
"It is also used as a thermal standoff or structural support where low heat leaks are desired.A thin Kevlar window has been used by the NA48 experiment at CERN to separate a vacuum vessel from a vessel at nearly atmospheric pressure, both in diameter.",
"The window has provided vacuum tightness combined with reasonably small amount of material (only 0.3% to 0.4% of radiation length).=== Protection ===Pieces of a Kevlar helmet used to help absorb the blast of a grenadeKevlar is a well-known component of personal armor such as combat helmets, ballistic face masks, and ballistic vests.",
"The PASGT helmet and vest used by United States military forces, use Kevlar as a key component in their construction.",
"Other military uses include bulletproof face masks and spall liners used to protect the crews of armoured fighting vehicles.",
"''Nimitz''-class aircraft carriers use Kevlar reinforcement in vital areas.",
"Civilian applications include: high heat resistance uniforms worn by firefighters, body armour worn by police officers, security, and police tactical teams such as SWAT.Kevlar is used to manufacture gloves, sleeves, jackets, chaps and other articles of clothing designed to protect users from cuts, abrasions and heat.",
"Kevlar-based protective gear is often considerably lighter and thinner than equivalent gear made of more traditional materials.Kevlar is a very popular material for racing canoes.It is used for motorcycle safety clothing, especially in the areas featuring padding such as the shoulders and elbows.",
"In the sport of fencing it is used in the protective jackets, breeches, plastrons and the bib of the masks.",
"It is increasingly being used in the ''peto'', the padded covering which protects the picadors' horses in the bullring.",
"Speed skaters also frequently wear an under-layer of Kevlar fabric to prevent potential wounds from skates in the event of a fall or collision.=== Sport ===In ''kyudo'', or Japanese archery, it may be used for bow strings, as an alternative to the more expensive hemp.",
"It is one of the main materials used for paraglider suspension lines.",
"It is used as an inner lining for some bicycle tires to prevent punctures.",
"In table tennis, plies of Kevlar are added to custom ply blades, or paddles, in order to increase bounce and reduce weight.",
"Tennis racquets are sometimes strung with Kevlar.",
"It is used in sails for high performance racing boats.In 2013, with advancements in technology, Nike used Kevlar in shoes for the first time.",
"It launched the Elite II Series, with enhancements to its earlier version of basketball shoes by using Kevlar in the anterior as well as the shoe laces.",
"This was done to decrease the elasticity of the tip of the shoe in contrast to the nylon conventionally used, as Kevlar expanded by about 1% against nylon which expanded by about 30%.",
"Shoes in this range included LeBron, HyperDunk and Zoom Kobe VII.",
"However these shoes were launched at a price range much higher than average cost of basketball shoes.",
"It was also used in the laces for the Adidas F50 adiZero Prime football boot.Several companies, including Continental AG, manufacture cycle tires with Kevlar to protect against punctures.Folding-bead bicycle tires, introduced to cycling by Tom Ritchey in 1984, use Kevlar as a bead in place of steel for weight reduction and strength.",
"A side effect of the folding bead is a reduction in shelf and floor space needed to display cycle tires in a retail environment, as they are folded and placed in small boxes.=== Music ===Kevlar has also been found to have useful acoustic properties for loudspeaker cones, specifically for bass and mid range drive units.",
"Additionally, Kevlar has been used as a strength member in fiber optic cables such as the ones used for audio data transmissions.Kevlar can be used as an acoustic core on bows for string instruments.",
"Kevlar's physical properties provide strength, flexibility, and stability for the bow's user.",
"To date, the only manufacturer of this type of bow is CodaBow.Kevlar is also presently used as a material for tailcords (a.k.a.",
"tailpiece adjusters), which connect the tailpiece to the endpin of bowed string instruments.Kevlar is sometimes used as a material on marching snare drums.",
"It allows for an extremely high amount of tension, resulting in a cleaner sound.",
"There is usually a resin poured onto the Kevlar to make the head airtight, and a nylon top layer to provide a flat striking surface.",
"This is one of the primary types of marching snare drum heads.",
"Remo's Falam Slam patch is made with Kevlar and is used to reinforce bass drum heads where the beater strikes.Kevlar is used in the woodwind reeds of Fibracell.",
"The material of these reeds is a composite of aerospace materials designed to duplicate the way nature constructs cane reed.",
"Very stiff but sound absorbing Kevlar fibers are suspended in a lightweight resin formulation.===Motor vehicles===Kevlar is sometimes used in structural components of cars, especially high-value performance cars such as the Ferrari F40.The chopped fiber has been used as a replacement for asbestos in brake pads.",
"Aramids such as Kevlar release less airborne fibres than asbestos brakes and do not have the carcinogenic properties associated with asbestos.=== Other uses ===Fire poi on a beach in San FranciscoKevlar mooring lineWicks for fire dancing props are made of composite materials with Kevlar in them.",
"Kevlar by itself does not absorb fuel very well, so it is blended with other materials such as fiberglass or cotton.",
"Kevlar's high heat resistance allows the wicks to be reused many times.Kevlar is sometimes used as a substitute for Teflon in some non-stick frying pans.Kevlar fiber is used in rope and in cable, where the fibers are kept parallel within a polyethylene sleeve.",
"The cables have been used in suspension bridges such as the bridge at Aberfeldy, Scotland.",
"They have also been used to stabilize cracking concrete cooling towers by circumferential application followed by tensioning to close the cracks.",
"Kevlar is widely used as a protective outer sheath for optical fiber cable, as its strength protects the cable from damage and kinking.",
"When used in this application it is commonly known by the trademarked name Parafil.Kevlar was used by scientists at Georgia Institute of Technology as a base textile for an experiment in electricity-producing clothing.",
"This was done by weaving zinc oxide nanowires into the fabric.",
"If successful, the new fabric will generate about 80 milliwatts per square meter.A retractable roof of over of Kevlar was a key part of the design of the Olympic Stadium, Montreal for the 1976 Summer Olympics.",
"It was spectacularly unsuccessful, as it was completed 10 years late and replaced just 10 years later in May 1998 after a series of problems.Kevlar can be found as a reinforcing layer in rubber bellows expansion joints and rubber hoses, for use in high temperature applications, and for its high strength.",
"It is also found as a braid layer used on the outside of hose assemblies, to add protection against sharp objects.Some cellphones (including the Motorola RAZR Family, the Motorola Droid Maxx, OnePlus 2 and Pocophone F1) have a Kevlar backplate, chosen over other materials such as carbon fiber due to its resilience and lack of interference with signal transmission.The Kevlar fiber/epoxy matrix composite materials can be used in marine current turbines (MCT) or wind turbines due to their high specific strength and light weight compared to other fibers."
],
[
"Composite materials",
"Aramid fibers are widely used for reinforcing composite materials, often in combination with carbon fiber and glass fiber.",
"The matrix for high performance composites is usually epoxy resin.",
"Typical applications include monocoque bodies for Formula 1 cars, helicopter rotor blades, tennis, table tennis, badminton and squash rackets, kayaks, cricket bats, and field hockey, ice hockey and lacrosse sticks.Kevlar 149, the strongest fiber and most crystalline in structure, is an alternative in certain parts of aircraft construction.",
"The wing leading edge is one application, Kevlar being less prone than carbon or glass fiber to break in bird collisions.==See also==* Innegra S* Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene* Twaron* Vectran"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Aramids* Matweb material properties of Kevlar* * Kevlar * Kevlar in body armor* Synthesis of Kevlar* Aberfeldy Footbridge over the River Tay * Kevlar at Plastics Wiki"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kosovo War"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Kosovo War''' (Albanian: Lufta e Kosovës, Serbian: Косовски рат), was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 28 February 1998 until 11 June 1999.It was fought between the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (i.e.",
"Serbia and Montenegro), which controlled Kosovo before the war, and the Kosovo Albanian separatist militia known as the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA).",
"The conflict ended when the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened by beginning air strikes in March 1999 which resulted in Yugoslav forces withdrawing from Kosovo.The KLA was formed in the early 1990s to fight against the discrimination of ethnic Albanians and the repression of political dissent by the Serbian authorities, which started after the suppression of Kosovo's autonomy by Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević in 1989.The KLA initiated its first campaign in 1995, after Kosovo's case was left out of the Dayton Agreement and it had become clear that President Rugova's strategy of peaceful resistance had failed to bring Kosovo into the international agenda.",
"In June 1996, the group claimed responsibility for acts of sabotage targeting Kosovo police stations, during the Kosovo Insurgency.",
"In 1997, the organisation acquired a large amount of arms through weapons smuggling from Albania, following a rebellion in which weapons were looted from the country's police and army posts.",
"In early 1998, KLA attacks targeting Yugoslav authorities in Kosovo resulted in an increased presence of Serb paramilitaries and regular forces who subsequently began pursuing a campaign of retribution targeting KLA sympathisers and political opponents; this campaign killed 1,500 to 2,000 civilians and KLA combatants, and had displaced 370,000 Kosovar Albanians by March 1999.On 20 March 1999, Yugoslav forces began a massive campaign of repression and expulsions of Kosovar Albanians following the withdrawal of the OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission (KVM) and the failure of the proposed Rambouillet Agreement.",
"In response to this, NATO intervened with an aerial bombing campaign that began on March 24, justifying it as a \"humanitarian war\".",
"The war ended with the Kumanovo Agreement, signed on 9 June 1999, with Yugoslav and Serb forces agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence.",
"NATO forces entered Kosovo on June 12.The NATO bombing campaign has remained controversial.",
"It did not gain the approval of the UN Security Council and it caused at least 488 Yugoslav civilian deaths, including substantial numbers of Kosovar refugees.In 2001 a U.N administered Supreme Court, based in Kosovo found that there had been \"a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments\" against the Albanian population, but that Yugoslav troops had tried to force them out of Kosovo, but not to eradicate them, and therefore it was not genocide.",
"After the war, a list was compiled which documented that over 13,500 people were killed or went missing during the two year conflict.",
"The Yugoslav and Serb forces caused the displacement of between 1.2 million and 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians.",
"After the war, around 200,000 Serbs, Romani, and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.The Kosovo Liberation Army disbanded soon after the end of the war, with some of its members going on to fight for the UÇPMB in the Preševo Valley and others joining the National Liberation Army (NLA) and Albanian National Army (ANA) during the armed ethnic conflict in Macedonia, while others went on to form the Kosovo Police.The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) convicted six Serb/Yugoslav officials and one Albanian commander for war crimes."
],
[
"Background",
"The modern Albanian-Serbian conflict has its roots in the expulsion of Albanians in 1877-1878 from areas that were incorporated into the Principality of Serbia expelled Albanians settled in Kosovo and between 1876 and 1878 there were attacks on Serbs and, in 1901, massacres of Kosovan Serbs.Tensions between the Serbian and Albanian communities in Kosovo simmered throughout the 20th century and occasionally erupted into major violence, particularly during the First Balkan War (1912–13), World War I (1914–18), and World War II (1939–45).",
"The Albanian revolt of 1912 in Kosovo resulted in the Ottoman Empire agreeing to the creation of an Albanian quasi-state but Ottoman forces were soon driven out by opportunistic Bulgarian, Serbian and Montenegrin troops.",
"In the ensuing Balkan Wars, at least 50,000 Albanians were massacred in the present-day territory of Kosovo by the Serbian regular army and irregular Komitadjis with the intention of manipulating population statistics before the borders of Albania were recognized during the London Conference of 1912–1913, after the latter proposed the drawing of the borders of Albania based on ethnic statistics.After World War I Kosovo was incorporated into the Serb-dominated Kingdom of Yugoslavia despite the Albanian community's demands for union with Albania.",
"Albanian rebels started the Drenica-Dukagjin Uprisings, which ended with the rebellion being crushed after the fall of the government of Fan Noli in Albania in December 1924 and the subsequent withdrawal of support for the Committee for the National Defence of Kosovo by President Zog.",
"Between 1918 and 1939, Yugoslavia expelled hundreds of thousands of Albanians and promoted the settlement of mostly Serb colonists in the region, while Albanian language schools were prohibited.",
"After the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, most of Kosovo was assigned to Italian-controlled Albania, with the rest being controlled by Germany and Bulgaria.",
"During the occupation, Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers, with thousands killed and between 70,000 and 100,000 expelled from Kosovo or sent to concentration camps in order to Albanianize the province.",
"The return of the expelled colonists was made next to impossible by a decree from Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito, followed by a new law in August 1945, which disallowed the return of colonists who had taken land from Albanian peasants.===Kosovo in Tito's Yugoslavia (1945–1980)===The end of World War II saw Kosovo returning to Yugoslav control.",
"The new socialist government under Josip Broz Tito systematically suppressed nationalism among the ethnic groups throughout Yugoslavia, and established six republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina) as constituent parts of the Yugoslav federation.",
"Tito diluted the power of Serbiathe largest and most populous republicby establishing autonomous governments in the Serbian province of Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo in the south.",
"Until 1963, the region was named the Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija and in 1968 it got renamed to the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo.The period of 1948–1963 in Kosovo was characterized by a brutal crackdown against Albanian nationalists by Aleksandar Ranković and his secret police (the UDBA).",
"In 1955, a state of emergency was declared in order to squelch unrest that had purportedly been instigated by terror groups from Albania.",
"Following Ranković's ouster in 1966, Tito and his League of Communists Party granted more powers to republics and attempted to improve the political, social and economic situation in Kosovo.",
"In November 1968, large-scale demonstrations took place in Kosovo which were quelled by Yugoslav forces, precipitated by Albanian demands for separate republics in Kosovo and Macedonia.",
"Albanian students and intellectuals pushed for an Albanian language University and greater representative powers for Albanians in both the Serbian and Yugoslav state bodies.The University of Pristina was established as an independent institution in 1970, ending a long period when the institution had been run as an outpost of University of Belgrade.",
"The lack of Albanian-language educational materials in Yugoslavia hampered Albanian education in Kosovo, so an agreement was struck with Albania itself to supply textbooks.In 1969 the Serbian Orthodox Church ordered its clergy to compile data on the ongoing problems of Serbs in Kosovo, seeking to pressure the government in Belgrade to do more to protect the interests of Serbs there.In 1974 Kosovo's political status improved further when a new Yugoslav constitution granted an expanded set of political rights.",
"Along with Vojvodina, Kosovo was declared a province and gained many of the powers of a fully-fledged republic: a seat on the federal presidency and its own assembly, police force and national bank.",
"While trying to balance the interests of Albanians and Serbs, this effectively stratified both communities and prompted Serb fears of Kosovo seceding from Yugoslavia.",
"Student demonstrations continued throughout the 1970s, resulting in the imprisonment of many members of the Albanian National Liberation Movement, including Adem Demaçi.",
"The political and administrative changes that began in 1968 resulted in Kosovo Albanians getting complete control over the province's political, social and cultural issues as well as growing ties between Kosovo and Albania.",
"However, by 1980, economic impoverishment would become the catalyst for further unrest.===After the death of Tito (1980–89)===Provincial power was still exercised by the League of Communists of Kosovo, but now devolved mainly to ethnic Albanian communists.",
"Tito's death on 4 May 1980 ushered in a long period of political instability, worsened by growing economic crisis and nationalist unrest.",
"The first major outbreak occurred in Kosovo's main city, Pristina, when a protest of University of Pristina students over long queues in their university canteen rapidly escalated and in late March and early April 1981 spread throughout Kosovo, causing mass demonstrations in several towns, the 1981 protests in Kosovo.",
"The disturbances were quelled by the Presidency of Yugoslavia proclaiming a state of emergency, sending in riot police and the army, which resulted in numerous casualties.Memorial plaque in Pristina, dedicated to two protesters that were killed in the 1981 protests, demanding more autonomy for Kosovo.In 1981 it was reported that some 4,000 Serbs moved from Kosovo to central Serbia after the Kosovo Albanian riots in March that resulted in several Serb deaths and the desecration of Serbian Orthodox architecture and graveyards.",
"Serbia reacted with a plan to reduce the power of Albanians in the province and a propaganda campaign that claimed Serbs were being pushed out of the province primarily by the growing Albanian population, rather than the bad state of the economy.",
"33 nationalist formations were dismantled by Yugoslav police, who sentenced some 280 people (800 fined, 100 under investigation) and seized arms caches and propaganda material.",
"Albanian leaders of Kosovo maintained that Serbs were leaving mainly because of the poor economy.",
"The worsening state of Kosovo's economy made the province a poor choice for Serbs seeking work.",
"Albanians, as well as Serbs, tended to favor their compatriots when hiring new employees, but the number of jobs was too few for the population.",
"Kosovo was the poorest entity of Yugoslavia: the average per capita income was $795, compared with the national average of $2,635.Due to its comparative poverty it received substantial amounts of Yugoslav development money, leading to quarrels amongst the republics regarding its quantity and utilization.In February 1982 a group of priests from Serbia proper petitioned their bishops to ask \"why the Serbian Church is silent\" and why it did not campaign against \"the destruction, arson and sacrilege of the holy shrines of Kosovo\".",
"In 1985, two Albanian farmers were falsely accused for the Đorđe Martinović incident, which turned into a ''cause célèbre'' in Serbian politics and fueled hatred towards Albanians.",
"In 1987, Aziz Kelmendi, an ethnic-Albanian recruit in the Yugoslav Army (JNA) killed four fellow soldiers in a mass shooting in JNA barracks, with only one of them being an ethnic Serb.",
"Serbian media blamed Albanian nationalism for the event and in response, Yugoslavia sent 400 federal police officers to Kosovo.",
"It was against this tense background that the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU) conducted a survey of Serbs who had left Kosovo in 1985 and 1986, which concluded that a considerable number had left under pressure from Albanians.SAP Kosovo was the poorest entity of SFR Yugoslavia.",
"The deteriorating economic situation became a catalyst for increased inter-ethnic tensions in the 1980s.The so-called SANU Memorandum, leaked in September 1986, was a draft document that focused on the political difficulties facing Serbs in Yugoslavia, pointing to Tito's deliberate hobbling of Serbia's power and the difficulties faced by Serbs outside Serbia proper.",
"It paid special attention to Kosovo, arguing that the Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to \"physical, political, legal and cultural genocide\" in an \"open and total war\" that had been ongoing since the spring of 1981.It claimed that Kosovo's status in 1986 was a worse historical defeat for the Serbs than any event since liberation from the Ottomans in 1804, thus ranking it above such catastrophes as the World war occupations.",
"The Memorandum's authors claimed that 200,000 Serbs had moved out of the province over the previous 20 years and warned that there would soon be none left \"unless things changed radically.\"",
"The remedy, according to the Memorandum, was for \"genuine security and unambiguous equality for all peoples living in Kosovo and Metohija to be established\" and \"objective and permanent conditions for the return of the expelled Serbian nation to be created.\"",
"It concluded that \"Serbia must not be passive and wait and see what the others will say, as it has done so often in the past.\"",
"The SANU Memorandum provoked split reactions: Albanians saw it as a call for Serbian supremacy at the local level, claiming the Serb emigrants had left Kosovo for economic reasons, while the Slovenes and Croats saw a threat in the call for a more assertive Serbia.",
"Serbs were divided: many welcomed it, while the Communist old guard strongly attacked its message.",
"One of those who denounced it was Serbian Communist Party official Slobodan Milošević.Slobodan Milošević and Ivan Stambolić's 1987 visit to Kosovo marked the beginning of Milošević's rise to the Presidency, after he made the remarks \"No one will beat you again,\" to a crowd of Serb protesters.In April 1987, Serbian President Ivan Stambolić and Slobodan Milošević visited Kosovo with the intention of reducing tensions in the region.",
"A Serb nationalist crowd had gathered near the hall where Milošević was supposed to deliver his speech in Kosovo Polje.",
"The crowd tried to break through the police cordon that was providing security for the gathering, and after clashing with the police, they chanted that Albanian policemen were beating them.",
"Informed of the situation, Milošević walked out of the building and addressed the protesters, telling them \"No one will beat you again\".",
"He further called upon the crowd to resist the Albanian pressure to leave Kosovo.",
"This speech marked the beginning pf Milošević's use of nationalism to gain power, and he was appointed President of the Presidency of Serbia in May 1989.In November 1988 Kosovo's head of the provincial committee was arrested.",
"In March 1989 Milošević announced an \"anti-bureaucratic revolution\" in Kosovo and Vojvodina, curtailing their autonomy as well as imposing a curfew and a state of emergency in Kosovo due to violent demonstrations, resulting in 24 deaths (including two policemen).",
"Milošević and his government claimed that the constitutional changes were necessary to protect Kosovo's remaining Serbs against harassment from the Albanian majority.===Constitutional amendments (1989–94)===On 17 November 1988 Kaqusha Jashari and Azem Vllasi were forced to resign from the leadership of the League of Communists of Kosovo (LCK).",
"In early 1989 the Serbian Assembly proposed amendments to the Constitution of Serbia that would remove the word \"Socialist\" from the Serbian Republic's title, establish multi-party elections, remove the independence of institutions of the autonomous provinces such as Kosovo and rename Kosovo as the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija.",
"In February Kosovar Albanians demonstrated in large numbers against the proposal, emboldened by striking miners.",
"Serbs in Belgrade protested against the Kosovo Albanian's separatism.",
"On 3 March 1989 the Presidency of Yugoslavia imposed special measures assigning responsibility for public security to the federal government.",
"On 23 March the Assembly of Kosovo voted to accept the proposed amendments although most Albanian delegates abstained.",
"In early 1990 Kosovar Albanians held mass demonstrations against the special measures, which were lifted on 18 April 1990 and responsibility for public security was again assigned to Serbia.On 26 June 1990 Serbian authorities barred access to the building of the Kosovo Assembly, citing special circumstances.",
"On 2 July 1990, 114 ethnic Albanian delegates of the 180-member Kosovo Assembly gathered in front of the closed building and declared Kosovo an independent republic within Yugoslavia.",
"On 5 July the Serbian Assembly dissolved the Kosovo Assembly.",
"Serbia also dissolved the provincial executive council and assumed full and direct control of the province.",
"Serbia took over management of Kosovo's principal Albanian-language media, halting Albanian-language broadcasts.",
"On 4 September 1990 Kosovar Albanians observed a 24-hour general strike, virtually shutting down the province.",
"On 5 August 1991, the Serbian Assembly suspended the main Albanian-language daily newspaper, ''Rilindja'', declaring its journalism unconstitutional.On 7 September 1990 the Constitution of Kosovo was promulgated by Albanian members of the disbanded Assembly of Kosovo.",
"Milošević responded by ordering the arrest of the deputies that participated in the meeting.",
"The new controversial Serbian Constitution was promulgated on 28 September 1990.In September 1991, Kosovar Albanians held an unofficial referendum in which they voted overwhelmingly for independence.",
"On 24 May 1992 Kosovar Albanians held unofficial elections for an assembly and president of the Republic of Kosovo and elected Ibrahim Rugova as president.114 delegates of the SAP Kosovo Assembly gathered in front of the closed Assembly building on July 2, 1990, and declared Kosovo an independent Republic within Yugoslavia.During this time, the Republic of Kosova started to establish parallel institutions, which were not recognized by Serbia.",
"The presence of Serbian security structures in Kosovo increased considerably and Kosovo was put into constant curfews.",
"Hundreds of thousands of ethnic Albanians were fired from government and state-run institutions.",
"By 1990 most Albanian schools were closed and the Serbian government required Albanian teachers to sign loyalty oaths in order to remain employed, effectively asking them to recognize Serbia, and not Republic of Kosova as their country, which the vast majority refused to sign.",
"By 1991 all Albanian schoolteachers and academic staff had been dismissed and a parallel education system was established by the government of the Republic of Kosova, using donated private homes as classrooms.",
"350,000 Albanians emigrated out of the region due to economic and social pressures over the next seven years, and the Milosevic regime encouraged Serb settlement to the region.",
"United Nations Special Rapporteur Tadeusz Mazowiecki reported on 26 February 1993 that the police had intensified their repression of the Albanian population since 1990, including depriving them of their basic rights, destroying their education system, and conducting large numbers of political dismissals of civil servants."
],
[
"Eruption of war",
"===The slide to war (1995–1998)===According to an Amnesty International report in 1998, due to dismissals from the Yugoslav government it was estimated that by 1998 unemployment rate in the Kosovar Albanian population was higher than 70%.",
"The economic apartheid imposed by Belgrade was aimed at impoverishing an already poor Kosovo Albanian population.In 1996, 16,000 Serb refugees from Bosnia and Croatia were settled in Kosovo by the Milosevic government, sometimes against their will.Ibrahim Rugova, first President of the Republic of Kosovo pursued a policy of passive resistance which succeeded in maintaining peace in Kosovo during the earlier wars in Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia during the early 1990s.",
"As evidenced by the emergence of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), this came at the cost of increasing frustration among Kosovo's Albanian population.",
"In the mid-1990s, Rugova pleaded for a United Nations peacekeeping force for Kosovo.Continuing repression convinced many Albanians that only armed resistance would change the situation.",
"On 22 April 1996, four attacks on Serbian security personnel were carried out almost simultaneously in different parts of Kosovo.",
"The KLA, a hitherto-unknown organisation, subsequently claimed responsibility.",
"The nature of the KLA was at first mysterious.",
"It initially seemed that their only goals were to stop repression from Yugoslav authorities.",
"KLA goals also included the establishment of a Greater Albania, a state stretching into surrounding Macedonia, Montenegro and southern Serbia.",
"In July 1998, in an interview for Der Spiegel, KLA spokesman Jakup Krasniqi publicly announced that the KLA's goal was the unification of all Albanian-inhabited lands.",
"Sulejman Selimi, a General Commander of KLA in 1998–1999, said:While Rugova promised to uphold the minority rights of Serbs in Kosovo, the KLA was much less tolerant.",
"Selimi stated that \"Serbs who have blood on their hands would have to leave Kosovo\".insurgencyThe crisis escalated in December 1997 at the Peace Implementation Council meeting in Bonn, where the international community (as defined in the Dayton Agreement) agreed to give the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina sweeping powers, including the right to dismiss elected leaders.",
"At the same time, Western diplomats insisted that Kosovo be discussed and that Yugoslavia be responsive to Albanian demands there.",
"The delegation from Yugoslavia stormed out of the meetings in protest.",
"This was followed by the return of the Contact Group that oversaw the last phases of the Bosnian conflict and declarations from European powers demanding that Yugoslavia solve the problem in Kosovo.The KLA received financial and material support from the Kosovo Albanian diaspora.",
"In early 1997, Albania collapsed into chaos following the fall of President Sali Berisha.",
"Albanian Armed Forces stockpiles were looted with impunity by criminal gangs, with much of the hardware ending up in western Kosovo and boosting the growing KLA arsenal.",
"Bujar Bukoshi, shadow Prime Minister in exile (in Zürich, Switzerland), created a group called FARK (Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosova).",
"FARK and the KLA were initially rivals, but later FARK merged into the KLA.",
"The Yugoslav government considered the KLA to be \"terrorists\" and \"insurgents\" who indiscriminately attacked police and civilians, while most Albanians saw the KLA as \"freedom fighters\".On 23 February 1998, the United States Special Envoy to the Balkans, Robert Gelbard, stated in Pristina that \"the KLA was without any question a terrorist group.\"",
"He later told the House Committee on International Relations that \"while the KLA had committed 'terrorist acts,' it had 'not been classified legally by the U.S. Government as a terrorist organization.'\"",
"However, his 23 February statements have been seen as an unwitting \"green light\" to the Serbian crackdown that followed less than a week later.===War begins===KLA attacks intensified, centering on the Drenica valley area with the compound of Adem Jashari being a focal point.",
"Days after Robert Gelbard described the KLA as a terrorist group, Serbian police responded to the KLA attacks in the Likošane area, and pursued some of the KLA to Čirez, resulting in the deaths of 16 Albanian fighters and 26 civilians in the attacks on Likoshane and Çirez.",
"and four Serbian policemen.",
"The KLA's goal was to merge its Drenica stronghold with their stronghold in Albania proper, and this would shape the first few months of the fighting.The Jashari family compound in Prekaz, where KLA leader Adem Jashari and 60 other people, mainly civilians, were murdered in the attack on PrekazSerb police then began to pursue Adem Jashari and his followers in the village of Donje Prekaze.",
"On 5 March 1998, a massive firefight at the Jashari compound led to the massacre of 60 Albanians, of which eighteen were women and ten were under the age of sixteen.",
"The event provoked massive condemnation from western capitals.",
"Madeleine Albright said that \"this crisis is not an internal affair of the FRY\".On 24 March, Yugoslav forces surrounded the village of Glodjane and attacked a rebel compound there.",
"Despite superior firepower, the Yugoslav forces failed to destroy the KLA unit, which had been their objective.",
"Although there were deaths and severe injuries on the Albanian side, the insurgency in Glodjane was far from stamped out.",
"The village was in fact to become one of the strongest centres of resistance in the upcoming war.A new Yugoslav government was formed at this time, led by the Socialist Party of Serbia and the Serbian Radical Party.",
"Ultra-nationalist Radical Party chairman Vojislav Šešelj became a deputy prime minister.",
"This increased the dissatisfaction with the country's position among Western diplomats and spokespersons.In early April, Serbia arranged for a referendum on the issue of foreign interference in Kosovo.",
"Serbian voters decisively rejected foreign interference in the crisis.",
"Meanwhile, the KLA claimed much of the area in and around Deçan and ran a territory based in the village of Glodjane, encompassing its surroundings.",
"On 31 May 1998, the Yugoslav army and the Serb Ministry of the Interior police began an operation to clear the border of the KLA.",
"NATO's response to this offensive was mid-June's Operation Determined Falcon, a NATO show of force over the Yugoslav borders.Memorial complex in Gllogjan, where the Battle of Glođane took placeDuring this time, Yugoslav President Milošević reached an arrangement with Boris Yeltsin of Russia to stop offensive operations and prepare for talks with the Albanians, who refused to talk to the Serbian side throughout the crisis, but would talk with the Yugoslav government.",
"In fact, the only meeting between Milošević and Ibrahim Rugova happened on 15 May in Belgrade, two days after the special presidential envoy Richard Holbrooke announced that it would take place.",
"Holbrooke threatened Milošević that if he did not obey, \"what's left of your country will implode\".",
"A month later, Holbrooke visited the border areas affected by the fighting in early June, where he was famously photographed with the KLA.",
"The publication of these images sent a signal to the KLA, its supporters and sympathisers, and to observers in general, that the US was decisively backing the KLA and the Albanian population in Kosovo.The Yeltsin agreement required Milošević to allow international representatives to set up a mission in Kosovo to monitor the situation there.",
"The Kosovo Diplomatic Observer Mission (KDOM) began operations in early July 1998.The US government welcomed this part of the agreement, but denounced the initiative's call for a mutual cease fire.",
"Rather, the US demanded that the Serbian-Yugoslavian side should cease fire \"without linkage ... to a cessation in terrorist activities\".",
"All through June and into mid-July, the KLA maintained its advance.",
"The KLA surrounded Peja and Gjakova, and set up an interim capital in the town of Malisheva (north of Rahovec).",
"KLA troops infiltrated Suva Reka and the northwest of Pristina.",
"They moved on to capture the Belacevec coal pits in late June, threatening energy supplies in the region.",
"Their tactics as usual focused mainly on guerrilla and mountain warfare, and harassing and ambushing Yugoslav forces and Serb police patrols.The tide turned in mid-July when the KLA captured Rahovec.",
"On 17 July 1998, two nearby villages, Retimlije and Opteruša, were also captured, while less systematic events took place in the larger Serb-populated village of Velika Hoča.",
"The Orthodox monastery of Zočište was looted and torched.",
"This led to a series of Serb and Yugoslav offensives which would continue into the beginning of August.A new set of KLA attacks in mid-August triggered Yugoslavian operations in south-central Kosovo, south of the Pristina-Peja road.",
"The KLA began an offensive on 1 September around Prizren, causing Yugoslavian military activity there.",
"In western Kosovo, around Peja, another offensive caused condemnation as international officials expressed fear that a large column of displaced people would be attacked.In early mid-September, for the first time, KLA activity was reported in northern Kosovo around Podujevo.",
"Finally, in late September, a Yugoslav determined effort was made to clear the KLA out of the northern and central parts of Kosovo and out of the Drenica valley.",
"During this time many threats were made from Western capitals but these were tempered somewhat by the elections in Bosnia, as they did not want Serbian Democrats and Radicals to win.",
"Following the elections, the threats intensified once again.",
"On 28 September, the mutilated corpses of a family were discovered by KDOM outside the village of Gornje Obrinje.",
"The bloody image of a child's doll and streams of displaced persons rallied the international community to action.====Morale====Morale was a serious problem for Serb forces; intelligence surveys found that many soldiers disagreed with their comrades' actions.",
"One tank commander reported, \"for the entire time I was in Kosovo, I never saw an enemy soldier and my unit was never once involved in firing at enemy targets.",
"The tanks which cost $2.5 million each were used to slaughter Albanian children...",
"I am ashamed\".When retreating from Kosovo after NATO intervention, Yugoslav units appeared combat effective with high morale and displaying large holdings of undamaged equipment.",
"Weeks before the end of hostilities, David Fromkin noted that \"it seemed possible that NATO unity might crack before Yugoslav morale did.\"",
"The announcement by President Clinton that the US would not deploy ground troops gave a tremendous boost to Serbian morale.===UN, NATO, and OSCE (1998–1999)===Clinton talks on the phone about the Kosovo WarOn 9 June 1998, US President Bill Clinton declared a \"national emergency\" (state of emergency) due to the \"unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States\" imposed by Yugoslavia and Serbia over the Kosovo War.On 23 September 1998, acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1199.This expressed 'grave concern' at reports reaching the Secretary General that over 230,000 people had been displaced from their homes by 'the excessive and indiscriminate use of force by Serbian security forces and the Yugoslav Army', demanding that all parties in Kosovo and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cease hostilities and maintain a ceasefire.",
"On 24 September the North Atlantic Council (NAC) of NATO issued an \"activation warning\" taking NATO to an increased level of military preparedness for both a limited air option and a phased air campaign in Kosovo.",
"The other major issue for those who saw no option but to resort to the use of force was the estimated 250,000 displaced Albanians, 30,000 of whom were out in the woods, without warm clothing or shelter, with winter fast approaching.Meanwhile, the US Ambassador to the Republic of Macedonia, Christopher Hill, was leading shuttle diplomacy between an Albanian delegation, led by Rugova, and the Yugoslav and Serbian authorities.",
"These meetings were shaping the peace plan to be discussed during a period of planned NATO occupation of Kosovo.",
"During a period of two weeks, threats intensified, culminating in NATO's Activation Order being given.",
"NATO was ready to begin airstrikes, and Richard Holbrooke went to Belgrade in the hope of reaching an agreement with Milošević.",
"Officially, the international community demanded an end to fighting.",
"It specifically demanded that Yugoslavia end its offensives against the KLA whilst attempting to convince the KLA to drop its bid for independence.",
"Attempts were made to persuade Milošević to permit NATO peacekeeping troops to enter Kosovo.",
"This, they argued, would allow for the Christopher Hill peace process to proceed and yield a peace agreement.On 13 October 1998, the North Atlantic Council issued activation orders for the execution of both limited air strikes and a phased air campaign in Yugoslavia which would begin in approximately 96 hours.",
"On 15 October the NATO Kosovo Verification Mission (KVM) Agreement for a ceasefire was signed, and the deadline for withdrawal was extended to 27 October.",
"Difficulties implementing the agreement were reported, as clashes continued between government troops and the guerrillas.",
"The Serbian withdrawal commenced on or around 25 October 1998, and Operation Eagle Eye commenced on 30 October.The KVM was a large contingent of unarmed Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) peace monitors (officially known as verifiers) that moved into Kosovo.",
"Their inadequacy was evident from the start.",
"They were nicknamed the \"clockwork oranges\" in reference to their brightly coloured vehicles.",
"Fighting resumed in December 1998 after both sides broke the ceasefire, and this surge in violence culminated in the killing of Zvonko Bojanić, the Serb mayor of the town of Kosovo Polje.",
"Yugoslav authorities responded by launching a crackdown against KLA militants.The January to March 1999 phase of the war brought increasing insecurity in urban areas, including bombings and murders.",
"Such attacks took place during the Rambouillet talks in February and as the Kosovo Verification Agreement unraveled in March.",
"Killings on the roads continued and increased.",
"There were military confrontations in, among other places, the Vushtrri area in February and the heretofore unaffected Kaçanik area in early March.On 15 January 1999 the Račak massacre occurred when 45 Kosovan Albanians were killed.",
"The bodies had been discovered by OSCE monitors, including Head of Mission William Walker, and foreign news correspondents.",
"Yugoslavia denied a massacre took place.",
"The Račak massacre was the culmination of the conflict between the KLA and Yugoslav forces that had continued throughout the winter of 1998–1999.The incident was immediately condemned as a massacre by the Western countries and the United Nations Security Council, and later became the basis of one of the charges of war crimes leveled against Milošević and his top officials.",
"This massacre was the turning point of the war.",
"NATO decided that the conflict could only be settled by introducing a military peacekeeping force under the auspices of NATO, to forcibly restrain the two sides.",
"Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, had been subjected to heavy firefights and segregation according to OSCE reports.===The Rambouillet Conference (January–March 1999)===On 30 January 1999, NATO issued a statement announcing that the North Atlantic Council had agreed that \"the NATO Secretary General may authorise air strikes against targets on FRY territory\" to \"compel compliance with the demands of the international community and to achieve a political settlement\".",
"While this was most obviously a threat to the Milošević government, it also included a coded threat to the Albanians: any decision would depend on the \"position and actions of the Kosovo Albanian leadership and all Kosovo Albanian armed elements in and around Kosovo.",
"\"Also on 30 January 1999, the Contact Group issued a set of \"non-negotiable principles\" which made up a package known as \"Status Quo Plus\"effectively the restoration of Kosovo's pre-1990 autonomy within Serbia, plus the introduction of democracy and supervision by international organisations.",
"It also called for a peace conference to be held in February 1999 at the Château de Rambouillet, outside Paris.The Rambouillet talks began on 6 February 1999, with NATO Secretary General Javier Solana negotiating with both sides.",
"They were intended to conclude by 19 February.",
"The FR Yugoslavian delegation was led by then president of Serbia Milan Milutinović, while Milošević himself remained in Belgrade.",
"This was in contrast to the 1995 Dayton conference that ended the war in Bosnia, where Milošević negotiated in person.",
"The absence of Milošević was interpreted as a sign that the real decisions were being made back in Belgrade, a move that aroused criticism in Yugoslavia as well as abroad; Kosovo's Serbian Orthodox bishop Artemije traveled all the way to Rambouillet to protest that the delegation was wholly unrepresentative.",
"At this time, speculation about an indictment of Milošević for war crimes was rife, so his absence may have been motivated by fear of arrest.Yugoslav Army in the 1999 Kosovo WarThe first phase of negotiations was successful.",
"In particular, a statement was issued by the Contact Group co-chairmen on 23 February 1999 that the negotiations \"have led to a ''consensus'' on substantial autonomy for Kosovo, including on mechanisms for free and fair elections to democratic institutions, for the governance of Kosovo, for the protection of human rights and the rights of members of national communities; and for the establishment of a fair judicial system\".",
"They went on to say that \"a political framework is now in place\", leaving the further work of finalising \"the implementation Chapters of the Agreement, including the modalities of the ''invited international'' civilian and military presence in Kosovo\".",
"While the Serbs agreed to an autonomous government, free elections, and the release of all political prisoners, the West also insisted on the presence of NATO troops.While the accords did not fully satisfy the Albanians, they were much too radical for the Yugoslavs, who responded by substituting a drastically revised text that even Russia (ally of FR Yugoslavia) found unacceptable.",
"It sought to reopen the painstakingly negotiated political status of Kosovo and deleted all of the proposed implementation measures.",
"Among many other changes in the proposed new version, it eliminated the entire chapter on humanitarian assistance and reconstruction, removed virtually all international oversight and dropped any mention of invoking \"the will of the people of Kosovo\" in determining the final status of the province.On 18 March 1999, the Albanian, US, and British delegations signed what became known as the Rambouillet Accords, while the Yugoslav and Russian delegations refused.",
"The accords called for NATO administration of Kosovo as an autonomous province within Yugoslavia, a force of 30,000 NATO troops to maintain order in Kosovo; an unhindered right of passage for NATO troops on Yugoslav territory, including Kosovo; and immunity for NATO and its agents to Yugoslav law.",
"They would have also permitted a continuing Yugoslav army presence of 1,500 troops for border monitoring, backed by up to 1,000 troops to perform command and support functions, as well as a small number of border police, 2,500 ordinary MUP for public security purposes (although these were expected to draw down and to be transformed), and 3,000 local police.Although the Yugoslav Government cited military provisions of Appendix B of the Rambouillet provisions as the reason for its objections, claiming that it was an unacceptable violation of Yugoslavia's sovereignty, these provisions were essentially the same as had been applied to Bosnia for the SFOR (Stabilisation Force) mission there after the Dayton Agreement in 1995.The two sides did not discuss the issue in detail because of their disagreements on more fundamental problems.",
"In particular, the Serb side rejected the idea of any NATO troop presence in Kosovo to replace their security forces, preferring unarmed UN observers.",
"Milošević himself had refused to discuss the annex after informing NATO that it was unacceptable, even after he was asked to propose amendments to the provisions which would have made them acceptable.After the failure at Rambouillet and the alternative Yugoslav proposal, international monitors from the OSCE withdrew on 22 March, to ensure their safety ahead of the anticipated NATO bombing campaign.",
"On 23 March, the Serbian assembly accepted the principle of autonomy for Kosovo, as well as the non-military aspects of the agreement, but rejected a NATO troop presence.In a 2009 judgement regarding six former Serb leaders charged with war crimes in Kosovo, the ICTY noted that the causes of the breakdown in the negotiations at Rambouillet were complex and stated that \"international negotiators did not take an entirely even-handed approach to the respective positions of the parties and tended to favour the Kosovo Albanians.\"",
"It further recorded that, according to a witness, on 14 April 1999, at a meeting initiated by the White House with representatives of the Serbian-American community, President Bill Clinton had stated that \"the provision for allowing a referendum for the Albanians in Kosovo went too far and that, if he were in the shoes of Milošević, he probably would not have signed the draft Rambouillet agreement either.\""
],
[
"NATO bombing timeline",
"F-117 Nighthawk taxis to the runway before taking off from Aviano Air Base, Italy, on 24 March 1999On 23 March 1999 at 21:30 UTC, Richard Holbrooke returned to Brussels and announced that peace talks had failed and formally handed the matter to NATO for military action.",
"Hours before the announcement, Yugoslavia announced on national television it had declared a state of emergency, citing an imminent threat of war and began a huge mobilisation of troops and resources.On 23 March 1999 at 22:17 UTC, the Secretary General of NATO, Javier Solana, announced he had directed the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), US Army General Wesley Clark, to \"initiate air operations in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.\"",
"On 24 March at 19:00 UTC, NATO started its bombing campaign against Yugoslavia.A Tomahawk cruise missile launches from the aft missile deck of USS ''Gonzalez'' on 31 March 1999The NATO bombing campaign lasted from 24 March to 11 June 1999, involving up to 1,000 aircraft operating mainly from bases in Italy and aircraft carriers stationed in the Adriatic.",
"Tomahawk cruise missiles were also extensively used, fired from aircraft, ships, and submarines.",
"With the exception of Greece, all NATO members were involved to some degree.",
"Over the ten weeks of the conflict, NATO aircraft flew over 38,000 combat missions.",
"For the German Air Force (''Luftwaffe''), it was the second time it had participated in a conflict since World War II, after the Bosnian War.The proclaimed goal of the NATO operation was summed up by its spokesman as \"Serbs out, peacekeepers in, refugees back\".",
"That is, Yugoslav troops would have to leave Kosovo and be replaced by international peacekeepers to ensure that the Albanian refugees could return to their homes.",
"The campaign was initially designed to destroy Yugoslav air defences and high-value military targets.",
"It did not go very well at first, with bad weather hindering many sorties early on.",
"NATO had seriously underestimated Milošević's will to resist: few in Brussels thought that the campaign would last more than a few days, and although the initial bombardment was not insignificant, it did not match the intensity of the bombing of Baghdad in 1991.NATO military operations switched increasingly to attacking Yugoslav units on the ground, hitting targets as small as individual tanks and artillery pieces, as well as continuing with the strategic bombardment.",
"This activity was heavily constrained by politics, as each target needed to be approved by all nineteen member states.",
"Montenegro was bombed on several occasions, but NATO eventually desisted to prop up the precarious position of its anti-Milošević leader, Milo Đukanović.Post-strike damage assessment of the Sremska Mitrovica ordnance storage depot, SerbiaAt the start of May, a NATO aircraft attacked an Albanian refugee convoy, believing it was a Yugoslav military convoy, killing around fifty people.",
"NATO admitted its mistake five days later, and the Yugoslavs accused NATO of deliberately attacking the refugees.",
"A later report conducted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) opined that \"civilians were not deliberately attacked in this incident\", and that \"neither the aircrew nor their commanders displayed the degree of recklessness in failing to take precautionary measures which would sustain criminal charges.\"",
"On 7 May, NATO bombs hit the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade, killing three Chinese journalists and outraging Chinese public opinion.",
"The United States and NATO later apologised for the bombing, saying that it occurred because of an outdated map provided by the CIA, although this was challenged by a joint report from ''The Observer'' (UK) and ''Politiken'' (Denmark) newspapers, which claimed that NATO intentionally bombed the embassy because it was being used as a relay station for Yugoslav army radio signals.",
"The report by the newspaper contradicts findings in the same report by the ICTY which stated that the root of the failures in target location \"appears to stem from the land navigation techniques employed by an intelligence officer.\"",
"In another incident at the Dubrava prison in Kosovo in May 1999, the Yugoslav government attributed as many as 95 civilian deaths to NATO bombing of the facility after NATO cited Serbian and Yugoslav military activity in the area; a Human Rights Watch report later concluded that at least nineteen ethnic Albanian prisoners had been killed by the bombing, but that an uncertain number – probably more than 70 – were killed by Serbian Government forces in the days immediately following the bombing.Smoke in Novi Sad after NATO bombardmentBy the start of April, the conflict appeared little closer to a resolution, and NATO countries began to seriously consider conducting ground operations in Kosovo.",
"British Prime Minister Tony Blair was a strong advocate of ground forces and pressured the United States to agree; his strong stance caused some alarm in Washington as US forces would be making the largest contribution to any offensive.",
"US President Bill Clinton was extremely reluctant to commit US forces for a ground offensive.",
"Instead, Clinton authorised a CIA operation to look into methods to destabilise the Yugoslav government without training KLA troops.",
"At the same time, Finnish and Russian diplomatic negotiators continued to try to persuade Milošević to back down.",
"Tony Blair would order 50,000 British soldiers to be made ready for a ground offensive: most of the available British Army.Milošević finally recognised that Russia would not intervene to defend Yugoslavia despite Moscow's strong anti-NATO rhetoric.",
"He thus accepted the conditions offered by a Finnish–Russian mediation team and agreed to a military presence within Kosovo headed by the UN, but incorporating NATO troops.The Norwegian special forces Hærens Jegerkommando and Forsvarets Spesialkommando cooperated with the KLA in gathering intelligence information.",
"Preparing for an invasion on 12 June, Norwegian special forces worked with the KLA on the Ramno mountain on the border between North Macedonia and Kosovo and acted as scouts to monitor events in Kosovo.",
"Together with British special forces, Norwegian special forces were the first to cross over the border into Kosovo.",
"According to Keith Graves with the television network Sky News, the Norwegians were in Kosovo two days prior to the entry of other forces and were among the first into Pristina.",
"The Hærens Jegerkommando's and Forsvarets Spesialkommando's job was to clear the way between the contending parties and to make local deals to implement the peace deal between the Serbians and the Kosovo Albanians."
],
[
"Yugoslav army withdrawal and the entry of KFOR",
"On 3 June 1999, Milošević accepted the terms of an international peace plan to end the fighting, with the national parliament adopting the proposal amid contentious debate with delegates coming close to fistfights at some points.",
"On 10 June, the North Atlantic Council ratified the agreement and suspended air operations.US Marines march with local Albanian children down the main street of Zegra on 28 June 1999On 12 June, after Milošević accepted the conditions, the NATO-led peacekeeping Kosovo Force (KFOR) of 30,000 soldiers began entering Kosovo.",
"KFOR had been preparing to conduct combat operations, but in the end, its mission was only peacekeeping.",
"The force was based upon the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps headquarters commanded by then Lieutenant General Mike Jackson of the British Army.",
"It consisted of British forces (a brigade built from 4th Armored and 5th Airborne Brigades), a French Army Brigade, a German Army brigade, which entered from the west, while other forces advanced from the south, and Italian Army and United States Army brigades.The first NATO troops to enter Pristina on the 12th of June 1999 were Norwegian special forces from Forsvarets Spesialkommando (FSK) and soldiers from the British Special Air Service 22 Regiment, although to NATO's diplomatic embarrassment Russian troops arrived at the airport first.",
"Norwegian soldiers were the first to come into contact with Russian troops at the airport.",
"FSK's mission was to level the negotiating field between the belligerent parties, and to fine-tune the detailed, local deals needed to implement the peace deal between the Serbians and the Kosovo Albanians.The US contribution, known as the Initial Entry Force, was led by the 1st Armored Division, commanded by Brigadier General Peterson, and was spearheaded by a platoon from the 2nd Battalion, 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment attached to the British Forces.",
"Other units included 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) from Stuttgart, Germany and Fort Carson, Colorado, TF 1–6 Infantry (1-6 infantry with C Co 1-35AR) from Baumholder, Germany, the 2nd Battalion, 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment from Fort Bragg, North Carolina, the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit from Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, the 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment from Schweinfurt, Germany, and Echo Troop, 4th Cavalry Regiment, also from Schweinfurt, Germany.",
"Also attached to the US force was the Greek Army's 501st Mechanised Infantry Battalion.",
"The initial US forces established their area of operation around the towns of Uroševac, the future Camp Bondsteel, and Gnjilane, at Camp Monteith, and spent four monthsthe start of a stay which continues to dateestablishing order in the southeast sector of Kosovo.US soldiers escort a Serbian civilian from his home in Zitinje after finding an automatic weapon, 26 July 1999During the initial incursion, the US soldiers were greeted by Albanians cheering and throwing flowers as US soldiers and KFOR rolled through their villages.",
"Although no resistance was met, three US soldiers from the Initial Entry Force were killed in accidents.On 1 October 1999, approximately 150 paratroopers from Alpha Company, 1/508th Airborne Battalion Combat Team from Vicenza, Italy parachuted into Uroševac as part of Operation Rapid Guardian.",
"The purpose of the mission was primarily to warn Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević of NATO resolve and of its rapid military capability.",
"One US soldier, Army Ranger Sgt.",
"Jason Neil Pringle, was killed during operations after his parachute failed to deploy.",
"The paratroopers of the 1/508th then joined paratroopers of the 82nd Airborne and KFOR in patrolling various areas of Kosovo, without incident, through 3 October 1999.On 15 December 1999, Staff Sergeant Joseph Suponcic of 3rd Battalion/10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) was killed, when the HMMWV in which he was a passenger struck an anti-tank mine planted by Albanians and meant for the Russian contingent with which SSG Suponcic's team was patrolling in Kosovska Kamenica.US soldiers maintain crowd control as Albanian residents of Vitina protest in the streets on 9 January 2000Following the military campaign, the involvement of Russian peacekeepers proved to be tense and challenging to the NATO Kosovo force.",
"The Russians expected to have an independent sector of Kosovo, only to be unhappily surprised with the prospect of operating under NATO command.",
"Without prior communication or coordination with NATO, Russian peacekeeping forces entered Kosovo from Bosnia and Herzegovina and occupied Pristina International Airport ahead of the arrival of NATO forces.",
"This resulted in an incident during which NATO Supreme Commander Wesley Clark's wish to forcibly block the runways with NATO vehicles, to prevent any Russian reinforcement, was refused by KFOR commander General Mike Jackson.In 2010, James Blunt described in an interview how his unit was given the assignment of securing Pristina during the advance of the 30,000-strong peacekeeping force and how the Russian Army had moved in and taken control of the city's airport before his unit's arrival.",
"Blunt shared a part in the difficult task of addressing the potentially violent international incident.",
"According to Blunt's account there was a stand-off with the Russians, and NATO Supreme Commander Clark gave provisional orders to over-power them.",
"Whilst these were questioned by Blunt, they were rejected by General Jackson, with the now famous line, \"I'm not having my soldiers responsible for starting World War III.",
"\"In June 2000, arms trading relations between Russia and Yugoslavia were exposed, which led to retaliation and bombings of Russian checkpoints and area police stations.",
"Outpost Gunner was established on a high point in the Preševo Valley by Echo Battery 1/161 Field Artillery in an attempt to monitor and assist with peacekeeping efforts in the Russian Sector.",
"Operating under the support of ⅔ Field Artillery, 1st Armored Division, the Battery was able to successfully deploy and continuously operate a Firefinder Radar system, which allowed the NATO forces to keep a closer watch on activities in the Sector and the Preševo Valley.",
"Eventually a deal was struck whereby Russian forces operated as a unit of KFOR but not under the NATO command structure."
],
[
"Reaction to the war",
"Russian Minister of Defense Marshal Igor Sergeyev (seated left) and Secretary of Defense William S. Cohen (seated center) sign the agreed principles which are the basis for Russian participation in the international peacekeeping force (KFOR) in Kosovo at the Presidential Place in Helsinki, Finland, on June 18, 1999.Observing the signing are Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs Igor Ivanov (3rd from right), Finnish President Martti Ahtisaari (2nd from right) and Secretary of State Madeleine Albright (right).Because of the country's restrictive media laws, the Yugoslav media carried little coverage of events in Kosovo, and the attitude of other countries to the humanitarian disaster that was occurring there.",
"Thus, few members of the Yugoslav public expected NATO intervention, instead thinking that a diplomatic agreement would be reached.===Support for the war===Support for the Kosovan War and, in particular, the legitimacy of NATO's bombing campaign came from a variety of sources.",
"In a 2009 article, David Clark claimed \"Every member of NATO, every EU country, and most of Yugoslavia's neighbours, supported military action.\"",
"Statements from the leaders of United States, Czech Republic and United Kingdom, respectively, described the war as one \"upholding our values, protecting our interests, and advancing the cause of peace\", \"the first war for values\" and one \"to avert what would otherwise be a humanitarian disaster in Kosovo.\"",
"Others included the then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan who was reported by some sources as acknowledging that the NATO action was legitimate who emphasised that there were times when the use of force was legitimate in the pursuit of peace though Annan stressed that the \"UN Security Council should have been involved in any decision to use force.\"",
"The distinction between the legality and legitimacy of the intervention was further highlighted in two separate reports.",
"One was conducted by the Independent International Commission on Kosovo, entitled ''The Kosovo Report'', which found that:It concluded that \"the NATO military intervention was illegal but legitimate\", The second report was published by the NATO Office of Information and Press which reported that, \"the human rights violations committed on a large scale in Kosovo provide an incontestable ground with reference to the humanitarian aspect of NATO's intervention.\"",
"Some critics note that NATO did not have the backing of the United Nations Security Council meant that its intervention had no legal basis, but according to some legal scholars, \"there are nonetheless certain bases for that action that are not legal, but justified.",
"\"Kosovo Albanian refugees in 1999Aside from politicians and diplomats, commentators and intellectuals also supported the war.",
"Michael Ignatieff called NATOs intervention a \"morally justifiable response to ethnic cleansing and the resulting flood of refugees, and not the cause of the flood of refugees\" while Christopher Hitchens said NATO intervened only, \"when Serbian forces had resorted to mass deportation and full-dress ethnic 'cleansing.",
"Writing in ''The Nation'', Richard A. Falk wrote that, \"the NATO campaign achieved the removal of Yugoslav military forces from Kosovo and, even more significant, the departure of the dreaded Serbian paramilitary units and police\" while an article in ''The Guardian'' wrote that for Mary Kaldor, Kosovo represented a laboratory on her thinking for human security, humanitarian intervention and international peacekeeping, the latter two which she defined as, \"a genuine belief in the equality of all human beings; and this entails a readiness to risk lives of peacekeeping troops to save the lives of others where this is necessary.\"",
"Reports stated there had been no peace between Albanians and Serbs, citing the deaths of 1,500 Albanians and displacement of 270,000 prior to NATO intervention.===Criticism of the case for war===The NATO intervention has been seen as a political diversionary tactic, coming as it did on the heels of the Monica Lewinsky scandal, pointing to the fact that coverage of the bombing directly replaced coverage of the scandal in US news cycles.",
"Herbert Foerstel points out that before the bombing, rather than there being an unusually bloody conflict, the KLA was not engaged in a widespread war against Yugoslav forces and the death toll among all concerned (including ethnic Albanians) skyrocketed following NATO intervention.",
"In a post-war report released by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the organization also noted \"the pattern of the expulsions and the vast increase in lootings, killings, rape, kidnappings and pillage once the NATO air war began on March 24\".US President Clinton, his administration and NATO governments were accused of inflating the number of Kosovo Albanians killed by state forces.",
"During the NATO bombing campaign, the then Secretary of Defense, William Cohen claimed that 100,000 Kosovo Albanian men of military age were missing, possibly murdered.",
"The conservative media watchdog group Accuracy in Media charged the alliance with distorting the situation in Kosovo and lying about the number of civilian deaths in order to justify U.S. involvement in the conflict.After the bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Chinese President Jiang Zemin said that the US was using its economic and military superiority to aggressively expand its influence and interfere in the internal affairs of other countries.",
"Chinese leaders called the NATO campaign a dangerous precedent of naked aggression, a new form of colonialism, and an aggressive war groundless in morality or law.",
"It was seen as part of a plot by the US to destroy Yugoslavia, expand eastward and control all of Europe.The United Nations Charter does not allow military interventions in other sovereign countries with few exceptions which, in general, need to be decided upon by the United Nations Security Council; this legal enjoinment has proved controversial with many legal scholars who argue that though the Kosovo War was illegal, it was still legitimate.",
"The issue was brought before the UN Security Council by Russia, in a draft resolution which, ''inter alia'', would affirm \"that such unilateral use of force constitutes a flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter\".",
"China, Namibia, and Russia voted for the resolution, the other members against, thus it failed to pass.The war inflicted many casualties.",
"Already by March 1999, an estimated 1,500–2,000 civilians and combatants were dead.",
"However, estimates showed that prior to the bombing campaign on 24 March 1999, approximately 1,800 civilians had been killed in the Kosovo war, mostly Albanians but also Serbs and that there had been no evidence of genocide or ethnic cleansing.",
"By November 1999, 2,108 victims had been exhumed from the province with a total approaching 3,000 expected, but it was unclear how many were civilians and combatants, while the number was also far from the 10,000 minimum civilian death figure cited by Western officials.",
"Final estimates of the casualties are still unavailable for either side.Perhaps the most controversial deliberate attack of the war was that made against the headquarters of RTS, Serbian public radio and television, on 23 April 1999, which killed at least fourteen people.Privately, NATO European members were divided about the aims and necessity of the war.",
"Most European allies did not trust the motives of Kosovan Albanians and according to NATO General Wesley Clark, \"There was a sense among some that NATO was fighting on the wrong side\" in a war between Christians and Muslims."
],
[
"Democratic League of Kosovo and FARK",
"The Democratic League of Kosovo (DLK) led by Ibrahim Rugova had been the leading political entity in Kosovo since its creation in 1989.Its parallel government in exile was led by Bujar Bukoshi, and its Minister of Defence until 1998 was the former Yugoslav colonel Ahmet Krasniqi.",
"DLK politicians opposed the armed conflict and were not ready to accept KLA as a political factor in the region and tried to persuade the population not to support it.",
"At one point Rugova even claimed that it was set up by Serbian intelligence as an excuse to invade, or to discredit DLK itself.",
"Nevertheless, the support for KLA even within DLK membership and specifically in the diaspora grew, together with the dissatisfaction with and antagonism toward DLK.",
"KLA initial personnel were members or former members of the DLK.",
"With the changes of the international stance towards KLA and its recognition as a factor in the conflict, DLK's position also shifted.",
"The Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosovo, known as FARK, were established in order to place DLK as a military factor in addition to a political one.",
"A parallel paramilitary structure such as FARK was not received well by the KLA.On 21 September 1998 Ahmet Krasniqi was shot in Tirana.",
"Those responsible were not found, although several theories emerged.",
"The Democratic Party of Albania and its leader Sali Berisha, strong supporters of DLK and FARK, accused SHIK and the Albanian government, which was supporting the KLA, of being responsible.",
"FARK was never a determining factor in the war and was not involved in any battles.",
"It did not number more than few hundred men, and it did not show any commitment to fighting the Serbs, accepting a broader autonomy as a solution rather than independence.",
"Some of the FARK officers were incorporated later under the KLA umbrella.",
"Besides FARK, DLK would also politically and diplomatically oppose KLA and their methods.",
"In a meeting with US President Clinton on 29 May 1999, Rugova, accompanied by Fehmi Agani, Bukoshi, and Veton Surroi, accused KLA of being a left-wing ideology bearer, and some of its leaders as being \"nostalgic to known communist figures, such as Enver Hoxha\", referring to the People's Movement of Kosovo (LPK) nucleus of KLA, an old underground rival with strong left-wing orientation.Rugova was present at the negotiations held in Rambouillet and supported the Rambouillet Agreement since the first round, but without any influence.",
"Following the ethnic cleansing of the Albanian population, there was close to a total Albanian support for the NATO campaign, including the DLK side.",
"Surprisingly, Ibrahim Rugova showed up in Belgrade as a guest of Milosevic.",
"At a joint TV appearance on 1 April, ending in a Rugova-Milosevic handshake, Rugova asked for a peaceful solution and the bombings to stop.",
"In the same conference, Millosevic presented his proposal for Kosovo as part of a three-unit federal Yugoslavian state.",
"Rugova's presence in Belgrade scattered another set of accusations from KLA and its supporters.",
"Besides being 'passive' and 'too peaceful', Rugova and DLK were accused as 'traitors'.",
"Following Rugova's passage to Italy on 5 May, Rugova claimed that he had been under duress and any \"agreement\" with Milosovic had no meaning.",
"The general opinion expected the DLK structures and its leader to vanish from the political scene of Kosovo after the Yugoslav withdrawal.",
"Rugova himself stayed out of Kosovo for several weeks, while the prime-minister Bukoshi and other leading membership returned.",
"With only a fraction of Kosovo Albanians participating actively in the war, the support for DLK increased again as a way of opposing the arrogance of many KLA leaders who openly engaged in controlling the economical and political life within the vacuum created right before the deployment of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK).",
"In the October 2000 local elections, DLK was confirmed as the leading political party.The feud between KLA and DLK continued in the post-war Kosovo.",
"Many political activists of DLK were assassinated and the perpetrators not found, including Xhemajl Mustafa, Rugova's most trusted aide."
],
[
"Casualties",
"===Civilian losses===In June 2000, the Red Cross reported that 3,368 civilians (mainly Kosovar Albanians, but with several hundred Serbs, and Roma) were still missing, nearly one year after the conflict, most of whom it concluded had to be 'presumed dead'.A study by researchers from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia published in 2000 in medical journal the Lancet estimated that \"12,000 deaths in the total population\" could be attributed to war.",
"This number was achieved by surveying 1,197 households from February 1998 through June 1999.67 out of the 105 deaths reported in the sample population were attributed to war-related trauma, which extrapolates to be 12,000 deaths if the same war-related mortality rate is applied to Kosovo's total population.",
"The highest mortality rates were in men between 15 and 49 (5,421 victims of war) as well as for men over 50 (5,176 victims).",
"For persons younger than 15, the estimates were 160 victims for males and 200 for females.",
"For women between 15 and 49 the estimate is that there were 510 victims; older than 50 years the estimate is 541 victims.",
"The authors stated that it was not \"possible to differentiate completely between civilian and military casualties\".In the 2008 joint study by the Humanitarian Law Centre (an NGO from Serbia and Kosovo), The International Commission on Missing Persons, and the Missing Person Commission of Serbia made a name-by-name list of war and post-war victims.",
"According to the updated 2015 Kosovo Memory Book, 13,535 people were killed or missing due to the Kosovo conflict, from 1 January 1998 up until December 2000.Of these, 10,812 were Albanians, 2,197 Serbs and 526 Roma, Bosniaks, Montenegrins and others.",
"10,317 civilians were killed or went missing, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others.",
"The remaining 3,218 dead or missing were combatants, including 2,131 members of the KLA and FARK, 1,084 members of Serbian forces and 3 members of KFOR.",
"As of 2019, the book had been updated to a total of 13,548.In August 2017, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights reported that between 1998 and 1999, more than 6,000 people had gone missing in Kosovo, and that 1,658 remained missing, with neither the person nor the body having, at that time, been found.====Civilians killed by NATO airstrikes====Railway bridge and monument to civilian victims of a NATO airstrike on a passenger train in 1999, in which 12 to 16 civilian passengers died.Yugoslavia claimed that NATO attacks caused between 1,200 and 5,700 civilian casualties.",
"NATO's Secretary General, Lord Robertson, wrote after the war that \"the actual toll in human lives will never be precisely known\" but he then offered the figures found in a report by Human Rights Watch as a reasonable estimate.",
"This report counted between 488 and 527 civilian deaths (90 to 150 of them killed from cluster bomb use) in 90 separate incidents, the worst of which were the 87 Albanian refugees who perished at the hands of NATO bombs, near Koriša.====Civilians killed by Yugoslav forces====Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officers investigate an alleged mass grave, alongside US MarinesVarious estimates of the number of killings attributed to Yugoslav forces have been announced through the years.",
"An estimated 800,000 Kosovo Albanians fled and an estimated 7,000 to 9,000 were killed, according to ''The New York Times''.",
"The estimate of 10,000 deaths is used by the US Department of State, which cited human rights abuses as its main justification for attacking Yugoslavia.Statistical experts working on behalf of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecution estimate that the total number of dead is about 10,000.Eric Fruits, a professor at Portland State University, argued that the experts' analyses were based on fundamentally flawed data and that none of its conclusions are supported by any valid statistical analysis or tests.In August 2000, the ICTY announced that it had exhumed 2,788 bodies in Kosovo, but declined to say how many were thought to be victims of war crimes.",
"KFOR sources told Agence France Presse that of the 2,150 bodies that had been discovered up until July 1999, about 850 were thought to be victims of war crimes.In an attempt to conceal the corpses of the victims, Yugoslav forces transported the bodies of murdered Albanians deep inside Serbia and buried them in mass graves.",
"According to HLC, many of the bodies were taken to the Mačkatica Aluminium Complex near Surdulica and the Copper Mining And Smelting Complex in Bor, where they were incinerated.",
"There are reports that some bodies of Albanian victims were also burned in the Feronikli plant in Glogovac.",
"'''Known mass graves''':* In 2001, 800 still unidentified bodies were found in pits on a police training ground just outside Belgrade and in eastern Serbia.",
"* At least 700 bodies were uncovered in a mass grave located within a special anti-terrorist police unit's compound in the Belgrade suburb of Batajnica.",
"* 77 bodies were found in the eastern Serbian town of Petrovo Selo.",
"* 50 bodies were uncovered near the western Serbian town of Peručac.",
"* A mass grave believed to contain 250 bodies of Albanians killed in the war has been found under a car park in Rudnica near Raška.",
"* At least 2 bodies, as well as part of the remains of a third body previously found in Rudnica have been found near a mine in the village of Kizevak in southern Serbia.",
"The operation of recovering the bodies is still ongoing.====Civilians killed by KLA forces====The KLA abducted and killed Serbian, Roma, and moderate Albanian civilians during and after the war.",
"The exact number of civilians killed by the KLA is not known, though estimates conducted in the initial post-war months listed several hundreds with the targeting of non-Albanians intensifying in the immediate aftermath of KFOR deployment.",
"Although more than 2,500 non-Albanians are believed to have been killed in the period between 1 January 1998 and 31 December 2000, it is not known how many of them were killed by the KLA or affiliated groups.===NATO losses===F-16C pilot's flight equipment belonging to Lt.",
"Colonel David L. Goldfein and part of the F-117A shot down over Serbia in 1999 on display at a Belgrade museum.Military casualties on the NATO side were light.",
"According to official reports, the alliance suffered no fatalities as a direct result of combat operations.",
"In the early hours of 5 May, a US military AH-64 Apache helicopter crashed approximately , according to CNN, or , according to the BBC, northeast of Tirana, Albania's capital, very close to the border between Kosovo and Albania.",
"The two US pilots of the helicopter, Army Chief Warrant Officers David Gibbs and Kevin L. Reichert, died in that crash.",
"They were the only NATO fatalities during the war, according to NATO official statements.There were other casualties after the war, mostly due to land mines.",
"During the war, the alliance reported the loss of the first US stealth aeroplane (an F-117 Nighthawk) ever shot down by enemy fire.",
"Furthermore, an F-16 fighter was lost near Šabac and 32 unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) from different nations were lost.",
"The wreckages of downed UAVs were shown on Serbian television during the war.",
"Some US sources claim a second F-117A was also heavily damaged, and although it made it back to its base, it never flew again.",
"A-10 Thunderbolts have been reported as losses, with two shot down and another two damaged.",
"Three US soldiers riding a Humvee in a routine patrol were captured by Yugoslav special forces across the Macedonian border.===Yugoslav military losses===Destroyed tank near PrizrenAt first, NATO claimed to have killed 10,000 Yugoslav troops, while Yugoslavia claimed only 500 had been killed; the NATO investigative teams later corrected it to a few hundred Yugoslav troops killed by air strikes.",
"In 2001, the Yugoslav authorities claimed 462 soldiers were killed and 299 wounded by NATO airstrikes.",
"Later, in 2013, Serbia claimed that 1,008 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen had been killed by NATO bombing.",
"In early June 1999, NATO claimed that 5,000 Yugoslav servicemen had been killed and 10,000 had been wounded during the NATO air campaign.",
"NATO has since revised this estimate to 1,200 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen killed.Wreckage of Yugoslav MiG-29 jet fighter shot down on 27 March 1999, outside the town of Ugljevik, Bosnia and HerzegovinaOf military equipment, NATO destroyed around 50 Yugoslav Air Force aircraft including 6 MiG-29s destroyed in air-to-air combat.",
"A number of G-4 Super Galebs were destroyed in their hardened aircraft shelter by bunker-busting bombs which started a fire which spread quickly because the shelter doors were not closed.",
"At the end of war, NATO officially claimed that they had destroyed 93 Yugoslav tanks.",
"Yugoslavia admitted a total of 3 destroyed tanks.",
"The latter figure was verified by European inspectors when Yugoslavia rejoined the Dayton accords, by noting the difference between the number of tanks then and at the last inspection in 1995.NATO claimed that the Yugoslav army lost 93 tanks (M-84's and T-55's), 132 APCs, and 52 artillery pieces.",
"''Newsweek'', the second-largest news weekly magazine in the U.S., gained access to a suppressed US Air Force report that claimed the real numbers were \"3 tanks, not 120; 18 armored personnel carriers, not 220; 20 artillery pieces, not 450\".",
"Another US Air Force report gives a figure of 14 tanks destroyed.",
"Most of the targets hit in Kosovo were decoys, such as tanks made out of plastic sheets with telegraph poles for gun barrels, or old World War II–era tanks which were not functional.",
"Anti-aircraft defences were preserved by the simple expedient of not turning them on, preventing NATO aircraft from detecting them, but forcing them to keep above a ceiling of , making accurate bombing much more difficult.",
"Towards the end of the war, it was claimed that carpet bombing by B-52 aircraft had caused huge casualties among Yugoslav troops stationed along the Kosovo–Albania border.",
"Careful searching by NATO investigators found no evidence of any such large-scale casualties.The most significant loss for the Yugoslav Army was the damaged and destroyed infrastructure.",
"Almost all military air bases and airfields (Batajnica, Lađevci, Slatina, Golubovci and Đakovica) and other military buildings and facilities were badly damaged or destroyed.",
"Unlike the units and their equipment, military buildings could not be camouflaged.",
"thus, defence industry and military technical overhaul facilities were also seriously damaged (Utva, Zastava Arms factory, Moma Stanojlović air force overhaul centre, technical overhaul centres in Čačak and Kragujevac).",
"In an effort to weaken the Yugoslav Army, NATO targeted several important civilian facilities (the Pančevo oil refinery, Novi Sad oil refinery, bridges, TV antennas, railroads, etc.",
")===KLA losses===Around 1,500 Kosovo Liberation Army soldiers were killed, according to KLA's own estimates.",
"HLC registered 2,131 KLA and FARK insurgents killed in its comprehensive database.===Aftermath===Refugee camp in Fier, AlbaniaThe Yugoslav and Serb forces caused the displacement of between 1.2 million to 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians.",
"After the end of the war in June 1999, numerous Albanian refugees started returning home from neighboring countries.",
"By November 1999, according to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 848,100 out of 1,108,913 had returned.According to the 1991 Yugoslavia Census, of the nearly 2 million population of Kosovo in 1991, 194,190 were Serbs, 45,745 were Romani and 20,356 were Montenegrins.",
"According to the Human Rights Watch, 200,000 Serbs and thousands of Roma fled from Kosovo during and after the war.",
"Homes of minorities were burned and Orthodox churches and monasteries were destroyed.",
"The Yugoslav Red Cross had also registered 247,391 mostly Serbian refugees by 26 November.",
"More than 164,000 Serbs left Kosovo during the seven weeks which followed Yugoslav and Serb forces' withdrawal from, and the NATO-led Kosovo Force (KFOR) entering Kosovo.Further inter-ethnic violence took place in 2000, and 2004."
],
[
"War crimes",
"===By the Federal Yugoslav government===Vlastimir Đorđević, former Serb colonel general, at the ICTYFor the government of Serbia, cooperation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia is \"still regarded as a distressing obligation, the necessary price for joining the European Union\".",
"Religious objects were damaged or destroyed.",
"Of the 498 mosques in Kosovo that were in active use, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) documented that 225 mosques sustained damage or destruction by the Yugoslav Serb army.",
"In all, eighteen months of the Yugoslav Serb counterinsurgency campaign between 1998 and 1999 within Kosovo resulted in 225 or a third out of a total of 600 mosques being damaged, vandalised, or destroyed.",
"During the war, Islamic architectural heritage posed for Yugoslav Serb paramilitary and military forces as Albanian patrimony, with destruction of non-Serbian architectural heritage being a methodical and planned component of ethnic cleansing in Kosovo.Widespread rape and sexual violence by the Serbian army, police and paramilitaries occurred during the conflict and the majority of victims were Kosovo Albanian women, numbering an estimated 20,000.The crimes of rape by the Serb military, paramilitary and police amounted to crimes against humanity and a war crime of torture.On 27 April 1999, a mass execution of at least 377 Kosovo Albanian civilians, of whom 36 were under 18 years old, was committed by Serbian police and Yugoslav Army forces in the village of Meja near the town of Gjakova.",
"It followed an operation which began after the killing of six Serbian policemen by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA).",
"The victims were pulled from refugee convoys at a checkpoint in Meja and their families were ordered to proceed to Albania.",
"Men and boys were separated and then executed by the road.",
"It was one of the largest massacres in the Kosovo War.Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević was charged by the UN's International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) with crimes against humanity and war crimes.",
"In 2001, then-President Vojislav Koštunica \"fought tooth and nail\" against attempts to put Milošević before an international court but was unable to prevent this happening after further atrocities were revealed.By 2014, the ICTY issued final verdicts against the indicted Yugoslav officials who were found guilty of deportation, other inhumane acts (forcible transfer), murder and persecutions (crimes against humanity, Article 5), as well as murder (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3):* Nikola Šainović, former Deputy Prime Minister of the FRY, sentenced to 18 years in prison.",
"* Dragoljub Ojdanić, former Chief of the General Staff of the Yugoslav Army, sentenced to 15 years in prison.",
"* Nebojša Pavković, former Commander of the Third Army of the Yugoslav Army, sentenced to 22 years in prison.",
"* Vladimir Lazarević, former Commander of the Priština Corps of the Yugoslav Army, sentenced to 14 years in prison.",
"* Sreten Lukić, former Head of the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs, sentenced to 20 years in prison.",
"* Vlastimir Đorđević, former Assistant Minister of the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs (MUP) and Chief of the Public Security Department (RJB) of the MUP, was sentenced to 18 years in prison.",
"* Milan Milutinović was acquitted of all charges.",
"* Vlajko Stojiljković committed suicide.",
"* Slobodan Milošević died before a verdict was reached.The ICTY found that:===By Kosovo Albanian forces===The ICTY convicted KLA commander Haradin Bala for murder, torture and cruel treatment in the Lapušnik prison camp, and sentencted him to 13 years’ imprisonment.",
"Fatmir Limaj and Isak Musliu were acquitted.In 2008, Carla Del Ponte published a book in which she alleged that, after the end of the war in 1999, Kosovo Albanians were smuggling organs of between 100 and 300 Serbs and other minorities from the province to Albania.In March 2005, a UN tribunal indicted Kosovo Prime Minister Ramush Haradinaj for war crimes against the Serbs.",
"On 8 March, he tendered his resignation.",
"Haradinaj, an ethnic Albanian, was a former commander who led units of the Kosovo Liberation Army and was appointed Prime Minister after winning an election of 72 votes to three in the Kosovo's Parliament in December 2004.Haradinaj was acquitted on all counts along with fellow KLA veterans Idriz Balaj and Lahi Brahimaj.",
"The Office of the Prosecutor appealed their acquittals, resulting in the ICTY ordering a partial retrial.",
"On 29 November 2012 all three were acquitted for the second time on all charges.",
"The trials were rife with accusations of witness intimidation, as media outlets from several different countries wrote that as many as nineteen people who were supposed to be witnesses in the trial against Haradinaj were murdered (the ICTY disputed these reports).According to Human Rights Watch (HRW), \"800 non-Albanian civilians were kidnapped and murdered from 1998 to 1999\".",
"After the war, \"479 people have gone missing... most of them Serbs\".",
"HRW notes that \"the intent behind many of the killings and abductions that have occurred in the province since June 1999 appears to be the expulsion of Kosovo's Serb and Roma population rather than a desire for revenge alone.",
"In numerous cases, direct and systematic efforts were made to force Serbs and Roma to leave their homes.\"",
"Some 200,000 Serbs and Roma fled Kosovo following the withdrawal of Yugoslav forces.In April 2014, the Assembly of Kosovo considered and approved the establishment of a special court to try cases involving crimes and other serious abuses committed in 1999–2000 by members of the KLA.",
"Reports of abuses and war crimes committed by the KLA during and after the conflict include massacres of civilians, prison camps, burning and looting of homes and destruction of medieval churches and monuments.Carla Del Ponte said that the US for political reasons, did not want the ICTY to scrutinise war crimes committed by the KLA.",
"According to her, Madeleine Albright who was the Secretary of State at the time told her to proceed slowly with the investigation of Ramush Haradinaj to avoid unrest in Kosovo.===By NATO forces===children killed in the NATO bombing located in Tašmajdan Park, Belgrade, featuring a bronze sculpture of Milica RakićThe Yugoslav government and a number of international pressure groups (e.g., Amnesty International) claimed that NATO had carried out war crimes during the conflict, notably the bombing of the Serbian TV headquarters in Belgrade on 23 April 1999, where 16 people were killed and 16 more were injured.",
"Sian Jones of Amnesty stated, \"The bombing of the headquarters of Serbian state radio and television was a deliberate attack on a civilian object and as such constitutes a war crime\".",
"A report conducted by the ICTY entitled ''Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia'' concluded that, \"Insofar as the attack actually was aimed at disrupting the communications network, it was legally acceptable\" and that, \"NATO's targeting of the RTS building for propaganda purposes was an incidental (albeit complementary) aim of its primary goal of disabling the Serbian military command and control system and to destroy the nerve system and apparatus that keeps Milosević in power.\"",
"In regards to civilian casualties, it further stated that though they were, \"unfortunately high, they do not appear to be clearly disproportionate.\""
],
[
"International reaction to NATO intervention",
"===Africa===* – Egypt supported NATO intervention in Kosovo and withdrew its ambassador from Belgrade.",
"* – Libyan Jamahiriya leader, Muammar Gaddafi opposed the campaign and called on world leaders to support Yugoslavia's 'legitimate right to defend its freedoms and territorial integrity against a possible aggression.",
"'===Asia===* – Cambodia was against the campaign.",
"* – China deeply condemned the bombing, saying it was an act of aggression against the Yugoslav people, especially when NATO bombed its embassy in Belgrade on 7 May 1999, riots and mass demonstrations against the governments of the United States and Great Britain were reported against both the attack and the operation overall.",
"Jiang Zemin, the President of the country at the time, called 'once more' for an immediate halt to the airstrikes and demanded peaceful negotiations.",
"* – India condemned the bombing.",
"The Indian foreign ministry also stated that it 'urged all military actions to be brought to a halt' and that 'FR Yugoslavia be enabled to resolve its internal issues internally.",
"'* – Indonesia was against the campaign.",
"* – Israel did not support the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.",
"Ariel Sharon criticised NATO's bombing as an act of \"brutal interventionism\".",
"It was suggested that Sharon may have supported the Yugoslav position because of the Serbian population's history of saving Jews during the Holocaust.",
"* – Jordan supported NATO intervention in Kosovo and withdrew its ambassador from Belgrade.",
"* – Japan's PM Keizō Obuchi advocated the bombing, stating that Yugoslavia had an 'uncompromising attitude.'",
"Japan's foreign minister Masahiko Kōmura said that, 'Japan understands NATO's use of force as measures that had to be taken to prevent humanitarian catastrophe.",
"'* – Malaysia supported the bombing, stating that it 'was necessary to prevent genocide in Kosovo.",
"'* – Pakistan's government was concerned about developing situations in Kosovo and called for UN intervention.",
"* – United Arab Emirates supported NATO intervention in Kosovo.",
"The UAE population gave financial aid, and set up and ran a refugee camp and built an airstrip for incoming relief supplies at Kukës in Northern Albania.",
"* – Vietnam was against the bombing campaign.===Europe===* – Albania strongly supported the bombing campaign.",
"This resulted in the breaking of diplomatic ties between Albania and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, who accused the Albanian government of harbouring KLA insurgents and supplying them with weapons.",
"* – Turkey, a NATO member, supported and was involved in the bombing campaign though it expressed hesitation about a ground offensive.",
"The Turkish government stressed that NATO's involvement was not about undermining Yugoslav territorial integrity, but about reversing the genocidal policies of the Milošević government.",
"The Turkish population, as a result of historical, cultural, and religious ties to the Balkans felt a responsibility to assist Kosovo Albanians by supporting their government's position.",
"* – Greece took no active part in the NATO campaign and 96% of the Greek population was opposed to the NATO bombings.",
"* – In France, the bulk of the population supported the action but factions on the far left and far right opposed it.",
"* – Slobodan Milošević, the president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia called the bombings, an 'unlawful act of terrorism' and the 'key to colonize Yugoslavia'.",
"The Yugoslav population also strongly opposed the bombing.",
"Milošević stated that, 'the only correct decision that could have been made was the one to reject foreign troops on our territory.'",
"The Yugoslavs who opposed Milošević also opposed the bombing, saying that it 'supports Milošević rather than attacking him.",
"'* – Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder newly elected government supported the NATO campaign; German public opinion was not prepared for a prolonged campaign.",
"* – The bombing was met with mixed reactions in Italy.",
"Following former Prime Minister Romano Prodi's decision to allow coalition forces to use Italian airbases and military infrastructures, Massimo D'Alema's centre-left government authorised the country's participation in the air campaign.",
"The bombing was also supported by Silvio Berlusconi and the centre-right opposition.",
"Domestic opposition to the NATO bombing campaign against Serbia was strong.",
"* – Russia strongly condemned the campaign.",
"President Boris Yeltsin stated that, 'Russia is deeply upset by NATO's military action against sovereign Yugoslavia, which is nothing more than open aggression.'",
"They also condemned NATO at the United Nations saying that NATO air strikes on Serbia were 'an illegal action.'",
"Some Russians volunteered to go to Kosovo, not only to fight the KLA, but also to oppose NATO.",
"* – As a contributor to the bombing, the United Kingdom strongly supported the bombing campaign, as did a majority of the British population.",
"* – The Polish government sanctioned NATO's activities but Poland did not participate in the operation There were demonstrations in Warsaw against the bombing.",
"* – Bulgaria allowed its airspace to be used by NATO aircraft for attacks.",
"Despite Bulgaria's ambitions of joining both NATO and the European Union, the leftist opposition organised street protests in Sofia over the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, the public was reportedly deeply divided because of sympathy for their fellow Slavs and Christian Orthodox Serb neighbours but also a desire to join the European Union and NATO.",
"Several NATO missiles and aircraft strayed off course into Bulgaria.===Oceania===* – Australia supported the campaign.",
"Prime Minister John Howard stated that, \"history has told us that if you sit by and do nothing, you pay a much greater price later on.",
"\"===United Nations===* – The United Nations had mixed reactions to the bombing, which was carried out without its authorisation.",
"Kofi Annan, the UN Secretary-General said, \"In spite of all the efforts made by the international community, the Yugoslav authorities have persisted in their rejection of a political settlement … it is indeed tragic that diplomacy has failed, but there are times when the use of force is legitimate in the pursuit of peace\" adding that \"the UN Security Council should be involved in any decision to resort to the use of force.\""
],
[
"Military and political consequences",
"Members of the Kosovo Liberation Army hand over their weapons to US MarinesThe Kosovo War had a number of important consequences in terms of the military and political outcome.",
"The status of Kosovo remains unresolved; international negotiations began in 2006 to determine Kosovo's level of autonomy as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244, but efforts failed.",
"The province is administered by the United Nations despite its unilateral declaration of independence on 17 February 2008.Seized uniform and equipment of US soldiers 1999 in Kosovo WarThe UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, had begun in February 2006.Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.",
"In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution which proposes \"supervised independence\" for the province, which is in contrary to UN Security Council Resolution 1244.By July 2007, the draft resolution, which was backed by the United States, United Kingdom, and other European members of the Security Council, had been rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.",
"Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, stated that it would not support any resolution which is not acceptable to both Belgrade and Priština.The campaign exposed significant weaknesses in the US arsenal, which were later addressed for the Afghanistan and Iraq campaigns.",
"Apache attack helicopters and AC-130 Spectre gunships were brought up to the front lines but were never used after two Apaches crashed during training in the Albanian mountains.",
"Stocks of many precision missiles were reduced to critically low levels.",
"For combat aircraft, continuous operations resulted in skipped maintenance schedules, and many aircraft were withdrawn from service awaiting spare parts and service.",
"Also, many of the precision-guided weapons proved unable to cope with Balkan weather, as the clouds blocked the laser guidance beams.",
"This was resolved by retrofitting bombs with Global Positioning System satellite guidance devices that are immune to bad weather.",
"Although pilotless surveillance aircraft were extensively used, often attack aircraft could not be brought to the scene quickly enough to hit targets of opportunity.",
"This led missiles being fitted to Predator drones in Afghanistan, reducing the \"sensor to shooter\" time to virtually zero.Kosovo also showed that some low-tech tactics could reduce the impact of a high-tech force such as NATO; the Milošević government cooperated with Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime in Iraq, passing on many of the lessons learned in the Gulf War.",
"The Yugoslav army had long expected to need to resist a much stronger enemy, either Soviet or NATO, during the Cold War and had developed tactics of deception and concealment in response.",
"These would have been unlikely to have resisted a full-scale invasion for long, but were probably used to mislead overflying aircraft and satellites.",
"Among the tactics used were:* US stealth aeroplanes were tracked with radars operating on long wavelengths.",
"If stealth jets got wet or opened their bomb bay doors, they would become visible on the radar screens.",
"The downing of an F-117 Nighthawk by a missile was possibly spotted in this way.",
"* Dummy targets such as fake bridges, airfields and decoy aeroplanes and tanks were used extensively.",
"Tanks were made using old tires, plastic sheeting and logs, and sand cans and fuel set alight to mimic heat missions.",
"Serbia claims they fooled NATO pilots into bombing hundreds of decoys, though General Clark's survey found that in Operation: Allied Force, NATO airmen hit just 25 decoysan insignificant percentage of the 974 validated hits.",
"NATO sources claim that this was due to operating procedures, which oblige troops, in this case aircraft, to engage any and all targets, however unlikely they may be.",
"The targets needed only to look real to be shot at when detected.",
"NATO claimed that the Yugoslav air force was devastated: \"Official data show that the Yugoslav army in Kosovo lost 26 percent of its tanks, 34 percent of its APCs, and 47 percent of the artillery to the air campaign.\""
],
[
"Military decorations",
"As a result of the Kosovo War, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation created a second NATO medal, the NATO Medal for Kosovo Service, an international military decoration.",
"Shortly thereafter, NATO created the Non-Article 5 Medal for Balkans service to combine both Yugoslavian and Kosovo operations into one service medal.Due to the involvement of the United States armed forces, a separate US military decoration, known as the Kosovo Campaign Medal, was established by President Bill Clinton in 2000.The Kosovo Campaign Medal (KCM) is a military award of the United States Armed Forces established by Executive Order 13154 of President Bill Clinton on 3 May 2000.The medal recognises military service performed in Kosovo from 24 March 1999 through 31 December 2013."
],
[
"Weaponry and vehicles used",
"A variety of weapons were used by the Yugoslav security forces and the Kosovo Liberation Army, NATO only operated aircraft and naval units during the conflict.",
"; Yugoslav security forcesThe weapons used by Yugoslav government were mostly Yugoslav made, while almost all of their AA units were Soviet made.",
"* BOV* BVP M-80* D-20* D-30* MiG-21* MiG-29* M79 Osa* M80 Zolja* M-84* SA-3* SA-6* SA-7* SA-9* SA-13* SA-16* Soko J-22 Orao* Soko Gazelle* T-54/55* Zastava M70* Zastava M72* Zastava M76* Zastava M84* Zastava M90* Zastava M91* 2S1 Gvozdika; Kosovo Liberation ArmyThe weapons used by the Kosovo Liberation Army were mostly Soviet Kalashnikovs and Chinese derivatives of the AK-47 and some Western weaponry.",
"* AKM* AK-47* Armsel Striker* D-1 howitzer* RPK* SKS* Type 56 assault rifle* Type 63 assault rifle* Zastava M70* Zastava M76; NATOAircraft used by NATO were:* A-10 Thunderbolt* AC-130 Spooky* AH-64 Apache* AMX* AV-8B Harrier* B-1 Lancer* B-2 Spirit* B-52 Stratofortress* E-3 Sentry* E-8 JSTARS* EA-6B Prowler* F-104 Starfighter* F-117 Nighthawk* F/A-18 Hornet* F-14 Tomcat* F-15 Eagle* F-15 Strike Eagle* F-16 Fighting Falcon* F-4 Phantom* Harrier jump jet* L-1011 TriStar* Mirage 2000* MQ-1 Predator* Panavia Tornado* Panavia Tornado ADV* SEPECAT JaguarGuided missiles used were:* AIM-9 Sidewinder* ALARM* Tomahawk"
],
[
"Gallery",
"USS Theodore Roosevelt launches F-18.jpg| launching an F/A-18 HornetGvodzika.jpg|Wreck of 2S1 Gvozdika near GlogovacHumvee (Belgrade Military Museum).JPG|US Army Humvee from the 1st Infantry Division captured by Yugoslav Special ForcesPredator MQ-1 (war trophy in Museum of Aviation, Belgrade, Serbia).jpg|MQ-1 Predator drone shot down over Serbia shown at the Museum of Aviation, BelgradeBAM-61-Lockheed-Martin F-16C.jpg|Tail and canopy of an USAF F-16 fighter shot down over Serbia on display at the Museum of Aviation, BelgradeF-117 Canopy (shot down over Serbia 1999, Museum of Aviation, Belgrade).jpg|Fragments of the downed F-117 in the Museum of Aviation, BelgradeDefense.gov News Photo 990409-F-3128G-004.jpg|F-15 Fighter at Aviano Air Base, Italy on 9 April 1999Defense.gov News Photo 990421-F-5009P-006.jpg|F-16 Fighting Falcon is being prepared for NATO operation, 21 April 1999Kukes Refugee Camp.jpg|Refugee camp in Kukës, AlbaniaKosovo-metohija-koreni-duse004.jpg|Serbian and other non-Albanian refugeesKosovo-metohija-koreni-duse029.jpg|Serbs and other non-Albanian civilians in refugee campГрафити на новосадским улицама током Нато бомбардовања СР Југославија.jpeg|Anti-NATO graffiti on a wall during the NATO bombing of Novi Sad in 1999"
],
[
"See also",
"* Albania–Yugoslav border incident* Destruction of Albanian heritage in Kosovo* Destruction of Serbian heritage in Kosovo* Insurgency in the Preševo Valley* Operation Horseshoe* State Security Service (Serbia)* 2004 unrest in Kosovo"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * Buckley, William Joseph, ed.",
"(2000) Kosovo: Contending Voices on Balkan Interventions Grand Rapids/Cambridge: Eerdmans.",
"* Ejdus, Filip.",
"2020.''",
"Crisis and Ontological Insecurity: Serbia's Anxiety over Kosovo's Secession''.",
"Palgrave.",
"* Freitag, Markus, Sara Kijewski, and Malvin Oppold.",
"(2019) \"War experiences, economic grievances, and political participation in postwar societies: An empirical analysis of Kosovo.\"",
"''Conflict management and peace science'' 36.4 (2019): 405–424.",
"* Hoxha, Abit, and Kenneth Andresen.",
"(2021) \"Violence, War, and Gender: Collective Memory and Politics of Remembrance in Kosovo.\"",
"in ''Europeanisation and Memory Politics in the Western Balkans'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 263–283.",
"* Kahn, Paul W. (2017) \"War and sacrifice in Kosovo.\"",
"in ''Philosophical Dimensions of Public Policy'' (Routledge, 2017) pp.",
"201–209.online* Lambeth, Benjamin S. ''NATO's Air War for Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment'' (2001)* McAllister, Jacqueline R. \"The Extraordinary Gamble: How the Yugoslav Tribunal's Indictment of Slobodan Milosevic during the Kosovo War Affected Peace Efforts.\"",
"''Brown Journal of World Affairs'' 26 (2019): 201+.",
"* * Neumann, Iver B.",
"(2018) \"Kosovo and the end of the legitimate warring state.\"",
"in ''Mapping European security after Kosovo'' (Manchester University Press, 2018) online.",
"* Rasmussen, Mikkel Vedby.",
"(2018) \"‘War is never civilised’: Civilisation, civil society and the Kosovo war\".",
"(Manchester University Press, 2018) online."
],
[
"External links",
"* Indictment of Milosevic United Nations* Video on Kosovo War from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives* Text of Rambouillet Treaty – \"Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Government In Kosovo, Rambouillet, France – 23 February 1999,\" including Appendix B University of Pittsburgh Jurist* Beginning of discussion (14 May 1999 to 8 June 1999, specifically) of Appendix B of the Rambouillet Treaty on H-Diplo, the diplomatic history forum H-Net* BBC-World Service Witness: Kosovo War (10 years on interview with ex-Yugoslav soldier)* (dedicated to the study, research, and documentation of the destruction and damage of historic heritage during the Balkan Wars of the 1990s.",
"The website contains judicial documents from the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)).===Reports===* Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo Human Rights Watch* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe* Operation Allied Force, NATO* Humanitarian law violations in Kosovo, HRW (1998)* Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo, HRW (1999)* The Ethnic Cleansing of Kosovo, United States Department of State* Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo: An Accounting, United States Department of State* War and mortality in Kosovo, 1998 99: an epidemiological testimony ''The Lancet'' (PDF)* Trebinje danas.com K. Mitrovica: Više od 100 povrijeđenih Srba, UNMIK policajaca i Kfora===Media===* War in Europe PBS Frontline* Kosovo fact files BBC News* Focus on Kosovo CNN* Kosovo War on AP Video Archive Associated Press===Maps===* Maps of Kosovo, Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kent"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kent''' is a county in the South East England region, the closest county to continental Europe.",
"It borders Essex across the entire estuary of the River Thames to the north; the French department of Pas-de-Calais across the Strait of Dover to the south-east; East Sussex to the south-west; Surrey to the west and Greater London to the north-west.",
"The county town is Maidstone.It is the fifth most populous county in England, the most populous non-metropolitan county and the most populous of the Home Counties, an area influenced by the capital such as commutes and transport connections to the capital.",
"Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty: the North Downs and The High Weald.Kent was one of the first British territories to be settled by Germanic tribes, most notably the Jutes, following the withdrawal of the Romans.",
"Canterbury Cathedral in Kent, the oldest cathedral in England, has been the seat of the Archbishops of Canterbury since the conversion of England to Christianity that began in the 6th century with Saint Augustine.",
"Rochester Cathedral in Medway is England's second-oldest cathedral.",
"Located between London and the Strait of Dover, which separates England from mainland Europe, Kent has been the setting for both conflict and diplomacy, including the Battle of Britain in World War II and the Leeds Castle peace talks of 1978 and 2004.England relied on the county's ports to provide warships through much of its history; the Cinque Ports in the 10th–14th centuries and Chatham Dockyard in the 16th–20th centuries were of particular importance.",
"France can be seen clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover.",
"Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county and in the Vale of Holmesdale in between and to the south are most of the county's 26 castles.The county has agriculture, haulage, logistics and tourism industries.",
"As the land between the capital and the wider continent, it is a high-income county.",
"Agriculture of the county is a notable sector: \"The Garden of England\" is a nickname for the county, which has multiple orchards and allotments.",
"In north-west Kent, industries include aggregate building material extraction, printing and scientific research.",
"Coal mining has also played its part in the county's industrial heritage."
],
[
"Etymology",
"An early mention of Kent in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' between 11th and 12th centuriesThe name ''Kent'' is believed to be of Celtic origin.",
"The meaning has been explained as 'coastal district,' 'corner-land' or 'land on the edge' (compare Welsh ''cant'' 'bordering of a circle, tyre, edge;' Breton ''cant'' 'circle;' Dutch ''kant'' 'side, edge').",
"In Latin sources the area is called ''Cantia'' or ''Cantium'', while the Anglo-Saxons referred to it as ''Cent'', ''Cent lond'' or ''Centrice''."
],
[
"History",
"The area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe.",
"The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era.",
"There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Celtic Iron Age, and Britto-Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley.Julius Caesar described the area as ''Cantium'', or the home of the Cantiaci, in 51 BC.",
"The extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by a Celtic Iron Age tribe known as the Regni.",
"Caesar wrote that the people of Kent were 'by far the most civilised inhabitants of Britain'.flag of the historic county of KentFollowing the withdrawal of the Romans, large numbers of Germanic speakers from mainland Europe settled in Kent, bringing their language, which came to be Old English.",
"While they expelled the native Romano-British population, some likely remained in the area, eventually assimilating with the newcomers.",
"Of the invading tribes, the Jutes were the most prominent, and the area became a Jutish kingdom recorded as ''Cantia'' in about 730 and ''Cent'' in 835.The early medieval inhabitants of the county were referred to as the ''Cantwara'', or Kentish people.",
"The city of Canterbury was the largest in Kent.In 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary (who became Saint Augustine of Canterbury after his death) as the first Archbishop of Canterbury.",
"In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity.",
"The Diocese of Canterbury became England's first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained England's centre of Christianity.",
"The second designated English cathedral was for West Kent at Rochester Cathedral.Kent was traditionally partitioned into East and West Kent, and into lathes and hundreds.",
"The traditional border of East and West Kent was the county's main river, the Medway.",
"Men and women from east of the Medway are Men (or Maids) of Kent, those from the west are Kentishmen or Kentish Maids.",
"The divide has been explained by some as originating in the Anglo-Saxon migrations, with Jutes mainly settling east of the Medway and Saxons settling west of it.In the 11th century, the people of Kent (or ''Chenth'', per the Domesday Book) adopted the motto ''Invicta'', meaning \"undefeated\" or \"unconquered\".",
"The adoption of this motto followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy, as he was unable to subdue the county and they negotiated favourable terms.",
"The continued resistance of the Kentish people against the Normans led to Kent's designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067.Under the nominal rule of William's half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted similar powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales and Scotland.During the medieval and early modern period, Kent played a major role in several of England's most notable rebellions, including the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, led by Wat Tyler,Jack Cade's Kent rebellion of 1450, and Wyatt's Rebellion of 1554 against Queen Mary I.Title page of William Lambarde's ''Perambulation of Kent'' (completed in 1570 and published in 1576), a historical description of Kent and the first published county historyThe Royal Navy first used the River Medway in 1547.By the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) a small dockyard had been established at Chatham.",
"By 1618, storehouses, a ropewalk, a drydock, and houses for officials had been built downstream from Chatham.Hand-drawn map of Kent, Sussex, Surrey and Middlesex from 1575.By the 17th century, tensions between Britain and the powers of the Netherlands and France led to increasing military build-up in the county.",
"Forts were built all along the coast following the raid on the Medway, a successful attack by the Dutch navy on the shipyards of the Medway towns in 1667.The 18th century was dominated by wars with France, during which the Medway became the primary base for a fleet that could act along the Dutch and French coasts.",
"When the theatre of operation moved to the Atlantic, this role was assumed by Portsmouth and Plymouth, with Chatham concentrating on shipbuilding and ship repair.",
"As an indication of the area's military importance, the first Ordnance Survey map ever drawn was a one-inch map of Kent, published in 1801.Many of the Georgian naval buildings still stand.In the early 19th century, smugglers were very active on the Kent coastline.",
"Gangs such as The Aldington Gang brought spirits, tobacco and salt to the county, and transported goods such as wool across the sea to France.In 1889, the County of London was created and took over responsibility for local administration of parts of north-west Kent.",
"These included the towns of Greenwich, Woolwich, Deptford, Lee, Eltham, Charlton, and Kidbrooke.",
"In 1900, however, Kent absorbed the district of Penge.",
"Some of Kent is contiguous with the Greater London sprawl, notably parts of Dartford.Originally, the border between Kent and Sussex (later East Sussex) ran through the towns of Tunbridge Wells and Lamberhurst.",
"In 1894, by the Local Government Act, the parts of these towns that lay in East Sussex were absorbed by Kent.During the Second World War, much of the Battle of Britain was fought in the skies over Kent.Between June 1944 and March 1945, more than 10,000 V1 flying bombs, or \"Doodlebugs\", were fired towards London from bases in Northern France.",
"Although many were destroyed by aircraft, anti-aircraft guns and barrage balloons, both London and Kent were hit by around 2,500 of these bombs.After the war, Kent's borders changed several more times.",
"In 1965, the London boroughs of Bromley and Bexley were created from nine towns formerly in Kent.",
"In 1998, Rochester, Chatham, Gillingham and Rainham left the administrative county of Kent to form the Unitary Authority of Medway.",
"Plans for another unitary authority in north-west Kent were dropped, but in 2016 consultations began between five Kent local authorities (Canterbury, Thanet, Dover, Folkestone & Hythe, and Ashford) with a view to forming a new unified authority for East Kent, although remaining within the auspices of Kent County Council.",
"This idea was eventually dropped.For almost nine centuries, a small part of present-day East London (the North Woolwich, London E16 area), formed part of Kent."
],
[
"Geography",
"The White Cliffs of DoverView of the White Cliffs of Dover from FranceA map of Romney Marsh \"The history of imbanking and drayning\" by William Dugdale (1662).Kent is in the southeastern corner of England.",
"It borders the Thames Estuary and the North Sea to the north, and the Straits of Dover and the English Channel to the south.",
"France is across the Strait.The major geographical features of the county are based on a series of ridges and valleys running east–west across the county.",
"These are the results of erosion of the Wealden dome, a dome across Kent and Sussex created by alpine movements 20–10 million years ago.",
"This dome consists of an upper layer of chalk above successive layers of Upper Greensand, Gault Clay, Lower Greensand, Weald Clay, and Wealden sandstone.",
"The ridges and valleys formed when the exposed clay eroded faster than the exposed chalk, greensand, or sandstone.Sevenoaks, Maidstone, Ashford, and Folkestone are built on greensand, while Tonbridge and Tunbridge Wells are built on sandstone.",
"Dartford, Gravesend, the Medway towns, Sittingbourne, Faversham, Canterbury, Deal, and Dover are built on chalk.",
"The easterly section of the Wealden dome has been eroded away by the sea, and cliffs such as the White Cliffs of Dover are present where a chalk ridge known as the North Downs meets the coast.",
"Spanning Dover and Westerham is the Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.The Wealden dome is a Mesozoic structure lying on a Palaeozoic foundation, which can often create the right conditions for coal formation.",
"This is found in East Kent roughly between Deal, Canterbury, and Dover.",
"The Coal Measures within the Westphalian Sandstone are about deep, and are subject to flooding.",
"They occur in two major troughs, which extend under the English Channel.Seismic activity has occasionally been recorded in Kent, though the epicentres were offshore.",
"In 1382 and 1580 there were two earthquakes exceeding 6.0 on the Richter Scale.",
"In 1776, 1950, and on 28 April 2007 there were earthquakes of around 4.3.The 2007 earthquake caused physical damage in Folkestone.",
"A further quake on 22 May 2015 measured 4.2 on the Richter Scale.",
"It was centred in the Sandwich area of east Kent at about ten miles below the surface.",
"There was little if any damage reported.Geological cross-section of Kent, showing how it relates to major townsThe coastline of Kent is continuously changing, due to tectonic uplift and coastal erosion.",
"Until about 960, the Isle of Thanet was an island, separated by the Wantsum channel, formed around a deposit of chalk; over time, the channels silted up with alluvium.",
"Similarly Romney Marsh and Dungeness have been formed by accumulation of alluvium.Kent's principal river, the River Medway, rises near East Grinstead in Sussex and flows eastwards to Maidstone.",
"Here it turns north and breaks through the North Downs at Rochester, then joins the estuary of the River Thames near Sheerness.",
"The Medway is some long.",
"The river is tidal as far as Allington lock, but in earlier times, cargo-carrying vessels reached as far upstream as Tonbridge.",
"The Medway has captured the head waters of other rivers such as the River Darent.",
"Other rivers of Kent include the River Stour in the east.A 2014 study found that Kent shares significant reserves of shale oil with other neighbouring counties, totalling 4.4 billion barrels of oil, which then Business and Energy Minister Michael Fallon said \"will bring jobs and business opportunities\" and significantly help with UK energy self-sufficiency.",
"Fracking in the area is required to achieve these objectives; it has been opposed by environmental groups.",
"=== Climate ===Kent is one of the warmest parts of Britain.",
"On 10 August 2003, in the hamlet of Brogdale near Faversham the temperature reached , at that time the highest temperature ever officially recorded in the United Kingdom.",
"The record still stands as the hottest August day ever recorded."
],
[
"Governance",
"The coat of arms of Kent County CouncilKent County Council (KCC) and its 12 district councils administer most of the county (3352 km2), while the Medway Towns Council, a unitary authority and commonly called Medway Council, administers the more densely populated remainder (192 km2).",
"Together they have around 300 town and parish councils.",
"Kent County Council's headquarters are in Maidstone, while Medway's offices are at Gun Wharf, Chatham.At the 2013 county council elections, control of Kent County Council was held by the Conservatives, who won 44 of the council's 83 seats.",
"17 seats were won by the United Kingdom Independence Party, 13 by the Labour Party, 7 by the Liberal Democrats, 1 by the Green Party and 1 by the Swanscombe and Greenhithe Residents Association.",
"At the 2007 local elections, control of Medway Council was held by the Conservatives; 33 of the council's 55 seats were held by the Conservatives, 13 by the Labour Party, 8 by the Liberal Democrats and 1 by an Independent.",
"All but one of Kent's district councils are controlled by the Conservatives: a minority Labour administration took control of Thanet District in December 2011 after a Conservative councillor defected to the Independent group.",
"In the council elections of May 2015 the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) took control of the Council, the first and so far only one in the UK.",
"In October 2015 UKIP lost overall control following a series of resignations, although remaining the largest party, only for UKIP to regain control once more following ward elections in August 2016.At the national level, Kent is represented in Parliament by 17 MPs, all of whom are Conservative except Rosie Duffield, Labour MP for Canterbury since 2017."
],
[
"Demography",
"At the 2011 census, Kent, including Medway, had 1,727,665 residents (18.0% of which in Medway); had 711,847 households (17.5% of which in Medway) and had 743,436 dwellings (14.8% of which in Medway).",
"51.1% of Kent's population excluding Medway was female — as to Medway, this proportion was 50.4%.The tables below provide statistics for the administrative county of Kent, that is, excluding Medway.+ ''Main household types''Married couples with/without childrenSole occupantsUnmarried couples with/without childrenLone parentsShared homes and institutions210,671174,331 of which 79,310 over aged 6563,75060,64577,877+ ''Claimants of JSA or Income Support (DWP)''UnitClaimantsPopulation(April 2011)August 2012August 2001Kent55,100 89,4701,463,740% of 2011 Kent resident population(2001 population where applicable)'''3.8%'''Three highest-ranking districtsThanet'''6.5%''' 11.3% 134,186Folkestone and Hythe8.9% 107,969Swale4.8%7.5%135,835Three lowest-ranking districtsTonbridge and Malling2.5%4.4% 120,805Sevenoaks2.3% 4.3% 114,893Tunbridge Wells'''2.2%'''5.1%115,049"
],
[
"Economy",
"Converted oast houses at FrittendenAt the 2001 UK census, employment statistics for the residents in Kent, including Medway, were as follows: 41.1% in full-time employment, 12.4% in part-time employment, 9.1% self-employed, 2.9% unemployed, 2.3% students with jobs, 3.7% students without jobs, 12.3% retired, 7.3% looking after home or family, 4.3% permanently sick or disabled, and 2.7% economically inactive for other reasons.",
"Of residents aged 16–74, 16% had a higher education qualification or the equivalent, compared to 20% nationwide.The average hours worked per week by residents of Kent were 43.1 for males and 30.9 for females.",
"Their industry of employment was 17.3% retail, 12.4% manufacturing, 11.8% real estate, 10.3% health and social work, 8.9% construction, 8.2% transport and communications, 7.9% education, 6.0% public administration and defence, 5.6% finance, 4.8% other community and personal service activities, 4.1% hotels and restaurants, 1.6% agriculture, 0.8% energy and water supply, 0.2% mining, and 0.1% private households.",
"This is higher than the whole of England for construction and transport/communications and lower for manufacturing.Kent is sometimes known as the \"Garden of England\" for its abundance of orchards and hop gardens.",
"In particular the county produces tree-grown fruits, strawberries and hazelnuts.",
"Distinctive hop-drying buildings called oasts are common in the countryside, although many have been converted into dwellings.",
"Nearer to London, market gardens also flourish.",
"Kent is the main area for hazelnut production in the UK.However, in recent years, there has been a significant drop in agriculture, and industry and services are increasing their utilisation of the area.",
"This is illustrated by the following table of economic indicator gross value added (GVA) between 1995 and 2003 (figures are in £ millions): Year Regional GVA Agriculture Industry Services County of Kent (excluding Medway) 1995 '''12,369''' 379 3.1% 3,886 31.4% 8,104 65.5% 2000 '''15,259''' 259 1.7% 4,601 30.2% 10,399 68.1% 2003 '''18,126''' 287 1.6% 5,057 27.9% 12,783 70.5% Medway 1995 '''1,823''' 21 3.1% 560 31.4% 1,243 68.2% 2000 '''2,348''' 8 1.7% 745 30.2% 1,595 67.9% 2003 '''2,671''' 10 1.6% 802 27.9% 1,859 69.6% Components may not sum to totals due to rounding includes energy and construction includes financial intermediation services indirectly measuredNorth Kent is heavily industrialised, with cement-making at Northfleet and Cuxton, brickmaking at Sittingbourne, shipbuilding on the Medway and Swale, engineering and aircraft design and construction at Rochester, chemicals at Dartford, papermaking at Swanley, and oil refining at Grain.",
"There is a steel mini mill in Sheerness and a rolling mill in Queenborough.",
"There are two nuclear power stations at Dungeness, although the older one, Dungeness A, built in 1965, was decommissioned in 2006.Cement-making, papermaking, and coal-mining were important industries in Kent during the 19th and 20th centuries.",
"Cement came to the fore in the 19th century when massive building projects were undertaken.",
"The ready supply of chalk and huge pits between Stone and Gravesend bear testament to that industry.",
"There were also other workings around Burham on the tidal Medway.",
"Chalk, gravel and clay were excavated on Dartford Heath for centuries.Kent's original paper mills stood on streams like the River Darent, tributaries of the River Medway, and on the River Stour.",
"Two 18th century mills were on the River Len and at Tovil on the River Loose.",
"In the late 19th century huge modern mills were built at Dartford and Northfleet on the River Thames and at Kemsley on The Swale.",
"In pre-industrial times, almost every village and town had its own windmill or watermill, with over 400 windmills known to have stood at some time.",
"Twenty-eight survive within the county today, plus two replica mills and a further two in that part of Kent now absorbed into London.",
"All the major rivers in the county were used to power watermills.From about 1900, several coal pits operated in East Kent.",
"The Kent Coalfield was mined during the 20th century at several collieries, including Chislet, Tilmanstone, Betteshanger, and the Snowdown Colliery, which ran from 1908 to 1986.The west of the county (including Tunbridge Wells, Tonbridge, and Sevenoaks) has less than 50% of the average claimant count for low incomes or worklessness as the coastal districts of Dover, Folkestone and Hythe, and Thanet (chiefly three resorts: Ramsgate, Broadstairs, and Margate).",
"West and Central Kent have long had many City of London commuters."
],
[
"Culture",
"===Architecture===Canterbury CathedralKent's geographical location between the Straits of Dover and London has influenced its architecture, as has its Cretaceous geology and its good farming land and fine building clays.",
"Kent's countryside pattern was determined by a gavelkind inheritance system that generated a proliferation of small settlements.",
"There was no open-field system, and the large tracts were owned by the two great abbeys, Christ Church, Canterbury and St Augustine's Abbey, that did not pass into the hands of the king during the Reformation.",
"Canterbury Cathedral is the United Kingdom's metropolitan cathedral; it was founded in AD 598 and displays architecture from all periods.",
"There are nine Anglo-Saxon churches in Kent.",
"Rochester Cathedral is England's second-oldest cathedral, the present building built in the Early English Style.",
"These two dioceses ensured that every village had a parish church.The sites of Richborough Castle and Dover Castle, along with two strategic sites along Watling Street, were fortified by the Romans and the Dukes of Kent.",
"Other important sites include Canterbury city walls and Rochester Castle.",
"There remained a need to defend London and thus Kent.",
"Deal Castle, Walmer Castle, Sandown Castle (whose remains were eroded by the sea in the 1990s) were constructed in late mediaeval times, and HM Dockyard, at Chatham and its surrounding castles and forts—Upnor Castle, Great Lines, and Fort Amherst—more recently.Kent has three unique vernacular architecture forms: the oast house, the Wealden hall house, and Kentish peg-tiles.Kent has bridge trusts to maintain its bridges, and though the great bridge (1387) at Rochester was replaced there are medieval structures at Aylesford, Yalding and Teston.",
"With the motorways in the late twentieth century came the M2 motorway bridge spanning the Medway and the Dartford tunnel and the Dartford Bridge spanning the Thames.===Literature and publishing===Kent has provided inspiration for several notable writers and artists.",
"Canterbury's religious role gave rise to Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales'', a key development in the English language.",
"The father of novelist Charles Dickens worked at the Chatham Dockyard; in many of his books, the celebrated novelist featured the scenery of Chatham, Rochester, and the Cliffe marshes.",
"During the late 1930s, Nobel Prize-awarded novelist William Golding worked as a teacher at Maidstone Grammar School, where he met his future wife Ann Brookfield.",
"William Caxton, who first introduced the printing press to England, was born in Kent; the recent invention was key in helping many Kent dialect words and spellings to become standard in English.",
"Lord Northbourne hosted a biodynamic agriculture conference on his estate at Betteshanger in the summer of 1939, he coined the term 'organic farming' and published his manifesto of organic agriculture the following year spawning a global movement for sustainable agriculture and food.===Visual arts===A number of significant artists came from Kent, including Thomas Sidney Cooper, a painter of landscapes, often incorporating farm animals, Richard Dadd, a maker of faery paintings, and Mary Tourtel, the creator of the children's book character, Rupert Bear.",
"The artist Clive Head was also born in Kent.",
"The landscape painter J. M. W. Turner spent part of his childhood in the town of Margate in East Kent, and regularly returned to visit it throughout his life.",
"The East Kent coast inspired many of his works, including some of his most famous seascapes.",
"Kent has also been the home to artists including Frank Auerbach, Tracey Emin and Stass Paraskos.Kent was also the location of the largest number of art schools in the country during the nineteenth century, estimated by the art historian David Haste, to approach two hundred.",
"This is believed to be the result of Kent being a front line county during the Napoleonic Wars.",
"At this time, before the invention of photography, draughtsmen were used to draw maps and topographical representations of the fields of battle, and after the wars ended many of these settled permanently in the county in which they had been based.",
"Once the idea of art schools had been established, even in small towns in Kent, the tradition continued, although most of the schools were very small one-man operations, each teaching a small number of daughters of the upper classes how to draw and make watercolour paintings.",
"Nonetheless, some of these small art schools developed into much larger organisations, including Canterbury College of Art, founded by Thomas Sidney Cooper in 1868, which is today the University for the Creative Arts.Blean near Canterbury was home to Smallfilms, the production company founded by Oliver Postgate and Peter Firmin and responsible for children's TV favourites Noggin the Nog, Ivor the Engine and Bagpuss.===Performing arts===The county's largest theatre is the Marlowe Theatre in the centre of Canterbury.Music festivals that take place in Kent include Chilled in a Field Festival, Electric Gardens, Hop Farm Festival, In the Woods Festival, Lounge On The Farm and the annual Smugglers Festival near Deal.",
"Other venues for live music include Leas Cliff Hall in Folkestone and the Assembly Hall in Tunbridge Wells.=== Kentish independence ===Kentish people have long viewed themselves as Kentish first and British second, and to this day refer to themselves as either 'Men of Kent' or 'Kentish men' depending on whether they live to the East or West of the River Medway.",
"After the 2016 Brexit referendum and subsequent proposals for \"border checks\" on the Kentish border, effectively making Kent a country within a country, this pride in being Kentish began to form into calls from some areas for an independent Kent or an autonomous republic within the UK, especially from the county's prominent newspapers, with the idea being discussed in detail in some areas - with some ideas such as mock passports and \"tongue-in-cheek\" manifestos being created.",
"These calls for independence can be explained by the individualistic and rebellious mentality that has always existed in the county, which can be explained by the counties position in the very South-East of the United Kingdom, having been a prominent and independent kingdom for centuries as well as being the source of many major rebellions that have occurred in the United Kingdom."
],
[
"Transport",
"===Roads=== The M2 and High Speed 1 crossing the Medway Valley, south of RochesterWith the Roman invasion, a road network was constructed to connect London to the Channel ports of Dover, Lympne and Richborough.",
"The London–Dover road was Watling Street.",
"These roads are now approximately the A2, B2068, A257, and the A28.The A2 runs through Dartford (A207), Gravesend, Rochester, Canterbury, and Dover; the A20 through Eltham, Wrotham, Maidstone, Charing, Ashford.",
"Hythe, Folkestone and Dover; the A21 around Sevenoaks, Tonbridge, Tunbridge Wells and on to Hastings in East Sussex.",
"In the 1960s, two motorways were built; the M2 from Medway to Faversham, and the M20 from Swanley to Folkestone.",
"Part of the M25 runs through Kent, from Westerham to the Dartford Crossing.",
"The M26 motorway, built in 1980, provides a short link between the M25 at Sevenoaks and the M20 near Wrotham.",
"Kent currently has more motorways by distance than any other county in the UK, with sections of the M2, M20, M25 and M26 totalling within the extents of the ceremonial county.In the run-up to Britain leaving the European Union, Government minister Michael Gove confirmed that the Government intended to impose a ''de facto'' border between Kent and the rest of England for freight lorries, in order to deal with expected lorry queues of 7,000 or more at Folkestone, Dover and other ports.",
"Heavy goods vehicle operators need to apply for a 24-hour Kent Access Permit (KAP) to take a vehicle of 7.5 tonnes or more into Kent if their intention is to cross to the EU via Dover or the Eurotunnel.===Water===The medieval Cinque Ports, except for the Port of Dover, have all now silted up.",
"The Medway Estuary has been an important port and naval base for 500 years.",
"The River Medway is tidal up to Allington and navigable up to Tonbridge.",
"Kent's two canals are the Royal Military Canal between Hythe and Rye, which still exists, and the Thames and Medway Canal between Strood and Gravesend.",
"Built-in 1824, it was purchased in 1846 by the railways, which partially backfilled it.",
"Container ports are at Ramsgate and Thamesport.",
"Following the closures across the lower Medway, and the Swale to the Isle of Sheppey, during the 20th century, the Woolwich Ferry is the only domestic ferry that runs in the broadest definition of the county.===Railways===A Eurostar train at km 48 (mile 30) on High Speed 1, near StroodThe earliest locomotive-driven passenger-carrying railway in Britain was the Canterbury & Whitstable Railway which opened in 1830.This and the London & Greenwich Railway later merged into South Eastern Railway (SER).By the 1850s, SER's networks had expanded to Ashford, Ramsgate, Canterbury, Tunbridge Wells, and the Medway towns.",
"SER's major London termini were London Bridge, Charing Cross, and Cannon Street.",
"Kent also had a second major railway, the London, Chatham & Dover Railway.",
"Originally the East Kent Railway in 1858, it linked the northeast Kent coast with London terminals at Victoria and Blackfriars.The two companies merged in 1899, forming the South Eastern & Chatham Railway, further amalgamated with other railways by the Railways Act 1921 to form the Southern Railway.",
"Britain's railways were nationalised in 1948, forming British Railways.",
"The railways were privatised in 1996 and most Kent passenger services were franchised to Connex South Eastern.",
"Following financial difficulties, Connex lost the franchise and was replaced by South Eastern Trains and after Southeastern.The Channel Tunnel was completed in 1994 and High Speed 1 in November 2007 with a London terminus at St Pancras.",
"A new station, Ebbsfleet International, opened between Dartford and Gravesend, serving northern Kent.",
"The high speed lines will be utilised to provide a faster train service to coastal towns like Ramsgate and Folkestone.",
"This station is in addition to the existing station at Ashford International, which has suffered a massive cut in service as a result.Romney, Hythe & Dymchurch RailwayIn addition to the \"main line\" railways, there are several light, heritage, and industrial railways in Kent.",
"There are three heritage, standard gauge railways; Spa Valley Railway near Tunbridge Wells on the old Tunbridge Wells West branch, East Kent Railway on the old East Kent coalfield area and the Kent & East Sussex Railway on the Weald around Tenterden.",
"In addition, there is the gauge, Romney, Hythe & Dymchurch Railway on the southeast Kent coast along the Dungeness peninsula.",
"Finally, there is the , industrial Sittingbourne & Kemsley Light Railway, previously the Bowaters Paper Railway.===Air===Charter flights are provided by Lydd Airport at Lydd.In 2002, it was revealed that the government was considering building a new four-runway airport on the marshland near the village of Cliffe on Hoo Peninsula.",
"This plan was dropped in 2003 following protests by cultural and environmental groups.",
"However further plans for a Thames Estuary Airport on the Kent coast have subsequently emerged, including the Thames Hub Airport, again sited on the Isle of Grain and designed by Lord Foster, and the London Britannia Airport plan, colloquially known as \"Boris Island\" due to its being championed by the former Mayor of London Boris Johnson, which would see a six runway airport built on an artificial island to be towards the Shivering Sands area, north-east of Whitstable.Both of these options were dropped in 2014 in favour of expansion at either Gatwick or Heathrow Airport, the latter finally being the chosen option following Theresa May's installation as Prime Minister in summer 2016.Manston Airport, located near the village of Manston in the Thanet district, was a former RAF facility that also handled some civilian flights.",
"It closed in 2014."
],
[
"Education",
"Kent has four universities: Canterbury Christ Church University with campuses throughout East Kent; University of Kent, with campuses in Canterbury and Medway; University of Greenwich (a London University), with sites at Woolwich, Eltham, London and Medway; the University for the Creative Arts (UCA) also has three of its five campuses in the county.Although much of Britain adopted a comprehensive education system in the 1970s, Kent County Council (KCC) and Medway Unitary Authority are among around fifteenlocal authorities still providing wholly selective education through the eleven-plus examination with students allocated a place at a secondary modern school or at a grammar school.Together, the two Kent authorities have 38 of the 164 grammar schools remaining in Britain.Kent County Council has the largest education department of any local council in Britain,providing school places for over 289,000 pupils.In 2005–06, Kent County Council and Medway introduced a standardised school year, based on six terms, as recommended by the Local Government Association in its 2000 report, \"The Rhythms of Schooling\".Kent County Council Local Education Authority maintains 96 secondary schools, of which 33 are selective schools and 63 are secondary modern schools.",
"Schools in Kent (data from 2000) LEA Nursery Primary Secondary (modern) Secondary (grammar) Special Pupil Referral UnitsIndependent City Technology College Total KCC 1 475 74 32 34 11 83 1 711 Medway 0 89 14 6 3 1 7 0 120Music education is provided by Kent Music (formerly Kent Music School), which has its origins in the 1940s.",
"Kent Music provides services across the county including Kent County Youth Orchestra, Kent Youth Choirs, and an annual summer school at Benenden School.===National Challenge schools===In 2010, Kent had the highest number of National Challenge schools in England: schools which are branded 'failing' based on the British Government's floor targets that 30% of pupils achieve at least 5 GCSE grades A* to C. Of the 63 secondary modern schools, 33 missed this target; thus 52% of Kent secondary modern schools (34% out of all 96 maintained secondary schools) are 'failing'."
],
[
"Sport",
"Priestfield Stadium is the home of Gillingham FC, Kent's only Football League teamIn association football, Kent's highest ranked football team is Gillingham FC (nicknamed 'The Gills') who play in Football League Two, having been demoted at the end of the 2021–22 season.",
"Maidstone United was a Football League side from 1989 until going bankrupt in 1992.Kent clubs in the higher levels of non-league football include the current incarnation of Maidstone United and Dover Athletic playing in the National League along with Ebbsfleet United, who were promoted in 2017.Dartford currently play in National League South, the sixth tier of the English football pyramid.Kent is represented in cricket by Kent County Cricket Club.",
"The club was a founder member of the County Championship in 1890 and has won the competition, the major domestic first-class cricket competition, seven times.",
"The club is based at the St Lawrence Ground in Canterbury and also plays matches at the Nevill Ground in Royal Tunbridge Wells and the County Cricket Ground, Beckenham.",
"The Kent Women cricket team has won the Women's County Championship seven times since it was established in 1997.Cricket has traditionally been a popular sport in the county and Kent is considered one of the locations in which the game first developed.",
"Teams have represented the county since the early 18th century.",
"The Kent Cricket League is the top level of club competition within Kent and features teams from throughout the county, including areas such as Beckenham and Bexley which were formerly part of the county.Canterbury Hockey Club and Holcombe Hockey Club both play in the top division in both the men's and women's England Hockey Leagues.",
"Sevenoaks Hockey Club's women first XI plays in the second tier of national competition.The Invicta Dynamos, based in Gillingham, are a semi-professional ice hockey team that plays in the National Ice Hockey League.",
"They replaced the Medway Bears as the senior team in 1997.They share the home ice rink at Planet Ice Gillingham with the secondary senior team, Invicta Mustangs and the ladies ice hockey team, the Invicta Dynamics.In rugby union, Tonbridge Juddians and Canterbury RFC play in the fourth-tier of English rugby in the National League 2 South.",
"Gravesend RFC play in the seventh-tier London 2 South-East.",
"Blackheath FC, a club within the historic boundaries of the county, play in fourth-tier National League 2 South.",
"Both Tonbridge Juddians and Blackheath RFC played in National league 1 (the third-tier of English rugby) up until the end of the 2021–2022 season.In motorsport, the Brands Hatch circuit near Swanley has played host to a number of national and international racing events and hosted 12 runnings of the British Grand Prix in various years between 1964 and 1986.There have been multiple American football teams based in Kent since the game was popularised in the UK.",
"Currently, the Canterbury is the home of the East Kent Mavericks, the 2023 BAFA National Leagues Southern Football Conference 2 Champions, as well as teams from both universities.Kent is home to two National League netball clubs, both based in northwest Kent: Telstars (Premier Division 2) and KCNC (Premier Division 3).In basketball, the Kent Panthers participate in Division 3 of the National Basketball League.The 2021–2022 season has seen three Kentish clubs demoted from the third-tier of their respective sports to the fourth-tier, with rugby clubs Tonbridge Juddians and Blackheath RFC being demoted in rugby and Gillingham FC being demoted in football."
],
[
"News and media",
"===Television===Much of Kent is served by the BBC's South East region, which is based in Tunbridge Wells and provides local news for the county and East Sussex.",
"Its commercial rival is ITV Meridian Ltd, which has a newsroom at The Maidstone Studios despite the main studio being based in Hampshire.",
"Main transmitters providing these services are at West Hougham, near Dover and Blue Bell Hill, between Chatham and Maidstone.",
"A powerful relay transmitter at Tunbridge Wells serves the town and surrounding area.",
"Those parts of Kent closest to London such as Swanley, Westerham, Dartford, Gravesend, and Sevenoaks lie within the ITV London and BBC London areas, taking their television signals from the Crystal Palace transmitter.===Radio===Kent has two county-wide stations – BBC Radio Kent, based in Tunbridge Wells; and the commercial station KMFM, owned by the KM Group.",
"KMFM previously consisted of seven local stations which covered different areas of the county (and are still technically seven different licences) but have shared all programming since 2012The county's first commercial station was originally known as Invicta FM and began broadcasting in 1984.After various buyouts, the station was rebranded into Heart Kent in 2009 as part of the Heart Network.",
"The station was closed and merged with several other Heart stations in the south of England in 2019 to form Heart South, with the Kent studios in Whitstable closing and production moving to Fareham in Hampshire.There are several community radio stations in Kent including:* Academy FM (Folkestone).",
"* Academy FM (Thanet)* Ashford FM (Ashford) on 107.1 FM.",
"* BRFM 95.6 FM (Sheppey)* Cabin FM broadcasting to Herne Bay on 94.6FM.",
"* Cinque Ports Radio 100.2FM for Romney Marsh, Rye and Hythe.",
"* CSR 97.4FM (Canterbury) now only available via online listening.",
"* Deal Radio (Deal): online only.",
"* Dover Community Radio (DCR) Dover: currently online only; due to start broadcasting to Dover District on 104.9FM from May 2022.",
"* Radio Faversham (Faversham): online only.",
"* Maidstone Community Radio (MCR): online only.",
"* Miskin Radio (Dartford and Gravesend): online only.",
"* SFM 106.9FM (Sittingboune)* Sheppey FM 92.2 (Sheppey)* Shoreline Easy (Romney Marsh), online only.",
"* West Kent Radio (WKCR) serving Tonbridge, Tunbridge Wells and Sevenoaks.",
"95.5 and 106.7FM.",
"* Whitstable Bay Radio (Whitstable): online only.===Newspapers===The KM Group, KOS Media and Kent Regional News and Media all provide local newspapers for most of the large towns and cities.",
"County-wide papers include the ''Kent Messenger'', ''Kent on Saturday'', ''Kent on Sunday'', and the ''Kent and Sussex Courier''."
],
[
"See also",
"* Custos Rotulorum of Kent – list of Keepers of the Rolls* Duke of Kent* Kent (UK Parliament constituency) – historical list of MPs for Kent constituency* Kent Community Network* Kent Police and Crime Commissioner* List of churches in Kent* List of civil parishes in Kent* List of fire stations in Kent* List of hills of Kent* List of Lord Lieutenants* List of people from Kent* List of places in Kent* List of tourist attractions in Kent* Recreational walks in Kent* Thames Gateway – includes details of regeneration projects in the northern areas of Kent* :Category:Towns in Kent* :Category:Villages in Kent* Fergus and Judith Wilson"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Kent County Council – local government website* BBC – origins of Kent placenames* Images of Kent at the English Heritage Archive"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"King James Version"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''King James Version''' ('''KJV'''), also the '''King James Version Bible''' ('''KJVB''') and the '''Authorized Version''' ('''AV''') is an Early Modern English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, which was commissioned in 1604 and published in 1611, by sponsorship of King James VI and I.",
"The 80 books of the King James Version include 39 books of the Old Testament, 14 books of Apocrypha, and the 27 books of the New Testament.",
"Noted for its \"majesty of style\", the King James Version has been described as one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the shaping of the English-speaking world.",
"The King James Version remains the preferred translation of many Christian fundamentalists and religious movements, and it is also considered to be one of the important literary accomplishments of early modern England.The KJV was first printed by John Norton and Robert Barker, who both held the post of the King's Printer, and was the third translation into the English language approved by the English Church authorities: The first had been the Great Bible, commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII (1535), and the second had been the Bishops' Bible, commissioned in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1568).",
"In Geneva, Switzerland, the first generation of Protestant Reformers had produced the Geneva Bible which was published in 1560 by Sir Rowland Hill having referred to the original Hebrew and Greek scriptures, which was influential in the writing of the Authorized King James Version.The English Church initially used the officially sanctioned \"Bishops' Bible\", which, however, was hardly used by the population.",
"More popular was the named \"Geneva Bible\", which was created on the basis of the Tyndale translation in Geneva under the direct successor of the reformer John Calvin for his English followers.",
"However, their footnotes represented a Calvinistic Puritanism that was too radical for King James.",
"In particular, the decidedly anti-royalist tone of the Geneva Bible was unbearable for King James I, for he was a strict advocate of divine right.",
"The translators of the Geneva Bible had translated the word king as tyrant about four hundred times—the word tyrant does not appear once in the KJV.",
"Because of this, it has been assumed that King James purposely had the translators of the KJV mistranslate the word \"tyrant\" as either \"troubling\", \"oppressor\", or some other word to avoid people being critical of his monarchy, though there is no evidence to back up that claim.",
"For his project, King James convened the Hampton Court Conference in January 1604, where a new English version was conceived in response to the problems of the earlier translations perceived by the Puritans, a faction of the Church of England.James gave the translators instructions intended to ensure that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology, and reflect the episcopal structure, of the Church of England and its belief in an ordained clergy.",
"The translation was done by six panels of translators (47 men in all, most of whom were leading biblical scholars in England) who had the work divided up between them: the Old Testament was entrusted to three panels, the New Testament to two, and the Apocrypha to one.",
"In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin.",
"In the 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'', the text of the ''Authorized Version'' replaced the text of the Great Bible for Epistle and Gospel readings (but not for the Psalter, which substantially retained Coverdale's Great Bible version), and as such was authorized by Act of Parliament.By the first half of the 18th century, the Authorized Version had become effectively unchallenged as the only English translation used in Anglican and other English Protestant churches, except for the Psalms and some short passages in the ''Book of Common Prayer'' of the Church of England.",
"Over the course of the 18th century, the ''Authorized Version'' supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English-speaking scholars.",
"With the development of stereotype printing at the beginning of the 19th century, this version of the Bible had become the most widely printed book in history, almost all such printings presenting the standard text of 1769 extensively re-edited by Benjamin Blayney at Oxford, and nearly always omitting the books of the Apocrypha.",
"Today the unqualified title \"King James Version\" usually indicates this Oxford standard text."
],
[
"Name",
"John Speed's ''Genealogies recorded in the Sacred Scriptures'' (1611), bound into first King James Bible in quarto size (1612)The title of the first edition of the translation, in Early Modern English, was \"THE HOLY BIBLE, Conteyning the Old Teſtament, ''AND THE NEW: Newly Tranſlated out of the Originall tongues: & with the former Tranſlations diligently compared and reuiſed, by his Maiesties ſpeciall Cõmandement''\".",
"The title page carries the words \"Appointed to be read in Churches\", and F. F. Bruce suggests it was \"probably authorised by order in council\", but no record of the authorisation survives \"because the Privy Council registers from 1600 to 1613 were destroyed by fire in January 1618/19\".For many years it was common not to give the translation any specific name.",
"In his ''Leviathan'' of 1651, Thomas Hobbes referred to it as \"the English Translation made in the beginning of the Reign of King James\".",
"A 1761 \"Brief Account of the various Translations of the Bible into English\" refers to the 1611 version merely as \"a new, compleat, and more accurate Translation\", despite referring to the Great Bible by its name, and despite using the name \"Rhemish Testament\" for the Douay–Rheims Bible version.",
"Similarly, a \"History of England\", whose fifth edition was published in 1775, writes merely that \"a new translation of the Bible, ''viz.",
"'', that now in Use, was begun in 1607, and published in 1611\".King James's Bible is used as the name for the 1611 translation (on a par with the Genevan Bible or the Rhemish Testament) in Charles Butler's ''Horae Biblicae'' (first published 1797).",
"Other works from the early 19th century confirm the widespread use of this name on both sides of the Atlantic: it is found both in a \"historical sketch of the English translations of the Bible\" published in Massachusetts in 1815 and in an English publication from 1818, which explicitly states that the 1611 version is \"generally known by the name of King James's Bible\".",
"This name was also found as King James' Bible (without the final \"s\"): for example in a book review from 1811.The phrase \"King James's Bible\" is used as far back as 1715, although in this case it is not clear whether this is a name or merely a description.The use of Authorized Version, capitalized and used as a name, is found as early as 1814.For some time before this, descriptive phrases such as \"our present, and only publicly authorised version\" (1783), \"our Authorized version\" (1731, 1792) and \"the authorized version\" (1801, uncapitalized) are found.",
"A more common appellation in the 17th and 18th centuries was \"our English translation\" or \"our English version\", as can be seen by searching one or other of the major online archives of printed books.",
"In Britain, the 1611 translation is generally known as the \"Authorized Version\" today.",
"The term is somewhat of a misnomer because the text itself was never formally \"authorized\", nor were English parish churches ever ordered to procure copies of it.King James' Version, evidently a descriptive phrase, is found being used as early as 1814.",
"\"The King James Version\" is found, unequivocally used as a name, in a letter from 1855.The next year King James Bible, with no possessive, appears as a name in a Scottish source.",
"In the United States, the \"1611 translation\" (actually editions following the standard text of 1769, see below) is generally known as the King James Version today."
],
[
"History",
"===Earlier English translations===The followers of John Wycliffe undertook the first complete English translations of the Christian scriptures in the 14th century.",
"These translations were banned in 1409 due to their association with the Lollards.",
"The Wycliffe Bible pre-dated the printing press but it was circulated very widely in manuscript form, often inscribed with a date which was earlier than 1409 in order to avoid the legal ban.",
"Because the text of the various versions of the Wycliffe Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate, and because it also contained no heterodox readings, the ecclesiastical authorities had no practical way to distinguish the banned version.",
"Consequently, many Catholic commentators of the 15th and 16th centuries (such as Thomas More) took these manuscripts of English Bibles and claimed that they represented an anonymous earlier orthodox translation.William Tyndale translated the New Testament into English in 1525.In 1525, William Tyndale, an English contemporary of Martin Luther, undertook a translation of the New Testament.",
"Tyndale's translation was the first ''printed'' Bible in English.",
"Over the next ten years, Tyndale revised his New Testament in the light of rapidly advancing biblical scholarship, and embarked on a translation of the Old Testament.",
"Despite some controversial translation choices, and in spite of Tyndale's execution on charges of heresy for having made the translated Bible, the merits of Tyndale's work and prose style made his translation the ultimate basis for all subsequent renditions into Early Modern English.With these translations lightly edited and adapted by Myles Coverdale, in 1539, Tyndale's New Testament and his incomplete work on the Old Testament became the basis for the Great Bible.",
"This was the first \"authorised version\" issued by the Church of England during the reign of King Henry VIII.",
"When Mary I succeeded to the throne in 1553, she returned the Church of England to the communion of the Catholic faith and many English religious reformers fled the country, some establishing an English-speaking colony at Geneva.",
"Under the leadership of John Calvin, Geneva became the chief international centre of Reformed Protestantism and Latin biblical scholarship.These English expatriates undertook a translation that became known as the Geneva Bible.",
"This translation, dated to 1560, was a revision of Tyndale's Bible and the Great Bible on the basis of the original languages.",
"Soon after Elizabeth I took the throne in 1558, the flaws of both the Great Bible and the Geneva Bible (namely, that the Geneva Bible did not \"conform to the ecclesiology and reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and its beliefs about an ordained clergy\") became apparent.",
"In 1568, the Church of England responded with the Bishops' Bible, a revision of the Great Bible in the light of the Geneva version.While officially approved, this new version failed to displace the Geneva translation as the most popular English Bible of the age—in part because the full Bible was only printed in lectern editions of prodigious size and at a cost of several pounds.",
"Accordingly, Elizabethan lay people overwhelmingly read the Bible in the Geneva Version—small editions were available at a relatively low cost.",
"At the same time, there was a substantial clandestine importation of the rival Douay–Rheims New Testament of 1582, undertaken by exiled Catholics.",
"This translation, though still derived from Tyndale, claimed to represent the text of the Latin Vulgate.In May 1601, King James VI of Scotland attended the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at Saint Columba's Church in Burntisland, Fife, at which proposals were put forward for a new translation of the Bible into English.",
"Two years later, he ascended to the throne of England as James I.===Considerations for a new version===The newly crowned King James convened the Hampton Court Conference in 1604.That gathering proposed a new English version in response to the perceived problems of earlier translations as detected by the Puritan faction of the Church of England.",
"Here are three examples of problems the Puritans perceived with the ''Bishops'' and ''Great Bibles'':Instructions were given to the translators that were intended to use Formal Equivalence and limit the Puritan influence on this new translation.",
"The Bishop of London added a qualification that the translators would add no marginal notes (which had been an issue in the ''Geneva Bible'').",
"King James cited two passages in the Geneva translation where he found the marginal notes offensive to the principles of divinely ordained royal supremacy: Exodus 1:19, where the ''Geneva Bible'' notes had commended the example of civil disobedience to the Egyptian Pharaoh showed by the Hebrew midwives, and also II Chronicles 15:16, where the ''Geneva Bible'' had criticized King Asa for not having executed his idolatrous 'mother', Queen Maachah (Maachah had actually been Asa's grandmother, but James considered the Geneva Bible reference as sanctioning the execution of his own mother Mary, Queen of Scots).Further, the King gave the translators instructions designed to guarantee that the new version would conform to the ecclesiology of the Church of England.",
"Certain Greek and Hebrew words were to be translated in a manner that reflected the traditional usage of the church.",
"For example, old ecclesiastical words such as the word \"church\" were to be retained and not to be translated as \"congregation\".",
"The new translation would reflect the episcopal structure of the Church of England and traditional beliefs about ordained clergy.The source material for the translation of the New Testament was the Textus Receptus version of the Greek compiled by Erasmus; for the Old Testament, the Masoretic text of the Hebrew was used; for some of the apocrypha, the Septuagint Greek text was used, or for apocrypha for which the Greek was unavailable, the Vulgate Latin.James' instructions included several requirements that kept the new translation familiar to its listeners and readers.",
"The text of the ''Bishops' Bible'' would serve as the primary guide for the translators, and the familiar proper names of the biblical characters would all be retained.",
"If the ''Bishops' Bible'' was deemed problematic in any situation, the translators were permitted to consult other translations from a pre-approved list: the ''Tyndale Bible'', the ''Coverdale Bible'', ''Matthew's Bible'', the ''Great Bible'', and the ''Geneva Bible''.",
"In addition, later scholars have detected an influence on the ''Authorized Version'' from the translations of ''Taverner's Bible'' and the New Testament of the ''Douay–Rheims Bible.",
"''It is for this reason that the flyleaf of most printings of the ''Authorized Version'' observes that the text had been \"translated out of the original tongues, and with the former translations diligently compared and revised, by His Majesty's special commandment.\"",
"As the work proceeded, more detailed rules were adopted as to how variant and uncertain readings in the Hebrew and Greek source texts should be indicated, including the requirement that words supplied in English to 'complete the meaning' of the originals should be printed in a different type face.===Translation Committee===The task of translation was undertaken by 47 scholars, although 54 were originally approved.",
"All were members of the Church of England and all except Sir Henry Savile were clergy.",
"The scholars worked in six committees, two based in each of the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, and Westminster.",
"The committees included scholars with Puritan sympathies, as well as high churchmen.",
"Forty unbound copies of the 1602 edition of the ''Bishops' Bible'' were specially printed so that the agreed changes of each committee could be recorded in the margins.The committees worked on certain parts separately and the drafts produced by each committee were then compared and revised for harmony with each other.",
"The scholars were not paid directly for their translation work.",
"Instead, a circular letter was sent to bishops encouraging them to consider the translators for appointment to well-paid livings as these fell vacant.",
"Several were supported by the various colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, while others were promoted to bishoprics, deaneries and prebends through royal patronage.The committees started work towards the end of 1604.King James VI and I, on 22 July 1604, sent a letter to Archbishop Bancroft asking him to contact all English churchmen requesting that they make donations to his project.They had all completed their sections by 1608, the Apocrypha committee finishing first.",
"From January 1609, a General Committee of Review met at Stationers' Hall, London to review the completed marked texts from each of the six committees.",
"The General Committee included John Bois, Andrew Downes and John Harmar, and others known only by their initials, including \"AL\" (who may be Arthur Lake), and were paid for their attendance by the Stationers' Company.",
"John Bois prepared a note of their deliberations (in Latin) – which has partly survived in two later transcripts.",
"Also surviving of the translators' working papers are a bound-together set of marked-up corrections to one of the forty ''Bishops' Bibles''—covering the Old Testament and Gospels, and also a manuscript translation of the text of the Epistles, excepting those verses where no change was being recommended to the readings in the ''Bishops' Bible''.",
"Archbishop Bancroft insisted on having a final say making fourteen further changes, of which one was the term \"bishopricke\" at Acts 1:20.===Translation committees===* '''First Westminster Company''', translated Genesis to 2 Kings: Lancelot Andrewes, John Overall, Hadrian à Saravia, Richard Clarke, John Layfield, Robert Tighe, Francis Burleigh, Geoffrey King, Richard Thomson, William Bedwell;* '''First Cambridge Company''', translated 1 Chronicles to the Song of Solomon: Edward Lively, John Richardson, Lawrence Chaderton, Francis Dillingham, Roger Andrewes, Thomas Harrison, Robert Spaulding, Andrew Bing;* '''First Oxford Company''', translated Isaiah to Malachi: John Harding, John Rainolds (or Reynolds), Thomas Holland, Richard Kilby, Miles Smith, Richard Brett, Daniel Fairclough, William Thorne;* '''Second Oxford Company''', translated the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, and the Book of Revelation: Thomas Ravis, George Abbot, Richard Eedes, Giles Tomson, Sir Henry Savile, John Peryn, Ralph Ravens, John Harmar, John Aglionby, Leonard Hutten;* '''Second Westminster Company''', translated the Epistles: William Barlow, John Spenser, Roger Fenton, Ralph Hutchinson, William Dakins, Michael Rabbet, Thomas Sanderson (who probably had already become Archdeacon of Rochester);* '''Second Cambridge Company''', translated the Apocrypha: John Duport, William Branthwaite, Jeremiah Radcliffe, Samuel Ward, Andrew Downes, John Bois, Robert Ward, Thomas Bilson, Richard Bancroft.===Printing===Archbishop Richard Bancroft was the \"chief overseer\" of the production of the Authorized Version.The original printing of the ''Authorized Version'' was published by Robert Barker, the King's Printer, in 1611 as a complete folio Bible.",
"It was sold looseleaf for ten shillings, or bound for twelve.",
"Robert Barker's father, Christopher, had, in 1589, been granted by Elizabeth I the title of royal Printer, with the perpetual Royal Privilege to print Bibles in England.",
"Robert Barker invested very large sums in printing the new edition, and consequently ran into serious debt, such that he was compelled to sub-lease the privilege to two rival London printers, Bonham Norton and John Bill.",
"It appears that it was initially intended that each printer would print a portion of the text, share printed sheets with the others, and split the proceeds.",
"Bitter financial disputes broke out, as Barker accused Norton and Bill of concealing their profits, while Norton and Bill accused Barker of selling sheets properly due to them as partial Bibles for ready money.",
"There followed decades of continual litigation, and consequent imprisonment for debt for members of the Barker and Norton printing dynasties, while each issued rival editions of the whole Bible.",
"In 1629 the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge successfully managed to assert separate and prior royal licences for Bible printing, for their own university presses—and Cambridge University took the opportunity to print revised editions of the ''Authorized Version'' in 1629, and 1638.The editors of these editions included John Bois and John Ward from the original translators.",
"This did not, however, impede the commercial rivalries of the London printers, especially as the Barker family refused to allow any other printers access to the authoritative manuscript of the ''Authorized Version''.Two editions of the whole Bible are recognized as having been produced in 1611, which may be distinguished by their rendering of Ruth 3:15; the first edition reading \"he went into the city\", where the second reads \"she went into the city\"; these are known colloquially as the \"He\" and \"She\" Bibles.The opening of the Epistle to the Hebrews of the 1611 edition of the'' Authorized Version'' shows the original typeface.",
"The text of the Bible (only) is in black text.",
"Marginal notes reference variant translations and cross references to other Bible passages.",
"Each chapter is headed by a précis of contents.",
"There are decorative initial letters for each chapter, and a decorated headpiece to each book, but no illustrations in the text.The original printing was made before English spelling was standardized, and when printers, as a matter of course, expanded and contracted the spelling of the same words in different places, so as to achieve an even column of text.",
"They set '''v''' for initial '''u''' and '''v''', and '''u''' for '''u''' and '''v''' everywhere else.",
"They used the long '''s''' ('''ſ''') for non-final '''s'''.",
"The letter or glyph '''j''' occurs only after '''i''', as in the final letter in a Roman numeral, such as XIIJ.",
"Punctuation was relatively heavy (frequent) and differed from modern practice.",
"When space needed to be saved, the printers sometimes used ''ye'' for ''the'' (replacing the Middle English thorn, Þ, with the continental '''y'''), set '''ã''' for ''an'' or ''am'' (in the style of scribe's shorthand), and set '''&''' for ''and''.",
"On the contrary, on a few occasions, they appear to have inserted these words when they thought a line needed to be padded.",
"Later printings regularized these spellings; the punctuation has also been standardized, but still varies from current usage.As can be seen in the example page on the left, the first printing used a blackletter typeface instead of a roman typeface, which itself made a political and a religious statement.",
"Like the Great Bible and the Bishops' Bible, the Authorized Version was \"appointed to be read in churches\".",
"It was a large folio volume meant for public use, not private devotion; the weight of the type—blackletter type was heavy physically as well as visually—mirrored the weight of establishment authority behind it.",
"However, smaller editions and roman-type editions followed rapidly, e.g.",
"quarto roman-type editions of the Bible in 1612.This contrasted with the Geneva Bible, which was the first English Bible printed in a roman typeface (although black-letter editions, particularly in folio format, were issued later).In contrast to the ''Geneva Bible'' and the ''Bishops' Bible'', which had both been extensively illustrated, there were no illustrations in the 1611 edition of the Authorized Version, the main form of decoration being the historiated initial letters provided for books and chapterstogether with the decorative title pages to the Bible itself, and to the New Testament.In the Great Bible, readings derived from the Vulgate but not found in published Hebrew and Greek texts had been distinguished by being printed in smaller roman type.",
"In the Geneva Bible, a distinct typeface had instead been applied to distinguish text supplied by translators, or thought needful for English grammar but not present in the Greek or Hebrew; and the original printing of the Authorized Version used roman type for this purpose, albeit sparsely and inconsistently.",
"This results in perhaps the most significant difference between the original printed text of the King James Bible and the current text.",
"When, from the later 17th century onwards, the Authorized Version began to be printed in roman type, the typeface for supplied words was changed to italics, this application being regularized and greatly expanded.",
"This was intended to de-emphasize the words.The original printing contained two prefatory texts; the first was a formal ''Epistle Dedicatory'' to \"the most high and mighty Prince\" King James.",
"Many British printings reproduce this, while most non-British printings do not.The second preface was called ''Translators to the Reader'', a long and learned essay that defends the undertaking of the new version.",
"It observes the translators' stated goal, that they \"never thought from the beginning that they should need to make a new translation, nor yet to make of a bad one a good one, ... but to make a good one better, or out of many good ones, one principal good one, not justly to be excepted against; that hath been our endeavour, that our mark.\"",
"They also give their opinion of previous English Bible translations, stating, \"We do not deny, nay, we affirm and avow, that the very meanest translation of the Bible in English, set forth by men of our profession, (for we have seen none of theirs Catholics of the whole Bible as yet) containeth the word of God, nay, is the word of God.\"",
"As with the first preface, some British printings reproduce this, while most non-British printings do not.",
"Almost every printing that includes the second preface also includes the first.The first printing contained a number of other apparatus, including a table for the reading of the Psalms at matins and evensong, and a calendar, an almanac, and a table of holy days and observances.",
"Much of this material became obsolete with the adoption of the Gregorian calendar by Britain and its colonies in 1752, and thus modern editions invariably omit it.So as to make it easier to know a particular passage, each chapter was headed by a brief précis of its contents with verse numbers.",
"Later editors freely substituted their own chapter summaries, or omitted such material entirely.",
"Pilcrow marks are used to indicate the beginnings of paragraphs except after the book of Acts.===Authorized Version===The Authorized Version was meant to replace the ''Bishops' Bible'' as the official version for readings in the Church of England.",
"No record of its authorization exists; it was probably effected by an order of the Privy Council, but the records for the years 1600 to 1613 were destroyed by fire in January 1618/19, and it is commonly known as the Authorized Version in the United Kingdom.",
"The King's Printer issued no further editions of the ''Bishops' Bible'', so necessarily the Authorized Version replaced it as the standard lectern Bible in parish church use in England.In the 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'', the text of the Authorized Version finally supplanted that of the ''Great Bible'' in the Epistle and Gospel readings—though the Prayer Book Psalter nevertheless continues in the Great Bible version.The case was different in Scotland, where the Geneva Bible had long been the standard church Bible.",
"It was not until 1633 that a Scottish edition of the Authorized Version was printed—in conjunction with the Scots coronation in that year of Charles I.",
"The inclusion of illustrations in the edition raised accusations of Popery from opponents of the religious policies of Charles and William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury.",
"However, official policy favoured the Authorized Version, and this favour returned during the Commonwealth—as London printers succeeded in re-asserting their monopoly on Bible printing with support from Oliver Cromwell—and the \"New Translation\" was the only edition on the market.",
"F. F. Bruce reports that the last recorded instance of a Scots parish continuing to use the \"Old Translation\" (i.e.",
"Geneva) as being in 1674.The ''Authorized Version''s acceptance by the general public took longer.",
"The ''Geneva Bible'' continued to be popular, and large numbers were imported from Amsterdam, where printing continued up to 1644 in editions carrying a false London imprint.",
"However, few if any genuine Geneva editions appear to have been printed in London after 1616, and in 1637 Archbishop Laud prohibited their printing or importation.",
"In the period of the English Civil War, soldiers of the New Model Army were issued a book of Geneva selections called ''\"The Soldiers' Bible\"''.",
"In the first half of the 17th century the Authorized Version is most commonly referred to as \"The Bible without notes\", thereby distinguishing it from the Geneva \"Bible with notes\".There were several printings of the Authorized Version in Amsterdam—one as late as 1715 which combined the Authorized Version translation text with the Geneva marginal notes; one such edition was printed in London in 1649.During the Commonwealth a commission was established by Parliament to recommend a revision of the Authorized Version with acceptably Protestant explanatory notes, but the project was abandoned when it became clear that these would nearly double the bulk of the Bible text.",
"After the English Restoration, the ''Geneva Bible'' was held to be politically suspect and a reminder of the repudiated Puritan era.",
"Furthermore, disputes over the lucrative rights to print the Authorized Version dragged on through the 17th century, so none of the printers involved saw any commercial advantage in marketing a rival translation.",
"The Authorized Version became the only then current version circulating among English-speaking people.A small minority of critical scholars were slow to accept the latest translation.",
"Hugh Broughton, who was the most highly regarded English Hebraist of his time but had been excluded from the panel of translators because of his utterly uncongenial temperament, issued in 1611 a total condemnation of the new version.",
"He especially criticized the translators' rejection of word-for-word equivalence and stated that \"he would rather be torn in pieces by wild horses than that this abominable translation (KJV) should ever be foisted upon the English people\".",
"Walton's London Polyglot of 1657 disregards the Authorized Version (and indeed the English language) entirely.",
"Walton's reference text throughout is the Vulgate.The Vulgate Latin is also found as the standard text of scripture in Thomas Hobbes's ''Leviathan'' of 1651.Hobbes gives Vulgate chapter and verse numbers (e.g., Job 41:24, not Job 41:33) for his head text.",
"In Chapter 35: ''The Signification in Scripture of Kingdom of God'', Hobbes discusses Exodus 19:5, first in his own translation of the ''Vulgar Latin'', and then subsequently as found in the versions he terms ''\"... the English translation made in the beginning of the reign of King James\"'', and ''\"The Geneva French\"'' (i.e.",
"Olivétan).",
"Hobbes advances detailed critical arguments why the Vulgate rendering is to be preferred.",
"For most of the 17th century the assumption remained that, while it had been of vital importance to provide the scriptures in the vernacular for ordinary people, nevertheless for those with sufficient education to do so, Biblical study was best undertaken within the international common medium of Latin.",
"It was only in 1700 that modern bilingual Bibles appeared in which the Authorized Version was compared with counterpart Dutch and French Protestant vernacular Bibles.In consequence of the continual disputes over printing privileges, successive printings of the Authorized Version were notably less careful than the 1611 edition had been—compositors freely varying spelling, capitalization and punctuation—and also, over the years, introducing about 1,500 misprints (some of which, like the omission of \"not\" from the commandment \"Thou shalt not commit adultery\" in the \"Wicked Bible\", became notorious).",
"The two Cambridge editions of 1629 and 1638 attempted to restore the proper text—while introducing over 200 revisions of the original translators' work, chiefly by incorporating into the main text a more literal reading originally presented as a marginal note.",
"A more thoroughly corrected edition was proposed following the Restoration, in conjunction with the revised 1662 Book of Common Prayer, but Parliament then decided against it.By the first half of the 18th century, the Authorized Version was effectively unchallenged as the sole English translation in then current use in Protestant churches, and was so dominant that the Catholic Church in England issued in 1750 a revision of the 1610 ''Douay–Rheims Bible'' by Richard Challoner that was much closer to the Authorized Version than to the original.",
"However, general standards of spelling, punctuation, typesetting, capitalization and grammar had changed radically in the 100 years since the first edition of the Authorized Version, and all printers in the market were introducing continual piecemeal changes to their Bible texts to bring them into line with then current practice—and with public expectations of standardized spelling and grammatical construction.Over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Hebrew, Greek and the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English speaking scholars and divines, and indeed came to be regarded by some as an inspired text in itself—so much so that any challenge to its readings or textual base came to be regarded by many as an assault on Holy Scripture.In the 18th century there was a serious shortage of Bibles in the American colonies.",
"To meet the demand various printers, beginning with Samuel Kneeland in 1752, printed the King James Bible without authorization from the Crown.",
"To avert prosecution and detection of an unauthorized printing they would include the royal insignia on the title page, using the same materials in its printing as the authorized version was produced from, which were imported from England.===Standard text of 1769===Title page of the 1760 Cambridge editionBy the mid-18th century the wide variation in the various modernized printed texts of the Authorized Version, combined with the notorious accumulation of misprints, had reached the proportion of a scandal, and the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge both sought to produce an updated standard text.",
"First of the two was the Cambridge edition of 1760, the culmination of 20 years' work by Francis Sawyer Parris, who died in May of that year.",
"This 1760 edition was reprinted without change in 1762 and in John Baskerville's fine folio edition of 1763.This was effectively superseded by the 1769 Oxford edition, edited by Benjamin Blayney, though with comparatively few changes from Parris's edition; but which became the Oxford standard text, and is reproduced almost unchanged in most current printings.",
"Parris and Blayney sought consistently to remove those elements of the 1611 and subsequent editions that they believed were due to the vagaries of printers, while incorporating most of the revised readings of the Cambridge editions of 1629 and 1638, and each also introducing a few improved readings of their own.They undertook the mammoth task of standardizing the wide variation in punctuation and spelling of the original, making many thousands of minor changes to the text.",
"In addition, Blayney and Parris thoroughly revised and greatly extended the italicization of \"supplied\" words not found in the original languages by cross-checking against the presumed source texts.",
"Blayney seems to have worked from the 1550 Stephanus edition of the Textus Receptus, rather than the later editions of Theodore Beza that the translators of the 1611 New Testament had favoured; accordingly the current Oxford standard text alters around a dozen italicizations where Beza and Stephanus differ.",
"Like the 1611 edition, the 1769 Oxford edition included the Apocrypha, although Blayney tended to remove cross-references to the Books of the Apocrypha from the margins of their Old and New Testaments wherever these had been provided by the original translators.",
"It also includes both prefaces from the 1611 edition.",
"Altogether, the standardization of spelling and punctuation caused Blayney's 1769 text to differ from the 1611 text in around 24,000 places.The 1611 and 1769 texts of the first three verses from ''I Corinthians 13'' are given below.There are a number of superficial edits in these three verses: 11 changes of spelling, 16 changes of typesetting (including the changed conventions for the use of u and v), three changes of punctuation, and one variant text—where \"not charity\" is substituted for \"no charity\" in verse two, in the belief that the original reading was a misprint.A particular verse for which Blayney's 1769 text differs from Parris's 1760 version is Matthew 5:13, where Parris (1760) hasBlayney (1769) changes 'lost '''his''' savour' to 'lost '''its''' savour', and '''''' to '''trodden'''.For a period, Cambridge continued to issue Bibles using the Parris text, but the market demand for absolute standardization was now such that they eventually adapted Blayney's work but omitted some of the idiosyncratic Oxford spellings.",
"By the mid-19th century, almost all printings of the Authorized Version were derived from the 1769 Oxford text—increasingly without Blayney's variant notes and cross references, and commonly excluding the Apocrypha.",
"One exception to this was a scrupulous original-spelling, page-for-page, and line-for-line reprint of the 1611 edition (including all chapter headings, marginalia, and original italicization, but with Roman type substituted for the black letter of the original), published by Oxford in 1833.Another important exception was the 1873 Cambridge Paragraph Bible, thoroughly revised, modernized and re-edited by F. H. A. Scrivener, who for the first time consistently identified the source texts underlying the 1611 translation and its marginal notes.",
"Scrivener, like Blayney, opted to revise the translation where he considered the judgement of the 1611 translators had been faulty.",
"In 2005, Cambridge University Press released its New Cambridge Paragraph Bible with Apocrypha, edited by David Norton, which followed in the spirit of Scrivener's work, attempting to bring spelling to present-day standards.",
"Norton also innovated with the introduction of quotation marks, while returning to a hypothetical 1611 text, so far as possible, to the wording used by its translators, especially in the light of the re-emphasis on some of their draft documents.",
"This text has been issued in paperback by Penguin Books.From the early 19th century the Authorized Version has remained almost completely unchanged—and since, due to advances in printing technology, it could now be produced in very large editions for mass sale, it established complete dominance in public and ecclesiastical use in the English-speaking Protestant world.",
"Academic debate through that century, however, increasingly reflected concerns about the Authorized Version shared by some scholars: (a) that subsequent study in oriental languages suggested a need to revise the translation of the Hebrew Bible—both in terms of specific vocabulary, and also in distinguishing descriptive terms from proper names; (b) that the Authorized Version was unsatisfactory in translating the same Greek words and phrases into different English, especially where parallel passages are found in the synoptic gospels; and (c) in the light of subsequent ancient manuscript discoveries, the New Testament translation base of the Greek Textus Receptus could no longer be considered to be the best representation of the original text.Responding to these concerns, the Convocation of Canterbury resolved in 1870 to undertake a revision of the text of the Authorized Version, intending to retain the original text \"except where in the judgement of competent scholars such a change is necessary\".",
"The resulting revision was issued as the Revised Version in 1881 (New Testament), 1885 (Old Testament) and 1894 (Apocrypha); but, although it sold widely, the revision did not find popular favour, and it was only reluctantly in 1899 that Convocation approved it for reading in churches.By the early 20th century, editing had been completed in Cambridge's text, with at least 6 new changes since 1769, and the reversing of at least 30 of the standard Oxford readings.",
"The distinct Cambridge text was printed in the millions, and after the Second World War \"the unchanging steadiness of the KJB was a huge asset.",
"\"===Editorial criticism===F.",
"H. A. Scrivener and D. Norton have both written in detail on editorial variations which have occurred through the history of the publishing of the Authorized Version from 1611 to 1769.In the 19th century, there were effectively three main guardians of the text.",
"Norton identified five variations among the Oxford, Cambridge, and London (Eyre and Spottiswoode) texts of 1857, such as the spelling of \"farther\" or \"further\" at Matthew 26:39.In the 20th century, variation between the editions was reduced to comparing the Cambridge to the Oxford.",
"Distinctly identified Cambridge readings included \"or Sheba\", \"sin\", \"clifts\", \"vapour\", \"flieth\", \"further\" and a number of other references.",
"In effect the Cambridge was considered the current text in comparison to the Oxford.",
"These are instances where both Oxford and Cambridge have now diverged from Blayney's 1769 Edition.",
"The distinctions between the Oxford and Cambridge editions have been a major point in the Bible version debate, and a potential theological issue, particularly in regard to the identification of the Pure Cambridge Edition.Cambridge University Press introduced a change at 1 John 5:8 in 1985, reversing its longstanding tradition of printing the word \"spirit\" in lower case by using a capital letter \"S\".",
"A Rev.",
"Hardin of Bedford, Pennsylvania, wrote a letter to Cambridge inquiring about this verse, and received a reply on 3 June 1985 from the Bible Director, Jerry L. Hooper, claiming that it was a \"matter of some embarrassment regarding the lower case 's' in Spirit\"."
],
[
"Literary attributes",
"===Marginal notes===In obedience to their instructions, the translators provided no marginal interpretation of the text, but in some 8,500 places a marginal note offers an alternative English wording.",
"The majority of these notes offer a more literal rendering of the original, introduced as \"Heb\", \"Chal\" (Chaldee, referring to Aramaic), \"Gr\" or \"Lat\".",
"Others indicate a variant reading of the source text (introduced by \"or\").",
"Some of the annotated variants derive from alternative editions in the original languages, or from variant forms quoted in the fathers.",
"More commonly, though, they indicate a difference between the literal original language reading and that in the translators' preferred recent Latin versions: Tremellius for the Old Testament, Junius for the Apocrypha, and Beza for the New Testament.",
"At thirteen places in the New Testament a marginal note records a variant reading found in some Greek manuscript copies; in almost all cases reproducing a counterpart textual note at the same place in Beza's editions.A few more extensive notes clarify Biblical names and units of measurement or currency.",
"Modern reprintings rarely reproduce these annotated variants—although they are to be found in the New Cambridge Paragraph Bible.",
"In addition, there were originally some 9,000 scriptural cross-references, in which one text was related to another.",
"Such cross-references had long been common in Latin Bibles, and most of those in the Authorized Version were copied unaltered from this Latin tradition.",
"Consequently the early editions of the KJV retain many Vulgate verse references—e.g.",
"in the numbering of the Psalms.",
"At the head of each chapter, the translators provided a short précis of its contents, with verse numbers; these are rarely included in complete form in modern editions.===Use of typeface===Also in obedience to their instructions, the translators indicated 'supplied' words in a different typeface; but there was no attempt to regularize the instances where this practice had been applied across the different companies; and especially in the New Testament, it was used much less frequently in the 1611 edition than would later be the case.",
"In one verse, 1 John 2:23, an entire clause was printed in roman type (as it had also been in the Great Bible and Bishop's Bible); indicating a reading then primarily derived from the Vulgate, albeit one for which the later editions of Beza had provided a Greek text.God’s name JEHOVAH in Psalms 83:18In the Old Testament the translators render the Tetragrammaton (YHWH) by \"the LORD\" (in later editions in small capitals as ), or \"the LORD God\" (for ''YHWH Elohim'', יהוה אלהים), except in four places by \"IEHOVAH\".",
"However, if the Tetragrammaton occurs with the Hebrew word (Lord) then it is rendered not as the \"Lord LORD\" but as the \"Lord God\".",
"In later editions it appears as \"Lord \", with \"\" in small capitals, indicating to the reader that God's name appears in the original Hebrew.===Source texts=======Old Testament====For the Old Testament, the translators used a text originating in the editions of the Hebrew Rabbinic Bible by Daniel Bomberg (1524/5), but adjusted this to conform to the Greek LXX or Latin Vulgate in passages to which Christian tradition had attached a Christological interpretation.",
"For example, the Septuagint reading \"They pierced my hands and my feet\" was used in Psalm 22:16 (vs. the Masoretes' reading of the Hebrew \"like lions my hands and feet\").",
"Otherwise, however, the Authorized Version is closer to the Hebrew tradition than any previous English translation—especially in making use of the rabbinic commentaries, such as Kimhi, in elucidating obscure passages in the Masoretic Text; earlier versions had been more likely to adopt LXX or Vulgate readings in such places.",
"Following the practice of the Geneva Bible, the books of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras in the medieval Vulgate Old Testament were renamed 'Ezra' and 'Nehemiah'; 3 Esdras and 4 Esdras in the Apocrypha being renamed '1 Esdras' and '2 Esdras'.====New Testament====For the New Testament, the translators chiefly used the 1598 and 1588/89 Greek editions of Theodore Beza, which also present Beza's Latin version of the Greek and Stephanus's edition of the Latin Vulgate.",
"Both of these versions were extensively referred to, as the translators conducted all discussions amongst themselves in Latin.",
"F. H. A. Scrivener identifies 190 readings where the Authorized Version translators depart from Beza's Greek text, generally in maintaining the wording of the ''Bishops' Bible'' and other earlier English translations.",
"In about half of these instances, the Authorized Version translators appear to follow the earlier 1550 Greek Textus Receptus of Stephanus.",
"For the other half, Scrivener was usually able to find corresponding Greek readings in the editions of Erasmus, or in the Complutensian Polyglot.",
"However, in several dozen readings he notes that no printed Greek text corresponds to the English of the Authorized Version, which in these places derives directly from the Vulgate.",
"For example, at John 10:16, the Authorized Version reads \"one fold\" (as did the ''Bishops' Bible'', and the 16th-century vernacular versions produced in Geneva), following the Latin Vulgate \"unum ovile\", whereas Tyndale had agreed more closely with the Greek, \"one flocke\" (μία ποίμνη).",
"The Authorized Version New Testament owes much more to the Vulgate than does the Old Testament; still, at least 80% of the text is unaltered from Tyndale's translation.====Apocrypha====Unlike the rest of the Bible, the translators of the Apocrypha identified their source texts in their marginal notes.",
"From these it can be determined that the books of the Apocrypha were translated from the Septuagint—primarily, from the Greek Old Testament column in the Antwerp Polyglot—but with extensive reference to the counterpart Latin Vulgate text, and to Junius's Latin translation.",
"The translators record references to the Sixtine Septuagint of 1587, which is substantially a printing of the Old Testament text from the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, and also to the 1518 Greek Septuagint edition of Aldus Manutius.",
"They had, however, no Greek texts for 2 Esdras, or for the Prayer of Manasses, and Scrivener found that they here used an unidentified Latin manuscript.====Sources====The translators appear to have otherwise made no first-hand study of ancient manuscript sources, even those that—like the Codex Bezae—would have been readily available to them.",
"In addition to all previous English versions (including, and contrary to their instructions, the ''Rheimish New Testament'' which in their preface they criticized), they made wide and eclectic use of all printed editions in the original languages then available, including the ancient Syriac New Testament printed with an interlinear Latin gloss in the Antwerp Polyglot of 1573.In the preface the translators acknowledge consulting translations and commentaries in Chaldee, Hebrew, Syrian, Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, Italian, and German.The translators took the Bishops' Bible as their source text, and where they departed from that in favour of another translation, this was most commonly the Geneva Bible.",
"However, the degree to which readings from the Bishops' Bible survived into final text of the King James Bible varies greatly from company to company, as did the propensity of the King James translators to coin phrases of their own.",
"John Bois's notes of the General Committee of Review show that they discussed readings derived from a wide variety of versions and patristic sources, including explicitly both Henry Savile's 1610 edition of the works of John Chrysostom and the Rheims New Testament, which was the primary source for many of the literal alternative readings provided for the marginal notes.===Variations in recent translations===A number of Bible verses in the King James Version of the New Testament are not found in more recent Bible translations, where these are based on modern critical texts.",
"In the early seventeenth century, the source Greek texts of the New Testament which were used to produce Protestant Bible versions were mainly dependent on manuscripts of the late Byzantine text-type, and they also contained minor variations which became known as the Textus Receptus.",
"With the subsequent identification of much earlier manuscripts, most modern textual scholars value the evidence of manuscripts which belong to the Alexandrian family as better witnesses to the original text of the biblical authors, without giving it, or any family, automatic preference.===Style and criticism===A primary concern of the translators was to produce an appropriate Bible, dignified and resonant in public reading.",
"Although the Authorized Version's written style is an important part of its influence on English, research has found only one verse—Hebrews 13:8—for which translators debated the wording's literary merits.",
"While they stated in the preface that they used stylistic variation, finding multiple English words or verbal forms in places where the original language employed repetition, in practice they also did the opposite; for example, 14 different Hebrew words were translated into the single English word \"prince\".In a period of rapid linguistic change the translators avoided contemporary idioms, tending instead towards forms that were already slightly archaic, like ''verily'' and ''it came to pass''.",
"The pronouns ''thou''/''thee'' and ''ye''/''you'' are consistently used as singular and plural respectively, even though by this time ''you'' was often found as the singular in general English usage, especially when addressing a social superior (as is evidenced, for example, in Shakespeare).",
"For the possessive of the third person pronoun, the word ''its'', first recorded in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' in 1598, is avoided.",
"The older ''his'' is usually employed, as for example at Matthew 5:13: \"if the salt have lost ''his'' savour, wherewith shall it be salted?",
"\"; in other places ''of it'', ''thereof'' or bare ''it'' are found.",
"Another sign of linguistic conservatism is the invariable use of ''-eth'' for the third person singular present form of the verb, as at Matthew 2:13: \"the Angel of the Lord appear''eth'' to Joseph in a dreame\".",
"The rival ending ''-(e)s'', as found in present-day English, was already widely used by this time (for example, it predominates over ''-eth'' in the plays of Shakespeare and Marlowe).",
"Furthermore, the translators preferred ''which'' to ''who'' or ''whom'' as the relative pronoun for persons, as in Genesis 13:5: \"And Lot also ''which'' went with Abram, had flocks and heards, & tents\" although ''who(m)'' is also found.The Authorized Version is notably more Latinate than previous English versions, especially the Geneva Bible.",
"This results in part from the academic stylistic preferences of a number of the translators—several of whom admitted to being more comfortable writing in Latin than in English—but was also, in part, a consequence of the royal proscription against explanatory notes.",
"Hence, where the Geneva Bible might use a common English word, and gloss its particular application in a marginal note, the Authorized Version tends rather to prefer a technical term, frequently in Anglicized Latin.",
"Consequently, although the King had instructed the translators to use the Bishops' Bible as a base text, the New Testament in particular owes much stylistically to the Catholic Rheims New Testament, whose translators had also been concerned to find English equivalents for Latin terminology.",
"In addition, the translators of the New Testament books transliterate names found in the Old Testament in their Greek forms rather than in the forms closer to the Old Testament Hebrew (e.g.",
"\"Elias\" and \"Noe\" for \"Elijah\" and \"Noah\", respectively).While the Authorized Version remains among the most widely sold, modern critical New Testament translations differ substantially from it in a number of passages, primarily because they rely on source manuscripts not then accessible to (or not then highly regarded by) early-17th-century Biblical scholarship.",
"In the Old Testament, there are also many differences from modern translations that are based not on manuscript differences, but on a different understanding of Ancient Hebrew vocabulary or grammar by the translators.",
"For example, in modern translations it is clear that Job 28:1–11 is referring throughout to mining operations, which is not at all apparent from the text of the Authorized Version.===Mistranslations===The King James Version contains several alleged mistranslations, especially in the Old Testament where the knowledge of Hebrew and cognate languages was uncertain at the time.",
"Among the most commonly cited errors is in the Hebrew of Job and Deuteronomy, where with the probable meaning of \"wild-ox, aurochs\", is translated in the KJV as \"unicorn\"; following in this the Vulgate ''unicornis'' and several medieval rabbinic commentators.",
"The translators of the KJV note the alternative rendering, \"rhinocerots\" in the margin at Isaiah 34:7.On a similar note Martin Luther's German translation had also relied on the Latin Vulgate on this point, consistently translating רְאֵם using the German word for unicorn, ''Einhorn''.",
"Otherwise, the translators are accused on several occasions to have mistakenly interpreted a Hebrew descriptive phrase as a proper name (or vice versa); as at 2 Samuel 1:18 where 'the Book of Jasher' properly refers not to a work by an author of that name, but should rather be rendered as \"the Book of the Upright\" (which was proposed as an alternative reading in a marginal note to the KJV text)."
],
[
"Influence",
"Despite royal patronage and encouragement, there was never any overt mandate to use the new translation.",
"It was not until 1661 that the Authorized Version replaced the ''Bishops' Bible'' in the Epistle and Gospel lessons of the Book of Common Prayer, and it never did replace the older translation in the Psalter.",
"In 1763 ''The Critical Review'' complained that \"many false interpretations, ambiguous phrases, obsolete words and indelicate expressions ... excite the derision of the scorner\".",
"Blayney's 1769 version, with its revised spelling and punctuation, helped change the public perception of the Authorized Version to a masterpiece of the English language.",
"By the 19th century, F. W. Faber could say of the translation, \"It lives on the ear, like music that can never be forgotten, like the sound of church bells, which the convert hardly knows how he can forego.",
"\"Geddes MacGregor called the Authorized Version \"the most influential version of the most influential book in the world, in what is now its most influential language\", \"the most important book in English religion and culture\", and \"the most celebrated book in the English-speaking world\".",
"David Crystal has estimated that it is responsible for 257 idioms in English; examples include feet of clay and reap the whirlwind.",
"Furthermore, prominent atheist figures such as Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins have praised the King James Version as being \"a giant step in the maturing of English literature\" and \"a great work of literature\", respectively, with Dawkins then adding, \"A native speaker of English who has never read a word of the King James Bible is verging on the barbarian\".The King James Version is one of the versions authorized to be used in the services of the Episcopal Church and other parts of the Anglican Communion, as it is the historical Bible of this church.",
"It was presented to King Charles III at his coronation service Other Christian denominations have also accepted the King James Version.",
"The King James Version is used by English-speaking Conservative Anabaptists, along with Methodists of the conservative holiness movement, in addition to certain Baptists.",
"In the Orthodox Church in America, it is used liturgically and was made \"the 'official' translation for a whole generation of American Orthodox\".",
"The later Service Book of the Antiochian archdiocese, in vogue today, also uses the King James Version.",
"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints continues to use its own edition of the Authorized Version as its official English Bible.Although the Authorized Version's preeminence in the English-speaking world has diminished—for example, the Church of England recommends six other versions in addition to it—it is still the most used translation in the United States, especially as the Scofield Reference Bible for Evangelicals.",
"However, over the past forty years it has been gradually overtaken by modern versions, principally the New International Version (1973), the New Revised Standard Version (1989), and the English Standard Version (2001), the latter of which is seen as a successor to the King James Version.===King James Only movement===The King James Only movement advocates the belief that the King James Version is superior to all other English translations of the Bible.",
"Most adherents of the movement believe that the Textus Receptus is very close, if not identical, to the original autographs, thereby making it the ideal Greek source for the translation.",
"They argue that manuscripts such as the Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus, on which most modern English translations are based, are corrupted New Testament texts.",
"One of them, Perry Demopoulos, was a director of the translation of the King James Bible into Russian.",
"In 2010 the Russian translation of the KJV of the New Testament was released in Kyiv, Ukraine.",
"In 2017, the first complete edition of a Russian King James Bible was released.",
"In 2017, a Faroese translation of the King James Bible was released as well."
],
[
"Copyright status",
"The Authorized Version is in the public domain in most of the world.",
"In the United Kingdom, the right to print, publish and distribute it is a royal prerogative and the Crown licenses publishers to reproduce it under letters patent.",
"In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the letters patent are held by the King's Printer, and in Scotland by the Scottish Bible Board.",
"The office of King's Printer has been associated with the right to reproduce the Bible for centuries, the earliest known reference coming in 1577.In the 18th century, all surviving interests in the monopoly were bought out by John Baskett.",
"The Baskett rights descended through a number of printers and, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the King's Printer is now Cambridge University Press, which inherited the right when they took over the firm of Eyre & Spottiswoode in 1990.Other royal charters of similar antiquity grant Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press the right to produce the Authorized Version independently of the King's Printer.",
"In Scotland, the Authorized Version is published by Collins under licence from the Scottish Bible Board.",
"The terms of the letters patent prohibit any other than the holders, or those authorized by the holders, from printing, publishing or importing the Authorized Version into the United Kingdom.",
"The protection that the Authorized Version, and also the ''Book of Common Prayer,'' enjoy is the last remnant of the time when the Crown held a monopoly over all printing and publishing in the United Kingdom.",
"Almost all provisions granting copyright in perpetuity were abolished by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, but because the Authorized Version is protected by royal prerogative rather than copyright, it will remain protected, as specified in CDPA s171(1)(b).=== Permission ===Within the United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press permits the reproduction of at most 500 verses for \"liturgical and non-commercial educational use\", provided that their prescribed acknowledgement is included, the quoted verses do not exceed 25% of the publication quoting them and do not include a complete Bible book.",
"For use beyond this, the Press is willing to consider permission requested on a case-by-case basis and in 2011 a spokesman said the Press generally does not charge a fee but tries to ensure that a reputable source text is used.===Apocrypha===Translations of the books of the biblical apocrypha were necessary for the King James version, as readings from these books were included in the daily Old Testament lectionary of the Book of Common Prayer.",
"Protestant Bibles in the 16th century included the books of the Apocrypha—generally, following the Luther Bible, in a separate section between the Old and New Testaments to indicate they were not considered part of the Old Testament text—and there is evidence that these were widely read as popular literature, especially in Puritan circles.The Apocrypha of the King James Version has the same 14 books as had been found in the Apocrypha of the Bishops' Bible; however, following the practice of the Geneva Bible, the first two books of the Apocrypha were renamed 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, as compared to the names in the Thirty-nine Articles, with the corresponding Old Testament books being renamed Ezra and Nehemiah.",
"Starting in 1630, volumes of the ''Geneva Bible'' were occasionally bound with the pages of the Apocrypha section excluded.",
"In 1644 the Long Parliament forbade the reading of the Apocrypha in churches and in 1666 the first editions of the King James Bible without the Apocrypha were bound.The standardization of the text of the Authorized Version after 1769 together with the technological development of stereotype printing made it possible to produce Bibles in large print-runs at very low unit prices.",
"For commercial and charitable publishers, editions of the Authorized Version without the Apocrypha reduced the cost, while having increased market appeal to non-Anglican Protestant readers.With the rise of the Bible societies, most editions have omitted the whole section of Apocryphal books.",
"The British and Foreign Bible Society withdrew subsidies for Bible printing and dissemination in 1826, under the following resolution:The American Bible Society adopted a similar policy.",
"Both societies eventually reversed these policies in light of 20th-century ecumenical efforts on translations, the ABS doing so in 1964 and the BFBS in 1966."
],
[
"See also",
"* 21st Century King James Version* Bible errata* Bible translations* Charles XII Bible* Dynamic and formal equivalence* Modern English Bible translations § King James Versions and derivatives* New King James Version* Red letter edition* Young's Literal Translation"
],
[
"References",
"===Notes======Citations======Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Further reading===Chronological order of publication (newest first)* Joalland, Michael.",
"\"Isaac Newton Reads the King James Version: The Marginal Notes and Reading Marks of a Natural Philosopher.\"",
"''Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America'', vol.",
"113, no.",
"3 (2019): 297–339.",
"* Burke, David G., John F. Kutsko, and Philip H. Towner, eds.",
"''The King James Version at 400: Assessing Its Genius as Bible Translation and Its Literary Influence'' (Society of Biblical Literature; 2013) 553 pages; scholars examine such topics as the KJV and 17th-century religious lyric, the KJV and the language of liturgy, and the KJV in Christian Orthodox perspective.",
"* * Published to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the initial publication, in 1611, of the Authorized (\"King James\") Version of the Bible* * * In US: Paperback:* * The Diary Of Samuel Ward: A Translator Of The 1611 King James Bible, eds.",
"John Wilson Cowart and M.M.",
"Knappen, contains surviving pages of Samuel Ward's diary from 11 May 1595 to 1 July 1632.",
"* Ward, Thomas (1903).",
"''Errata of the Protestant Bible ''i.e.''",
"mostly of the Authorized \"King James\" Version; or, The Truth of the English Translations Examined, in a Treatise Showing Some of the Errors That Are to Be Found in the English Translations of the Sacred Scriptures, Used by Protestants''.",
"A new ed., carefully rev.",
"and corr., in which are additions.",
"New York: P.J.",
"Kennedy and Sons.",
"''N.B''.",
": A polemical Roman Catholic work, first published in the late 17th century.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"*Scanned copy of the original 1611 Authorized King James Bible* ''The Holy Bible: An Exact Reprint Page for Page of the Authorized Version Published in the Year MDCXI.''",
"Oxford: The University Press, 1833, \"a scrupulous original-spelling, page-for-page, and line-for-line reprint of the 1611 edition (including all chapter headings, marginalia, and original italicization, but with Roman type substituted for the black letter of the original)\" cited in Footnote ''d'' above.",
"Complete pdf of the original book.",
"* ''The Cambridge Paragraph Bible of the Authorized English Version: With the Text Revised by a Collation of Its Early and Other Principal Editions, the Use of the Italic Type Made Uniform, the Marginal References Remodelled, and a Critical Introduction Prefixed.''",
"Cambridge, UK: The University Press, 1873.Complete pdf of the original book.",
"* Online searchable database of the original 1611 text, including the Apocrypha and introductory text.",
"It also contains the 1769 standard edition.",
"* On-line image of a page (beginning of St John's gospel) with a written description by the British Library.",
"* On-line facsimile (page images) of the 1611 printing of the King James Bible, \"He\" Bible variant.",
"* On-line facsimile (page images) of the 1611 printing of the King James Bible.",
"* Holy-Bible.online – King James Version*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kevin Spacey"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kevin Spacey Fowler''' (born July 26, 1959) is an American actor.",
"Known for his work on stage and screen, he has received numerous accolades, including two Academy Awards, a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe Award, a Tony Award, and two Laurence Olivier Awards.",
"Spacey was named an honorary Commander and Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 2010 and 2015, respectively.Spacey began his film career with small roles in Mike Nichols's comedy-drama films ''Heartburn'' (1986) and ''Working Girl'' (1988).",
"He won two Academy Awards: Best Supporting Actor for playing a con man in ''The Usual Suspects'' (1995) and Best Actor for playing a suburban husband and father going through a midlife crisis in ''American Beauty'' (1999).",
"His other notable films include ''Glengarry Glen Ross'' (1992), ''Se7en'' (1995), ''A Time to Kill'' (1996), ''L.A.",
"Confidential'' (1997), ''Pay It Forward'' (2000), ''Superman Returns'' (2006), ''21'' (2008), ''Margin Call'' (2011), ''Horrible Bosses'' (2011), and ''Baby Driver'' (2017).",
"He has also directed the films ''Albino Alligator'' (1996) and ''Beyond the Sea'' (2004).In Broadway theatre, Spacey starred in a revival of Eugene O'Neill's ''Long Day's Journey into Night'' in 1986.He won a Tony Award in 1991 for his role in ''Lost in Yonkers''.",
"He won a Laurence Olivier Award for his performance in a revival of ''The Iceman Cometh'' in 1999.Spacey portrayed the title role in ''Richard III'' in 2011 and Clarence Darrow in a West End production of ''Darrow'' in 2015.He was the artistic director of the Old Vic theatre in London from 2004 to 2015, for which he received the Society of London Theatre Special Award.",
"In 2017, he hosted the 71st Tony Awards.In television, Spacey portrayed Ron Klain in ''Recount'' (2008) and produced ''Bernard and Doris'' (2008), both for HBO Films.",
"From 2013 to 2017, he starred as Frank Underwood in the Netflix political drama series ''House of Cards'', which won him a Golden Globe Award and two consecutive Screen Actors Guild Awards for Best Actor.",
"Both Spacey and the show itself were nominated for five consecutive Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Drama Series, respectively.In 2017, Spacey faced several allegations of sexual misconduct.",
"In the wake of these claims, Netflix cut ties with Spacey, shelving his biopic of Gore Vidal and removing him from the last season of ''House of Cards''.",
"His completed role as J. Paul Getty in Ridley Scott's film ''All the Money in the World'' (2017) was reshot with Christopher Plummer.",
"Spacey has denied the accusations and was found not liable in a 2022 lawsuit in New York.",
"In a separate case in London, he was acquitted by a jury of sexual assault charges in 2023."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"Kevin Spacey Fowler was born in South Orange, New Jersey, to Kathleen Ann (''née'' Knutson), a secretary, and Thomas Geoffrey Fowler, a technical writer and data consultant.",
"His family relocated to Southern California when he was four years old.",
"Spacey has a sister and an older brother, Randy Fowler, from whom Spacey is estranged.",
"His brother has stated that their father, whom he described as a racist \"Nazi supporter\", was sexually and physically abusive, and that Spacey shut down emotionally and became \"very sly and smart\" to avoid beatings.",
"Spacey first addressed the matter in October 2022, saying that his father was \"a white supremacist and a neo-Nazi\" who would call him \"an F-word that is very derogatory to the gay community\".",
"He stated that, as a result, he became extremely private about his personal life and did not come out as gay earlier in his life.",
"Spacey had previously described his father as \"a very normal, middle-class man\".Spacey attended Northridge Military Academy, Canoga Park High School in the 10th and 11th grades.",
"He graduated co-valedictorian (along with Mare Winningham) of the class of 1977 of Chatsworth High School in Chatsworth, California.",
"At Chatsworth, Spacey starred in the school's senior production of ''The Sound of Music'', playing the part of Captain Georg von Trapp, with Winningham as Maria von Trapp.",
"He started using his middle name \"Spacey\", which was his paternal grandmother's maiden name.Spacey had tried to succeed as a comedian for several years before attending the Juilliard School in New York City, as a member of Group 12, where he studied drama with teacher Marian Seldes between 1979 and 1981.During this time period, he performed stand-up comedy in bowling alley talent contests."
],
[
"Career",
"=== Theatre ======= 1981–1986: Career beginnings in theatre ====Spacey's first professional stage appearance was as a spear carrier in a New York Shakespeare Festival performance of ''Henry VI, Part 1'' in 1981.The following year, he made his first Broadway appearance, as Oswald in a production of Henrik Ibsen's ''Ghosts'', starring Liv Ullmann and director John Neville, which opened at the Eisenhower Theater in Washington's Kennedy Center.",
"He then portrayed Philinte in Molière's ''The Misanthrope''.",
"In 1984, Spacey appeared in a production of David Rabe's ''Hurlyburly'', in which he rotated through each of the male parts (he would later play Mickey in the film version).",
"Next came Anton Chekhov's ''The Seagull'' alongside David Strathairn and Colleen Dewhurst.",
"In 1986, Spacey appeared in a production of ''Sleuth'' in a New Jersey dinner theatre.==== 1986–1991: Broadway success and Tony win ====Spacey's prominence as a stage actor began in 1986, when he was cast opposite Jack Lemmon, Peter Gallagher, and Bethel Leslie, as Jamie, the eldest Tyrone son, in Jonathan Miller's lauded production of Eugene O'Neill's ''Long Day's Journey into Night''.",
"Lemmon in particular would become a mentor to Spacey and was invited, along with Spacey's high school drama teacher, to be present when Spacey received his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1999.Spacey remained actively involved in the live theatre community.",
"In 1991, he won a Tony Award for his portrayal of Uncle Louie in Neil Simon's Broadway hit ''Lost in Yonkers''.",
"His father was unconvinced that Spacey could make a career for himself as an actor and did not change his mind until Spacey became well known.",
"In 1999, Spacey won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor and earned another Tony Award nomination in 1999 for ''The Iceman Cometh''.====2003–2015: Artistic director of the Old Vic====The Old Vic theatre in Waterloo, LondonIn February 2003, Spacey announced that he was to become the artistic director of the Old Vic, one of London's oldest theatres.",
"Appearing at a press conference with Judi Dench and Elton John, Spacey promised both to appear on stage and to bring in big-name talent.",
"He undertook to remain in the post for a full ten years.",
"The Old Vic Theatre Company staged shows eight months out of the year.",
"Spacey's first season started in September 2004, opening with the British premiere of the play ''Cloaca'' by Maria Goos, directed by Spacey, which opened to mixed reviews.",
"In the 2005 season, Spacey made his UK Shakespearean debut, to good notices, in the title role of ''Richard II'', directed by Trevor Nunn.On June 16, 2016, Spacey was awarded an honorary knighthood for his services to theatre, arts education, and international culture in the 2015 Queen's Birthday Honours.",
"The honour, Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire, was given at Clarence House by then-Prince Charles.",
"As a non-Commonwealth Realm citizen, the award is honorary and he is not entitled to the honorific \"Sir\".",
"Spacey had previously been awarded the lesser rank of honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for services to drama in 2010.Spacey was a patron of the Shakespeare Schools Festival, a charity that enables school children across the UK to perform Shakespeare in professional theatres.",
"He also sits on the board of directors of the Motion Picture and Television Fund.In mid-2006, Spacey said that he was having the time of his life working at the Old Vic; at that point in his career, he said, he was \"trying to do things now that are much bigger and outside myself\".",
"Spacey performed in productions of ''National Anthems'' by Dennis McIntyre, and ''The Philadelphia Story'' by Philip Barry, in which he played C.K.",
"Dexter Haven, the Cary Grant role in the film version.",
"Critics applauded Spacey for taking on the management of a theatre, but noted that while his acting was impressive, his skills and judgment as a producer/manager had yet to develop.",
"In the 2006 season, Spacey suffered a major setback with a production of Arthur Miller's ''Resurrection Blues'', directed by Robert Altman.",
"Despite an all-star cast (including Matthew Modine and future ''House of Cards'' co-star Neve Campbell) and the pedigree of Miller's script, Spacey's decision to lure Altman to the stage proved disastrous: after a fraught rehearsal period, the play opened to a critical panning, and closed after only a few weeks.",
"Later in the year, Spacey starred in Eugene O'Neill's ''A Moon for the Misbegotten'', along with Colm Meaney and Eve Best.",
"The play received excellent reviews for Spacey and Best, and was transferred to Broadway in 2007.For the spring part of the 2007–08 season, Jeff Goldblum and Laura Michelle Kelly joined Spacey as the three characters in David Mamet's 1988 play ''Speed-the-Plow''.In 2009, he directed the premiere of Joe Sutton's ''Complicit'', with Richard Dreyfuss, David Suchet and Elizabeth McGovern.",
"Later that year, Trevor Nunn directed Spacey in a revival of ''Inherit the Wind''.",
"Spacey played defense lawyer Henry Drummond, a role that was made famous by Spencer Tracy in the 1960 film of the same name.",
"Sam Mendes directed Spacey in Shakespeare's ''Richard III''; Spacey played the title role.",
"The show began in June 2011, commencing a worldwide tour culminating in New York in early 2012.In March 2014, it was announced that Spacey would star in a one-man play at the Old Vic to celebrate his ten years as artistic director.",
"He took on the part of Clarence Darrow in the play.=== Film ======= 1986–1994: Early roles and breakthrough ====In 1986, Spacey made his first film appearance in Mike Nichols's ''Heartburn'' starring Meryl Streep and Jack Nicholson.",
"Spacey plays a small role credited as a subway thief.",
"In 1988, Spacey also briefly appeared in another Nichols film, ''Working Girl'', as businessman Bob Speck.",
"Some of Spacey's other early roles include a widowed millionaire on ''L.A.",
"Law''; the television miniseries ''The Murder of Mary Phagan'' (1988), opposite Lemmon; and the comedy ''See No Evil, Hear No Evil'' (1989).",
"Spacey quickly developed a reputation as a character actor, and was cast in bigger roles, including the malevolent office manager in the ensemble film adaptation of the David Mamet play ''Glengarry Glen Ross'' (1992) starring Al Pacino, as well as news reporter Harry Kingsley in a film based on a 1917 dog sled race ''Iron Will'' (1994) directed by Charles Haid.",
"Spacey also played one-half of a bickering Connecticut couple alongside Judy Davis in the dark comedy Christmas film ''The Ref'' (1994), and a malicious Hollywood studio boss in the satire ''Swimming with Sharks'' (1995).==== 1995–1999: Rise to stardom and awards success ====Spacey in 1996Spacey gained prominence for his role as the enigmatic criminal Verbal Kint in Bryan Singer's neo-noir film ''The Usual Suspects'' (1995).",
"He starred opposite an ensemble cast including Gabriel Byrne, Benicio del Toro, and Chazz Palminteri.",
"Todd McCarthy of ''Variety'' wrote, \"Spacey is terrific as the mysterious weak link in the chain of thieves\".",
"The role won him the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.",
"He was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Actor in a Supporting Role.",
"That same year, Spacey also appeared in the David Fincher detective thriller ''Seven'' (1995) starring Brad Pitt and Morgan Freeman.",
"Spade made a sudden entrance late in the film as serial killer John Doe after going uncredited and unmentioned in the film's advertisements and opening credits.",
"His work in ''Seven'', ''The Usual Suspects'' and ''Outbreak'' earned him Best Supporting Actor honors at the 1995 Society of Texas Film Critics Awards.",
"Spacey played an egomaniacal district attorney in ''A Time to Kill'' (1996) and founded Trigger Street Productions in 1997 with the purpose of producing and developing entertainment across various media.",
"Spacey made his directorial debut with the film ''Albino Alligator'' (1996).",
"The film was a box office bomb, grossing $339,379 with a budget of $6 million, but critics praised Spacey's direction.",
"He starred in the Curtis Hanson directed neo-noir crime film ''L.A.",
"Confidential'' (1997) acting alongside Russell Crowe, Guy Pearce, and Kim Basinger.",
"Spacey played the Detective Sergeant Jack \"Hollywood Jack\" Vincennes, an officer and technical advisor for a fictional TV police drama series.",
"The ensemble cast received praise with Jack Matthews of ''Newsday'' citing Spacey as the highlight writing, \"Best of ail are Spacey striking an impossible balance of smarminess and charm\".",
"The role landed Spacey a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role.",
"The following year he voiced the intimidating grasshopper, Hopper in the animated Pixar film ''A Bug's Life'' (1998).",
"Throughout his career, Spacey has been well known for playing villains; he remarked in 2013: \"I think people just like me evil for some reason.",
"They want me to be a son of a bitch.",
"\"In 1999, Spacey acted alongside Annette Bening in Sam Mendes's ''American Beauty''.",
"In the film he played the role of Lester Burnham, a depressed suburban father and advertising executive who becomes attracted to his teenage daughter's best friend.",
"The film and its performance received widespread acclaim, particularly Spacey with critic Roger Ebert declaring, \"Spacey, an actor who embodies intelligence in his eyes and voice, is the right choice for Lester Burnham.",
"He does reckless and foolish things in this movie, but he doesn't deceive himself; he knows he's running wild--and chooses to, burning up the future years of an empty lifetime for a few flashes of freedom\".",
"For this role, Spacey won his second Oscar, this time for Best Actor in a Leading Role.",
"In his acceptance speech he dedicated his Oscar to Jack Lemmon, praising him as an influence, mentor, and father figure.",
"He also stated, \"Lemmon's performance in ''The Apartment'' stands as one of the finest we've ever had\".",
"For his role he also received a BAFTA Award and Screen Actors Guild Award as well as a nomination for a Golden Globe Award.",
"That same year, he was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.==== 2000–2016: Established actor ====Spacey portrayed singer Bobby Darrin in ''Beyond the Sea'' (2004) which he also directedSpacey played a physically and emotionally scarred grade school teacher in ''Pay It Forward'' (2000), a patient in a mental institution who may or may not be an alien in ''K-Pax'' (2001), and singer Bobby Darin in ''Beyond the Sea'' (2004).",
"The latter was a lifelong dream project for Spacey, who took on co-writing, directing, co-producing and starring duties in the biography/musical about Darin's life, career and relationship with actress Sandra Dee.",
"Facing little interest for backing in the U.S., Spacey went to the United Kingdom and Germany for funding.",
"Almost all of the film was made in Berlin.",
"Spacey provided his own vocals on the film's soundtrack and appeared in several tribute concerts around the time of its release.",
"Spacey received mostly positive reviews for his singing, as well as a Golden Globe nomination for his performance.",
"However, reviewers debated the age disparity between Spacey and Darin, noting that Spacey was too old to convincingly portray Darin, particularly during the early stages of the singer's life depicted in the film.In 2006, Spacey played Lex Luthor in the Bryan Singer superhero film ''Superman Returns'' starring Brandon Routh.",
"He was to return for its 2009 sequel, but the series was instead rebooted with the 2013 film ''Man of Steel''.",
"Spacey also appeared in ''Edison'', which received a direct-to-video release in 2006.The film was released in theaters in Netherlands on March 12, 2006.In 2008, Spacey played a Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) lecturer in the film ''21''.",
"The film is based on Ben Mezrich's best seller ''Bringing Down the House: The Inside Story of Six MIT Students Who Took Vegas for Millions'', a story of student MIT card-counters who used mathematical probability to aid them in card games such as blackjack.",
"In early 2010, Spacey went to China to star in writer-director Dayyan Eng's black comedy film ''Inseparable'', becoming the first Hollywood actor to star in a fully Chinese-funded film.Berlin Film Festival 2011In 2011, Spacey starred in J.C. Chandor's financial thriller ''Margin Call'' alongside Paul Bettany, Jeremy Irons, Zachary Quinto, Demi Moore, and Stanley Tucci.",
"The story at large takes place over a 24-hour period at a large Wall Street investment bank during the initial stages of the financial crisis of 2007–2008.The film, which focuses on the actions taken by a group of employees during the subsequent financial collapse, made its debut at the Sundance Film Festival to critical acclaim.",
"Spacey received the Independent Spirit Robert Altman Award along with the cast.",
"That same year, Spacey co-starred in the black comedy film ''Horrible Bosses'', which grossed over $209.6 million at the box office.",
"In 2013 he executive-produced the biographical survival thriller film ''Captain Phillips'', which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.He starred as President Richard Nixon in the comedy-drama ''Elvis & Nixon'' (2016), which is based on the meeting that took place between Nixon and singer Elvis Presley (Michael Shannon) in December 1970 wherein Presley requested that Nixon swear him in as an undercover agent in the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs.",
"He next starred in the comedy film ''Nine Lives'', as a man trapped in the body of a cat.",
"The film was released on August 5, 2016.In January 2016 it was announced that Relativity Media, which was just emerging from Chapter 11 bankruptcy, had acquired Trigger Street Productions and that Spacey would become chairman of Relativity Studios, while Dana Brunetti would become the studio's president.",
"Spacey called the move \"an incredible opportunity to make great entertainment\" and said he considered it the \"next evolution in my career\".",
"However, when the paperwork for the studio was filed for the court, it emerged that Spacey had opted out of assuming the chairmanship of the studios, and by the end of 2016 Brunetti had also left Relativity, while both remained executive producers on ''House of Cards'' and ''Manifesto''.==== 2017–present: Career controversy and comeback attempts ====In March 2017, it was announced that Spacey would portray J. Paul Getty in Ridley Scott's ''All the Money in the World''.",
"He shot his role in the film in ten days over the summer of 2017.But because of the sexual assault allegations against Spacey, it was announced on November 8, 2017, that all of his footage would be excised, and that Christopher Plummer would replace him in reshoots.",
"In spite of the very tight schedule, TriStar Pictures completed the new version of the film in time for a December 25 release.Spacey appeared in the film ''Billionaire Boys Club'', which had a limited release on August 17, 2018.Vertical Entertainment stated that it would take no action to remove Spacey from the film, as it had been completed in late 2016, before the allegations made in October 2017.Following the allegations leveled against him, Spacey maintained a lower profile and his career stalled.",
"In May 2021, it was announced that he had been cast in a supporting role as a police detective in the crime drama film ''The Man Who Drew God'', directed by and starring Franco Nero, which is about a blind artist who is wrongly accused of sexually abusing a child.",
"The film reunited Spacey with Faye Dunaway, whom he directed in ''Albino Alligator''.",
"In August 2021, it was reported that he was filming in California for a small production, ''Peter Five Eight'', directed by Michael Zaiko Hall.",
"In the movie, Spacey is said to play a charismatic serial killer.On November 3, 2022, ''Variety'' reported that Spacey was set to speak at the National Museum of Cinema and was going to receive a lifetime achievement award on January 16, 2023, despite the allegations against him.",
"On November 28, 2022, after winning a sexual battery lawsuit against him filed by Anthony Rapp, Spacey was cast in the British indie thriller ''Control''.",
"Its director, Gene Fallaize, dismissed concerns about working with Spacey.In 2022, Spacey was cast as the late Croatian leader Franjo Tudjman in the political drama ''Once Upon a Time in Croatia'', directed by Jakov Sedlar.=== Television ======= 1987–1994: Television debut and early roles ====In 1987, Spacey made his first major television appearance in the second-season premiere of ''Crime Story'', playing a Kennedy-esque American senator.",
"That same year he appeared in spy thriller series ''The Equalizer'' as Detective Sergeant Cole in the episode \"Solo\".",
"He earned a fan base after playing the manic depressive arms dealer Mel Profitt on the television series ''Wiseguy'' (1988).==== 2003–2012: HBO projects and other work ====Spacey hosted ''Saturday Night Live'' twice: first in 1997 with musical guest Beck and special guests Michael Palin and John Cleese from ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' and again in May 2006 with musical guest Nelly Furtado.In 2008 Spacey starred as Ron Klain in the HBO original political drama film ''Recount'' revolving around Florida's vote recount during the 2000 United States presidential election between George W. Bush and Al Gore.",
"The film was written by Danny Strong and directed by Jay Roach and starred Bob Balaban, Laura Dern, John Hurt, Denis Leary, and Tom Wilkinson.",
"The television film won three Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Television Movie.",
"For his performance in the film, Spacey was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Miniseries or Television Film.",
"That same year Spacey produced the TV movie ''Bernard and Doris'', an HBO semi-fictionalized account of the relationship that developed between socialite heiress and philanthropist Doris Duke and her self-destructive Irish butler Bernard Lafferty later in her life.",
"The film starred Ralph Fiennes and Susan Sarandon and was directed by Bob Balaban.",
"The film premiered at the Hamptons International Film Festival to critical acclaim, and Spacey was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie.",
"Spacey portrayed the antagonist Jonathan Irons in the 2014 video game ''Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare'' through motion capture.Maryland governor Martin O'Malley around the set of ''House of Cards'', May 2013Spacey is well known in Hollywood for his impressions.",
"When he appeared on ''Inside the Actors Studio'', he imitated (at host James Lipton's request) Jack Lemmon, James Stewart, Johnny Carson, Katharine Hepburn, Clint Eastwood, John Gielgud, Marlon Brando, Christopher Walken, and Al Pacino.",
"On ''The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon'', Spacey admitted to using his vocal skills as a young actor in New York City to pretend to be Carson's son to obtain free theatre tickets and to enter Studio 54.Spacey's Capitol/EMI album ''Forever Cool'' (2007) features two duets with Spacey and an earlier recording of Dean Martin: \"Ain't That a Kick in the Head\" and \"King of the Road\".",
"In December 2007, Spacey co-hosted the Nobel Peace Prize Concert along with Uma Thurman.==== 2013–2017: ''House of Cards'' and critical acclaim ====On March 18, 2011, it was announced that Spacey was cast as Frank Underwood in the Netflix series ''House of Cards'', adapted from a 1990 BBC political drama of the same name.",
"He was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2013, becoming the first lead actor to be Primetime Emmy-nominated from a web television series.",
"Spacey went on to win the Golden Globe award for Best Actor in a Television Series Drama at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards and Screen Actors Guild nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards for his season 2 performance.",
"He was fired from the series after the fifth season following multiple allegations of sexual misconduct."
],
[
"Acting credits and accolades",
"Spacey's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, laid in 1999Spacey has won two Academy Awards, a Tony Award, a Golden Globe Award, four Screen Actors Guild Awards and a British Academy Film Award.",
"He was nominated for a Grammy Award and for 12 Primetime Emmy Awards.",
"Spacey received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1999 and was named an honorary Commander and Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 2010 and 2015, respectively."
],
[
"Personal life",
"An article in ''The Sunday Times Magazine'' in 1999 stated that Spacey's \"love affair with acting, and the absence of a visible partner in the life of an attractive 40-year-old, has resulted in ''Esquire'' magazine asserting two years ago that he must be gay\".",
"Spacey responded to the rumors by telling ''Playboy'' and other interviewers that he was not gay and by telling Lesley White of ''The Sunday Times'':I chose for a long time not to answer these questions because of the manner in which they were asked, and because I was never talking to someone I trusted, so why should I?",
"Recently I chose to participate because it's a little hard on the people I love.In 1999, reports suggested Spacey was dating a script supervisor named Dianne Dreyer, with their relationship possibly dating back as far as 1992.In 2000, Spacey brought Dreyer to the Academy Awards; during the acceptance speech for his Best Actor award, Spacey said, \"Dianne, thank you for teaching me about caring about the right things, and I love you.",
"\"In 2007, ''Gotham'' magazine quoted Spacey saying:I've never believed in pimping my personal life out for publicity.",
"Although I might be interested in doing it, I will never do it.",
"People can gossip all they want; they can speculate all they want.",
"I just happen to believe that there's a separation between the public life and the private life.",
"Everybody has the right to a private life no matter what their professions are.===Political views and activism===Clinton Global Citizen AwardsSpacey is a Democrat and has been described as left-leaning, with his personal views mirroring some of those professed by his fictional character in ''House of Cards''.Spacey worked on Jimmy Carter's 1976 presidential campaign.He is a friend of President Bill Clinton, having met Clinton before his presidency began.",
"Spacey once described Clinton as \"one of the shining lights\" in the political process.",
"He additionally made a cameo appearance in the short film ''President Clinton: Final Days'', a light-hearted political satire produced by the Clinton Administration for the 2000 White House Correspondents Dinner.Spacey has undertaken activism in the domain of HIV/AIDS.",
"In 2002, Spacey, actor Chris Tucker, and Jeffrey Epstein accompanied Bill Clinton on a trip throughout several African countries to promote AIDS awareness on the continent.",
"He also participated in several fundraisers for HIV/AIDS healthcare, including amfAR Cinema Against AIDS in 2016 and the 25th Annual Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party in 2017.Spacey met Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez in September 2007 but never spoke to the press about their encounter.",
"During the trip, he visited the Venezuelan film studio Villa del Cine.",
"In March 2011, following Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko's crackdown on the Belarusian democracy movement, Spacey joined Jude Law in a street protest in London against Lukashenko's regime.In October 2008, Spacey started the Kevin Spacey Foundation in the UK to encourage youth involvement in the arts.",
"Headquartered in England and Wales, its purpose was to provide grants to individuals and organizations to help young people study the arts, particularly theatre.",
"The charity shut down in February 2018 following sexual misconduct allegations against Spacey.In September 2006, Spacey said that he intended to take up British citizenship when it is offered to him.",
"When asked about the UK's 2016 European Union membership referendum, Spacey replied, \"I appreciate you asking me the question, but I am not a British citizen, I am a resident of Great Britain.",
"And I have never in my twelve years ever gotten involved in politics in Great Britain.",
"I think it's inappropriate for me as a, really as a guest, in Great Britain, so I'll leave that to the British people.\""
],
[
"Sexual misconduct allegations",
"On October 29, 2017, actor Anthony Rapp alleged that Spacey, while appearing intoxicated, made a sexual advance toward him at a party in 1986, when Rapp was 14 and Spacey was 26.Rapp had also shared this story in a 2001 interview with ''The Advocate'', but Spacey's name was redacted from publication to avoid legal disputes and public outing.",
"Spacey stated on Twitter that he did not remember the encounter, but that he owed Rapp \"the sincerest apology for what would have been deeply inappropriate drunken behavior\" if he had behaved as asserted.",
"On September 9, 2020, Rapp sued Spacey for sexual assault, sexual battery, and intentional infliction of emotional distress under the Child Victims Act.",
"In the subsequent federal civil court proceeding, a jury found that Spacey did not molest Rapp and was found not liable on all counts, with Rapp subsequently ordered by the court to pay Spacey $39,089 in damages.",
"Fifteen others then came forward alleging similar abuse, including Boston anchorwoman Heather Unruh, who alleged that Spacey sexually assaulted her son; filmmaker Tony Montana; actor Roberto Cavazos; Richard Dreyfuss' son Harry; and eight people who worked on ''House of Cards''.",
"''The Guardian'' was contacted by \"a number of people\" who alleged that Spacey \"groped and behaved in an inappropriate way with young men\" as artistic director of the Old Vic.=== Coming out controversy ===On the same day as Rapp's allegations against him, Spacey came out as gay when apologizing to Rapp.",
"He said, \"I have had relationships with both men and women.",
"I have loved and had romantic encounters with men throughout my life, and I choose now to live as a gay man.\"",
"His decision to come out via his statement was criticized by gay celebrities, including Billy Eichner, George Takei, Lance Bass, and Wanda Sykes, as an attempt to change the subject and shift focus from Rapp's accusation, for using his own drunkenness as an excuse for making a sexual advance on a minor, and for implying a connection between homosexuality and child sexual abuse.",
"Some readers additionally felt that by claiming that he was \"horrified\" by Rapp's story, Spacey was attempting to paint himself as the victim of the alleged abuse.",
"In October 2022, Spacey expressed regret over the way he came out and said that it was \"never his intention\" to deflect from the allegations against him or conflate them with his sexual orientation.=== Reaction and ramifications ===Amid the allegations, filming was suspended on the sixth and final season of ''House of Cards''.",
"The show's production company had implemented \"an anonymous complaint hotline, crisis counselors, and sexual harassment legal advisors for the crew\", and stated that in 2012, \"someone on the crew shared a complaint about a specific remark and gesture made by Kevin Spacey.",
"Immediate action was taken following our review of the situation and we are confident the issue was resolved promptly to the satisfaction of all involved.\"",
"According to the production company, Spacey \"willingly participated in a training process and since that time MRC has not been made aware of any other complaints\" involving him.",
"The show had been due to end in 2018.The season was shortened from 13 episodes to eight, and Spacey was removed from the cast and from his role as executive producer.The Gore Vidal biographical film ''Gore'', starring Spacey, which was set to be distributed by Netflix, was canceled, and Netflix went on to sever all ties with him.",
"He was due to appear in ''All the Money in the World'' as industrialist J. Paul Getty; his scenes were cut, and Christopher Plummer replaced him as Getty in reshoots.",
"In an interview with ''Variety'', Plummer said: \"It's really not replacing Spacey.",
"It's starting all over again.\"",
"Plummer added: \"I think it's very sad what happened to him... Kevin is such a talented and a terrifically gifted actor, and it's so sad.",
"It's such a shame.",
"That's all I can say, because that's it.",
"\"The International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences reversed its decision to honor Spacey with the 2017 International Emmy Founders Award.",
"On November 2, 2017, ''Variety'' reported that his publicist Staci Wolfe and talent agency Creative Artists Agency were ending their relationships with him.=== Christmas Eve YouTube videos ===From 2018 to 2020, and again in 2023, Spacey posted an annual video to his YouTube channel on Christmas Eve.On December 24, 2018, Spacey uploaded a video titled \"Let Me Be Frank\", in which he – while in character as Frank Underwood – appeared to deny the real-life allegations leveled against him.",
"The video was described by ''Slate'' writer Daniel Politi as \"bizarre\" and \"stomach-churning\", while drawing derision from actresses such as Ellen Barkin, Patricia Arquette, and Alyssa Milano, who called it \"creepy\".",
"As of December 2022, the video has over 13 million views.On December 24, 2019, Spacey posted another video, titled \"KTWK\" (short for \"kill them with kindness\"), to his YouTube channel, once again in character as Underwood.",
"In 2020, Spacey posted a third Christmas Eve video, titled \"1-800 XMAS\", in which he spoke in Underwood's accent before breaking character and speaking in his natural voice.",
"He then expressed sympathy for people struggling amid the COVID-19 pandemic and promoted two suicide and substance abuse hotlines.",
"The annual videos have been described as \"tone-deaf\" by Eric Hegedus in ''The New York Post'' with respect to the allegations against him.On December 24, 2023, Spacey posted a video where he stayed in character as Underwood, conversing with right-wing political commentator Tucker Carlson.",
"The two discussed Netflix and the upcoming 2024 presidential election.===Legal issues===The Los Angeles District Attorney's office stated, in April 2018, that it would investigate an allegation that Spacey had sexually assaulted an adult male in 1992.In July 2018, three more allegations of sexual assault against Spacey were revealed by Scotland Yard, bringing the total number of open investigations in the UK to six.",
"In September 2018, a lawsuit filed at Los Angeles Superior Court claimed that Spacey sexually assaulted an unnamed masseur in October 2016 at a house in Malibu, California.In December 2018, Spacey was charged with a felony for allegedly sexually assaulting journalist Heather Unruh's 18-year-old son in Nantucket, Massachusetts, in July 2016.Spacey pleaded not guilty to the charge on January 7, 2019.Unruh's son told police that he was texting with his girlfriend throughout the alleged \"groping\" incident.",
"Spacey's defense attorneys spent months trying to obtain copies of the texts and the phone itself.",
"In mid-May 2019, Unruh's son's personal attorney informed the court that the phone in question was \"missing\".",
"On June 4, 2019, the defense learned that, when Unruh gave the police her son's phone in 2017, she admitted that she had deleted some of the text messages.",
"Later that month, her son filed a lawsuit against Spacey, claiming emotional damages.",
"Shortly later, on July 5, 2019, they withdrew the lawsuit.On July 17, 2019, the criminal assault charge against Spacey was dropped by the Cape and Islands prosecutors.",
"When the anonymous massage therapist who accused him died, the last remaining criminal case against Spacey was closed.On September 9, 2020, Anthony Rapp accused Spacey in a complaint about actions that allegedly happened in 1986 (sexual assault and sexual battery) and intentional infliction of emotional distress under the Child Victims Act, which extended New York's statute of limitations for suits related to child sexual abuse.",
"Joining Rapp in the suit against Spacey was a man who requested to remain anonymous who accused Spacey of sexually abusing him in 1983, when he was 14 and Spacey was 24.On June 17, 2021, the anonymous accuser was dismissed from the case due to his refusal to publicly identify himself.",
"As Rapp's trial lawsuit against Spacey commenced in October 2022, it was revealed Rapp had given an inaccurate description of the apartment where he alleged the abuse took place.",
"On October 17, the judge dismissed the emotional-distress charges as a \"duplicate\" of the battery charges.",
"On October 20, a jury found Spacey not liable of all charges, with the court further ordering Rapp to pay Spacey $39,089 in damages.In 2020, Spacey and his production companies M. Profitt Productions and Trigger Street Productions were ordered to pay $31 million to MRC, the studio that produced ''House of Cards'', for violating its sexual harassment policy.",
"Spacey appealed to have the arbitration award overturned, but the request was denied on August 4, 2022.On May 26, 2022, Spacey was charged by the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) in the United Kingdom with four counts of sexual assault against three complainants.",
"The alleged offenses occurred between 2005 and 2013 in London and Gloucestershire.",
"According to the Crown Prosecution Service, it would be possible to formally charge Spacey only if he entered England or Wales either voluntarily or through an extradition request.",
"Nevertheless, in a statement to ''Good Morning America'' on May 31, 2022, Spacey said he would \"voluntarily appear in the U.K. as soon as can be arranged\".",
"In his first British court appearance, on June 16, Spacey denied the allegations against him.",
"On July 14, he pleaded not guilty to the charges in London.",
"On November 16, the CPS authorized an additional seven charges against Spacey, all related to a single complainant arising from incidents alleged to have occurred between 2001 and 2004.Three charges were dismissed before or during the trial, which began on June 28, 2023, and, on July 26, 2023, a jury found Spacey not guilty of the remaining nine charges."
],
[
"Discography",
"===Albums===* ''Beyond the Sea: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack'' (2004)===Singles===*\"That Old Black Magic\" (1997, from the ''Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil'' soundtrack)===Live performances===* \"Mind Games\" – ''Come Together: A Night for John Lennon's Words and Music'' – October 2, 2001, Radio City Music Hall, New York City* \"Bridge over Troubled Water\" (with Beverley Knight) - 39th Laurence Olivier Awards - April 12, 2015, Royal Opera House, London"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"K. Eric Drexler"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kim Eric Drexler''' (born April 25, 1955) is an American engineer best known for introducing molecular nanotechnology (MNT), and his studies of its potential from the 1970s and 1980s.",
"His 1991 doctoral thesis at Massachusetts Institute of Technology was revised and published as the book ''Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery Manufacturing and Computation'' (1992), which received the Association of American Publishers award for Best Computer Science Book of 1992.He has been called the \"godfather of nanotechnology\"."
],
[
"Life and work",
"K. Eric Drexler was strongly influenced by ideas on limits to growth in the early 1970s.",
"During his first year at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he sought out someone who was working on extraterrestrial resources.",
"He found Gerard K. O'Neill of Princeton University, a physicist famous for his work on storage rings for particle accelerators and his landmark work on the concepts of space colonization.",
"Drexler participated in NASA summer studies on space colonies in 1975 and 1976.He fabricated metal films a few tens of nanometers thick on a wax support to demonstrate the potentials of high-performance solar sails.",
"He was active in space politics, helping the L5 Society defeat the Moon Treaty in 1980.Besides working summers for O'Neill, building mass driver prototypes, Drexler delivered papers at the first three Space Manufacturing conferences at Princeton.",
"The 1977 and 1979 papers were co-authored with Keith Henson, and patents were issued on both subjects, vapor phase fabrication and space radiators.During the late 1970s, Drexler began to develop ideas about molecular nanotechnology (MNT).",
"In 1979, he encountered Richard Feynman's provocative 1959 talk \"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom\".",
"In 1981, Drexler wrote a seminal research article, published by PNAS, \"Molecular engineering: An approach to the development of general capabilities for molecular manipulation\".",
"This article has continued to be cited, more than 620 times, during the following 35 years.The term \"nano-technology\" had been coined by the Tokyo University of Science professor Norio Taniguchi in 1974 to describe the precision manufacture of materials with nanometer tolerances, and Drexler unknowingly used a related term in his 1986 book ''Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology'' to describe what later became known as molecular nanotechnology (MNT).",
"In that book, he proposed the idea of a nanoscale \"assembler\" which would be able to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary complexity.",
"He also first published the term \"grey goo\" to describe what might happen if a hypothetical self-replicating molecular nanotechnology went out of control.",
"He has subsequently tried to clarify his concerns about out-of-control self-replicators, and make the case that molecular manufacturing does not require such devices.===Education===Drexler holds three degrees from MIT.",
"He received his B.S.",
"in Interdisciplinary Sciences in 1977 and his M.S.",
"in 1979 in Astro/Aerospace Engineering with a master's thesis titled \"Design of a High Performance Solar Sail System\".",
"In 1991, he earned a Ph.D. through the MIT Media Lab (formally, the Media Arts and Sciences Section, School of Architecture and Planning) after the department of electrical engineering and computer science refused to approve Drexler's plan of study.His Ph.D. work was the first doctoral degree on the topic of molecular nanotechnology and his thesis, \"Molecular Machinery and Manufacturing with Applications to Computation\", was published (with minor editing) as ''Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation'' (1992), which received the Association of American Publishers award for Best Computer Science Book of 1992.===Personal life===Drexler was married to Christine Peterson for 21 years.",
"The marriage ended in 2002.In 2006, Drexler married Rosa Wang, a former investment banker who works with Ashoka: Innovators for the Public on improving the social capital markets.Drexler has arranged to be cryonically preserved in the event of legal death."
],
[
"Reception",
"Drexler's work on nanotechnology was criticized as naive by Nobel Prize winner Richard Smalley in a 2001 ''Scientific American'' article.",
"Smalley first argued that \"fat fingers\" made MNT impossible.",
"He later argued that nanomachines would have to resemble chemical enzymes more than Drexler's assemblers and could only work in water.",
"Drexler maintained that both were straw man arguments, and in the case of enzymes, wrote that \"Prof. Klibanov wrote in 1994, ' ... using an enzyme in organic solvents eliminates several obstacles ... '\" Drexler had difficulty in getting Smalley to respond, but in December 2003, Chemical and Engineering news carried a four-part debate.",
"Ray Kurzweil disputes Smalley's arguments.The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, in its 2006 review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative, argues that it is difficult to predict the future capabilities of nanotechnology:===In science fiction===Drexler is mentioned in Neal Stephenson's science fiction novel ''The Diamond Age'' as one of the heroes of a future world where nanotechnology is ubiquitous.In the science fiction novel ''Newton's Wake'' by Ken MacLeod, a 'drexler' is a nanotech assembler of pretty much anything that can fit in the volume of the particular machine—from socks to starships.Drexler is also mentioned in the science fiction book ''Decipher'' by Stel Pavlou; his book is mentioned as one of the starting points of nanomachine construction, as well as giving a better understanding of the way carbon 60 was to be applied.James Rollins references Drexler's ''Engines of Creation'' in his novel ''Excavation'', using his theory of a molecular machine in two sections as a possible explanation for the mysterious \"Substance Z\" in the story.Drexler gets a mention in Timothy Leary's ''Design for Dying'' in the \"Mutation\" section, briefly detailing the 8-circuit model of consciousness (pg.",
"91).Drexler is mentioned in DC Comics' ''Doom Patrol'' vol.",
"2, #57 (published July 1992).Drexler is mentioned in Michael Crichton's 2002 novel ''Prey'' in the introduction (pg xii).The Drexler Facility (''ドレクサー機関'') of molecular nanotechnology research in the Japanese eroge visual novels ''Baldr Sky'' is named after him.",
"The \"Assemblers\" are its key invention."
],
[
"Works",
"* ''Engines of Creation'' (1986)** Available online at e-drexler.com dead link** Available online in Chinese as 创造的发动机** Available online in Italian as MOTORI DI CREAZIONE: L’era prossima della nanotecnologia* The Canvas of the Night (1990), (ar) Project Solar Sail, ed.",
"Arthur C. Clarke, NAL/Roc () Science Fiction.",
"* ''Unbounding the Future'' (1991; with Christine Peterson and Gayle Pergamit) ()** Available online with free download at Unbounding the Future: the Nanotechnology Revolution* ''Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery Manufacturing and Computation'' (1992)** Sample chapters and a table of contents are available online at e.drexler.com ** Drexler's doctoral thesis, ''Molecular Machinery and Manufacturing with Applications to Computation'', an earlier version of the text that became ''Nanosystems'', is available online * ''Engines of Creation 2.0: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology - Updated and Expanded'', K. Eric Drexler, 647 pages, (February 2007)* ''Radical Abundance: How a Revolution in Nanotechnology Will Change Civilization'', May 7, 2013, * ''Reframing Superintelligence: Comprehensive AI Services as General Intelligence'', K. Eric Drexler, Technical Report #2019-1, Future of Humanity Institute, University of Oxford, 210 pages (2019)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Chemical vapor deposition, a type of \"vapor phase fabrication\"* Foresight Institute* AI safety"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* \"The Creator\": Interview with Eric Drexler by Michael Berry, 1991* ''Nano: The Emerging Science of Nanotechnology'' by Ed Regis, 1995.",
"* \"The Incredible Shrinking World of Eric Drexler\": ''Red Herring'' Interview by Anthony B. Perkins August 1, 1995* \"The Incredible Shrinking Man: K. Eric Drexler was the godfather of nanotechnology.",
"But the MIT prodigy who dreamed up molecular machines was shoved aside by big science - and now he's an industry outcast.\"",
"Ed Regis, Wired Magazine, Issue 12.10, October 2004* ''Great Mambo Chicken and the Transhuman Condition'' by Ed Regis, 1990."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Who's Who in the Nanospace*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kernel"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kernel''' may refer to:"
],
[
"{{anchor|Computer science}}Computing",
"* Kernel (operating system), the central component of most operating systems* Kernel (image processing), a matrix used for image convolution* Compute kernel, in GPGPU programming* Kernel method, in machine learning* Kernelization, a technique for designing efficient algorithms** Kernel, a routine that is executed in a vectorized loop, for example in general-purpose computing on graphics processing units*KERNAL, the Commodore operating system"
],
[
"Mathematics",
"===Objects===* Kernel (algebra), a general concept that includes:** Kernel (linear algebra) or null space, a set of vectors mapped to the zero vector** Kernel (category theory), a generalization of the kernel of a homomorphism** Kernel (set theory), an equivalence relation: partition by image under a function** Difference kernel, a binary equalizer: the kernel of the difference of two functions===Functions===* Kernel (geometry), the set of points within a polygon from which the whole polygon boundary is visible* Kernel (statistics), a weighting function used in kernel density estimation to estimate the probability density function of a random variable* Integral kernel or '''kernel function''', a function of two variables that defines an integral transform* Heat kernel, the fundamental solution to the heat equation on a specified domain* Convolution kernel* Stochastic kernel, the transition function of a stochastic process* Transition kernel, a generalization of a stochastic kernel* Pricing kernel, the stochastic discount factor used in mathematical finance* Positive-definite kernel, a generalization of a positive-definite matrix* Kernel trick, in statistics* Reproducing kernel Hilbert space"
],
[
"Science",
"* Seed, inside the nut of most plants or the fruitstone of drupes, especially:** Apricot kernel** Corn kernel** Palm kernel** Wheat kernel* Atomic nucleus, the center of an atom"
],
[
"Companies",
"* Kernel (agriculture company), a Ukrainian producer of sunflower oil* Kernel (neurotechnology company), a developer of neural interfaces* The Kernel Brewery, a craft brewery in London* ''The Kernel'', an Internet culture website, now part of ''The Daily Dot''"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* ''Kernel'' (EP), by the band Seam* Kernel Fleck, a character in ''The Demonata'' series of books* Brigitte Kernel (born 1959), French journalist and writer"
],
[
"See also",
"* Colonel, a senior military officer rank that is pronounced \"kernel\""
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Korean War"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Korean War''' was fought between North Korea and South Korea from 1950 to 1953.The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea.",
"The war ceased with an armistice on 27 July 1953.North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union while South Korea was supported by the United States and the United Nations (UN).In 1910, the Empire of Japan annexed Korea as a colony for 35 years until its surrender at the end of World War II on 15 August 1945.The United States and the Soviet Union liberated and then divided Korea along the 38th parallel into two zones of occupation.",
"The Soviets administered the northern zone, and the Americans administered the southern zone.",
"In 1948, as a result of Cold War tensions, the occupation zones became two sovereign states.",
"A communist state, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, was established in the north in Pyongyang led by Premier Kim Il Sung, while a capitalist state, the Republic of Korea, was established in the south in Seoul led by President Syngman Rhee.",
"Both states claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of Korea and neither accepted the border as permanent.The years prior to North Korea's invasion of South Korea were marked by border clashes between the two countries and a revolt in South Korea that was abbetted by Pyongyang.",
"After failed attempts to unify the Koreas, North Korean forces (Korean People's Army or KPA) crossed the 38th parallel on 25 June 1950 into South Korea.",
"The United Nations Security Council denounced North Korea's actions and authorized the formation of the United Nations Command and the dispatch of forces to South Korea to repel the invasion.",
"The Soviet Union was boycotting the UN for recognizing Taiwan (Republic of China) as China, and the People's Republic of China was not recognized by the UN, so neither could support their ally North Korea at the Security Council meeting.",
"Twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing around 90% of the military personnel.After the first two months of war, the South Korean army (ROKA) and hastily dispatched American forces were on the point of defeat, retreating to a small area behind a defensive line known as the Pusan Perimeter.",
"In September 1950, a risky amphibious UN counteroffensive was launched at Incheon, cutting off KPA troops and supply lines in South Korea.",
"Those who escaped envelopment and capture were forced back north.",
"UN forces then invaded North Korea in October 1950 and moved rapidly towards the Yalu River—the border with China—but on 19 October 1950, Chinese forces - the People's Volunteer Army (PVA) - crossed the Yalu and entered the war.",
"The UN retreated from North Korea following the PVA's First Phase Offensive and the Second Phase Offensive.",
"China along with their North Korean and Soviet allies pressed their offensive, invading the South and capturing Seoul by early January 1951.A UN force recaptured the city from them, and the communist forces were pushed back to positions around the 38th parallel following PVA's abortive Fifth Phase Offensive.",
"After this, the front which was close to where the war had started stabilized, and the last two years were a war of attrition.The combat ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed.",
"The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) as the new border to separate North and South Korea, paused combat on the Korean peninsula, and allowed the exchange of prisoners.",
"The Korean War was a major conflict of the Cold War and among the most destructive conflicts of the modern era, with approximately 3 million war fatalities and a larger proportional civilian death toll than World War II or the Vietnam War.",
"It resulted in the destruction of virtually all of Korea's major cities, with thousands of massacres committed by both sides—including the mass killing of tens of thousands of suspected communists by the South Korean government, and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North Koreans.",
"North Korea became among the most heavily bombed countries in history.",
"Over the course of the war 1.5 million North Koreans are estimated to have fled North Korea.",
"No peace treaty was ever signed, and thus the two Koreas are still at war, engaged in a frozen conflict."
],
[
"Names",
"In South Korea, the war is usually referred to as the \"625 War\" (), the \"625 Upheaval\" (), or simply \"625\", reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.In North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the \"'''Fatherland Liberation War'''\" () or alternatively the ''\"Chosŏn'' Korean ''War\"'' ().In mainland China, the segment of the war after the intervention of the People's Volunteer Army is most commonly and officially known as the \"Resisting America and Assisting Korea War\" (), although the term \"''Chosŏn'' War\" () is sometimes used unofficially.",
"The term \"''Hán'' (Korean) War\" () is most commonly used in Taiwan (Republic of China), Hong Kong and Macau.In the U.S., the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a \"police action\", as the United States never formally declared war on its opponents, and the operation was conducted under the auspices of the United Nations.",
"It has been sometimes referred to in the English-speaking world as \"The Forgotten War\" or \"The Unknown War\" because of the lack of public attention it received both during and after the war, relative to the global scale of World War II, which preceded it, and the subsequent angst of the Vietnam War, which succeeded it."
],
[
"Background",
"===Imperial Japanese rule (1910–1945)===Imperial Japan severely diminished the influence of China over Korea in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), ushering in the short-lived Korean Empire.",
"A decade later, after defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), Japan made the Korean Empire its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.After that, the Korean Empire fell, and Korea was directly ruled by Japan from 1910 to 1945.Many Korean nationalists fled the country.",
"The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was founded in 1919 in Nationalist China.",
"It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite the various nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its U.S.-based founding president, Syngman Rhee.",
"From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean communists led internal and external warfare against the Japanese.In China, the nationalist National Revolutionary Army and the communist People's Liberation Army (PLA) helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China.",
"The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom-Sok, fought in the Burma campaign (December 1941 – August 1945).",
"The communists, led by, among others, Kim Il Sung, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria.At the Cairo Conference in November 1943, China, the United Kingdom and the United States all decided that \"in due course Korea shall become free and independent\".===Korea divided (1945–1949)===At the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War within three months of the victory in Europe.",
"Germany officially surrendered on 8 May 1945, and the USSR declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria on 8 August 1945, three months later.",
"This was three days after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.",
"By 10 August, the Red Army had begun to occupy the north of Korea.On the night of 10 August in Washington, U.S. Colonels Dean Rusk and Charles H. Bonesteel III were assigned to divide Korea into Soviet and U.S. occupation zones and proposed the 38th parallel as the dividing line.",
"This was incorporated into the U.S. General Order No.",
"1, which responded to the Japanese surrender on 15 August.",
"Explaining the choice of the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, \"even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by U. S. ''sic'' forces in the event of Soviet disagreement ... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops\".",
"He noted that he was \"faced with the scarcity of U.S. forces immediately available and time and space factors which would make it difficult to reach very far north before Soviet troops could enter the area\".",
"As Rusk's comments indicate, the U.S. doubted whether the Soviet government would agree to this.",
"Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, however, maintained his wartime policy of co-operation, and on 16 August the Red Army halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of U.S. forces in the south.On 7 September 1945, General Douglas MacArthur issued Proclamation No.",
"1 to the people of Korea, announcing U.S. military control over Korea south of the 38th parallel and establishing English as the official language during military control.",
"On 8 September U.S.",
"Lieutenant General John R. Hodge arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel.",
"Appointed as military governor, Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945–48).In December 1945, Korea was administered by a U.S.–Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference, with the aim of granting independence after a five-year trusteeship.",
"The idea (to have to wait 5 years for independence) was not popular among Koreans, and riots broke out.",
"To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People's Committees on 12 December.",
"Following further large-scale civilian unrest, the USAMGIK declared martial law.Citing the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the U.S. government decided to hold an election under United Nations auspices with the aim of creating an independent Korea.",
"The Soviet authorities and the Korean communists refused to co-operate on the grounds that it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it.",
"A general election was held in the South on 10 May 1948.North Korea held parliamentary elections three months later on 25 August.",
"The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July and elected Syngman Rhee as president on 20 July.",
"The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948.In the Soviet Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union agreed to the establishment of a communist government led by Kim Il Sung.The Soviet Union withdrew its forces from Korea in 1948, and U.S. troops withdrew in 1949.===Chinese Civil War (1945–1949)===With the end of the war with Japan, the Chinese Civil War resumed in earnest between the Communists and the Nationalist-led government.",
"While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with matériel and manpower.",
"According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of supplies while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese PLA during the war.",
"North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.The North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949.As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea.",
"China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea.===Communist insurgency in South Korea (1948–1950)===By 1948, a large-scale, North Korea-backed insurgency had broken out in the southern half of the peninsula.",
"This was exacerbated by the ongoing undeclared border war between the Koreas, which saw division-level engagements and thousands of deaths on both sides.",
"The ROK in this time was almost entirely trained and focused on counterinsurgency, rather than conventional warfare.",
"They were equipped and advised by a force of a few hundred American officers, who were largely successful in helping the ROKA to subdue guerrillas and hold its own against North Korean military (Korean People's Army, KPA) forces along the 38th parallel.",
"Approximately 8,000 South Korean soldiers and police died in the insurgent war and border clashes.The first socialist uprising occurred without direct North Korean participation, though the guerrillas still professed support for the northern government.",
"Beginning in April 1948 on the isolated island of Jeju, the campaign saw mass arrests and repression by the South Korean government in the fight against the South Korean Labor Party, resulting in a total of 30,000 violent deaths, among them 14,373 civilians (of whom ~2,000 were killed by rebels and ~12,000 by ROK security forces).",
"The Yeosu–Suncheon rebellion overlapped with it, as several thousand army defectors waving red flags massacred right-leaning families.",
"This resulted in another brutal suppression by the government and between 2,976 and 3,392 deaths.",
"By May 1949, both uprisings had been crushed.Insurgency reignited in the spring of 1949 when attacks by guerrillas in the mountainous regions (buttressed by army defectors and North Korean agents) increased.",
"Insurgent activity peaked in late 1949 as the ROKA engaged so-called People's Guerrilla Units.",
"Organized and armed by the North Korean government, and backed up by 2,400 KPA commandos who had infiltrated through the border, these guerrillas launched a large offensive in September aimed at undermining the South Korean government and preparing the country for the KPA's arrival in force.",
"This offensive failed.",
"However, by this point, the guerrillas were firmly entrenched in the Taebaek-san region of the North Gyeongsang Province (around Taegu), as well as in the border areas of the Gangwon Province.While the insurgency was ongoing, the ROKA and KPA engaged in multiple battalion-sized battles along the border, starting in May 1949.Serious border clashes between South and North continued on 4 August 1949, when thousands of North Korean troops attacked South Korean troops occupying territory north of the 38th parallel.",
"The 2nd and 18th ROK Infantry Regiments repulsed initial attacks in Kuksa-bong (above the 38th parallel), and at the end of the clashes ROK troops were \"completely routed\".",
"Border incidents decreased significantly by the start of 1950.Meanwhile, counterinsurgency efforts in the South Korean interior intensified; persistent operations, paired with worsening weather conditions, eventually denied the guerrillas sanctuary and wore away their fighting strength.",
"North Korea responded by sending more troops to link up with existing insurgents and build more partisan cadres; the number of North Korean infiltrators had reached 3,000 soldiers in 12 units by the start of 1950, but all of these units were destroyed or scattered by the ROKA.",
"On 1 October 1949, the ROKA launched a three-pronged assault on the insurgents in South Cholla and Taegu.",
"By March 1950, the ROKA claimed 5,621 guerrillas killed or captured and 1,066 small arms seized.",
"This operation crippled the insurgency.",
"Soon after, the North Koreans made two final attempts to keep the uprising active, sending two battalion-sized units of infiltrators under the commands of Kim Sang-ho and Kim Moo-hyon.",
"The first battalion was reduced in annihilation to a single man over the course of several engagements by the ROKA 8th Division.",
"The second battalion was annihilated by a two-battalion hammer-and-anvil maneuver by units of the ROKA 6th Division, resulting in a loss toll of 584 KPA guerrillas (480 killed, 104 captured) and 69 ROKA troops killed, plus 184 wounded.",
"By spring of 1950, guerrilla activity had mostly subsided; the border, too, was calm.===Prelude to war (1950)===By 1949, South Korean and U.S. military actions had reduced the active number of indigenous communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000.However, Kim Il Sung believed that widespread uprisings had weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population.",
"Kim began seeking Stalin's support for an invasion in March 1949, traveling to Moscow to attempt to persuade him.Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea.",
"PLA forces were still embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, while U.S. forces remained stationed in South Korea.",
"By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: PLA forces under Mao Zedong had secured final victory in China, U.S. forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Soviets had detonated their first nuclear bomb, breaking the U.S. atomic monopoly.",
"As the U.S. had not directly intervened to stop the communist victory in China, Stalin calculated that they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had much less strategic significance.",
"The Soviets had also cracked the codes used by the U.S. to communicate with their embassy in Moscow, and reading these dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the U.S. that would warrant a nuclear confrontation.",
"Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance.In April 1950, Stalin gave Kim permission to attack the government in the South under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if needed.",
"For Kim, this was the fulfilment of his goal to unite Korea after its division by foreign powers.",
"Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the U.S. Kim met with Mao in May 1950 and differing historical interpretations of the outcome of the meeting have been put forward.",
"According to Barbara Barnouin and Yu Changgeng, Mao agreed to support Kim despite concerns of American intervention, as China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets.",
"Kathryn Weathersby cites Soviet documents which said Kim secured Mao's support.",
"Along with Mark O'Neill, she says this accelerated Kim's war preparations.",
"Chen Jian argues Mao never seriously challenged Kim’s plans and that Kim had every reason to inform Stalin that he had obtained Mao's support.",
"Citing recent scholarship, Zhao Suisheng contends Mao did not approve of Kim's war proposal and requested verification from Stalin which he provided via a telegram.",
"Mao accepted the decision made by Kim and Stalin to unify the Koreas but cautioned Kim over possible US intervention.Soviet generals with extensive combat experience from the Second World War were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group.",
"These generals completed the plans for the attack by May.",
"The original plans called for a skirmish to be initiated in the Ongjin Peninsula on the west coast of Korea.",
"The North Koreans would then launch an attack that would capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the ROK.",
"The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants and capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.On 7 June 1950, Kim called for a Korea-wide election on 5–8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in Haeju on 15–17 June.",
"On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South as a peace overture which Rhee rejected outright.",
"On 21 June, Kim revised his war plan to involve a general attack across the 38th parallel, rather than a limited operation in the Ongjin Peninsula.",
"Kim was concerned that South Korean agents had learned about the plans and that South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses.",
"Stalin agreed to this change of plan.While these preparations were underway in the North, there were frequent clashes along the 38th parallel, especially at Kaesong and Ongjin, many initiated by the South.",
"The ROK was being trained by the U.S. Korean Military Advisory Group (KMAG).",
"On the eve of war, KMAG commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide \"target practice\".",
"For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when U.S. diplomat John Foster Dulles visited Korea on 18 June.Although some South Korean and U.S. intelligence officers predicted an attack from the North, similar predictions had been made before and nothing had happened.",
"The Central Intelligence Agency noted the southward movement by the KPA but assessed this as a \"defensive measure\" and concluded an invasion was \"unlikely\".",
"On 23 June UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent.===Comparison of forces===Throughout 1949 and 1950, the Soviets continued arming North Korea.",
"After the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the PLA were sent to North Korea.",
"Chinese involvement was extensive from the beginning, building on previous collaboration between the Chinese and Korean communists during the Chinese Civil War.",
"In the fall of 1949, two PLA divisions composed mainly of Korean-Chinese troops (the 164th and 166th) entered North Korea, followed by smaller units throughout the rest of 1949; these troops brought with them not only their experience and training, but also their weapons and other equipment, changing little but their uniforms.",
"The reinforcement of the KPA with PLA veterans continued into 1950, with the 156th Division and several other units of the former Fourth Field Army arriving (also with their equipment) in February; the PLA 156th Division was reorganized as the KPA 7th Division.",
"By mid-1950, between 50,000 and 70,000 former PLA troops had entered North Korea, forming a significant part of the KPA's strength on the eve of the war's beginning.",
"Several generals, such as Lee Kwon-mu, were PLA veterans born to ethnic Koreans in China.",
"The combat veterans and equipment from China, the tanks, artillery and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea's military superiority over the South, armed by the U.S. military with mostly small arms, but no heavy weaponry such as tanks.",
"While older histories of the conflict often referred to these ethnic Korean PLA veterans as being sent from northern Korea to fight in the Chinese Civil War before being sent back, recent Chinese archival sources studied by Kim Donggill indicate that this was not the case.",
"Rather, the soldiers were indigenous to China (part of China's longstanding ethnic Korean community) and were recruited to the PLA in the same way as any other Chinese citizen.According to the first official census in 1949, the population of North Korea numbered 9,620,000, and by mid-1950, North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu and Ongjin.",
"Their forces included 274 T-34-85 tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, and some 150 Yak fighter planes, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft.",
"In addition to the invasion force, the North had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T-34-85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea.",
"Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as seaborne artillery for their armies.In contrast, the South Korean population was estimated at 20 million, but its army was unprepared and ill-equipped.",
"As of 25 June 1950, the ROK had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the U.S. military, but requests were denied), and a 22-plane air force comprising 12 liaison-type and 10 AT-6 advanced-trainer airplanes.",
"Large U.S. garrisons and air forces were in Japan, but only 200–300 U.S. troops were in Korea."
],
[
"Course of the war",
"Territory often changed hands early in the war, until the front stabilized.Hundreds of thousands of South Koreans fled south in mid-1950 after the North Korean army invaded.=== Operation Pokpung ===At dawn on 25 June 1950, the KPA crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire.",
"The KPA justified its assault with the claim that ROK troops attacked first and that the KPA were aiming to arrest and execute the \"bandit traitor Syngman Rhee\".",
"Fighting began on the strategic Ongjin Peninsula in the west.",
"There were initial South Korean claims that the 17th Regiment had counterattacked at Haeju; some scholars argue the claimed counterattack was instead the instigating attack, and therefore that the South Koreans may have fired first.",
"However, the report that contained the Haeju claim also contained numerous other errors and outright falsehoods.Whoever fired the first shots in Ongjin, KPA forces attacked all along the 38th parallel within an hour.",
"The KPA had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery.",
"The ROK had no tanks, anti-tank weapons or heavy artillery to stop such an attack.",
"In addition, the South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion, and these were routed in a few days.On 27 June, Rhee evacuated Seoul with some of the government.",
"At 02:00 on 28 June the ROK blew up the Hangang Bridge across the Han River in an attempt to stop the KPA.",
"The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing it, and hundreds were killed.",
"Destroying the bridge also trapped many ROK units north of the Han River.",
"In spite of such desperate measures, Seoul fell that same day.",
"A number of South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and 48 subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.On 28 June, Rhee ordered the massacre of suspected political opponents in his own country.",
"In five days, the ROK, which had 95,000 troops on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 troops.",
"In early July, when U.S. forces arrived, what was left of the ROK was placed under U.S. operational command of the United Nations Command.===Factors in U.S. intervention===The Truman administration was unprepared for the invasion.",
"Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson.",
"Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than East Asia.",
"At the same time, the administration was worried that a war in Korea could quickly escalate without American intervention.",
"Said diplomat John Foster Dulles in a cable: \"To sit by while Korea is overrun by unprovoked armed attack would start a disastrous chain of events leading most probably to world war.",
"\"While there was initial hesitance by some in the U.S. government to get involved in the war, considerations about Japan played a part in the ultimate decision to engage on behalf of South Korea.",
"Especially after the fall of China to the communists, U.S. experts on East Asia saw Japan as the critical counterweight to the Soviet Union and China in the region.",
"While there was no U.S. policy dealing with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased the importance of South Korea.",
"Said Kim: \"The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman's decision to intervene ...",
"The essential point ... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of U.S. policy toward Japan.",
"\"Another major consideration was the possible Soviet reaction if the U.S. intervened.",
"The Truman administration was fearful that a war in Korea was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the United States committed in Korea.",
"At the same time, \"there was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from the conflict\".",
"Yugoslavia—a possible Soviet target because of the Tito-Stalin split—was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the National Security Council's post-North Korea invasion list of \"chief danger spots\".",
"Truman believed if aggression went unchecked, a chain reaction would be initiated that would marginalize the UN and encourage communist aggression elsewhere.",
"The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans, and the U.S. immediately began using air and naval forces that were in the area to that end.",
"The Truman administration still refrained from committing troops on the ground because some advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.The Truman administration was still uncertain if the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union or just a test of U.S. resolve.",
"The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against U.S. forces in Korea.",
"The Truman administration believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere.===United Nations Security Council resolutions===On 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of South Korea with UN Security Council Resolution 82.The Soviet Union, a veto-wielding power, had boycotted the Council meetings since January 1950, protesting Taiwan's occupation of China's permanent seat in the UN Security Council.",
"After debating the matter, the Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published Resolution 83 recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea.",
"On 27 June President Truman ordered U.S. air and sea forces to help South Korea.",
"On 4 July the Soviet deputy foreign minister accused the U.S. of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons.",
"The ROK intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from U.S. Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the fighting was beyond the UN Charter's scope, because the initial north–south border fighting was classed as a civil war.",
"Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council at the time, legal scholars posited that deciding upon an action of this type required the unanimous vote of all the five permanent members including the Soviet Union.Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK soldiers—of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime—were retreating southwards or defecting en masse to the northern side, the KPA.===United States' response (July–August 1950)===A U.S. howitzer position near the Kum River, 15 JulyAs soon as word of the attack was received, Acheson informed President Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea.",
"Truman and Acheson discussed a U.S. invasion response and agreed that the U.S. was obligated to act, comparing the North Korean invasion with Adolf Hitler's aggressions in the 1930s, with the conclusion being that the mistake of appeasement must not be repeated.",
"Several U.S. industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War.",
"Truman later explained that he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the U.S. goal of the global containment of communism as outlined in the National Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68) (declassified in 1975):In August 1950, Truman and Acheson obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12 billion for military action in Korea, equivalent to $ billion in .",
"Because of the extensive defense cuts and the emphasis placed on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were in a position to make a robust response with conventional military strength.",
"General Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was faced with reorganizing and deploying a U.S. military force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart.Acting on Acheson's recommendation, Truman ordered MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers in Japan, to transfer matériel to the South Korean military while giving air cover to the evacuation of U.S. nationals.",
"Truman disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral bombing of the North Korean forces and ordered the U.S.",
"Seventh Fleet to protect the Republic of China (Taiwan), whose government asked to fight in Korea.",
"The United States denied Taiwan's request for combat, lest it provoke a PRC retaliation.",
"Because the United States had sent the Seventh Fleet to \"neutralize\" the Taiwan Strait, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai criticized both the UN and U.S. initiatives as \"armed aggression on Chinese territory\".===The drive south and Pusan (July–September 1950)===G.I.",
"comforting a grieving infantrymanM-24 tank along the Nakdong River front, August 1950The Battle of Osan, the first significant U.S. engagement of the Korean War, involved the 540-soldier Task Force Smith, which was a small forward element of the 24th Infantry Division which had been flown in from Japan.",
"On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the KPA at Osan but without weapons capable of destroying the KPA tanks.",
"The KPA defeated the U.S. soldiers; the result was 180 American casualties.",
"The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back U.S. forces at Pyongtaek, Chonan, and Chochiwon, forcing the 24th Division's retreat to Taejeon, which the KPA captured in the Battle of Taejon; the 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including its commander, Major General William F. Dean.By August, the KPA steadily pushed back the ROK and the Eighth United States Army southwards.",
"The impact of the Truman administration's defense budget cutbacks was now keenly felt, as U.S. troops fought a series of costly rearguard actions.",
"Facing a veteran and well-led KPA force, and lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, the Americans retreated and the KPA advanced down the Korean Peninsula.",
"During their advance, the KPA purged South Korea's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals.",
"On 20 August, MacArthur warned Kim Il Sung that he would be held responsible for the KPA's atrocities.",
"By September, UN forces were hemmed into a small corner of southeast Korea, near Pusan.",
"This perimeter enclosed about 10% of Korea, in a line partially defined by the Nakdong River.Although Kim's early successes led him to predict he would end the war by the end of August, Chinese leaders were more pessimistic.",
"To counter a possible U.S. deployment, Zhou secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and he deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of Gao Gang.",
"Zhou authorized a topographical survey of Korea and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou's military adviser in Korea, to analyze the military situation in Korea.",
"Lei concluded that MacArthur would most likely attempt a landing at Incheon.",
"After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei's findings, and issued orders to PLA commanders deployed on the Korean border to prepare for U.S. naval activity in the Korea Strait.In the resulting Battle of Pusan Perimeter (August–September 1950), the UN forces withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at the Naktong Bulge, P'ohang-dong, and Taegu.",
"The United States Air Force (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support sorties, which destroyed 32 bridges, halting most daytime road and rail traffic.",
"KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night.",
"To deny military equipment and supplies to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, petroleum refineries, and harbors, while the U.S. Navy aircraft attacked transport hubs.",
"Consequently, the overextended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south.",
"On 27 August, 67th Fighter Squadron aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory, and the Soviet Union called the UN Security Council's attention to China's complaint about the incident.",
"The U.S. proposed that a commission of India and Sweden determine what the U.S. should pay in compensation, but the Soviets vetoed the U.S. proposal.Meanwhile, U.S. garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and military supplies to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter.",
"MacArthur went so far as to call for Japan's rearmament.",
"Tank battalions deployed to Korea directly from the U.S. mainland from the port of San Francisco to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port.",
"By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had some 500 medium tanks battle-ready.",
"In early September 1950, UN forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers.===Battle of Incheon (September 1950)===Against the rested and rearmed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN forces, they lacked naval and air support.",
"To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, MacArthur recommended an amphibious landing at Incheon, near Seoul and well over behind the KPA lines.",
"On 6 July, he ordered Major General Hobart R. Gay, commander of the U.S. 1st Cavalry Division, to plan the division's amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12–14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from Yokohama, Japan, to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.Soon after the war began, MacArthur began planning a landing at Incheon, but the Pentagon opposed him.",
"When authorized, he activated a combined U.S. Army and Marine Corps, and ROK force.",
"The X Corps, led by Major General Edward Almond, consisted of 40,000 troops of the 1st Marine Division, the 7th Infantry Division and around 8,600 ROK soldiers.",
"By 15 September, the amphibious assault force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, psychological warfare, guerrilla reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a relatively light battle.",
"However, the bombardment destroyed most of Incheon.===Breakout from the Pusan Perimeter===Pershing tanks in downtown Seoul during the Second Battle of Seoul in September 1950.In the foreground, United Nations troops round up North Korean prisoners-of-war.On 16 September Eighth Army began its breakout from the Pusan Perimeter.",
"Task Force Lynch, 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, and two 70th Tank Battalion units (Charlie Company and the Intelligence–Reconnaissance Platoon) advanced through of KPA territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan on 27 September.",
"X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force in southern Korea.On 18 September, Stalin dispatched General H. M. Zakharov to North Korea to advise Kim to halt his offensive around the Pusan Perimeter and to redeploy his forces to defend Seoul.",
"Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans.",
"As the overall commander of Chinese forces, Zhou suggested that the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the UN forces at Incheon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.On 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by UN forces.",
"U.S. air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and much of its artillery.",
"KPA troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving Pyongyang vulnerable.",
"During the general retreat, only 25,000 to 30,000 KPA soldiers managed to reach the KPA lines.",
"On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the Politburo, in which he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.===UN forces invade North Korea (September–October 1950)===On 27 September, MacArthur received the top secret National Security Council Memorandum 81/1 from Truman reminding him that operations north of the 38th parallel were authorized only if \"at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily\".",
"On 29 September, MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee.",
"The Joint Chiefs of Staff on 27 September sent to MacArthur a comprehensive directive to govern his future actions: the directive stated that the primary goal was the destruction of the KPA, with unification of the Korean Peninsula under Rhee as a secondary objective \"if possible\"; the Joint Chiefs added that this objective was dependent on whether the Chinese and Soviets would intervene, and was subject to changing conditions.U.S.",
"Air Force attacking railroads south of Wonsan on the eastern coast of North KoreaOn 30 September, Zhou warned the U.S. that China was prepared to intervene in Korea if the U.S. crossed the 38th parallel.",
"Zhou attempted to advise KPA commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics that allowed Chinese communist forces to successfully escape Chiang Kai-shek's encirclement campaigns in the 1930s, but by some accounts, KPA commanders did not use these tactics effectively.",
"Historian Bruce Cumings argues, however, that the KPA's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.By 1 October the UN Command had repelled the KPA northwards past the 38th parallel; the ROK advanced after them into North Korea.",
"MacArthur made a statement demanding the KPA's unconditional surrender.",
"Six days later, on 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards.",
"The Eighth U.S. Army drove up western Korea and captured Pyongyang on 19 October.",
"The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team made their first of two combat jumps during the Korean War on 20 October at Sunchon and Sukchon.",
"The mission was to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping from Pyongyang; and to rescue U.S. prisoners of war.At month's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war.",
"As they neared the Sino-Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by of mountainous terrain.",
"In addition to the 135,000 captured, the KPA had also suffered some 200,000 soldiers killed or wounded for a total of 335,000 casualties since the end of June 1950, and had lost 313 tanks (mostly T-34/85 models).",
"A mere 25,000 KPA regulars retreated across the 38th parallel, as their military had entirely collapsed.",
"The UN forces on the peninsula numbered 229,722 combat troops (including 125,126 Americans and 82,786 South Koreans), 119,559 rear area troops, and 36,667 U.S. Air Force personnel.",
"Taking advantage of the UN Command's strategic momentum against the communists, MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the Korean War into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean war effort.",
"Truman disagreed and ordered caution at the Sino-Korean border.===China intervenes (October–December 1950)===On 3 October 1950, China attempted to warn the United States by way of its embassy in India that it would intervene if UN forces crossed the Yalu River.",
"The United States did not respond as policymakers in Washington, including Truman, considered the warning to be a bluff.On 15 October Truman and MacArthur met at Wake Island.",
"This meeting was much publicized because of MacArthur's discourteous refusal to meet the president in the continental United States.",
"To Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea, and that the PRC's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed.",
"He believed the PRC had some 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria and some 100,000–125,000 soldiers at the Yalu River.",
"He further concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, \"if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter\" without Soviet air force protection.Meanwhile on 13 October, the Politburo decided that China would intervene even in the absence of Soviet air support, basing its decision on a belief that superior morale could defeat an enemy that had superior equipment.",
"To that end, 200,000 People's Volunteer Army (PVA) troops crossed the Yalu into North Korea.",
"UN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and bivouac discipline minimized aerial detection.",
"The PVA marched \"dark-to-dark\" (19:00–03:00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05:30.Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site.",
"During daylight activity or marching, soldiers were to remain motionless if an aircraft appeared, until it flew away; PVA officers were under order to shoot security violators.",
"Such battlefield discipline allowed a three-division army to march the from An-tung, Manchuria, to the combat zone in some 19 days.",
"Another division night-marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging daily for 18 days.2nd Infantry Division in action near the Ch'ongch'on River (20 November 1950).After secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the First Phase Offensive on 25 October, attacking the advancing UN forces near the Sino-Korean border.",
"This military decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union.",
"Twelve days after PVA troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Forces to provide air cover and supported more aid to China.",
"After inflicting heavy losses on the ROK II Corps at the Battle of Onjong, the first confrontation between Chinese and U.S. military occurred on 1 November 1950.Deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA 39th Army encircled and attacked the U.S. 8th Cavalry Regiment with three-prong assaults—from the north, northwest, and west—and overran the defensive position flanks in the Battle of Unsan.On 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou the overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng Dehuai as field commander.",
"On 25 November, on the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and then inflicted heavy losses on the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division on the UN forces' right flank.",
"Believing that they could not hold against the PVA, the Eighth Army began to retreat from North Korea crossing the 38th parallel in mid-December.In the east, on 27 November, the PVA 9th Army Group initiated the Battle of Chosin Reservoir.",
"Here, the UN forces fared comparatively better: like the Eighth Army, the surprise attack also forced X Corps to retreat from northeast Korea, but they were, in the process, able to break out from the attempted encirclement by the PVA and execute a successful tactical withdrawal.",
"X Corps managed to establish a defensive perimeter at the port city of Hungnam on 11 December and were able to evacuate by 24 December to reinforce the badly depleted Eighth Army to the south.",
"During the evacuation, about 193 shiploads of UN forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan.",
"The SS ''Meredith Victory'' was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers.",
"Before escaping, the UN forces razed most of Hungnam city, with particular attention to the port facilities.In early December UN forces, including the British Army's 29th Infantry Brigade, evacuated Pyongyang along with large numbers of refugees.",
"Around 4.5 million North Koreans are estimated to have fled from North Korea to either the South or elsewhere abroad.",
"On 16 December Truman declared a national state of emergency with Presidential Proclamation No.",
"2914, 3 C.F.R.",
"99 (1953), which remained in force until 14 September 1978.The next day, 17 December, Kim Il Sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China.===Fighting around the 38th parallel (January–June 1951)===B-26 Invaders bomb logistics depots in Wonsan, North Korea, 1951A ceasefire presented by the UN to the PRC shortly after the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River on 11 December was rejected by the Chinese government, which was convinced of the PVA's invincibility after its victory in that battle and the wider Second Phase Offensive.",
"With Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgway assuming the command of the Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their Third Phase Offensive (also known as the \"Chinese New Year's Offensive\") on New Year's Eve of 1950/51.Utilizing night attacks in which UN fighting positions were encircled and then assaulted by numerically superior troops who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which fulfilled the double purpose of facilitating tactical communication and mentally disorienting the enemy.",
"UN forces initially had no familiarity with this tactic, and as a result, some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south.",
"The offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to capture Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951.These setbacks prompted General MacArthur to consider using nuclear weapons against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, intending radioactive fallout zones to interrupt the Chinese supply chains.",
"However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the ''esprit de corps'' of the bloodied Eighth Army immediately began to revive.UN forces retreated to Suwon in the west, Wonju in the center, and the territory north of Samcheok in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held.",
"The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines.",
"On 25 late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance-in-force, which became Operation Thunderbolt.",
"A full-scale advance fully exploited the UN's air superiority, concluding with the UN forces reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.Following the failure of ceasefire negotiations in January, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 498 on 1 February, condemning the PRC as an aggressor, and called upon its forces to withdraw from Korea.In early February, the ROK 11th Division ran an operation to destroy guerrillas and pro-DPRK sympathizers in the South Gyeongsang Province.",
"During the operation, the division and police committed the Geochang and Sancheong–Hamyang massacres.",
"In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved initial victory at Hoengseong.",
"However, the offensive was blunted by U.S. IX Corps at Chipyong-ni in the center.",
"The U.S. 23rd Regimental Combat Team and the French Battalion fought a short but desperate battle that broke the attack's momentum.",
"The battle is sometimes known as the \"Gettysburg of the Korean War\": 5,600 U.S., and French troops were surrounded on all sides by 25,000 PVA.",
"UN forces had previously retreated in the face of large PVA/KPA forces instead of getting cut off, but this time, they stood and fought, and won.U.S.",
"Marines move out over rugged mountain terrain while closing with North Korean forces.In the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Thunderbolt was followed by Operation Killer, carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army.",
"It was a full-scale, battlefront-length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible.",
"Operation Killer concluded with U.S.",
"I Corps re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong.",
"On 7 March the Eighth Army attacked with Operation Ripper, expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March.",
"This was the fourth and final conquest of the city in a year's time, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000, and people were suffering from severe food shortages.On 1 March Mao sent a cable to Stalin emphasizing the difficulties faced by Chinese forces and the need for air cover, especially over supply lines.",
"Apparently impressed by the Chinese war effort, Stalin agreed to supply two air force divisions, three anti-aircraft divisions, and 6,000 trucks.",
"PVA troops in Korea continued to suffer severe logistical problems throughout the war.In late April, Peng sent his deputy, Hong Xuezhi, to brief Zhou in Beijing.",
"What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but having no food, bullets, or trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded.",
"Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving supply methods, but these efforts were never sufficient.",
"At the same time, large-scale air defense training programs were carried out, and the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) began participating in the war from September 1951 onward.",
"The Fourth Phase Offensive had catastrophically failed, in contrast to the success of the Second Phase Offensive and limited gains of the Third Phase Offensive.",
"The UN forces, after earlier defeats and subsequent retraining, proved much harder to infiltrate by Chinese light infantry than they had been in previous months.",
"From 31 January to 21 April, the Chinese had suffered 53,000 casualties.On 11 April Truman relieved General MacArthur as supreme commander in Korea.",
"There were several reasons for the dismissal.",
"MacArthur had crossed the 38th parallel in the mistaken belief that the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses.",
"He believed that the use of nuclear weapons should be his decision, not the president's.",
"MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered.",
"While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a larger war, feeling that a truce and orderly withdrawal from Korea could be a valid solution.",
"MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined that he had defied the orders of the president and thus had violated the U.S. Constitution.",
"A popular criticism of MacArthur was that he never spent a night in Korea and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.British UN troops advance alongside a Centurion tank, March 1951Ridgway was appointed supreme commander in Korea, and he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks, while General James Van Fleet assumed command of the Eighth Army.",
"Further attacks slowly depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations Courageous (23–28 March) and Tomahawk (23 March) (a combat jump by the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team) were joint ground and airborne infiltrations meant to trap PVA forces between Kaesong and Seoul.",
"UN forces advanced to the ''Kansas Line'', north of the 38th parallel.The PVA counterattacked in April 1951, with the Fifth Phase Offensive, with three field armies (approximately 700,000 men).",
"The first thrust of the offensive fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the Battle of the Imjin River (22–25 April) and the Battle of Kapyong (22–25 April), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the ''No-name Line'' north of Seoul.",
"Casualty ratios were grievously disproportionate; Peng had expected a 1:1 or 2:1 ratio, but instead, Chinese combat casualties from 22 to 29 April totaled between 40,000 and 60,000 compared to only 4,000 for the UN —a casualty ratio between 10:1 and 15:1.By the time Peng had called off the attack in the western sector on 29 April, the three participating armies had lost a third of their front-line combat strength within a week.",
"Additional casualties were incurred on 30 April.",
"On 15 May the PVA commenced the second impulse of the spring offensive and attacked the ROK and U.S. X Corps in the east at the Soyang River.",
"Approximately 370,000 PVA and 114,000 KPA troops had been mobilized, with the bulk attacking in the eastern sector with about a quarter attempting to pin the I Corps and IX Corps in the western sector.",
"After initial success, they were halted by 20 May and repulsed over the following days, with Western histories generally designating 22 May as the end of the offensive.At month's end, the Chinese planned the third step of the Fifth Phase Offensive (withdrawal), which they estimated would take 10 to 15 days to complete for their 340,000 remaining men, and set the retreat date for the night of 23 May.",
"They were caught off guard when the Eighth Army counterattacked and regained the ''Kansas Line'' on the morning of 12 May, 23 hours before the expected withdrawal.",
"The surprise attack turned the retreat into \"the most severe loss since our forces had entered Korea\"; from 16 May to 23 May, the PVA suffered another 45,000 to 60,000 casualties before their remaining soldiers managed to evacuate back north.",
"Per official Chinese statistics, the Fifth Phase Offensive as a whole had cost the PVA 102,000 soldiers (85,000 killed/wounded, 17,000 captured), with unknown but significant losses for the KPA.The end of the Fifth Phase Offensive preceded the start of the UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive.",
"During the counteroffensive, the U.S.-led coalition captured land up to about north of the 38th parallel, with most forces stopping at the ''Kansas Line'' and a minority going further to the ''Wyoming Line.''",
"PVA and KPA forces suffered greatly during this offensive, especially in the Chuncheon sector and at Chiam-ni and Hwacheon; in the latter sector alone the PVA/KPA suffered over 73,207 casualties, including 8,749 captured, compared to 2,647 total casualties of the IX Corps which engaged them.The halt at the ''Kansas Line'' and subsequent offensive action stand-down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953.The disastrous failure of the Fifth Phase Offensive (which Peng later recalled as one of only four mistakes he made in his military career) \"led Chinese leaders to change their goal from driving the UNF out of Korea to merely defending China's security and ending the war through negotiations\".===Stalemate (July 1951–July 1953)===U.S.",
"M46 Patton tanks, painted with tiger heads thought to demoralize Chinese forcesFor the remainder of the war, the UN and the PVA/KPA fought but exchanged little territory, as the stalemate held.",
"Large-scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted armistice negotiations began on 10 July 1951 at Kaesong in the North.",
"On the Chinese side, Zhou directed peace talks, and Li Kenong and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team.",
"Combat continued while the belligerents negotiated; the goal of the UN forces was to recapture all of South Korea and to avoid losing territory.",
"The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations and later effected military and psychological operations to test the UN Command's resolve to continue the war.The two sides constantly traded artillery fire along the front, with American-led forces possessing a large firepower advantage over the Chinese-led forces.",
"For example, in the last three months of 1952 the UN fired 3,553,518 field gun shells and 2,569,941 mortar shells, while the communists fired 377,782 field gun shells and 672,194 mortar shells: an overall 5.83:1 ratio in the UN's favor.",
"The communist insurgency, reinvigorated by North Korean support and scattered bands of KPA stragglers, also resurged in the south.In the autumn of 1951, Eighth Army Commander General James Van Fleet ordered Major General Paik Sun-yup to break the back of guerrilla activity.",
"From December 1951 to March 1952, ROK security forces claimed to have killed 11,090 partisans and sympathizers and captured 9,916 more.PVA troops suffered from deficient military equipment, serious logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers.",
"All of these factors generally led to a rate of Chinese casualties that was far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops.",
"The situation became so serious that in November 1951 Zhou called a conference in Shenyang to discuss the PVA's logistical problems.",
"At the meeting, it was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields in the area to increase the number of trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible.",
"These commitments did little to address the problems directly that confronted PVA troops.New Zealand artillery crew in action, 1952In the months after the Shenyang conference, Peng went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities.",
"Peng was convinced that the war would be protracted and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future.",
"On 24 February 1952, the Military Commission, presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort.",
"After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war, Peng, in an angry outburst, shouted: \"You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have!",
"Not to speak of the casualties!",
"For what are they giving their lives?",
"We have no aircraft.",
"We have only a few guns.",
"Transports are not protected.",
"More and more soldiers are dying of starvation.",
"Can't you overcome some of your difficulties?\"",
"The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference.",
"Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings, where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to the front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.With peace negotiations ongoing, the Chinese attempted one final offensive in the final weeks of the war to capture territory: on 10 June, 30,000 Chinese troops struck two South Korean and one U.S. divisions on a front, and on 13 July, 80,000 Chinese soldiers struck the east-central Kumsong sector, with the brunt of their attack falling on four South Korean divisions.",
"In both cases, the Chinese had some success in penetrating South Korean lines but failed to capitalize, particularly when the U.S. forces present responded with overwhelming firepower.",
"Chinese casualties in their final major offensive of the war (above normal wastage for the front) were about 72,000, including 25,000 killed in action compared to 14,000 for the UN (the vast majority of these deaths were South Koreans, though 1,611 were Americans).===Armistice (July 1953–November 1954)===Men from the Royal Australian Regiment, June 1953The on-again, off-again armistice negotiations continued for two years, first at Kaesong then at the neighboring village of Panmunjom.",
"A major problematic negotiation point was prisoner of war (POW) repatriation.",
"The PVA, KPA and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north, which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans.",
"A Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, under the chairman Indian General K. S. Thimayya, was subsequently set up to handle the matter.On 29 November 1952 U.S. President-Elect Dwight D. Eisenhower went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War.",
"Eisenhower took office on 20 January 1953.Stalin died a few weeks later on 5 March.",
"The new Soviet leaders, engaged in their internal power struggle, had no desire to continue supporting China's efforts in Korea and issued a statement calling for an end to the hostilities.",
"China could not continue the war without Soviet aid, and North Korea was no longer a major player.",
"Armistice talks entered a new phase.",
"With the United Nations' acceptance of India's proposed Korean War armistice, the KPA, the PVA and the UN Command signed the armistice agreement on 27 July 1953.South Korean president Syngman Rhee refused to sign the agreement.",
"The war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty.",
"North Korea nevertheless claims that it won the Korean War.Under the agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) along the front line, which vaguely follows the 38th parallel.",
"In the eastern part, the DMZ runs north of the 38th parallel; to the west, it travels south of it.",
"Kaesong, site of the initial armistice negotiations, was originally in pre-war South Korea but now is part of North Korea.",
"The DMZ has since been patrolled by the KPA and the ROK, with the U.S. still operating as the UN Command.After the war, Operation Glory was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatant countries to exchange their dead.",
"The remains of 4,167 U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN prisoner-of-war camps were delivered to the South Korean government.",
"After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (The Punchbowl), on the island of Oahu, Hawaii.",
"Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) records indicate that the PRC and North Korea transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct.",
"From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals.",
"Of these, 2,944 were identified as from the U.S., and all but 416 were identified by name.",
"From 1996 to 2006, North Korea recovered 220 remains near the Sino-Korean border.===Continued division (1954–present)===P'anmunjŏm.The Korean Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission.",
"Since 1953, the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission, composed of members from the Swiss and Swedish armed forces, has been stationed near the DMZ.In April 1975, South Vietnam's capital of Saigon was captured by the People's Army of Vietnam.",
"Encouraged by the success of the communist revolution in Indochina, Kim Il Sung saw it as an opportunity to invade South Korea.",
"Kim visited China in April 1975 and met with Mao and Zhou to ask for military aid.",
"Despite Pyongyang's expectations, however, Beijing refused to help North Korea for another war in Korea.A U.S. Army officer confers with South Korean soldiers at Observation Post (OP) Ouellette, viewing northward, in April 2008Since the armistice, there have been numerous incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea.",
"From 1966 to 1969, a large number of cross-border incursions took place in what has been referred to as the Korean DMZ Conflict or the Second Korean War.",
"In 1968, a North Korean commando team unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate South Korean president Park Chung Hee in the Blue House Raid.",
"In 1976, the axe murder incident was widely publicized.",
"Since 1974, four incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered.",
"In 2010, a North Korean submarine torpedoed and sank the South Korean corvette , resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors.",
"Again in 2010, North Korea fired artillery shells on Yeonpyeong island, killing two military personnel and two civilians.After a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that the armistice had become invalid.",
"On 13 March 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea \"is not restrained by the North-South declaration on non-aggression\".",
"On 30 March 2013, North Korea stated that it entered a \"state of war\" with South Korea and declared that \"The long-standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over\".",
"Speaking on 4 April 2013, U.S. Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel informed the press that Pyongyang \"formally informed\" the Pentagon that it \"ratified\" the potential use of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the United States of America, including Guam and Hawaii.",
"Hagel also stated the U.S. would deploy the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense anti-ballistic missile system to Guam because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat from North Korea.In 2016, it was revealed that North Korea approached the United States about conducting formal peace talks to end the war officially.",
"While the White House agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected because North Korea refused to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the terms of the treaty.On 27 April 2018, it was announced that North Korea and South Korea agreed to talks to end the ongoing 65-year conflict.",
"They committed themselves to the complete denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula.",
"North Korean leader Kim Jong Un and South Korean President Moon Jae-In signed the Panmunjom Declaration for Peace, Prosperity and Reunification of the Korean Peninsula.",
"On 22 September 2021, Moon reiterated his call to end the Korean War formally, in his speech at the UN General Assembly."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"===Casualties===About 3 million people died in the Korean War, most of them civilians, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War era.",
"Samuel S. Kim lists the Korean War as the deadliest conflict in East Asia—the region most affected by armed conflict related to the Cold War.",
"Although only rough estimates of civilian fatalities are available, scholars from Guenter Lewy to Bruce Cumings have noted that the percentage of civilian casualties in Korea was higher than in World War II or the Vietnam War, with Cumings putting civilian casualties at 2 million and Lewy estimating civilian deaths in the range of 2 million to 3 million.Cumings states that civilians represent at least half of the war's casualties, while Lewy suggests that the civilian portion of the death toll may have gone as high as 70%, compared to Lewy's estimates of 42% in World War II and 30%–46% in the Vietnam War.",
"Data compiled by the Peace Research Institute Oslo lists just under 1 million battle deaths over the course of the Korean War (with a range of 644,696 to 1.5 million) and a mid-value estimate of 3 million total deaths (with a range of 1.5 million to 4.5 million), attributing the difference to excess mortality among civilians from one-sided massacres, starvation, and disease.",
"Compounding this devastation for Korean civilians, virtually all major cities on the Korean Peninsula were destroyed as a result of the war.",
"In both per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the country most devastated by the war.",
"According to Charles K. Armstrong, the war resulted in the death of an estimated 12%–15% of the North Korean population ( 10 million), \"a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II\".====Military====Korean War memorials are found in every UN Command Korean War participant country; this one is in Pretoria, South Africa.South Korea reported some 137,899 military deaths and 24,495 missing, 450,742 wounded, 8,343 POW.According to the data from the US Department of Defense, the US suffered 33,686 battle deaths, 7,586 missing, along with 2,830 non-battle deaths.",
"There were 17,730 other non-battle US military deaths that occurred outside Korea during the same period that were erroneously included as Korean War deaths until 2000.In addition, the U.S. suffered 103,284 wounded in action.",
"The United Nations losses, excluding those of the United States or South Korea, amounted to 4,141 dead and 12,044 wounded in action.American combat casualties were over 90% of non-Korean UN losses.",
"US battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950.The first four months prior to the Chinese intervention (which started near the end of October) were by far the bloodiest per day for the US forces as they engaged and destroyed the comparatively well-equipped KPA in intense fighting.",
"American medical records show that from July to October 1950, the US Army sustained 31% of the combat deaths it ultimately incurred in the entire 37-month war.",
"The US spent US$30 billion on the war.",
"Some 1,789,000 American soldiers served in the Korean War, accounting for 31% of the 5,720,000 Americans who served on active duty worldwide from June 1950 to July 1953.Deaths from the other non-American UN militaries totaled 3,730, with another 379 missing.",
"Data from official Chinese sources reported that the PVA had suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 21,000 deaths from wounds, 13,000 deaths from illness, 340,000 wounded, and 7,600 missing.",
"7,110 Chinese POWs were repatriated to China.",
"In 2010, the Chinese government revised their official tally of war losses to 183,108 dead (114,084 in combat, 70,000 deaths from wounds, illness and other causes) and 25,621 missing.",
"Overall, 73% of Chinese infantry troops served in Korea (25 of 34 armies, or 79 of 109 infantry divisions, were rotated in).",
"More than 52% of the Chinese air force, 55% of the tank units, 67% of the artillery divisions, and 100% of the railroad engineering divisions were sent to Korea as well.",
"Chinese soldiers who served in Korea faced a greater chance of being killed than those who served in World War II or the Chinese Civil War.",
"In terms of financial cost, China spent over 10 billion yuan on the war (roughly US$3.3 billion), not counting USSR aid that had been donated or forgiven.",
"This included $1.3 billion in money owed to the Soviet Union by the end of it.",
"This was a relatively large cost, as China had only 4% of the national income of the United States.",
"Spending on the Korean War constituted 34–43% of China's annual government budget from 1950 to 1953, depending on the year.",
"Despite its underdeveloped economy, Chinese military spending was the world's fourth largest globally for most of the war after that of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom; however, by 1953, with the winding down of the Korean War and the escalation of the First Indochina War (which reached its peak in 1953–1954), French spending also surpassed Chinese spending by about a third.According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, North Korean military losses totaled 294,151 dead, 91,206 missing, and 229,849 wounded, giving North Korea the highest military deaths of any belligerent in both absolute and relative terms.",
"The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset gave a similar figure for North Korean military deaths of 316,579.Chinese sources reported similar figures for the North Korean military of 290,000 \"casualties\" and 90,000 captured.",
"The financial cost of the war for North Korea is unknown but was known to be massive in terms of both direct losses and lost economic activity; the country was devastated both by the cost of the war itself and the American strategic bombing campaign, which, among other things, destroyed 85% of North Korea's buildings and 95% of its power generation capacity.",
"The Soviet Union suffered 299 dead, with 335 planes lost.The Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the United States, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were \"eliminated\" from the battlefield.",
"Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed, 303,000 wounded, and over 101,000 captured or missing.",
"Cumings cites a much higher figure of 900,000 fatalities among Chinese soldiers.====Civilian====According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, there were over 750,000 confirmed violent civilians deaths during the war, another million civilians were pronounced missing, and millions more ended up as refugees.",
"In South Korea, some 373,500 civilians were killed, more than 225,600 wounded, and over 387,740 were listed as missing.",
"During the first communist occupation of Seoul alone, the KPA massacred 128,936 civilians and deported another 84,523 to North Korea.",
"On the other side of the border, some 1,594,000 North Koreans were reported as casualties including 406,000 civilians reported as killed, and 680,000 missing.",
"Over 1.5 million North Koreans fled to the South during the war.===U.S.",
"unpreparedness===In a postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of U.S. Army forces deployed to Korea during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General Floyd L. Parks stated \"Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man ... That we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat ... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament.",
"\"A soldier of the Dutch detachment of the UN forces in North Korea prepares to return sniper fire, 1952By 1950, U.S. Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson had established a policy of faithfully following President Truman's defense economization plans and had aggressively attempted to implement it even in the face of steadily increasing external threats.",
"He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks in Korea and the widespread reports of ill-equipped and inadequately trained U.S. military forces in the war's early stages.As an initial response to the invasion, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only \"on paper\" since the U.S. Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request.",
"Army officials, desperate for weaponry, recovered Sherman tanks and other equipment from Pacific War battlefields and reconditioned them for shipment to Korea.",
"Army ordnance officials at Fort Knox pulled down M26 Pershing tanks from display pedestals around Fort Knox in order to equip the third company of the Army's hastily formed 70th Tank Battalion.",
"Without adequate numbers of tactical fighter-bomber aircraft, the Air Force took F-51 (P-51) propeller-driven aircraft out of storage or from existing Air National Guard squadrons and rushed them into front-line service.",
"A shortage of spare parts and qualified maintenance personnel resulted in improvised repairs and overhauls.",
"A Navy helicopter pilot aboard an active duty warship recalled fixing damaged rotor blades with masking tape in the absence of spares.U.S.",
"Army Reserve and Army National Guard infantry soldiers and new inductees (called to duty to fill out understrength infantry divisions) found themselves short of nearly everything needed to repel the North Korean forces: artillery, ammunition, heavy tanks, ground-support aircraft, even effective anti-tank weapons such as the M20 3.5-inch (89 mm) \"Super Bazooka\".",
"Some Army combat units sent to Korea were supplied with worn-out, \"red-lined\" M1 rifles or carbines in immediate need of ordnance depot overhaul or repair.",
"Only the Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully understrength, as well as in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft to the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units).===Armored warfare===The initial assault by KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet T-34-85 tanks.",
"A KPA tank corps equipped with about 120 T-34s spearheaded the invasion.",
"These faced an ROK that had few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the T-34s.",
"Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed.",
"The KPA tanks had a good deal of early successes against ROK infantry, Task Force Smith, and the U.S. M24 Chaffee light tanks that they encountered.",
"Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing KPA armor.",
"The tide turned in favor of the UN forces in August 1950 when the KPA suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including M4A3 Sherman and M26 medium tanks, as well as the British Centurion, Churchill and Cromwell tanks.The Incheon landings on 15 September cut off the KPA supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies.",
"As a result of this and the Pusan perimeter breakout, the KPA had to retreat, and many of the T-34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned.",
"By the time the KPA withdrew from the South, 239 T-34s and 74 SU-76 self-propelled guns were lost.",
"After November 1950, KPA armor was rarely encountered.Following the initial assault by the North, the Korean War saw limited use of tanks and featured no large-scale tank battles.",
"The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the eastern central zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility.",
"Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.===Naval warfare===To disrupt North Korean communications, fires a salvo from its 16-inch guns at shore targets near Chongjin, North Korea, 21 October 1950Because neither Korea had a significant navy, the war featured few naval battles.",
"A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the U.S. Navy cruiser , the Royal Navy cruiser and the Royal Navy frigate fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them.",
"USS ''Juneau'' later sank several ammunition ships that had been present.",
"The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred days before the Battle of Incheon; the ROK ship ''PC-703'' sank a North Korean minelayer in the Battle of Haeju Island, near Incheon.",
"Three other supply ships were sunk by ''PC-703'' two days later in the Yellow Sea.During most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea.",
"Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to UN navy ships was from magnetic mines.",
"During the war, five U.S. Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug.",
"Mines and gunfire from North Korean coastal artillery damaged another 87 U.S. warships, resulting in slight to moderate damage.===Aerial warfare===The war was the first in which jet aircraft played the central role in air combat.",
"Once-formidable fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, F4U Corsair, and Hawker Sea Fury—all piston-engined, propeller-driven, and designed during World War II—relinquished their air-superiority roles to a new generation of faster, jet-powered fighters arriving in the theater.",
"For the initial months of the war, the P-80 Shooting Star, F9F Panther, Gloster Meteor, and other jets under the UN flag dominated the Korean People's Air Force (KPAF) propeller-driven Soviet Yakovlev Yak-9 and Lavochkin La-9s.",
"By early August 1950, the KPAF was reduced to only about 20 planes.A USAF Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star dropping napalm in Korea, May 1952The Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the KPAF with the MiG-15, one of the world's most advanced jet fighters.",
"The USAF countered the MiG-15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the F-86 Sabre.",
"These arrived in December 1950.The Soviet Union denied the involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the radio in Russian.",
"This known direct Soviet participation was a ''casus belli'' that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war expand to include the Soviet Union and potentially escalate into atomic warfare.After the war and to the present day, the USAF reported an inflated F-86 Sabre kill ratio in excess of 10:1, with 792 MiG-15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire.",
"The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China's PLAAF reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG-15s, and 168 other aircraft lost.",
"The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention.",
"The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F-86s, respectively.More modern estimates place the overall USAF kill ratio at around 1.8:1 with the ratio dropping to 1.3:1 against MiG-15s with Soviet pilots but increasing to a dominant 12:1 against Chinese and North Korean adversaries.Reports by Lieutenant General Sidor Slyusarev, commander of Soviet air forces in Korea, are more favorable to the communist side.",
"The 64th Corps claimed a total 1,097 enemy aircraft of all types during operations, for the loss of 335 aircraft (including lost to enemy ground fire, accidents, etc) and 110 pilots.",
"Soviet reports put the overall kill ratio at 3.4:1 in favor of Soviet pilots.",
"As reported, effectiveness of the Soviet fighters declined as the war progressed.",
"from an overall kill ratio of 7.9:1 from November 1950 through January 1952, declining to 2.2:1 in later 1952 and 1.9:1 in 1953.This was because more advanced jet fighters appeared on the UN side as well as improved U.S. tactics.Regardless of the actual ratio, American Sabres were very effective at controlling the skies over Korea.",
"Since no other UN fighter could contend with the MiG-15, F-86s largely took over air combat once they arrived, relegating other aircraft to air-to-ground operations.",
"Despite much greater numbers (the number of Sabres in theater never exceeded 150 while MiG-15s reached 900 at their peak), communist aircraft were seldom encountered south of Pyongyang.",
"UN ground forces, supply lines, and infrastructure were not attacked from the air.",
"Although North Korea had 75 airfields capable of supporting MiGs, after 1951, any serious effort to operate from them was abandoned.",
"The MiGs were instead based across the Yalu River in the safety of China.",
"This confined most air-to-air engagements to MiG Alley.",
"UN aircraft had free rein to conduct strike missions over enemy territory with little fear of interception.",
"Although jet dogfights are remembered as a prominent part of the Korean War, counter-air missions comprised just 12% of Far East Air Forces sorties, and four times as many sorties were performed for close air support and interdiction.The war marked a major milestone not only for fixed-wing aircraft, but also for rotorcraft, featuring the first large-scale deployment of helicopters for medical evacuation (medevac).",
"In 1944–45, during World War II, the YR-4 helicopter had seen limited ambulance duty.",
"In Korea, where rough terrain prevented use of the jeep as a speedy medevac vehicle, helicopters like the Sikorsky H-19 were heavily used.",
"This helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals (MASH).",
"As such, the medical evacuation and care system for the wounded was so effective for the UN forces that a wounded soldier who arrived at a MASH unit alive typically had a 97% chance of survival.",
"The limitations of jet aircraft for close air support highlighted the helicopter's potential in the role, leading to the development of the helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War.===U.S.",
"threat of atomic warfare===Mark 4 bomb, seen on display, transferred to the 9th Bombardment Wing, HeavyOn 5 November 1950, the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either of their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there.",
"President Truman ordered the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs \"to the Air Force's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons ... and signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets\", which he never transmitted.Many U.S. officials viewed the deployment of nuclear-capable (but not nuclear-armed) B-29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the Berlin Blockade of 1948–1949.Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military.",
"During Truman's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war.",
"By July, Truman approved another B-29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their cores), to remind the Soviets of U.S. offensive ability.",
"Deployment of a similar fleet to Guam was leaked to ''The New York Times''.",
"As UN forces retreated to Pusan, and the CIA reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them.As PVA forces pushed back the UN forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons was \"always under active consideration\", with control under the local military commander.",
"Indian ambassador K. Madhava Panikkar reports \"that Truman announced he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea.",
"But the Chinese seemed unmoved by this threat ...",
"The PRC's propaganda against the U.S. was stepped up.",
"The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities.",
"One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities.",
"\"After his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December with UK Prime Minister and Commonwealth spokesman Clement Attlee, French Premier René Pleven, and French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion.",
"The U.S.' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of \"a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China to escalate the Korean War\", but because UN allies—notably the UK, the Commonwealth, and France—were concerned about a geopolitical imbalance rendering NATO defenseless while the U.S. fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe.",
"The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the U.S. would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a \"major military disaster\".On 6 December after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN armies from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy, General Stratemeyer and staff officers Major General Doyle Hickey, Major General Charles A. Willoughby and Major General Edwin K. Wright met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.",
"* In the first scenario: If the PVA continued attacking in full and the UN Command was forbidden to blockade and bomb China, and without Taiwanese reinforcements, and without an increase in U.S. forces until April 1951 (four National Guard divisions were due to arrive), then atomic bombs might be used in North Korea.",
"* In the second scenario: If the PVA continued full attacks and the UN Command blockaded China and had effective aerial reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese interior, and the Taiwanese soldiers were maximally exploited, and tactical atomic bombing was to hand, then the UN forces could hold positions deep in North Korea.",
"* In the third scenario: if China agreed not to cross the 38th parallel border, MacArthur would recommend UN acceptance of an armistice disallowing PVA and KPA troops south of the parallel, and requiring PVA and KPA guerrillas to withdraw northwards.",
"The Eighth Army would remain to protect the Seoul–Incheon area, while X Corps would retreat to Pusan.",
"A UN commission should supervise implementation of the armistice.Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications.",
"Truman and his senior advisors agreed and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.In 1951, the U.S. escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea.",
"Because China deployed new armies to the Sino-Korean frontier, ground crews at the Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, \"lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores.\"",
"In October 1951, the United States effected Operation Hudson Harbor to establish a nuclear weapons capability.",
"USAF B-29 bombers practiced individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from Yokota Air Base in east-central Japan.",
"Hudson Harbor tested \"actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, and ground control of bomb aiming\".",
"The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the \"timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare\".Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea.",
"An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China.",
"The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential U.S. use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B-29 deployment is unclear, and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea.",
"The B-29s returned to the United States in June.Despite the greater destructive power that atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war's outcome would have likely been minimal.",
"Tactically, given the dispersed nature of PVA/KPA forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces.",
"Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians.",
"Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea's behalf, the threat of a possible nuclear exchange was unimportant in the decision not to deploy atomic bombs; their use offered little operational advantage and would undesirably lower the \"threshold\" for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts.When Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953, he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea.",
"The administration prepared contingency plans to use them against China, but like Truman, he feared that doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan.",
"The war ended as it began, without U.S. nuclear weapons deployed near battle."
],
[
"War crimes",
"South Korean soldiers walk among the bodies of political prisoners executed near Daejon, July 1950Civilians killed during a night battle near Yongsan, August 1950There were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean War committed by both sides, starting in the war's first days.",
"In 2005–2010, a South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission investigated atrocities and other human rights violations through much of the 20th century, from the Japanese colonial period through the Korean War and beyond.",
"It excavated some mass graves from the Bodo League massacres and confirmed the general outlines of those political executions.",
"Of the Korean War-era massacres the commission was petitioned to investigate, 82% were perpetrated by South Korean forces, with 18% perpetrated by North Korean forces.The commission also received petitions alleging more than 200 large-scale killings of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military during the war, mostly air attacks.",
"It confirmed several such cases, including refugees crowded into a cave attacked with napalm bombs, which survivors said killed 360 people, and an air attack that killed 197 refugees gathered in a field in the far south.",
"It recommended South Korea seek reparations from the United States, but in 2010, a reorganized commission under a new, conservative government concluded that most U.S. mass killings resulted from \"military necessity\", while in a small number of cases, they concluded, the U.S. military had acted with \"low levels of unlawfulness\", but the commission recommended against seeking reparations.Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed as a result.",
"The war's highest-ranking U.S. POW, Major General William F. Dean, reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wasteland.",
"North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were \"non-existent\".",
"North Korea ranks as among the most heavily bombed countries in history, and the U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs (including 32,557 tons of napalm) on Korea, more than during the entire Pacific War."
],
[
"Aftermath",
"=== North Korea ===As a result of the war, \"North Korea had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society\".",
"After the armistice, Kim Il Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance.",
"In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to \"cancel or postpone repayment for all ... outstanding debts\", and promised to grant North Korea one billion rubles in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods.",
"Eastern European members of the Soviet Bloc also contributed with \"logistical support, technical aid, and medical supplies\".",
"China canceled North Korea's war debts, provided 800 million yuan, promised trade cooperation and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure.",
"Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped and continues to be a totalitarian dictatorship since the end of the war, with an elaborate cult of personality around the Kim dynasty.The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises and collectivized farms.",
"Most services—such as healthcare, education, housing and food production—are subsidized or state-funded.",
"Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s North Korean famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008.A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that 18-year-old males were shorter than South Koreans their age because of malnutrition.The Korean Peninsula at night, shown in a 2017 composite photograph from NASAPresent-day North Korea follows ''Songun'', or \"military-first\" policy and has the highest number of military and paramilitary personnel in the world, with 7,769,000 active, reserve and paramilitary personnel, or approximately of its population.",
"Its active-duty army of 1.28 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, the United States and India; consisting of of its population.",
"North Korea possesses nuclear weapons.",
"A 2014 UN inquiry into abuses of human rights in North Korea concluded that, \"the gravity, scale and nature of these violations reveal a state that does not have any parallel in the contemporary world,\" with Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch holding similar views.=== South Korea ===Postwar recovery was different in the two Koreas.",
"South Korea, which started from a far lower industrial base than North Korea (the latter contained 80% of Korea's heavy industry in 1945), stagnated in the first postwar decade.",
"In 1953, South Korea and the United States signed a Mutual Defense Treaty.South Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of United States Forces Korea military personnel and U.S. support for Park's authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s.",
"However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46% favorable in 2003 to 74% favorable in 2011, making South Korea one of the most pro-U.S. countries in the world.A large number of mixed-race \"GI babies\" (offspring of U.S. and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages.",
"Because Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race, children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society.",
"International adoption of Korean children began in 1954.The U.S. Immigration Act of 1952 legalized the naturalization of non-Blacks and non-Whites as U.S. citizens and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea.",
"With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreans became one of the fastest-growing Asian groups in the United States.=== Communism ===Museum of American War Atrocities in 2009Mao Zedong's decision to take on the United States was a direct attempt to confront what the communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese communist regime was still consolidating its own power after winning the Chinese Civil War.",
"Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the U.S. was inevitable after the U.S. entered the war, and to appease the Soviet Union to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao's goal of making China a major world military power.",
"Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international.",
"In his later years, Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War.",
"Inside mainland China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-communist dissent.The Chinese government has encouraged the viewpoint that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Stalin to enter the war.",
"In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an underequipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate.",
"These successes were contrasted with China's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the PLA and the Chinese Communist Party.",
"The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kaishek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day.",
"Mao had also discovered the usefulness of large-scale mass movements in the war while implementing them among most of his ruling measures over PRC.",
"Anti-U.S. sentiments, which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, were ingrained into Chinese culture during the communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War.The Korean War affected other participant combatants.",
"Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952, and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations with South Korea.",
"The war also played a role in the refugee crisis in Turkey in 1950-1951."
],
[
"See also",
"* Korean War in popular culture* Korean–American Volunteer Group* List of books about the Korean War* List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients* List of Korean War weapons* List of military equipment used in the Korean War* List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll* Medical support in the Korean War* ''MASH'' – film* ''M*A*S*H'' – TV series* Partisans in the Korean War* Pyongyang Sally* Transfer of People's Volunteer Army soldiers' remains from South Korea to China* UNCMAC – the UN Command Military Armistice Commission operating from 1953 to the present* UNCURK – the 1951 UN Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea* UNTCOK – the 1950 United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea* United Nations Forces in the Korean War* United Service Organizations===War memorials===* Korean War Memorial Wall, Brampton, Ontario* Korean War Veterans Memorial, Washington, D.C.* Memorial of the War to Resist U.S.",
"Aggression and Aid Korea, Dandong, Liaoning, China* National War Memorial (New Zealand)* Philadelphia Korean War Memorial* United Nations Memorial Cemetery, Busan, Republic of Korea* Memorial of Turks Who Fought in Korea, Ankara, Turkey * Victorious War Museum, Pyongyang, North Korea* War Memorial of Korea Yongsan-dong, Yongsan-gu, Seoul, South Korea"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Bibliography===** * * * * * * * * * * * * * Lee, Steven.",
"\"The Korean War in History and Historiography.\"",
"''Journal of American-East Asian Relations'' 21#2 (2014): 185–206.doi:10.1163/18765610-02102010.",
"* Lin, L., et al.",
"\"Whose history?",
"An analysis of the Korean war in history textbooks from the United States, South Korea, Japan, and China\".",
"''Social Studies'' 100.5 (2009): 222–232.online* * Matray, James I., and Donald W. Boose Jr, eds.",
"''The Ashgate research companion to the Korean War'' (2014) excerpt; covers historiography* Matray, James I.",
"\"Conflicts in Korea\" in Daniel S. Margolies, ed.",
"''A Companion to Harry S. Truman'' (2012) pp 498–531; emphasis on historiography.",
"* ** * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Records of the United Nations Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea (UNCURK) (1950–1973) at the United Nations Archives===Historical===* THE KOREAN WAR (1) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1997 (E-BOOK) * THE KOREAN WAR (1) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1997 (PDF) * THE KOREAN WAR (2) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1998 (E-BOOK) * THE KOREAN WAR (2) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1999 (PDF) * THE KOREAN WAR (3) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1999 (E-BOOK) * THE KOREAN WAR (3) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1998 (PDF) * History of the Just Fatherland Liberation War of the Korean People (PDF) The Research Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea* Anniversary of the Korean War Armistice: Truman on Acheson's Crucial Role in Going to War Shapell Manuscript Foundation* Korean War resources, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library * North Korea International Documentation Project* Grand Valley State University Veteran's History Project digital collection* The Forgotten War, Remembered – four testimonials in ''The New York Times''* Collection of Books and Research Materials on the Korean War an online collection of the United States Army Center of Military History* Korean War, US Army Signal Corps Photograph Collection U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania* The Korean War at History.com* Koreanwar-educator.org* ===Media===* West Point Atlas of the Korean War * The Korean War You Never Knew – slideshows by ''Life'' magazine* U.S. Army Korea Media Center official Korean War online image archive* Rare pictures of the Korean War from the U.S. Library of Congress and National Archives* ''Land of the Morning Calm Canadians in Korea'' – multimedia project including veteran interviews* Pathé Online newsreel archive featuring films on the war* CBC Digital Archives – Forgotten Heroes: Canada and the Korean War* Uncertain Enemies: Soviet Pilots in the Korean War.",
"''Air Power History.''",
"(Spring 1997).",
"'''44''', 1, 32–45.===Organizations===* Korea Defense Veterans of America* Korean War Ex-POW Association* Korean War Veterans Association* The Center for the Study of the Korean War===Memorials===* Korean Children's War Memorial* Chinese 50th Anniversary Korean War Memorial"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kite (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''kite''' is a tethered heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air craft with wing surfaces.",
"'''Kite''' or '''kites''' may also refer to:* Kite (bird), the common name for a number of birds of prey* Kite (geometry), a quadrilateral with reflection symmetry across a diagonal"
],
[
"Arts and entertainment",
"===Fictional characters===* Kite (''.hack''), from the video game series* Kite, a ''Hunter × Hunter'' character* Kite, in the TV series ''Extraterrestrial''=== Film ===* ''Kite'' (film series), by Yasuomi Umetsu**''Kite'' (1998 film), an original video animation** ''Kite'' (2014 film), a live action film * ''The Kite'' (2003 film), a Lebanese drama* ''Saranggola'', or ''The Kite'', a 1999 Filipino film * ''Kites'' (film), a 2010 Indian romantic action thriller* ''Patang'' (film) ('The Kite'), a 1993 Indian film ===Literature===* ''Kite'' (novel), by Melvin Burgess, 1997* ''The Kite'', a 1962 novel by W. O. Mitchell=== Music ===* Kite (band), a Swedish synthpop duo* \"Kite\" (Arashi song), 2020* \"Kite\" (Kate Bush song), 1978* ''Kite'' (Kirsty MacColl album), 1989* ''Kite'' (Stefanie Sun album), 2001* \"Kite\" (U2 song), 2000* \"Kite\", a song by Nick Heyward from the 1993 album ''From Monday to Sunday''* \"Kites\" (song), by Simon Dupree, 1967* \"Kites\", a song by Reks from the 2016 album ''The Greatest X''* \"Kite Song\", a song by Kevin Roth from \"Faith, Hope and Anxiety\", an episode of ''Shining Time Station''"
],
[
"Ships",
"* , the name of several ships of the Royal Navy* , a ship used in the Peary expedition to Greenland of 1891–1892* , the name of several ships of the U.S. Navy"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Kite (sail), or spinnaker* Kite (sailboat), an American sailboat design* Kite (surname), including a list of people with the name* Kite, Georgia, U.S., a place* Kite, Kentucky, U.S., a place* Kite, any aircraft, in RAF slang* Kite and dart tiling, in geometry* KITE (AM), a radio station (1410 AM) licensed to Victoria, Texas, U.S.* KNAL (FM), a radio station in Texas (93.3 FM) licensed to Port Lavaca, U.S., call sign KITE 2001–2014* KiTE, KGiSL Institute of Technology in Coimbatore, India* Alpi Pioneer 300 Kite, an Italian light-sport aircraft design"
],
[
"See also",
"* Index of kite articles* Kiting (disambiguation)* Kiteboarding, a sport using wind power with a large power kite* Desert kite, a dry stone wall structure* Kite shield a type of shield"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Karl Dönitz"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Karl Dönitz''' (sometimes spelled '''Doenitz'''; ; 16 September 189124 December 1980) was a German admiral who briefly succeeded Adolf Hitler as head of state in May 1945, holding the position until the dissolution of the Flensburg Government following Germany's unconditional surrender to the Allies days later.",
"As Supreme Commander of the Navy beginning in 1943, he played a major role in the naval history of World War II.He began his career in the Imperial German Navy before World War I.",
"In 1918, he was commanding , and was taken prisoner of war by British forces.",
"As commander of UB-68, he attacked a convoy in the Mediterranean while on patrol near Malta.",
"Sinking one ship before the rest of the convoy outran his U-boat, Dönitz began to formulate the concept of U-boats operating in attack groups ''Rudeltaktik'' (German for \"pack tactic\", commonly called a \"wolfpack\") for greater efficiency, rather than operating independently.By the start of the Second World War, Dönitz was supreme commander of the ''Kriegsmarine'' U-boat arm ( (BdU)).",
"In January 1943, Dönitz achieved the rank of (grand admiral) and replaced Grand Admiral Erich Raeder as Commander-in-Chief of the Navy.",
"Dönitz was the main enemy of Allied naval forces in the Battle of the Atlantic.",
"From 1939 to 1943 the U-boats fought effectively but lost the initiative from May 1943.Dönitz ordered his submarines into battle until 1945 to relieve the pressure on other branches of the (armed forces).",
"648 U-boats were lost—429 with no survivors.",
"Furthermore, of these, 215 were lost on their first patrol.",
"Around 30,000 of the 40,000 men who served in U-boats perished.On 30 April 1945, after the suicide of Adolf Hitler and in accordance with his last will and testament, Dönitz was named Hitler's successor as head of state in what became known as the Goebbels cabinet after his second-in-command, Joseph Goebbels, until Goebbels' suicide led to Dönitz's cabinet being reformed into the Flensburg Government instead.",
"On 7 May 1945, he ordered Alfred Jodl, Chief of Operations Staff of the (OKW), to sign the German instruments of surrender in Reims, France, formally ending the War in Europe.",
"Dönitz remained as head of state with the titles of President of Germany and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces until his cabinet was dissolved by the Allied powers on 23 May ''de facto'' and on 5 June ''de jure''.By his own admission, Dönitz was a dedicated Nazi and supporter of Hitler.",
"Following the war, he was indicted as a major war criminal at the Nuremberg trials on three counts: conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity; planning, initiating, and waging wars of aggression; and crimes against the laws of war.",
"He was found not guilty of committing crimes against humanity, but guilty of committing crimes against peace and war crimes against the laws of war.",
"He was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment; after his release, he lived in a village near Hamburg until his death in 1980."
],
[
"Early career and personal life",
"''Oberleutnant zur See'' Karl Dönitz as Watch Officer of ''U-39'' during World War IDönitz was born on 16 September 1891 in Grünau, near Berlin, to Anna Beyer and Emil Dönitz, an engineer.",
"Karl had an older brother.",
"In 1910, Dönitz enlisted in the (\"Imperial Navy\").On 27 September 1913, Dönitz was commissioned as a (acting sub-lieutenant).",
"When World War I began, he served on the light cruiser in the Mediterranean Sea.",
"In August 1914, the ''Breslau'' and the battlecruiser were sold to the Ottoman Navy; the ships were renamed the ''Midilli'' and the ''Yavuz Sultan Selim'', respectively.",
"They began operating out of Constantinople, under Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, engaging Russian forces in the Black Sea.",
"On 22 March 1916, Dönitz was promoted to .",
"He requested a transfer to the submarine forces, which became effective on 1 October 1916.He attended the submariner's school at Flensburg-Mürwik and passed out on 3 January 1917.He served as watch officer on , and from February 1918 onward as commander of .",
"On 2 July 1918, he became commander of , operating in the Mediterranean.",
"On 4 October, after suffering technical difficulties, Dönitz was forced to surface and scuttled his boat.",
"He was captured by the British and incarcerated in the Redmires camp near Sheffield.",
"He remained a prisoner of war until 1919 and in 1920 he returned to Germany.",
"Karl Dönitz' sons both died in World War II: Lieutenant Peter Dönitz on May 19, 1943, as a watch officer on the U 954, Oberleutnant Klaus Dönitz on May 13, 1944, on the S 141 speedboat.On 27 May 1916, Dönitz married a nurse named Ingeborg Weber (1893–1962), the daughter of German general Erich Weber (1860–1933).",
"They had three children whom they raised as Protestant Christians: daughter Ursula (1917–1990) and sons Klaus (1920–1944) and Peter (1922–1943).",
"Both of Dönitz's sons were killed during the Second World War.",
"Peter was killed on 19 May 1943 when was sunk in the North Atlantic with all hands.Hitler had issued a policy stating that if a senior officer such as Dönitz lost a son in battle and had other sons in the military, the latter could withdraw from combat and return to civilian life.After Peter's death, Klaus was forbidden to have any combat role and was allowed to leave the military to begin studying to become a naval doctor.",
"He returned to sea and was killed on 13 May 1944; he had persuaded his friends to let him go on the E-boat ''S-141'' for a raid on Selsey on his 24th birthday.",
"The boat was sunk by the ."
],
[
"Interwar period",
"He continued his naval career in the naval arm of the Weimar Republic's armed forces.",
"On 10 January 1921, he became a (lieutenant) in the new German navy ().",
"Dönitz commanded torpedo boats, becoming a (lieutenant-commander) on 1 November 1928.On 1 September 1933, he became a (commander) and, in 1934, was put in command of the cruiser ''Emden'', the ship on which cadets and midshipmen took a year-long world cruise as training.In 1935, the was renamed .",
"Germany was prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles from possessing a submarine fleet.",
"The Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935 allowed submarines and he was placed in command of the U-boat flotilla , which comprised three boats; ; and; .",
"On 1 September 1935, he was promoted to (naval captain).Dönitz opposed Raeder's views that surface ships should be given priority in the during the war, but in 1935 Dönitz doubted U-boat suitability in a naval trade war on account of their slow speed.",
"This phenomenal contrast with Dönitz's wartime policy is explained in the 1935 Anglo-German Naval Agreement.",
"The accord was viewed by the navy with optimism, Dönitz included.",
"He remarked, \"Britain, in the circumstances, could not possibly be included in the number of potential enemies.\"",
"The statement, made after June 1935, was uttered at a time when the naval staff were sure France and the Soviet Union were likely to be Germany's only enemies.",
"Dönitz's statement was partially correct.",
"Britain was not foreseen as an immediate enemy, but the navy still held onto a cadre of imperial officers, which along with its Nazi-instigated intake, understood war would be certain in the distant future, perhaps not until the mid-1940s.Dönitz came to recognise the need for more of these vessels.",
"Only 26 were in commission or under construction that summer.",
"In the time before his command of submarines, he perfected the group tactics that first appealed to him in 1917.At this time Dönitz first expressed his procurement policies.",
"His preference for the submarine fleet was in the production of large numbers of small craft.",
"In contrast to other warships, the fighting power of the U-boat, in his opinion, was not dependent on its size as the torpedo, not the gun, was the machine's main weapon.",
"Dönitz had a tendency to be critical of larger submarines and listed a number of disadvantages in their production, operation and tactical use.",
"Dönitz recommended the Type VII submarine as the ideal submarine.",
"The boat was reliable and had a range of 6,200 miles.",
"Modifications lengthened this to 8,700 miles.Dönitz revived Hermann Bauer's idea of grouping several submarines together into a (\"pack tactic\", commonly called \"wolfpack\") to overwhelm a merchant convoy's escorts.",
"Implementation of wolfpacks had been difficult in World War I owing to the limitations of available radios.",
"In the interwar years, Germany had developed ultra high frequency transmitters, (ukw) while the Enigma cipher machine was believed to have made communications secure.",
"A 1922 paper written by Wessner of the (Defence Ministry) pointed to the success of surface attacks at night and the need to coordinate operations with multiple boats to defeat the escorts.",
"Dönitz knew of the paper and improved the ideas suggested by Wessner.",
"This tactic had the added advantage that a submarine on the surface was undetectable by ASDIC (an early form of sonar).",
"Dönitz claimed after the war he would not allow his service to be intimidated by British disclosures about ASDIC and the course of the war had proven him right.",
"In reality, Dönitz harboured fears stretching back to 1937 that the new technology would render the U-boat impotent.",
"Dönitz published his ideas on night attacks in January 1939 in a booklet called which apparently went unnoticed by the British.",
"The Royal Navy's overconfidence in Asdic encouraged the Admiralty to suppose it could deal with submarines whatever strategy they adopted — in this they were proven wrong; submarines were difficult to locate and destroy under operational conditions.In 1939 he expressed his belief that he could win the war with 300 vessels.",
"The Nazi leadership's rearmament priorities were fundamentally geared to land and aerial warfare.",
"From 1933 to 1936, the navy was granted only 13 per cent of total armament expenditure.",
"The production of U-boats, despite the existing Z Plan, remained low.",
"In 1935 shipyards produced 14 submarines, 21 in 1936, 1 in 1937.In 1938 nine were commissioned and in 1939 18 U-boats were built.",
"Dönitz's vision may have been misguided.",
"The British had planned for contingency construction programmes for the summer, 1939.At least 78 small escorts and a crash construction programme of \"Whale catchers\" had been invoked.",
"The British, according to one historian, had taken all the sensible steps necessary to deal with the U-boat menace as it existed in 1939 and were well placed to deal with large numbers of submarines, prior to events in 1940."
],
[
"World War II",
"On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland.",
"Britain and France soon declared war on Germany, and World War II began.",
"On Sunday 3 September, Dönitz chaired a conference at Wilhelmshaven.",
"At 11:15 am the British Admiralty sent out a signal \"Total Germany\".",
"B-Dienst intercepted the message and it was promptly reported to Dönitz.",
"Dönitz paced around the room and his staff purportedly heard him repeatedly say, \"My God!",
"So it's war with England again!",
"\"Dönitz abandoned the conference to return within the hour a far more composed man.",
"He announced to his officers, \"we know our enemy.",
"We have today the weapon and a leadership that can face up to this enemy.",
"The war will last a long time; but if each does his duty we will win.\"",
"Dönitz had only 57 boats; of those, 27 were capable of reaching the Atlantic Ocean from their German bases.",
"A small building program was already under way but the number of U-boats did not rise noticeably until the autumn of 1941.Dönitz's first major action was the cover up of the sinking of the British passenger liner ''Athenia'' later the same day.",
"Acutely sensitive to international opinion and relations with the United States, the death of more than a hundred civilians was damaging.",
"Dönitz suppressed the truth that the ship was sunk by a German submarine.",
"He accepted the commander's explanation that he genuinely believed the ship was armed.",
"Dönitz ordered the engagement to be struck from the submarine's logbook.",
"Dönitz did not admit the cover up until 1946.Hitler's original orders to wage war only in accordance with the Prize Regulations were not issued in any altruistic spirit but in the belief hostilities with the Western Allies would be brief.",
"On 23 September 1939, Hitler, on the recommendation of Admiral Raeder, approved that all merchant ships making use of their wireless on being stopped by U-boats should be sunk or captured.",
"This German order marked a considerable step towards unrestricted warfare.",
"Four days later enforcement of Prize Regulations in the North Sea was withdrawn; and on 2 October complete freedom was given to attack darkened ships encountered off the British and French coasts.",
"Two days later the Prize Regulations were cancelled in waters extending as far as 15° West, and on 17 October the German Naval Staff gave U-boats permission to attack without warning all ships identified as hostile.",
"The zone where darkened ships could be attacked with complete freedom was extended to 20° West on 19 October.",
"Practically the only restrictions now placed on U-boats concerned attacks on passenger liners and, on 17 November, they too were allowed to be attacked without warning if clearly identifiable as hostile.Although the phrase was not used, by November 1939 the BdU was practicing unrestricted submarine warfare.",
"Neutral shipping was warned by the Germans against entering the zone which, by American neutrality legislation, was forbidden to American shipping, and against steaming without lights, zigzagging or taking any defensive precautions.",
"The complete practice of unrestricted warfare was not enforced for fear of antagonising neutral powers, particularly the Americans.",
"Admirals Raeder and Dönitz and the German Naval Staff had always wished and intended to introduce unrestricted warfare as rapidly as Hitler could be persuaded to accept the possible consequences.Dönitz and Raeder accepted the death of the Z Plan upon the outbreak of war.",
"The U-boat programme would be the only portion of it to survive 1939.Both men lobbied Hitler to increase the planned production of submarines to at least 29 per month.",
"The immediate obstacle to the proposals was Hermann Göring, head of the Four Year Plan, commander-in-chief of the ''Luftwaffe'' and future successor to Hitler.",
"Göring would not acquiesce and in March 1940 Raeder was forced to drop the figure from 29 to 25, but even that plan proved illusory.",
"In the first half of 1940, two boats were delivered, increased to six in the final half of the year.",
"In 1941 the deliveries increased to 13 to June, and then 20 to December.",
"It was not until late 1941 the number of vessels began to increase quickly.",
"From September 1939 through to March 1940, 15 U-boats were lost—nine to convoy escorts.",
"The impressive tonnage sunk had little impact on the Allied war effort at that point.===Commander of the submarine fleet===''U-94'' at St Nazaire in France in June 1941On 1 October 1939, Dönitz became a (rear admiral) and \"Commander of the Submarines\" (, ''BdU'').",
"For the first part of the war, despite disagreements with Raeder where best to deploy his men, Dönitz was given considerable operational freedom for his junior rank.From September–December 1939 U-boats sank 221 ships for 755,237 gross tons, at the cost of nine U-boats.",
"Only 47 merchant ships were sunk in the North Atlantic, a tonnage of 249,195.Dönitz had difficulty in organising Wolfpack operations in 1939.A number of his submarines were lost en route to the Atlantic, through either the North Sea or the heavily defended English Channel.",
"Torpedo failures plagued commanders during convoy attacks.",
"Along with successes against single ships, Dönitz authorised the abandonment of pack attacks in the autumn.",
"The Norwegian Campaign amplified the defects.",
"Dönitz wrote in May 1940, \"I doubt whether men have ever had to rely on such a useless weapon.\"",
"He ordered the removal of magnetic pistols in favour of contact fuses and their faulty depth control systems.",
"In no fewer than 40 attacks on Allied warships, not a single sinking was achieved.",
"The statistics show that from the outbreak of war to approximately the spring, 1940, faulty German torpedoes saved 50–60 ships equating to .Dönitz was encouraged in operations against warships by the sinking of the aircraft carrier ''Courageous''.",
"On 28 September 1939 he said, \"it is not true Britain possesses the means to eliminate the U-boat menace.\"",
"The first specific operation—named \"Special Operation P\"—authorised by Dönitz was Günther Prien's attack on Scapa Flow, which sank the battleship ''Royal Oak''.",
"The attack became a propaganda success though Prien purportedly was unenthusiastic about being used that way.",
"Stephen Roskill wrote, \"It is now known that this operation was planned with great care by Admiral Dönitz, who was correctly informed of the weak state of the defences of the eastern entrances.",
"Full credit must also be given to Lieutenant Prien for the nerve and determination with which he put Dönitz's plan into execution.",
"\"In May 1940, 101 ships were sunk—but only nine in the Atlantic—followed by 140 in June; 53 of them in the Atlantic for a total of that month.",
"The first six months in 1940 cost Dönitz 15 U-boats.",
"Until mid-1940 there remained a chronic problem with the reliability of the G7e torpedo.",
"As the battles of Norway and Western Europe raged, the ''Luftwaffe'' sank more ships than the U-boats.",
"In May 1940, German aircraft sank 48 ships (), three times that of German submarines.",
"The Allied evacuations from western Europe and Scandinavia in June 1940 attracted Allied warships in large numbers, leaving many of the Atlantic convoys travelling through the Western Approaches unprotected.",
"From June 1940, the German submarines began to exact a heavy toll.",
"In the same month, the ''Luftwaffe'' sank just 22 ships () in a reversal of the previous months.Germany's defeat of Norway gave the U-boats new bases much nearer to their main area of operations off the Western Approaches.",
"The U-boats operated in groups or 'wolf packs' which were coordinated by radio from land.",
"With the fall of France, Germany acquired U-boat bases at Lorient, Brest, St Nazaire, and La Pallice/La Rochelle and Bordeaux.",
"This extended the range of Type VIIs.",
"Regardless, the war with Britain continued.",
"The admiral remained sceptical of Operation Sea Lion, a planned invasion and expected a long war.",
"The destruction of seaborne trade became German strategy against Britain after the defeat of the ''Luftwaffe'' in the Battle of Britain.",
"Hitler was content with The Blitz and cutting off Britain's imports.",
"Dönitz gained importance as the prospect of a quick victory faded.",
"Dönitz concentrated groups of U-boats against the convoys and had them attack on the surface at night.",
"In addition the Germans were helped by Italian submarines which in early 1941 actually surpassed the number of German U-boats.",
"Having failed to persuade the Nazi leadership to prioritise U-boat construction, a task made more difficult by military victories in 1940 which convinced many people that Britain would give up the struggle, Dönitz welcomed the deployment of 26 Italian submarines to his force.",
"Dönitz complimented Italian bravery and daring, but was critical of their training and submarine designs.",
"Dönitz remarked they lacked the necessary toughness and discipline and consequently were \"of no great assistance to us in the Atlantic.",
"\"The establishment of German bases on the French Atlantic coast allowed for the prospect of aerial support.",
"Small numbers of German aircraft, such as the long-range Focke-Wulf Fw 200, sank a large number of ships in the Atlantic in the last quarter of 1940.In the long term, Göring proved an insurmountable problem in effecting cooperation between the navy and the ''Luftwaffe''.",
"In early 1941, while Göring was on leave, Dönitz approached Hitler and secured from him a single bomber/maritime patrol unit for the navy.",
"Göring succeeded in overturning this decision and both Dönitz and Raeder were forced to settle for a specialist maritime air command under ''Luftwaffe'' control.",
"Poorly supplied, achieved modest success in 1941, but thereafter failed to have an impact as British counter-measures evolved.",
"Cooperation between the and remained dysfunctional to the war's end.",
"Göring and his unassailable position at the (Air Ministry) prevented all but limited collaboration.The U-boat fleet's successes in 1940 and early 1941 were spearheaded by a small number of highly trained and experienced pre-war commanders.",
"Otto Kretschmer, Joachim Schepke, and Günther Prien were the most famous, but others included Hans Jenisch, Victor Oehrn, Engelbert Endrass, Herbert Schultze and Hans-Rudolf Rösing.",
"Although skilled and with impeccable judgement, the shipping lanes they descended upon were poorly defended.",
"The U-boat force did not escape unscathed.",
"Within the space of several days in March 1941, Prien and Schepke were dead and Kretschmer was a prisoner.",
"All of them fell in battle with a convoy system.",
"The number of boats in the Atlantic remained low.",
"Six fewer existed in May 1940 than in September 1939.In January 1941 there were just six on station in the Atlantic—the lowest during the war, while still suffering from unreliable torpedoes.",
"Dönitz insisted that operations continue while \"the smallest prospect of hits\" remained.For his part, Dönitz was involved in the daily operations of his boats and all the major operational level decisions.",
"His assistant, Eberhard Godt, was left to manage daily operations as the war continued.",
"Dönitz was debriefed personally by his captains which helped establish a rapport between leader and led.",
"Dönitz neglected nothing that would make the bond firmer.",
"Often there would be a distribution of medals or awards.",
"As an ex-submariner, Dönitz did not like to contemplate the thought of a man who had done well heading out to sea, perhaps never to return, without being rewarded or receiving recognition.",
"Dönitz acknowledged where decorations were concerned there was no red tape and that awards were \"psychologically important\".===Intelligence battle===Intelligence played an important role in the Battle of the Atlantic.",
"In general, BdU intelligence was poor.",
"Counter-intelligence was not much better.",
"At the height of the battle in mid-1943 some 2,000 signals were sent from the 110 U-boats at sea.",
"Radio traffic compromised his ciphers by giving the Allies more messages to work with.",
"Furthermore, replies from the boats enabled the Allies to use High-frequency direction finding (HF/DF, called \"Huff-Duff\") to locate a U-boat using its radio, track it and attack it.",
"The over-centralised command structure of BdU and its insistence on micro-managing every aspect of U-boat operations with endless signals provided the Allied navies with enormous intelligence.",
"The enormous \"paper chase\" cross-referencing of materials operations pursued by Allied intelligence agencies was not thought possible by BdU.",
"The Germans did not suspect the Allies had identified the codes broken by B-Dienst.",
"Conversely, when Dönitz suspected the enemy had penetrated his own communications BdU's response was to suspect internal sabotage and reduce the number of the staff officers to the most reliable, exacerbating the problem of over-centralisation.",
"In contrast to the Allies, the was suspicious of civilian scientific advisors and generally distrusted outsiders.",
"The Germans were never as open to new ideas or thinking of war in intelligence terms.",
"According to one analyst BdU \"lacked imagination and intellectual daring\" in the naval war.",
"These Allied advantages failed to avert heavy losses in the June 1940 May 1941 period, known to U-boat crews as the \"First Happy Time.\"",
"In June 1941, 68 ships were sunk in the North Atlantic () at a cost of four U-boats, but the German submarines would not eclipse that number for the remainder of the year.",
"Just 10 transports were sunk in November and December 1941.On 7 May 1941, the Royal Navy captured the German Arctic meteorological vessel and took its Enigma machine intact, this allowed the Royal Navy to decode U-boat radio communications in June 1941.Two days later the capture of ''U-110'' was an intelligence coup for the British.",
"The settings for high-level \"officer-only\" signals, \"short-signals\" () and codes standardising messages to defeat HF/DF fixes by sheer speed were found.",
"Only the ''Hydra'' settings for May were missing.",
"The papers were the only stores destroyed by the crew.",
"The capture on 28 June of another weather ship, , enabled British decryption operations to read radio traffic in July 1941.Beginning in August 1941, Bletchley Park operatives could decrypt signals between Dönitz and his U-boats at sea without any restriction.",
"The capture of the ''U-110'' allowed the Admiralty to identify individual boats, their commanders, operational readiness, damage reports, location, type, speed, endurance from working up in the Baltic to Atlantic patrols.",
"On 1 February 1942, the Germans had introduced the M4 cipher machine, which secured communications until it was cracked in December 1942.Even so, the U-boats achieved their best success against the convoys in March 1943, due to an increase in U-boat numbers, and the protection of the shipping lanes was in jeopardy.",
"Due to the cracked M4 and the use of radar, the Allies began to send air and surface reinforcements to convoys under threat.",
"The shipping lanes were secured, which came as a great surprise to Dönitz.",
"The lack of intelligence and increased numbers of U-boats contributed enormously to Allied losses that year.Dönitz and his Italian counterpart Admiral Angelo Parona in 1941Signals security aroused Dönitz's suspicions during the war.",
"On 12 January 1942 German supply submarine ''U-459'' arrived 800 nautical miles west of Freetown, well clear of convoy lanes.",
"It was scheduled to rendezvous with an Italian submarine, until intercepted by a warship.",
"The German captain's report coincided with reports of a decrease in sightings and a period of tension between Dönitz and Raeder.",
"The number of U-boats in the Atlantic, by logic, should have increased, not lowered the number of sightings and the reasons for this made Dönitz uneasy.",
"Despite several investigations, the conclusion of the BdU staff was that ''Enigma'' was impenetrable.",
"His signals officer responded to the ''U-459'' incident with answers ranging from coincidence, direction finding to Italian treachery.",
"General Erich Fellgiebel, Chief Signal Officer of Army High Command and of Supreme Command of Armed Forces (), apparently concurred with Dönitz.",
"He concluded that there was \"convincing evidence\" that, after an \"exhaustive investigation\" that the Allied codebreakers had been reading high level communications.",
"Other departments in the navy downplayed or dismissed these concerns.",
"They vaguely implied \"some components\" of Enigma had been compromised, but there was \"no real basis for acute anxiety as regards any compromise of operational security\".===American entry===Following Hitler's declaration of war on the United States on 11 December 1941, Dönitz implemented Operation Drumbeat ().",
"The entry of the United States benefited German submarines in the short term.",
"Dönitz intended to strike close to shore in American and Canadian waters and prevent the convoys—the most effective anti–U-boat system—from ever forming.",
"Dönitz was determined to take advantage of Canadian and American unpreparedness before the situation changed.The problem inhibiting Dönitz's plan was a lack of boats.",
"On paper he had 259, but in January 1942, 99 were still undergoing sea trials and 59 were assigned to training flotillas, leaving only 101 on war operations.",
"35 of these were under repair in port, leaving 66 operational, of which 18 were low on fuel and returning to base, 23 were en route to areas where fuel and torpedoes needed to be conserved, and one was heading to the Mediterranean.",
"Therefore, on 1 January Dönitz had a fighting strength of 16–25 in the Atlantic (six near to Iceland on \"Norwegian operations\"), three in the Arctic Ocean, three in the Mediterranean and three operating west of Gibraltar.",
"Dönitz was severely limited to what he could accomplish in American waters in an initial offensive.From 13 January 1942, Dönitz planned to begin a surprise offensive from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to Cape Hatteras.",
"Unknown to him, Ultra had read his Enigma signals and knew the position, size, and intentions of his boats, down to the date the operation was scheduled to begin.",
"The attacks, when they came, were not a surprise.",
"Of the 12 U-boats that began the offensive from the Grand Banks southward, just two survived the war.",
"The operation began the Battle of the St. Lawrence, a series of battles which lasted into 1944.It remained possible for a U-boat to operate in the Gulf into 1944, but countermeasures were strong.",
"In 1942, the global ratio of ships-to-U-boats sunk in Canadian waters was 112:1.The global average was 10.3:1.The solitary kill was achieved by the RCAF.",
"Canadian operations, as with American efforts, were a failure during this year.Along with conventional U-boat operations Dönitz authorised clandestine activities in Canadian waters, including spying, mine-laying, and recovery of German prisoners of war (as Dönitz wished to extract information from rescued submariners concerning Allied tactics).",
"All of these things tied down Canadian military power and imposed industrial, fiscal, and psychological costs.",
"The impunity with which U-boats carried out these operations in Canadian waters into 1944 provided a propaganda effect.",
"One of these operations was the well-known Operation Kiebitz to rescue Otto Kretschmer.Even with operational problems great success was achieved in American waters.",
"From January to July 1942, Dönitz's submarines were able to attack unescorted ships off the United States' east coast and in the Caribbean Sea; U-boats sank more ships and tonnage than at any other time in the war.",
"After a convoy system was introduced to protect the shipping, Dönitz shifted his U-boats back to the North Atlantic.",
"The period, known in the U-boat Arm as the \"Second Happy Time\", represented one of the greatest naval disasters of all time, and largest defeat suffered by American sea power.",
"The success was achieved with only five U-boats initially which sank 397 ships in waters protected by the United States Navy with an additional 23 sunk at the Panama Sea Frontier.",
"Dönitz put the successes down to the American failure to initialize a blackout along the East Coast of the United States and ship captains' insistence on following peace-time safety procedures.",
"The failure to implement a blackout stemmed from the American government's concern it would affect tourism trade.",
"Dönitz wrote in his memoirs that the lighthouses and buoys \"shone forth, though perhaps a little less brightly than usually\".By the time improved American air and naval defences had driven German submarines from American shores, 5,000 Allied sailors had been killed for negligible losses in U-boats.",
"Dönitz ordered simultaneous operations in the Caribbean Sea.",
"The ensuing Battle of the Caribbean resulted in immediate dividends for U-boats.",
"In a short time, at least 100 transports had been destroyed or sunk.",
"The sinkings damaged inter-island trade substantially.",
"Operation Neuland was among the most damaging naval campaigns in the region.",
"Oil refinery production in region declined while the tanker fleet suffered losses of up to ten per cent within twenty-four hours.",
"However, ultimately Dönitz could not hope to sink more ships than American industry could build, so he targeted the tanker fleet in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico in the hope that depleting oil transports would paralyze shipyard output.",
"33 transports were sunk in July before Dönitz lost his first crew.",
"The USN introduced effective convoy systems thereafter, ending the \"carnage\".Dönitz maintained his demands for the concentration of all his crews in the Atlantic.",
"As the military situation in North Africa and on the Eastern Front began to deteriorate Hitler diverted a number of submarines to the Battle of the Mediterranean upon the suggestions of Admiral Eberhard Weichold.",
"Raeder and Dönitz resisted the deployment to the Mediterranean to no avail.",
"Hitler felt compelled to act against Allied sea forces which were having an enormous impact on Axis supply lines to North Africa.",
"The decision defied logic, for a victory in the Atlantic would end the war in the Mediterranean.",
"The U-boat war in the Mediterranean was a costly failure, despite successes against warships.",
"Approximately 60 crews were lost and only one crew managed to withdraw through the Strait of Gibraltar.",
"Albrecht Brandi was one of Dönitz's highest performers but his record is a matter of controversy; post-war records prove systematic over-claiming of sinkings.",
"He survived his boat's sinking and was smuggled to Germany through Spain.",
"Dönitz had met his end as a submarine commander in the Mediterranean two decades earlier.In 1942 Dönitz summed up his philosophy in one simple paragraph; \"The enemy's shipping constitutes one single, great entity.",
"It is therefore immaterial where a ship is sunk.",
"Once it has been destroyed it has to be replaced by a new ship; and that's that.\"",
"The remark was the green light to unrestricted submarine warfare and began the tonnage war proper.",
"BdU intelligence concluded the Americans could produce 15,300,000 tons of shipping in 1942 and 1943—two million tons under actual production figures.",
"Dönitz always calculated the worst-case scenario using the highest figures of enemy production potential.",
"Some 700,000 tons per month needed to be sunk to win the war.",
"The \"second happy time\" reached a peak in June 1942, with 325,000 tons sunk, up from 311,000 in May, 255,000 in April and the highest since the 327,000 tons sunk in March 1942.With support from the Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy, the new convoy systems compelled Dönitz to withdraw his captains to the mid-Atlantic once again.",
"Nevertheless, there was still cause for optimism.",
"B-Dienst had cracked the convoy ciphers and by July 1942 he could call upon 311 boats, 140 operational, to conduct a renewed assault.",
"By October 1942 he had 196 operational from 365.Dönitz's force finally reached the desired number both he and Raeder had hoped for in 1939.Unaware of it, Dönitz and his men were aided by the Ultra blackout.",
"The addition of a fourth rotor to the Enigma left radio detection the only way to gather intelligence on dispositions and intentions of the German naval forces.",
"German code breakers had their own success in the capture of the code book to Cipher Code Number 3 from a merchant ship.",
"It was a treble success for the BdU.Dönitz was content that he now had the naval power to extend U-boat operations to other areas aside the North Atlantic.",
"The Caribbean, Brazilian waters with the coast of West Africa designated operational theatres.",
"Waters in the southern hemisphere to South Africa could also be attacked with the new Type IX submarine.",
"The strategy was sound and his tactical ideas were effective.",
"The number of boats available allowed him to form Wolfpacks to comb convoy routes from east to west attacking one when found and pursuing it across the ocean.",
"The pack then refuelled from a U-boat tanker and worked from west to east.",
"Raeder and the operations staff disputed the value in attacking convoys heading westward with empty cargo holds.",
"The tactics were successful but placed great strain on crews who spent up to eight days in constant action.November 1942 was a new high in the Atlantic.",
"134 ships were sunk for 807,754 tons.",
"119 were destroyed by submarines, 83 (508,707 tons) in the Atlantic.",
"The same month Dönitz suffered strategic defeat.",
"His submarines failed to prevent Operation Torch, even with 196 of them operating in the Atlantic.",
"Dönitz considered it a major self-inflicted defeat.",
"Allied morale radically improved after the victories of Torch, the Second Battle of El Alamein and the Battle of Stalingrad; all occurred within days of one another.",
"The U-boat war was the only military success the Germans enjoyed at the end of the year.===Commander-in-chief and Grand Admiral===Erich Raeder with Adolf Hitler shortly after he was replaced by Dönitz as Commander-in-chief and Grand Admiral (February 1943).On 30 January 1943, Dönitz replaced Erich Raeder as Commander-in-chief of the navy () and (grand admiral) of the Naval High Command ().",
"In a communique to the navy he announced his intentions to retain practical control of the U-boats and his desire to fight to the end for Hitler.",
"Dönitz's inability to delegate control of the U-boat service has been construed as a weakness in the U-boat arm, contributing to the perception that Dönitz was an \"impatient warrior\", preoccupied with fighting battles and tactics rather than a strategist or organiser.Dönitz's promotion earned Hitler his undying loyalty.",
"For Dönitz, Hitler had given him a \"true home-coming at last, to a country in which unemployment appeared to have been abolished, the class war no longer tore the nation apart, and the shame of defeat in 1918 was being expunged.\"",
"When war came, Dönitz became more firmly wedded to his Nazi faith.",
"Hitler recognised his patriotism, professionalism but above all, his loyalty.",
"Dönitz remained so, long after the war was lost.",
"In so doing, he wilfully ignored the genocidal nature of the regime and claimed ignorance of the Holocaust.In the last quarter of 1942, 69 submarines had been commissioned taking the total number to 393, with 212 operational.",
"Dönitz was not satisfied and immediately began a naval construction programme which in contrast to Raeder's, laid all its emphasis on torpedo boats and submarines.",
"Dönitz's proposed expansion ran into difficulties experienced by all of his predecessors; the lack of steel.",
"The navy had no representation on Albert Speer's armaments ministry, for naval production was the only sphere not under his control.",
"Dönitz understood this worked against the navy because it lacked the elasticity to cope with breakdowns of production at any point, whereas the other services could make good production by compensating one sector at the expense of another.",
"Without any representatives the battle of priorities was left to Speer and Göring.",
"Dönitz had the sense to place U-boat production under Speer on the provision 40 per month were completed.",
"Dönitz persuaded Hitler not to scrap the surface fleet capital ships, though they played no role in the Atlantic during his time in command.",
"Dönitz reasoned the destruction of the surface fleet would provide the British with a victory and heap pressure on the U-boats, for these warships were tying down British air and naval forces that would otherwise be sent into the Atlantic.Kluge, Himmler, Dönitz (with his grand admiral's baton) and Keitel at Hans Hube's funeral, 1944New construction procedures, dispensing with prototypes and the abandonment of modifications reduced construction times from 460,000-man hours to 260–300,000 to meet Speer's quota.",
"In the spring 1944, the Type XXI submarine was scheduled to reach frontline units.",
"In 1943 the Combined Bomber Offensive undid German plans.",
"Dönitz and Speer were appalled by the destruction of Hamburg, a major construction site.",
"The battles of 1943 and 1944 were fought with the existing Type VII and Type IX submarines.",
"The Type VII remained the backbone of the fleet in 1943.At the end of 1942, Dönitz was faced with the appearance of escort carriers, and long-range aircraft working with convoy escorts.",
"To protect his boats against the latter, he ordered his boats to restrict their operations to the Mid-Atlantic Gap, a stretch of ocean out of the range of land-based aircraft.",
"Allied air forces had few aircraft equipped with ASV radar for U-boat detection into April and May 1943, and such units would not exist in Newfoundland until June.",
"Convoys relied on RAF Coastal Command aircraft operating from Northern Ireland and Iceland.",
"The aircraft imposed restraints on U-boat captains, who feared them for their ability to sink a submarine or alert surface warships to their position.",
"In 1942 Coastal Command began forming units combined with ASV and Leigh Light to attack U-boats at night in transit to the Atlantic via the Bay of Biscay, which continued into 1943.The Command was moderately successful after mid-1942.1943 began with continued tactical success for Dönitz in battle.",
"In January Convoy TM 1 was nearly destroyed.",
"The loss of 100,000 tons of fuel in one convoy represented the most devastating loss percentage of the war—only two of nine tankers reached port.",
"The Eighth Army were forced to ration their fuel for a time, earning Dönitz the gratitude of the ''Afrika Korps''.",
"The Casablanca Conference, held that month, identified the Atlantic as the priority.",
"It was agreed that until the defeat of Dönitz and his men, there could be no amphibious landings in continental Europe.",
"Unknown to Dönitz, Bletchley Park had broken the Shark cypher and restored the flow of Enigma information; the Admiralty was able to route convoys around wolfpacks.",
"During January and February 1943 information was decrypted within 24 hours proving operationally useful, although this slipped at the end of the second month contributing to German interceptions.",
"Even so, in appalling weather, the Germans sank only 44 ships during the month, even with 100 U-boats at sea, the majority stationed in the mid-Atlantic gap.In February 1943 the strength of Allied defences were ominous for Dönitz.",
"The battle of convoy HX 224 was ended upon the intervention of air power from Iceland.",
"Dönitz sent 20 boats to attack SC 118 and both sides suffered heavy losses—11 merchant ships for three U-boats plus four damaged.",
"It was \"what both sides considered one of the hardest fought battles of the Atlantic war\".",
"Despite sending 20 crews into action, Dönitz was concerned that most captains did not press home attacks.",
"The majority of the ships sunk were by one crew, commanded by Siegfried von Forstner—he sank seven.In March, Convoy SC 121 was attacked by 31 U-boats in two patrol lines.",
"It was the most successful battle of the war for Dönitz.",
"The battle of Convoys HX 229/SC 122 was the largest convoy battle, with 40 U-boats involved.",
"Each operation was successful but all were fought in the mid-Atlantic.",
"Allied losses reached a peak in March 1943.The Admiralty later issued a report on the matter; \"The Germans never came so near to disrupting communications between the new world and the old as in the first twenty days of March 1943.\"",
"Dönitz later conceded the March battles were to be the U-boats' last victories.",
"New Allied techniques, tactics and technology began to turn the tide.",
"By April 1943 U-boat morale was reaching a crisis point.",
"Ninety-eight new boats were sent into the Atlantic that month and although the training was thorough the crews were inexperienced and it showed.",
"Fifteen U-boats were destroyed in March 1943 and another 15 in April.",
"Werner Hartenstein and Johann Mohr were notable casualties over the course of these eight weeks; the former's decision to rescue survivors of a sunken ship led to Dönitz's Laconia Order, which later formed part of the criminal case against Dönitz.Ominous for BdU was the sudden growth of Allied air power.",
"The Allied command accepted that air cover over the mid-Atlantic was inadequate and had drawn attention to the fact that not one VLR (Very Long Range) aircraft was to be found at any Allied air base west of Iceland.",
"The Americans released 255 Liberators for the North Atlantic.",
"At the end of March 1943 20 VLR aircraft were operational rising to 41 by mid-April, all of them flown by British crews.",
"Twenty-eight anti-submarine and 11 anti-shipping squadrons were available to RAF Coastal Command, 619 aircraft in all—a striking change since September 1939.The influx of radar equipped aircraft into mid-Atlantic was matched by air patrols over the Bay of Biscay.",
"Dönitz detected a drop in morale among his captains, as did the British.",
"Dönitz encouraged his commanders to show a \"hunter's instinct\" and \"warrior spirit\" in the face of the air–surface support group threat.Along with air power, the BdU was forced to contend with a large increase in Allied convoy escorts which fuelled from tankers in the convoys allowing escort across the ocean.",
"The escort carrier support groups, protected by destroyers, which, in the words of the official naval historian of the Second World War, proved decisive; \"it was the advent of the Support Groups, the Escort Carriers and the Very Long Range Aircraft which turned the tables on the U-boats-and did so with astonishing rapidity\".A hundred and eight ships were sunk in the first 20 days of March, and just 15 in the last 10.The official naval historian wrote, \"The collapse of the enemy's offensive, when it came, was so sudden that it took him completely by surprise.",
"We now know that, in fact, a downward trend in the U-boats' recent accomplishments could have forewarned him, but was concealed from him by the exaggerated claims made by their commanders.\"",
"In April Dönitz lost five crews to the Coastal Command ASV Biscay offensive.",
"Encouraged by the isolated successes of anti-aircraft artillery installed on submarines, he ordered crews to stay on the surface and fight it out with the aircraft.",
"The decision caused casualties—four boats were lost in the first week of May alone, and three more by the end.For the month of April Allied losses fell to 56 ships of 327,943 tons.",
"In May 1943 the battle reached a climax with the battles of Convoy ONS 5, Convoy SC 129, Convoy SC 130.Throughout the battles only two ships were sunk in convoy in the Atlantic while an air anti-submarine escort was present.",
"Dönitz depended on the surface manoeuvrability of his U-boats to locate targets, assemble wolfpacks and the complicated business of positioning his forces ahead of a convoy for an attack.",
"Allied air power determined where and when U-boats could move freely on the surface.",
"It was the combination of convoy escorts and air power that made the Atlantic unsuitable for pack operations.",
"The US Navy introduced the K-class blimp.",
"They forced a commander to dive to prevent the aircraft marking his position or attacking.",
"From 10 to 24 May 1943, ten convoys passed through the mid-Atlantic.",
"Six of the 370 ships were sunk; three were stragglers.",
"Thirteen U-boats were sunk; four by warships, seven by aircraft, and two shared.By 24 May, when Dönitz conceded defeat and withdrew the surviving crews from the field of battle, they had already lost 33 U-boats.",
"At the end of May it had risen to 41.Dönitz tried to limit the damage to morale by declaring that the withdrawal was only temporary \"to avoid unnecessary losses in a period when our weapons are shown to be at a disadvantage\" and that \"the battle in the north Atlantic—the decisive area—will be resumed\".",
"Dönitz did make a further attempt to regain the initiative, but the battle never reached the same pitch of intensity or hung in the balance, as during the spring of 1943.The Allied success won the Battle of the Atlantic.",
"On 24 May Dönitz ordered the suspension of Atlantic operations, bringing an end to Black May.Defeat in the mid-Atlantic left Dönitz in a dilemma.",
"The U-boats had proven unable to elude convoy escorts and attack convoys with success.",
"He was concerned about crew morale suffering from idleness and a loss of experience with the latest Allied developments in anti-submarine warfare.",
"Aside from problems of seaworthiness among machines and crew, there were not enough Submarine pens to store idle boats and they were a target for aircraft in port.",
"Dönitz would not withdraw his submarines from combat operations, for he felt the ships, men and aircraft engaged in suppressing the U-boats could then be turned on Germany directly; the U-boat war was to continue.===Hunter-killer era===From mid-June 1943 the technological and industrial superiority of the Allied navies allowed the Americans, Canadians, and British to form hunter-killer groups consisting of fast anti-submarine escorts and aircraft carriers.",
"The purpose of naval operations changed from avoiding U-boats and safeguarding convoys to seeking them out and destroying them wherever they operated.",
"USN hunter-killer groups operated throughout the Atlantic.",
"Argentia had been an important base for the naval taskforces until superseded by the Royal Canadian Navy in early 1943.U-boat operations were \"crushed\" by these task forces: 14 were sunk and only two of seven crews operating in Brazilian waters returned to Germany.Dönitz reacted by deploying his U-boats near the Azores where land-based aircraft still had difficulty reaching them.",
"In this region he hoped to threaten the Gibraltar–Britain convoy route.",
"Dönitz intended to concentrate his power in a rough arc from West Africa to South America and the Caribbean.",
"He hoped to maintain a presence in the western and central Atlantic, reduce losses and await new weapons and anti-detection devices.",
"In this, he failed to \"stem the tide of U-boat losses.\"",
"A large portion of the 39 U-boats deployed on these operations were intercepted.",
"From May 1943, one historian wrote \"U-boats rash enough to close with an Atlantic convoy...were simply inviting destruction.",
"\"Dönitz's crews faced danger from the outset.",
"The transit routes through the Bay of Biscay were heavily patrolled by aircraft.",
"From May to December 1943, 25 U-boats were sunk by Coastal Command, more were sunk by the USAAF and Royal Navy—five and four respectively; with one shared by the navy and Coastal Command.",
"To counter radar aircraft, Dönitz ordered his submarines to group together and merge their powerful anti-aircraft armament together while surfaced and recharging their batteries, after initially ordering the groups to remain surfaced throughout the journey and fight off aerial attackers with gunfire.",
"The decision was to cost BdU heavy casualties.",
"A group of U-boats were more likely to attract a radar contact, and Allied pilots soon learned to swarm their targets.",
"Dönitz ordered his captains to traverse the Bay under the lee of the neutral Spanish coast, with a sharply rising coast which shielded U-boats from radar.",
"After 4 August 1943, the number of destroyed U-boats fell from one every four days, to one every 27 until June 1944.US hunter–killer groups extended their patrols to the central Atlantic in the summer.",
"They sank 15 U-boats from June through to August 1943.A number of supply submarines were destroyed crippling the Germans' ability to conduct long range operations.",
"At the end of the summer, practically all supply U-boats had been destroyed.",
"In September 1943, Dönitz ordered his submarines back to the North Atlantic.",
"U-boats were equipped with the G7es torpedo, an acoustic torpedo, which the grand admiral hoped would wrest the technological initiative back.",
"The torpedo was the centrepiece to Dönitz's plan.",
"Great faith was also placed in the installation of radar to detect aircraft.",
"It was intended as a successor to the Metox radar detector.",
"A number of his boats were later retrofitted with the submarine snorkel, permitting the submarine to stay submerged.",
"Dönitz placed much faith in the Type XXI submarine.",
"He accepted that the older submarines were obsolete now that Allied defences in the air were complete.",
"He required a \"true submarine\", equipped with a snorkel to allow his crews to stay submerged, at least to snorkel-depth, and evade radar-equipped aircraft.",
"Dönitz was pleased with the promised top speed of 18 knots.Möltenort U-Boat Memorial near Kiel in northern Germany.",
"Approximately 30,000 men died under Dönitz's command.That month, 21 boats fought a battle with two formations; Convoys ONS 18/ON 202.The battle was a failure.",
"In October an attack on Convoy SC 143 failed, even with limited air support from the ''Luftwaffe''.",
"The battle with Convoys ONS 20/ON 206 in the same month was a comprehensive defeat.",
"A fourth major battle, Convoy SL 138/MKS 28, developed in the last days of October and ended in another failure for Dönitz.",
"The November battle around Convoy SL 139/MKS 30 ended in the repulse of 29 U-boats with the loss of only a single ship.",
"Intelligence proved its worth.",
"During the battles of convoys ONS 18/ON 202, Dönitz's admonitions to his commanders allowed the Allied intelligence services to uncover German tactical intentions.",
"Dönitz had tried and failed to push his forces through lethal convoy defences.",
"The hunter-killer groups were called in to hunt the remaining members of the wolfpacks, with predictable results.",
"In mid-December 1943, Dönitz finally conceded not only the Atlantic, but the Gibraltar routes as well.The hunter-killer and convoy escorts brought the wolfpack era to an end at the close of 1943.Dönitz resorted to sending out single submarines to the far reaches of the oceans in a bid to escape Allied naval power.",
"In November 1943 he sent the last U-boat into the Gulf of Mexico just after the blackout restrictions were lifted.",
"''U-193'' achieved one final success.",
"The end of 1943 ended the attempt of the U-boat arm to achieve a strategic victory in the Atlantic.",
"That left only the Arctic convoys to the Soviet Union.",
"On Christmas Eve, this became the sole preserve of the U-boats after the dispatch of ''Scharnhorst'' at the Battle of the North Cape.Dönitz's plan for 1944 was simply to survive and await the XXI and Type XXIII submarines.",
"New radars were on the horizon and a direction finding antenna for ''Naxos'' was scheduled for use.",
"Dönitz established a naval operations scientific staff to focus on more powerful centimetric radars.",
"Production of submarines was streamlined.",
"Parts for eight major sections were fabricated across 60 plants in Europe and assembled at Hamburg, Danzig and Bremen to ease the pressure of bombing and congestion at shipyards.",
"The first of the new generation boats were expected by April 1944.Dönitz hoped for 33 per month by September.",
"In early 1944, Dönitz opted to concentrate west of Ireland, at 15 and 17° west, in the hope convoys would come to them.",
"Single boats were still sent to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean.",
"With 66 vessels at sea at any one time, and with 200 boats operational, the BdU was still a viable threat and he believed the force could achieve modest success.",
"The U-boats were painfully slow, strategically, operationally and tactically.",
"Crossing the Atlantic took up to a month compared to a week in 1942.Positioning west of Ireland could take several weeks submerged.",
"In the first quarter of 1944, U-boats sank only three of the 3,360 ships that passed south of Ireland.",
"In return 29 crews were lost.A major concern to Dönitz was Operation Overlord, the long predicted landing in France, and what role the U-boat arm and surface forces could play in the defence.",
"He was sensitive to a landing on the Bay of Biscay but retained boats there only for operational readiness.",
"Dönitz ended reconnaissance operations in the region.",
"In the BdU war diary he wrote of ending operations since \"otherwise the strong enemy air activity will lead to high losses which would only be acceptable if an immediate landing on the Biscay coast were expected.",
"As this is no longer considered an acute danger the boats will remain at readiness in the concrete shelters.",
"\"When the D-day landings took place on 6 June 1944, the U-boats were ordered into action with the awareness that the western flank of the invasion would be well protected at sea.",
"Operational experience with the snorkel was too scant to devise instructions for its use.",
"The narrow, shallow, waters of the English Channel provided few opportunities for charging the batteries.",
"Dönitz feared the task was impossible.",
"The group based at Brest, sent 15 submarines into action against the Cherbourg peninsula landings part of a 36-strong flotilla.",
"Only eight had snorkels.",
"The seven non-snorkel boats were ordered to attack on the surface.",
"The BdU war diary entry on 6 June 1944 states that \"for those boats without schnorchel this means the last operation\".",
"Of the 15, only five got near to the invasion fleet.",
"Five of the snorkel boats survived.",
"In exchange for 10 U-boats with the survivors damaged, two frigates, four freighters, and one tank landing ship were sunk.",
"22 U-boats were sunk from 6 to 30 June 1944.On 5 July 1944, the Allied Operation ''Dredger'' permitted hunter-killer groups to roam the Western Approaches and Biscay making it a \"no-go area\" for U-boats.",
"U-boat operations against Normandy landings were a fiasco.",
"Dönitz and the high command had been ignorant of the true scale of the naval D-day effort.",
"Dönitz claimed his men sank five escorts, 12 merchant ships and four landing craft for 20 submarines and 1,000 men, of whom 238 were rescued.",
"Dönitz's claims underplayed German losses, which were, in fact, 41 submarines from 82 in France, a 50 per cent loss rate.The collapse of the German front in Normandy left only the bases in German-occupied Norway nearest to the Atlantic.",
"The newer boats were not forthcoming either.",
"Ninety Type XXI and 31 Type XIII boats were built by the end of 1944.Sixty of the former and 23 of the latter were in service but none were operational.",
"Dönitz was left with the old VIIs to carry the war into 1945.A large number had snorkels, which enabled them to surface only upon reaching port.",
"Submerged, this meant no radio or Enigma communications and far fewer sightings for the Allied intelligence network to exploit.",
"Dönitz ordered his submarines to British coastal waters with some success in November and December 1944, achieving 85,639 tons.",
"Admiral Andrew Cunningham remarked of the strategy, \"We are having a difficult time with the U-boats....the air are about 90 percent out of business and Asdic is failing us.\"",
"The inshore waters impeded the use of Asdic, which became confused with wrecks, rocks, and tidal swirls.",
"The new types could conceivably have capitalised on these developments but the war was nearly over.",
"On 1 January 1945, Dönitz had 425 submarines; 144 operational.",
"On 1 April 1945, it was 166 from 429.He threw into battle every available weapon as the German Reich collapsed.",
"Dönitz supported the use of Human torpedoes; the Neger, Marder, Seehund and Biber were all used in suicide missions on his orders, perhaps inspired by the Japanese Kamikaze.On 30 April 1945 Adolf Hitler committed suicide.",
"Dönitz succeeded him as head of state.",
"Admiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg succeeded Dönitz as commander-in-chief of the .",
"On 4 May 1945 the German surrender at Lüneburg Heath took place.",
"Dönitz issued an order to all U-boats to cease combat operations and return to port or surrender to Allied naval vessels.",
"The order was obeyed with a handful of notable exceptions—the Actions of 5–6 May 1945, and Actions of 7–8 May 1945 occurred after the surrender.",
"Throughout Dönitz’s presidency, Reich Marshal Hermann Goering feared that Dönitz would create a corresponding rank of Reich Admiral.",
"However, Dönitz informed Goering (whom he personally disliked) that he had no time for such foolishness and that the presidency made him supreme commander of the German armed forces anyway.",
"The surrendered U-boats numbered into the hundreds and were destroyed in the postwar Operation Deadlight.",
"The U-boat war finally came to an end on 9 May 1945, the date of the German Instrument of Surrender.===President of Germany===Dönitz admired Hitler and was vocal about the qualities he perceived in Hitler's leadership.",
"In August 1943, he praised his foresightedness and confidence; \"anyone who thinks he can do better than the ''Führer'' is stupid.\"",
"Dönitz's relationship with Hitler strengthened through to the end of the war, particularly after the 20 July plot, for the naval staff officers were not involved; when news of it came there was indignation in the OKM.",
"Even after the war, Dönitz said he could never have joined the conspirators.",
"Dönitz tried to imbue Nazi ideas among his officers, though the indoctrination of the naval officer corps was not the brainchild of Dönitz, but rather a continuation of the Nazification of the navy begun under his predecessor Raeder.",
"Naval officers were required to attend a five-day education course in Nazi ideology.",
"Dönitz's loyalty to him and the cause was rewarded by Hitler, who, owing to Dönitz's leadership, never felt abandoned by the navy.",
"In gratitude, Hitler appointed the navy's commander as his successor before he committed suicide.Dönitz's influence on military matters was also evident.",
"Hitler acted on Dönitz's advice in September 1944 to block the Gulf of Finland after Finland abandoned the Axis powers.",
"Operation Tanne Ost was a poorly executed disaster.",
"Dönitz shared Hitler's senseless strategic judgement—with the Courland Pocket on the verge of collapse, and the air and army forces requesting a withdrawal, the two men were preoccupied in planning an attack on an isolated island in the far north.",
"Hitler's willingness to listen to the naval commander was based on his high opinion of the navy's usefulness at this time.",
"It reinforced isolated coastal garrisons along the Baltic and evacuated thousands of German soldiers and civilians in order that they might continue to participate in the war effort into the spring of 1945.Through 1944 and 1945, the Dönitz-initiated Operation Hannibal had the distinction of being the largest naval evacuation in history.",
"The Baltic Fleet was presented with a mass of targets, the subsequent Soviet submarine Baltic Sea campaign in 1944 and Soviet naval Baltic Sea campaign in 1945 inflicted grievous losses during ''Hannibal''.",
"The most notable was the sinking of the ''MV Wilhelm Gustloff'' by a Soviet submarine.",
"The liner had nearly 10,000 people on board.",
"The evacuations continued after the surrender.",
"From 3 to 9 May 1945, 81,000 of the 150,000 persons waiting on the Hel Peninsula were evacuated without loss.",
"Albrecht Brandi, commander of the eastern Baltic, initiated a counter operation, the Gulf of Finland campaign, but failed to have an impact.Adolf Hitler meets with Dönitz in the (1945).In the final days of the war, after Hitler had taken refuge in the beneath the Reich Chancellery garden in Berlin, Hermann Göring was considered the obvious successor to Hitler, followed by Heinrich Himmler.",
"Göring, however, infuriated Hitler by radioing him in Berlin asking for permission to assume leadership of the Reich.",
"Himmler also tried to seize power by entering into negotiations with Count Bernadotte.",
"On 28 April 1945, the BBC reported Himmler had offered surrender to the western Allies and that the offer had been declined.From mid-April 1945, Dönitz and elements of what remained of the Reich government moved into the buildings of the ''Stadtheide Barracks'' in Plön.",
"In his last will and testament, dated 29 April 1945, Hitler named Dönitz his successor as (Head of State), with the titles of ''Reichspräsident'' (President) and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.",
"The same document named Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels as Head of Government with the title of (Chancellor).",
"Hitler would not name any successors to hold his titles of Führer or leader of the Nazi Party.",
"Furthermore, Hitler declared both Göring and Himmler traitors and expelled them from the party.",
"He committed suicide on 30 April.On 1 May, the day after Hitler's own suicide, Goebbels committed suicide.",
"Dönitz thus became the sole representative of the collapsing German Reich.",
"On 2 May, the new government of the Reich fled to Flensburg-Mürwik; Dönitz remained there until his arrest on 23 May 1945.That night, 2 May, Dönitz made a nationwide radio address in which he announced Hitler's death and said the war would continue in the East \"to save Germany from destruction by the advancing Bolshevik enemy.",
"\"Dönitz knew that Germany's position was untenable and the ''Wehrmacht'' was no longer capable of offering meaningful resistance.",
"During his brief period in office, he devoted most of his effort to ensuring the loyalty of the German armed forces and trying to ensure German personnel would surrender to the British or Americans and not the Soviets.",
"He feared vengeful Soviet reprisals, and hoped to strike a deal with the Western Allies.",
"In the end, Dönitz's tactics were moderately successful, enabling about 1.8 million German soldiers to escape Soviet capture.",
"As many as 2.2 million may have been evacuated.===Flensburg Government===Karl Dönitz (centre, in long, dark coat) followed by Albert Speer (bareheaded) and Alfred Jodl (on Speer's right) during the arrest of the Flensburg Government by British troopsOn 4 May, Admiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg, representing Dönitz, surrendered all German forces in the Netherlands, Denmark, and northwestern Germany to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery at Lüneburg Heath southeast of Hamburg, signaling the end of World War II in northwestern Europe.A day later, Dönitz sent Friedeburg to US General Dwight D. Eisenhower's headquarters in Rheims, France, to negotiate a surrender to the Allies.",
"The Chief of Staff of OKW, (Colonel-General) Alfred Jodl, arrived a day later.",
"Dönitz had instructed them to draw out the negotiations for as long as possible so that German troops and refugees could surrender to the Western powers, but when Eisenhower let it be known he would not tolerate their stalling, Dönitz authorized Jodl to sign the instrument of unconditional surrender at 1:30 on the morning of 7 May.",
"Just over an hour later, Jodl signed the documents.",
"The surrender documents included the phrase, \"All forces under German control to cease active operations at 23:01 hours Central European Time on 8 May 1945.\"",
"At Stalin's insistence, on 8 May, shortly before midnight, () Wilhelm Keitel repeated the signing in Berlin at Marshal Georgy Zhukov's headquarters, with General Carl Spaatz of the USAAF present as Eisenhower's representative.",
"At the time specified, World War II in Europe ended.On 23 May, the Dönitz government was dissolved when Dönitz was arrested by an RAF Regiment task force.",
"The ''Großadmiral'' ''Kriegsmarine'' flag, which was removed from his headquarters, can be seen at the RAF Regiment Heritage Centre at RAF Honington.",
"Jodl, Speer and other members were also handed over to troops of the Herefordshire Regiment at Flensburg.",
"His ceremonial baton, awarded to him by Hitler, can be seen in the regimental museum of the Kings Shropshire Light Infantry in Shrewsbury Castle and his car pennant in the regimental museum of the Herefordshire Light Infantry."
],
[
"Nazism and antisemitism",
"Dönitz was a dedicated Nazi and a passionate supporter of Hitler, something he attempted to obscure after the war.",
"Raeder described him as \"a picture-book Nazi and confirmed anti-Semite\".",
"Several naval officers described him as \"closely tied to Hitler and Nazi ideology.\"",
"On occasion, he spoke of Hitler's humanity.",
"His fervent pro-Hitler attitude led to him being known ironically as \"Hitler Youth Quex\", after the fictional hero of a Nazi novel and feature film.",
"He refused to help Albert Speer stop the scorched earth policy dictated by Hitler and is also noted to have declared, \"In comparison to Hitler we are all pipsqueaks.",
"Anyone who believes he can do better than the Führer is stupid.",
"\"Dönitz and other officers performing the Nazi salute in 1941Dönitz contributed to the spread of Nazism within the .",
"He insisted that officers share his political views and, as head of the , formally joined the Nazi Party on 1 February 1944, as member 9,664,999.He was awarded the Golden Party Badge for his loyalty to the party later that year.",
"Dönitz's influence over naval officers contributed to none joining the attempts to kill Hitler.From an ideological standpoint, Dönitz was anti-Marxist and antisemitic and believed that Germany needed to fight the \"poison of Jewry\".",
"Several anti-Semitic statements by Dönitz are known.",
"When Sweden closed its international waters to Germany, he blamed this action on their fear and dependence on \"international Jewish capital.\"",
"In August 1944, he declared, \"I would rather eat dirt than see my grandchildren grow up in the filthy, poisonous atmosphere of Jewry.",
"\"His fellow officers noted he was under Hitler's influence, and closely wedded to Nazi ideology.",
"On German Heroes' Day (12 March) of 1944, Dönitz declared that, without Adolf Hitler, Germany would be beset by \"the poison of Jewry,\" and the country destroyed for lack of the \"uncompromising ideology\" of National Socialism:At the Nuremberg trials, Dönitz claimed the statement about the \"poison of Jewry\" was regarding \"the endurance, the power to endure, of the people, as it was composed, could be better preserved than if there were Jewish elements in the nation.\"",
"Later, during the Nuremberg trials, Dönitz claimed to know nothing about the extermination of Jews and declared that nobody among \"my men thought about violence against Jews.\"",
"Dönitz told Leon Goldensohn, an American psychiatrist at Nuremberg, \"I never had any idea of the goings-on as far as Jews were concerned.",
"Hitler said each man should take care of his business and mine was U-boats and the Navy.\"",
"After the war, Dönitz tried to hide his knowledge of the Holocaust.",
"He was present at the October 1943 Posen Conference where Himmler described the mass murder of Jews with the intent of making the audience complicit in this crime.",
"It cannot be proven beyond doubt that he was present during Himmler's segment of the conference, which openly discussed the mass murder of European Jews.Even after the Nuremberg Trials, with the crimes of the Nazi state well-known, Dönitz remained an antisemite.",
"In April 1953, he told Speer that if it was the choice of the Americans and not the Jews, he would have been released."
],
[
"Nuremberg war crimes trials",
"Dönitz's detention report, 1945Following the war, Dönitz was held as a prisoner of war by the Allies.",
"He was indicted as a major war criminal at the Nuremberg Trials on three counts.",
"One: conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.",
"Two: planning, initiating, and waging wars of aggression.",
"Three: crimes against the laws of war.",
"Dönitz was found not guilty on count one of the indictment, but guilty on counts two and three.During the trial, army psychologist Gustave Gilbert was allowed to examine Nazi leaders on trial for war crimes.",
"Among other tests, a German version of the Wechsler–Bellevue IQ test was administered.",
"Dönitz and Hermann Göring scored 138, which made them equally the third-highest among the Nazi leaders tested.",
"Throughout the trial, Reich Marshal Hermann Goering claimed to be the senior Nazi among the defendants.",
"As for the former Reich President, Dönitz preferred to let Goering have his way.",
"“It will attract more attention to him” he said.At the trial, Dönitz was charged with waging unrestricted submarine warfare against neutral shipping, permitting Hitler's Commando Order of 18 October 1942 to remain in full force when he became commander-in-chief of the Navy, and to that extent responsibility for that crime.",
"His defence was that the order excluded men captured in naval warfare, and that the order had not been acted upon by any men under his command.",
"Added to that was his knowledge of 12,000 involuntary foreign workers working in the shipyards, and doing nothing to stop it.",
"Dönitz was unable to defend himself on this charge convincingly when cross-examined by prosecutor Sir David Maxwell Fyfe.On 25 February 1945, Hitler asked Dönitz whether the Geneva Convention should be denounced.",
"Hitler's motives were twofold.",
"The first was that reprisals could be taken against Western Allied prisoners of war; second, it would deter German forces from surrendering to the Western Allies, as was happening on the Eastern Front where the convention was in abeyance.",
"Instead of arguing the conventions should never be denounced, Dönitz suggested it was not expedient to do so, so the court found against him on this issue; but as the convention was not denounced by Germany, and British prisoners in camps under Dönitz's jurisdiction were treated strictly according to the Convention, the Court considered these mitigating circumstances.Albert Speer, Dönitz, and Alfred JodlAmong the war-crimes charges, Dönitz was accused of waging unrestricted submarine warfare for issuing War Order No.",
"154 in 1939, and another similar order after the ''Laconia'' incident in 1942, not to rescue survivors from ships attacked by submarine.",
"By issuing these two orders, he was found guilty of causing Germany to be in breach of the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936.However, as evidence of similar conduct by the Allies was presented at his trial, his sentence was not assessed on the grounds of this breach of international law.On the specific war crimes charge of ordering unrestricted submarine warfare, Dönitz was found \"not guilty for his conduct of submarine warfare against British armed merchant ships\", because they were often armed and equipped with radios which they used to notify the admiralty of attack.",
"As stated by the judges:His sentence on unrestricted submarine warfare was not assessed because of similar actions by the Allies.",
"In particular, the British Admiralty, on 8 May 1940, had ordered all vessels in the Skagerrak sunk on sight, and Admiral Chester Nimitz, wartime commander-in-chief of the US Pacific Fleet, stated the US Navy had waged unrestricted submarine warfare in the Pacific from the day the US officially entered the war.",
"Thus, Dönitz was not charged of waging unrestricted submarine warfare against unarmed neutral shipping by ordering all ships in designated areas in international waters to be sunk without warning.Dönitz was imprisoned for 10 years in Spandau Prison in what was then West Berlin.",
"During his period in prison he was unrepentant, and maintained that he had done nothing wrong.",
"He also rejected Speer's attempts to persuade him to end his devotion to Hitler and accept responsibility for the wrongs the German Government had committed.",
"Conversely, over 100 senior Allied officers sent letters to Dönitz conveying their disappointment over the unfairness and verdict of his trial."
],
[
"Later years and death",
"Dönitz was released on 1 October 1956 and retired to the small village of Aumühle in Schleswig-Holstein in northern West Germany.",
"There, he worked on two books.",
"His memoirs, ''Zehn Jahre, Zwanzig Tage'' (''Memoirs: Ten Years and Twenty Days''), were released in Germany in 1958 and became available in an English translation the following year.",
"This book recounted Dönitz's experiences as U-boat commander (10 years) and President of Germany (20 days).",
"In it, Dönitz explains the Nazi regime as a product of its time, but argues he was not a politician and thus not morally responsible for many of the regime's crimes.",
"He likewise criticizes dictatorship as a fundamentally flawed form of government and blames it for many of the Nazi era's failings.",
"Historian Alan P. Rems has written that Dönitz's memoirs are unconvincing and that \"unimpeded by a meaningful Nuremberg verdict, Dönitz fashioned a legend that could be embraced by the most unregenerate Nazis as well as credulous Allied officers who accepted his sanitized version of history and showered Dönitz with letters of support as a wronged brother-in-arms\".Grave in Aumühle, east of HamburgDönitz's second book, (''My Ever-Changing Life'') is less known, perhaps because it deals with the events of his life before 1934.This book was first published in 1968, and a new edition was released in 1998 with the revised title (''My Martial Life'').",
"In 1973, he appeared in the Thames Television production ''The World at War'', in one of his few television appearances.Dönitz was unrepentant regarding his role in World War II, saying that he had acted at all times out of duty to his nation.",
"In 1976, Dönitz appeared in ''The Memory of Justice''.",
"In the documentary, Dönitz explains about the Nuremberg Trials and his experience during the trials in 1946 along with Albert Speer.",
"He lived out the rest of his life in relative obscurity in Aumühle, occasionally corresponding with collectors of German naval history.",
"Around 1974, Dönitz was contacted by Neo-Nazi conspiracy theorist and early ''Reichsbürger'' Manfred Roeder who tried to prove that the German Reich still existed.",
"Roeder assumed that Dönitz remained the legal head of state, but the former admiral considered the idea ridiculous and firmly stated that he no longer considered himself President of Germany.",
"Regarding this as a resignation declaration, Roeder subsequently declared himself the new leader of Germany and eventually became active as a terrorist.Dönitz died in Aumühle of a heart attack on Christmas Eve 1980 at the age of 89.As the last German officer with the rank of (grand admiral), he was honoured by many former servicemen and foreign naval officers who came to pay their respects at his funeral on 6 January 1981.He was buried in Waldfriedhof Cemetery in Aumühle without military honours, and service members were not allowed to wear uniforms to the funeral.",
"Also in attendance were over 100 holders of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross."
],
[
"Summary of career",
"===Promotions=== Kaiserliche Marine 1 April 1910: (Officer Cadet) 15 April 1911: (Midshipman) 27 September 1913: (Acting Sub-Lieutenant) 22 March 1916: (Sub-Lieutenant) Reichsmarine 10 January 1921: (Lieutenant), with date of rank on 1 January 1921 1 November 1928: (Corvette Captain – Lieutenant Commander) 1 October 1933: (Frigate Captain – Commander) Kriegsmarine 1 October 1935: (Captain at Sea – Captain) 28 January 1939: (Commodore) 1 October 1939: (Rear Admiral) 1 September 1940: (Vice Admiral) 14 March 1942: (Admiral) 30 January 1943: (Grand Admiral)===Decorations and awards===; German:* General Honor Decoration () (7 June 1913)* Iron Cross (1914)** 2nd class (7 September 1914)** 1st class (5 May 1916)* Friedrich Cross of the Duchy of Anhalt, 1st class (17 January 1916)* Knight of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern with Swords (10 June 1918)* Honour Cross of the World War 1914/1918 (30 January 1935)* U-boat War Badge 1918 Version* Special U-boat War Badge with diamonds (1939)* Sudetenland Medal (20 December 1939)* Clasp to the Iron Cross (1939)** 2nd class (18 September 1939)** 1st class (20 December 1939)* Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves** Knight's Cross on 21 April 1940 as and (B.d.U.",
")** 223rd Oak Leaves on 6 April 1943 as and and * Golden Party Badge of the National Socialist German Workers Party (1943); Foreign:* Ottoman War Medal (7 November 1916) (Ottoman Empire)* Order of the Medjidie, 4th class (13 March 1917) (Ottoman Empire)** Order of the Medjidie, 1st class (Ottoman Empire)* Military Order of Savoy Knight Cross (20 April 1940) (Kingdom of Italy)** Military Order of Savoy Commander's Cross (7 November 1941) (Kingdom of Italy)* Order of Naval Merit in white (10 June 1940) (Spanish State)* Order of Michael the Brave, 2nd and 3rd class (7 April 1943) (Kingdom of Romania)** Order of Michael the Brave, 1st class (Kingdom of Romania)* Order of the Rising Sun, First Class (11 September 1943) (Empire of Japan)* Order of the Cross of Liberty Grand Cross with Swords (11 April 1944) (Finland)"
],
[
"See also",
"* B-Dienst* Glossary of German military terms* Glossary of Nazi Germany* List of Nazi Party leaders and officials"
],
[
"Note"
],
[
"Citations"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Attribution:'''*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Historical Enigma message Grand Admiral Dönitz announcing his appointment as Hitler's successor.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kyoto Protocol"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and that human-made CO2 emissions are driving it.",
"The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.There were 192 parties (Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) to the Protocol in 2020.The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to \"a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system\" (Article 2).",
"The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).",
"Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round.The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic development, and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.All 36 countries that fully participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol.",
"However, nine countries had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets.",
"The financial crisis of 2007–08 reduced emissions.",
"The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because the dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s.",
"Even though the 36 developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its then 28 member states, now 27), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine.",
"Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets.",
"Japan, New Zealand, and Russia had participated in Kyoto's first-round but did not take on new targets in the second commitment period.",
"Other developed countries without second-round targets were Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which did not ratify).",
"Canada's decision to withdraw was to the dismay of Environment minister, Peter Kent.",
"If they were to remain as a part of the protocol, Canada would be hit with a $14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their economy, hence the reluctant decision to exit.",
"As of October 2020, 147 states had accepted the Doha Amendment.",
"It entered into force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated minimum of at least 144 states, although the second commitment period ended on the same day.",
"Of the 37 parties with binding commitments, 34 had ratified.Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020.This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol."
],
[
"Chronology",
"'''1992''' – The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro.",
"It results in the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) among other agreements.",
"'''1995''' – Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on emissions.",
"'''1997''' – In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.",
"'''2004''' – Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.",
"'''2011''' – Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol.",
"'''2012''' – On 31 December 2012, the first commitment period under the Protocol expired.The official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the annual Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).",
"The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin (COP 1).",
"The first Meeting of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with COP 11."
],
[
"Objectives",
"The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions.",
"The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention.",
"According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012).",
"These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.",
"The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods.",
"It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period.",
"The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.The first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments were not sufficient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs.",
"Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012.The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the \"stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.\"",
"Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations.For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations.",
"Carbon dioxide () is the most important anthropogenic GHG.",
"Stabilizing the concentration of in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic emissions.To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline.",
"The lower the desired stabilization level, the sooner this peak and decline must occur.",
"For a given stabilization level, larger emissions reductions in the near term allow for less stringent emissions reductions later.",
"On the other hand, less stringent near term emissions reductions would, for a given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductions later on.The first period Kyoto emissions limitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmospheric stabilization of GHGs.",
"In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what future atmospheric stabilization level can be achieved."
],
[
"Principal concepts",
"Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:* Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties.",
"The main feature of the Protocol is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties.",
"The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.",
"* Implementation.",
"In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries.",
"In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.",
"* Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.",
"* Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.",
"* Compliance.",
"Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.=== Flexibility mechanisms ===The Protocol defines three \"flexibility mechanisms\" that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments.",
"The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI).",
"IET allows Annex I Parties to \"trade\" their emissions (Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or \"allowances\" for short).The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries.",
"\"Marginal cost\" is the cost of abating the last tonne of -eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party.",
"At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall (aggregate) cost of meeting the targets.",
"Studies also showed that national losses in Annex I gross domestic product (GDP) could be reduced by the use of the flexibility mechanisms.The CDM and JI are called \"project-based mechanisms\", in that they generate emission reductions from projects.",
"The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of \"production\" of emission reductions.",
"The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments.",
"The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project.",
"The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs).",
"The reductions are called \"credits\" because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions.Only emission reduction projects that do not involve using nuclear energy are eligible for accreditation under the CDM, in order to prevent nuclear technology exports from becoming the default route for obtaining credits under the CDM.Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.",
"These countries nominate a person (called a \"designated national authority\") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory.",
"Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations, specifically the \"CDM process\".",
"This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board.==== International emissions trading ========= Intergovernmental emissions trading =====The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur between participating countries.",
"The Carbon Trust found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken place.One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available.",
"Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated \"EIT\": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine) have a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countries have a deficit.",
"Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring.",
"When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having an excess number of allowances.",
"This excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as \"headroom\" to grow their economies.",
"The surplus has, however, also been referred to by some as \"hot air\", a term which Russia (a country with an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent allowances) views as \"quite offensive\".OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus.",
"Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would not actually result in emissions being reduced (see also the section below on the Green Investment Scheme).===== \"Green Investment Schemes\" =====The \"Green Investment Scheme\" (GIS) is a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol.",
"The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET.",
"However, using the GIS is not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term.Under the GIS a party to the protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another party.",
"The proceeds from the AAU sales should be \"greened\", i.e.",
"channelled to the development and implementation of the projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessary framework for this process (soft greening).===== Trade in AAUs =====Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs.",
"World Bank (2011) reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAU sales because of low AAU prices.",
"In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland.Japan's national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs.",
"In 2010, Japan and Japanese firms were the main buyers of AAUs.",
"In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUs are a small proportion of overall market value.",
"In 2010, 97% of trade in the international carbon market was driven by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS).===== Clean Development Mechanism =====Between 2001, which was the first year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the first Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) in emission reductions.",
"Most of these reductions are through renewable energy commercialisation, energy efficiency, and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262).",
"By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%).",
"CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).===== Joint Implementation =====The formal crediting period for Joint Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20).",
"In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially approved and registered.",
"The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM.",
"Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between Ukraine and the EU's New Member States.",
"Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N2O emissions."
],
[
"Details of the agreement",
"The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms.",
"Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.",
"The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping.",
"Kyoto Parties can use land use, land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets.",
"LULUCF activities are also called \"sink\" activities.",
"Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate, and indeed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Land use, land-use change, and forestry estimates that since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change.",
"Particular criteria apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.Forest management, cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol.",
"Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped.=== First commitment period: 2008–2012 ===Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union-15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions.",
"The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (), methane (), nitrous oxide (), sulphur hexafluoride (), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).",
"The six GHG are translated into CO2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions.",
"These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called \"quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives\" (QELRO) – Article 4.1).",
"Parties to the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explained below).The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties.",
"Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year level.Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping.",
"Although Belarus and Turkey are listed in the convention's Annex I, they do not have emissions targets as they were not Annex I Parties when the Protocol was adopted.",
"Kazakhstan does not have a target, but has declared that it wishes to become an Annex I Party to the convention.Australia – 108% (2.1% of 1990 emissions) Austria – 87% Belarus – 95% (subject to acceptance by other parties)Belgium – 92.5% Bulgaria – 92% (0.6%) Canada – 94% (3.33%) (withdrew) Croatia – 95% () Czech Republic – 92% (1.24%) Denmark – 79% Estonia – 92% (0.28%)Finland – 100% France – 100% Germany – 79% Greece – 125% Hungary – 94% (0.52%) Iceland – 110% (0.02%) Ireland – 113% Italy – 93.5% Japan – 94% (8.55%) Latvia – 92% (0.17%)Liechtenstein – 92% (0.0015%) Lithuania – 92% Luxembourg – 72% Netherlands – 94% New Zealand – 100% (0.19%) Norway – 101% (0.26%) Poland – 94% (3.02%) Portugal – 92% Romania – 92% (1.24%)Russian Federation – 100% (17.4%) Slovakia – 92% (0.42%) Slovenia – 92% Spain – 115% Sweden – 104% Switzerland – 92% (0.32%) Ukraine – 100% United Kingdom – 87.5% United States of America – 93% (36.1%) (non-party)For most state parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the assigned amount.",
"However, five state parties have an alternative base year:* Bulgaria: 1988;* Hungary: the average of the years 1985–1987;* Poland: 1988;* Romania: 1989;* Slovenia: 1986.Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated \"flexibility\" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets.",
"Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have excess emissions credits.===Negotiations===Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to \"take the lead\" in reducing emissions.",
"The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000.The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to binding commitments.At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 was able to push for a mandate (the \"Berlin mandate\") where it was recognized that:* developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (see Greenhouse gas emissions).",
"* developing country emissions per-capita (i.e., average emissions per head of population) were still relatively low.",
"* and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries.",
"China was not a member of the group but an associate.",
"It has since become a member.The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period.",
"However, the large potential for growth in developing country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense.",
"In the final agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions.",
"The general assumption was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet their first round commitments.====Emissions cuts====Kyoto Parties with first period (2008–12) greenhouse gas emissions limitations targets, and the percentage change in their carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion between 1990 and 2009.For more detailed country/region information, see Kyoto Protocol and government action.2012 emission targets and \"flexible mechanisms\".The European Union as a whole has, in accordance with this treaty, committed itself to a reduction of 8%.",
"However, many member states (such as Greece, Spain, Ireland and Sweden) have not committed themselves to any reduction while France has committed itself not to expand its emissions (0% reduction).There were multiple emissions cuts proposed by UNFCCC parties during negotiations.",
"The G77 and China were in favour of strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world.",
"The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations of the first.",
"In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than 2005.Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can \"bank\" their unused allowances for use in the subsequent period.The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – , , and – with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately.",
"The EU also wanted to have a \"bubble\" commitment, whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs.The most vulnerable nations – the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts by developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent.",
"Countries that had supported differentiation of targets had different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many different indicators were proposed.",
"Two examples include differentiation of targets based on gross domestic product (GDP), and differentiation based on energy intensity (energy use per unit of economic output).The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises.",
"The targets closely match those decided by Argentinian Raul Estrada, the diplomat who chaired the negotiations.",
"The numbers given to each Party by Chairman Estrada were based on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latest negotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible environmental outcome.",
"The final targets are weaker than those proposed by some Parties, e.g., the Alliance of Small Island States and the G-77 and China, but stronger than the targets proposed by others, e.g., Canada and the United States.==== Relation to temperature targets ====At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited below 2°C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level.",
"One of the stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) - eq.",
"Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2 °C target.Scenarios assessed by Gupta ''et al.''",
"(2007) suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to 40% below 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050.The only Annex I Parties to have made voluntary pledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway (30–40% below 1990 levels by 2020).Gupta ''et al.''",
"(2007) also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties.",
"Projections indicated that by 2020, non-Annex I emissions in several regions (Latin America, the Middle East, East Asia, and centrally planned Asia) would need to be substantially reduced below \"business-as-usual\".",
"\"Business-as-usual\" are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to control emissions.",
"Projections indicated that by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below \"business-as-usual\".===Financial commitments===The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects.",
"The principle was originally agreed in UNFCCC.",
"One such project is The Adaptation Fund, which has been established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.===Implementation provisions===The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC, which attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6-bis) was held in Bonn, where the required decisions were adopted.",
"After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union) managed to secure the agreement of Japan and Russia by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks.COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11).",
"See United Nations Climate Change Conference.During COP13 in Bali, 36 developed Contact Group countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union) agreed to a 10% emissions increase for Iceland; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations, much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below ).",
"Reduction limitations expired in 2013.===Mechanism of compliance===The protocol defines a mechanism of \"compliance\" as a \"monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non-compliance.\"",
"According to Grubb (2003), the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to domestic law.",
"Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the Marrakesh Accords.===Monitoring emissions===Monitoring emissions in international agreements is tough as in international law, there is no police power, creating the incentive for states to find 'ways around' monitoring.",
"The Kyoto Protocol regulated six sinks and sources of Gases.",
"Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nirous oxide, Hydroflurocarbons, Sulfur hexafluouride and Perfluorocarbons.",
"Monitoring these gases can become quite a challenge.",
"Methane can be monitored and measured from irrigated rice fields and can be measured by the seedling growing up to harvest.",
"Future implications state that this can be affected by more cost effective ways to control emissions as changes in types of fertilizer can reduce emissions by 50%.",
"In addition to this, many countries are unable to monitor certain ways of carbon absorption through trees and soils to an accurate level.===Enforcing emission cuts===If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%.",
"In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program."
],
[
"Ratification process",
"===Countries that ratified the Protocol===The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCCC on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.",
"It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature during one year by parties to UNFCCC, when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland.",
"At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and the European Community had signed.",
"Ratification (which is required to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 September with ratification by Fiji.",
"Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect.Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force \"on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.",
"\"The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002.Of the two conditions, the \"55 parties\" clause was reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol.",
"The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the \"55%\" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days.As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries.",
"One of the 191 ratifying states—Canada—has renounced the protocol.Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Botswana Brazil Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso Myanmar Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Cook Islands Costa Rica Ivory Coast Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti DominicaDominican Republic Ecuador East Timor Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Estonia Eswatini Ethiopia European Union Fiji Finland France Gabon Gambia Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kiribati North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia Lebanon Lesotho Liberia LibyaLiechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Federated States of Micronesia Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Niue North Macedonia Norway Oman Pakistan Palau Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Qatar Romania Russia Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa San MarinoSão Tomé and Príncipe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia (non-party to Kyoto) South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Sweden Switzerland Syria Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States (non-party to Kyoto) Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe* '''Observers:'''Andorra (non-party to Kyoto) Holy See (non-party to Kyoto)===Non-ratification by the US===The US signed the Protocol on 12 November 1998, during the Clinton presidency.",
"To become binding in the US, however, the treaty had to be ratified by the Senate, which had already passed the 1997 non-binding Byrd-Hagel Resolution, expressing disapproval of any international agreement that did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and \"would seriously harm the economy of the United States\".",
"The resolution passed 95–0.Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the treaty, it was never submitted to the Senate for ratification.At the outset of the Bush administration, Senators Chuck Hagel, Jesse Helms, Larry Craig, and Pat Roberts wrote a letter to President George W. Bush seeking to identify his position on the Kyoto Protocol and climate change policy.",
"In a letter dated March 13, 2001, President Bush responded that his \"Administration takes the issue of global climate change very seriously\", but that \"I oppose the Kyoto Protocol because it exempts 80 percent of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the U.S. economy.",
"The Senate's vote, 95-0, shows that there is a clear consensus that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns.\"",
"The administration also questioned the scientific certainty around climate change and cited potential harms of emissions reduction to the US economy.The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research reported in 2001:This policy reversal received a massive wave of criticism that was quickly picked up by the international media.",
"Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and Japanese alike expressed deep concern and regret.",
"...",
"Almost all world leaders (e.g.",
"China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific Islands, etc.)",
"expressed their disappointment at Bush's decision.In response to this criticism, Bush stated: \"I was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got a real problem when it comes to energy\".",
"The Tyndall Centre called this \"an overstatement used to cover up the big benefactors of this policy reversal, i.e., the US oil and coal industry, which has a powerful lobby with the administration and conservative Republican congressmen.",
"\"As of 2023, the US is the only signatory that has not ratified the Protocol.",
"The US accounted for 36.1% of emissions in 1990.As such, for the treaty to go into legal effect without US ratification, it would require a coalition including the EU, Russia, Japan, and small parties.",
"A deal, without the US Administration, was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001.===Withdrawal of Canada===In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets.",
"The Canadian government announced its withdrawal—possible at any time three years after ratification—from the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012.Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990.The Harper government prioritized oil sands development in Alberta, and deprioritized the reduction of greenhouse emissions.",
"Environment minister Peter Kent cited Canada's liability to \"enormous financial penalties\" under the treaty unless it withdrew.",
"He also suggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an alternative way forward.",
"The Harper government claimed it would find a \"Made in Canada\" solution.",
"Canada's decision received a generally negative response from representatives of other ratifying countries.===Other states and territories where the treaty was not applicable===Andorra, Palestine, South Sudan, the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCC Parties that are not party to the Protocol.",
"Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observer the Holy See.",
"Although the Kingdom of the Netherlands approved the protocol for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten or the Caribbean Netherlands."
],
[
"Country types and their emissions",
"===Annex I countries===Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests and soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) including the United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousand teragrams (Tg, which is equal to 109 kg) equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990–2008 period.",
"Several factors have contributed to this decline.",
"The first is due to the economic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition (the EITs – see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for the list of EITs).",
"Over the period 1990–1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of central planning in the former Soviet Union and east European countries.",
"This led to a massive contraction of their heavy industry-based economies, with associated reductions in their fossil fuel consumption and emissions.Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due to policies and measures (PaMs).",
"In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources.",
"Energy use also decreased during the economic crisis in 2007–2008.====Annex I parties with targets====+ Percentage changes in emissions from the base year (1990 for most countries) for Annex I Parties with Kyoto targets Country Kyototarget2008–2012 Kyototarget2013–2020 GHGemissions2008–2012includingLULUCF GHGemissions2008–2012excludingLULUCF Australia +8 −0.5 +3.2 +30.3 Austria −13 −20 +3.2 +4.9 Belgium −8 −20 −13.9 −14.0 Bulgaria −8 −20 −53.4 −52.8 Canada (withdrew) −6 ''N/A'' +18.5 +18.5 Croatia −5 −20 −10.8 −7.5 Czech Republic −8 −20 −30.6 −30.0 Denmark −21 −20 −17.3 −14.8 Estonia −8 −20 −54.2 −55.3 Finland 0 −20 −5.5 −4.7 France 0 −20 −10.5 −10.0 Germany −21 −20 −24.3 −23.6 Greece +25 −20 +11.5 +11.9 Hungary −6 −20 −43.7 −41.8 Iceland +10 −20 +10.2 +19.4 Ireland +13 −20 +11.0 +5.1 Italy −6 −20 −7.0 −4.0 Japan −6 ''N/A'' −2.5 +1.4 Latvia −8 −20 −61.2 −56.4 Liechtenstein −8 −16 +4.1 +2.4 Lithuania −8 −20 −57.9 −55.6 Luxembourg −28 −20 −9.3 −8.7 Monaco −8 −22 −12.5 −12.5 Netherlands −6 −20 −6.2 −6.4 New Zealand 0 ''N/A'' −2.7 +20.4 Norway +1 −16 +4.6 +7.5 Poland −6 −20 −29.7 −28.8 Portugal +27 −20 +5.5 +22.4 Romania −8 −20 −57.0 −55.7 Russia 0 ''N/A'' −36.3 −32.7 Slovakia −8 −20 −37.2 −36.8 Slovenia −8 −20 −9.7 −3.2 Spain +15 −20 +20.0 +23.7 Sweden +4 −20 −18.2 −15.3 Switzerland −8 −15.8 −3.9 −0.8 Ukraine 0 −24 −57.1 −56.6 United Kingdom −13 −20 −23.0 −22.6 United States (did not ratify) −7 ''N/A'' +9.5 +9.5 emissions from fuel combustion of Annex I Kyoto Protocol (KP) Parties, 1990–2009.Total Annex I KP emissions are shown, along with emissions of Annex II KP and Annex I EITs.Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the US, had a target of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for the period 2008–2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is 1990.As noted in the preceding section, between 1990 and 1999, there was a large reduction in the emissions of the EITs.",
"The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, excluding the US.",
"Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase in emissions from 1990 to 2006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease from 2007 onwards.",
"The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have since joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target.In December 2011, Canada's environment minister, Peter Kent, formally announced that Canada would withdraw from the Kyoto accord a day after the end of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (see the section on the withdrawal of Canada).====Annex I parties without Kyoto targets====Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but did not have first-round Kyoto targets.",
"The US had a Kyoto target of a 7% reduction relative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty.",
"If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for the Annex I group would have been a 5.2% reduction relative to the base year.===Non-Annex I===UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties.",
"Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income.",
"Most Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development.",
"Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care.",
"Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global concerns such as climate change.A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran, stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions by Annex I Parties could adversely affect their economies.",
"The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels.GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO2-eq.",
"CO2 was the largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (11%).The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector was the largest.",
"Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO2-eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties.",
"* The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.",
"* The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.6 tonnes.",
"* The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 4.6 tonnes.",
"* The \"other\" region includes Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Malta, Moldova, and North Macedonia.",
"Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes.Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF.",
"With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes."
],
[
"Problem areas",
"=== Views and criticism of the Protocol ===Gupta ''et al.''",
"(2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy.",
"They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem.",
"In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed.",
"The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.Gupta ''et al.''",
"(2007) described the Kyoto first-round commitments as \"modest\", stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness.",
"It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions.",
"In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion.World Bank (2010) commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth.",
"The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%.",
"World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change.Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is \"the only game in town\", and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy ''et al.",
"''., 2003, p. 9).",
"In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a \"small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases.\"",
"Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5).The United States (under former President George W. Bush) and Australia (initially, under former Prime Minister John Howard) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty.",
"According to Stern (2006), their decision was based on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for emerging economies (see also the 2000 onwards section).",
"Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, has since ratified the treaty, which took effect in March 2008.=== Compliance ===38 developed countries committed to limiting their greenhouse gas emissions.",
"Because the United States did not ratify and Canada withdrew, the emission limits remained in force for 36 countries.",
"All of them complied with the Protocol.",
"However, nine countries (Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland) had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets.In total, the 36 countries that fully participated in the Protocol were committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 4% from the 1990 base year.",
"Their average annual emissions in 2008–2012 were 24.2% below the 1990 level.",
"Hence, they surpassed their aggregate commitment by a large margin.",
"If the United States and Canada are included, the emissions decreased by 11.8%.",
"The large reductions were mainly thanks to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which reduced the emissions of the Eastern Bloc by tens of percents in the early 1990s.",
"In addition, the financial crisis of 2007–08 significantly reduced emissions during the first Kyoto commitment period.The 36 countries that were committed to emission reductions only accounted for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010.Even though these countries significantly reduced their emissions during the Kyoto commitment period, other countries increased their emissions so much that the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.=== Emission trends in developing countries ===In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009).",
"For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990–2005 period, often by more than 10% year.",
"Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries.",
"Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions.",
"China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.===Views on the flexibility mechanisms===Another area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms – carbon emission trading, Joint Implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).",
"The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments.One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred by Annex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments.",
"Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included the ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil energy sources, and adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries.China, India, Indonesia and Brazil were not required to reduce their CO2 emissions.",
"The remaining signatory countries were not obliged to implement a common framework nor specific measures, but to reach an emission reduction target for which they can benefit of a secondary market for carbon credits multilaterally exchanged from each other.",
"The Emissions-trading Scheme (ETS) allowed countries to host polluting industries and to buy from other countries the property of their environmental merits and virtuous patterns.A 2021 review considers both the institutional design and the political strategies that have affected the adoption of the Kyoto protocol.",
"It concludes that the Kyoto protocol's relatively small impact on global carbon dioxide emissions reflects a number of factors, including \"deliberate political strategy, unequal power, and the absence of leadership\" among and within nations.",
"The efforts of fossil fuel interests and conservative think tanks to spread disinformation and climate change denial have influenced public opinion and political action both within the United States and beyond it.",
"The direct lobbying of fossil fuel companies and their funding of political actors have slowed political action to address climate change at regional, national, and international levels."
],
[
"Amendment and successor",
"In the non-binding \"Washington Declaration\" agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol.",
"They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries, and initially hoped that it would be in place by 2009.The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio.",
"In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunity to agree a successor to Kyoto that would bring about meaningful carbon cuts.The 2010 Cancún agreements include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to control their emissions of greenhouse gases.",
"In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions.By May 2012, the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period.",
"In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not.New Zealand's climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealand was \"ahead of the curve\" in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations.",
"Non-profit environmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund criticised New Zealand's decision to pull out.On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference, an agreement was reached to extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more information).",
"The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, with small island states critical of the overall package.",
"The Kyoto second commitment period applies to about 11% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases.",
"Other results of the conference include a timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries.",
"At the Doha meeting of the parties to the UNFCCC on 8 December 2012, the European Union chief climate negotiator, Artur Runge-Metzger, pledged to extend the treaty, binding on the 27 European Member States, up to the year 2020 pending an internal ratification procedure.Ban Ki Moon, Secretary General of the United Nations, called on world leaders to come to an agreement on halting global warming during the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly on 23 September 2014 in New York.",
"The next climate summit was held in Paris in 2015, out of which emerged the Paris Agreement, the successor to the Kyoto Protocol."
],
[
"See also",
"* Clean Development Mechanism* Copenhagen Accord* Kyoto Protocol and government action* List of climate change initiatives* Supplementarity"
],
[
"References",
"=== Sources ===* * * * * * * (pb: ).",
"* (pb: ).",
"* (pb: ).",
"* .",
"* * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Protocol text ( HTML and PDF), 2007 and 2012 amendment* List of countries who have ratified, accepted, approved, or accessed the Kyoto Protocol, its first amendment (Targets for Belarus) and its second amendment (extension period 2012–2020)* Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Law-Ref.org – fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents* The layman's guide to the Kyoto Protocol"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kaddish"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Kaddish''' (, 'holy' or 'sanctification'), also transliterated as '''Qaddish''' or '''Qadish,''' is a hymn praising God that is recited during Jewish prayer services.",
"The central theme of the Kaddish is the magnification and sanctification of God's name.",
"In the liturgy, different versions of the Kaddish are functionally chanted or sung as separators of the different sections of the service.The term ''Kaddish'' is often used to refer specifically to \"The Mourner's Kaddish,\" which is chanted as part of the mourning rituals in Judaism in all prayer services, as well as at funerals (other than at the gravesite; see Kaddish acher kevurah ''\"Qaddish after Burial\"'') and memorials; for 11 Hebrew months after the death of a parent; and in some communities for 30 days after the death of a spouse, sibling, or child.",
"When mention is made of \"saying Kaddish\", this often refers to the rituals of mourning.",
"Mourners recite Kaddish to show that despite the loss they still praise God.Along with the Shema Yisrael and the Amidah, the Kaddish is one of the most important and central elements in the Jewish liturgy.",
"Kaddish is not, traditionally, recited alone.",
"Along with some other prayers, it traditionally can only be recited with a minyan of ten Jews (a minimum quorum of ten adult Jews)."
],
[
"Variant forms",
"The various versions of the Kaddish are:* ''Ḥaṣi Qaddish'' (חצי קדיש 'Half Kaddish') or ''Qaddish Lʿela'' (קדיש לעלא), sometimes called the ''Reader's Kaddish''* ''Qaddish Yatom'' (קדיש יתום) or ''Qaddish Yehe Shlama Rabba'' (קדיש יהא שלמא רבא)literally 'Orphan's Kaddish', although commonly referred to as ''Qaddish Avelim'' (קדיש אבלים), the 'Mourner's Kaddish'* ''Qaddish Shalem'' (קדיש שלם) or ''Qaddish Titkabbal'' (קדיש תתקבל)literally \"Complete Kaddish\" or \"Whole Kaddish\"* ''Qaddish de Rabbanan'' (קדיש דרבנן 'Kaddish of the Rabbis') or ''Qaddish ʿal Yisraʾel'' (קדיש על ישראל)* ''Qaddish aḥar Haqqvura'' (קדיש אחר הקבורה)literally 'Kaddish after a Burial', also called ''Kaddish d'Ithadata'' (קדיש דאתחדתא) after one of the first distinguishing words in this variant* ''Qaddish aḥar Hashlamat Masechet'' (קדיש אחר השלמת מסכת)literally, 'Kaddish after the completion of a tractate', i.e.",
"at a siyum, also called ''Qaddish haGadol'' (קדיש הגדול 'the Great Qaddish'), as it is the longest KaddishAll versions of the Kaddish begin with the ''Hatzi Kaddish'' (there are some extra passages in the Kaddish after a burial or a siyum).",
"The longer versions contain additional paragraphs, and are often named after distinctive words in those paragraphs.Historically there existed another type of Kaddish, called ''Qaddish Yahid'' (\"Individual's Kaddish\").",
"This is included in the ''Siddur of Amram Gaon'', but is a meditation taking the place of Kaddish rather than a Kaddish in the normal sense.",
"It had not been recited in modern times until the COVID-19 pandemic, which made coming together to form a minyan difficult.",
"Some communities began reciting the ''Qaddish Yahid'', or a portion thereof, in lieu of ''Qaddish Yatom''.=== Usage ===The Half Kaddish is used to punctuate divisions within the service: for example, before Barechu, after the Amidah, and following readings from the Torah.The ''Kaddish d'Rabbanan'' is used after any part of the service that includes extracts from the Mishnah or the Talmud, as its original purpose was to close a study session.",
"''Kaddish Titkabbal'' originally marked the end of a prayer service, though in later times extra passages and hymns were added to follow it."
],
[
"Text of the Kaddish",
"The following includes the half, complete, mourner's and rabbi's kaddish.",
"The variant lines of the kaddish after a burial or a siyum are given below.",
"# English translation Transliteration Aramaic / ''Hebrew'' 1 Exalted and sanctifiedb be His great namea ''Yitgaddal veyitqaddash shmeh rabba'' 2 In the world which He created according to His will!",
"''Beʻalma di vra khir'uteh'' 3 May He establish His kingdom ''Veyamlikh malkhuteh'' 4 And may His salvation blossom and His anointed be nearad ''Veyatzmaḥ purqaneh viqarev (qetz) meshiḥeh'' 5 During your lifetime and during your days ''Beḥayeikhon uvyomeikhon'' 6 And during the lifetimes of all the House of Israel, ''Uvḥaye dekhol bet yisrael'' 7 Speedily and very soon!",
"And say, Amen.a ''Baʻagala uvizman qariv veʼimru amen'' ''The next two lines are recited by the congregation and then the leader:'' 8 May His great name be blessed ''Yehei shmeih rabba mevorakh'' 9 For ever, and to all eternity!",
"''Leʻalam ulʻalme ʻalmaya'' 10 Blessed and praised, glorified and exalted, ''Yitbarakh veyishtabbaḥ veyitpa'ar veyitromam'' 11 Extolled and honoured, adored and lauded ''Veyitnasse veyithaddar veyitʻalleh veyithallal'' 12 Be the name of the Holy One, blessed be He,a ''Shmeh dequdsha berikh hu.''",
"13 Above and beyond all the blessings, ''Leʻella (lʻella mikkol) min kol birkhata'' 14 Hymns, praises and consolations ''Veshirata tushbeḥata veneḥemata'' 15 That are uttered in the world!",
"And say, Amen.a ''Da'amiran beʻalma veʼimru amen'' ''The half kaddish ends here.''",
"''Here the \"complete kaddish\" includes:'' 16 eMay the prayers and supplications ''Titqabbal tzelotehon uvaʻutehon'' 17 Of all Israel ''D'khol (bet) yisrael'' 18 Be accepted by their Father who is in Heaven; And say, Amen.a ''Qodam avuhon di bishmayya, vʼimru amen'' ''Here the \"kaddish of the rabbis\" (including the kaddish after a siyum) includes:'' 19 To Israel, to the Rabbis and their disciples ''ʻal yisrael veʻal rabbanan veʻal talmideihon'' 20 To the disciples of their disciples, ''V'ʻal kol talmidei talmideihon'' 21 And to all those who engage in the study of the Torah ''Veʻal kol man deʻos'qin b'orayta'' 22 In this holyz place or in any other place, ''Di b'atra qadisha haden vedi bekhol atar v'atar'' 23 May there come abundant peace, ''Y'hei lehon ul'khon sh'lama rabba'' 24 Grace, lovingkindness and compassion, long life ''Hinna v'ḥisda v'raḥamei v'ḥayyei arikhei'' 25 Ample sustenance and salvation ''Um'zone r'viḥe ufurqana'' 26 From the Father who is in heaven (and earth); ''Min qodam avuhon di vishmayya v'ʼarʻa''e 27 And say, Amen.a ''V'ʼimru amen '' ''All variants but the half kaddish conclude:'' 28 fMay there be abundant peace from heaven, ''Yehe shelama rabba min shemayya'' 29 And good life ''Vehayyim tovim'' 30 Satisfaction, help, comfort, refuge, ''Vesava vishuʻa veneḥama veshezava'' 31 Healing, redemption, forgiveness, atonement, ''Urfuʼa ugʼulla usliha v'khappara'' 32 Relief and salvationd ''Verevaḥ vehatzala'' 33 For us and for all his people upon us and upon all Israel; and say, Amen.a ''Lanu ulkhol ʻammo ʻalainu v'al kol yisrael v'ʼimru amen'' 34 fMay He who makes peace in His high places ''ʻoseh shalom bimromav'' 35 Grant in his mercyg peace upon us ''Hu berakhamav yaʻase shalom ʻalenu'' 36 And upon all his nationh Israel; and say, Amen.a ''V'ʻal kol ammo yisra'el, v'ʼimru amen'' === Text of the burial kaddish ===In the burial kaddish, and that after a siyum according to Ashkenazim,i, lines 2-3 are replaced by: # English translation Transcription Aramaic 37 In the world which will be renewed ''B'ʻal'ma d'hu ʻatid l'ithaddata'' 38 And where He will give life to the dead ''Ulʼaḥaya metaya'' 39 And raise them to eternal life ''Ulʼassaqa yathon l'ḥayye ʻal'ma'' 40 And rebuild the city of Jerusalem ''Ul'mivne qarta dirush'lem'' 41 And complete His temple there ''Uleshakhlala hekhlehh b'gavvah'' 42 And uproot foreign worship from the earth ''Ulmeʻqar pulḥana nukhraʼa m'arʻa'' 43 And restore Heavenly worship to its position ''Ulaʼatava pulḥana dishmayya l'ʼatreh'' 44 And may the Holy One, blessed is He, ''V'yamlikh qudsha b'rikh hu'' 45 Reign in His sovereign splendour ... ''B'malkhuteh viqareh'' === Recent changes to Oseh Shalom ===In some recent non-Orthodox prayerbooks, for example, the American Reform Machzor, line 36 is replaced with: 36 All Israel, and all who dwell on earth; and let us say: ''Amen''.",
"''V'al kol Yisra'el, v'al kol yoshvei teiveil; v'imru: Amen.''",
"This effort to extend the reach of Oseh Shalom to non-Jews is said to have been started by the British Liberal Jewish movement in 1967, with the introduction of ''v'al kol bnai Adam'' (\"and upon all humans\"); these words continue to be used by some in the UK.=== Notes ===* Bracketed text varies according to personal or communal traditions.",
"* '''(A)''' The congregation responds with \"amen\" (אָמֵן) after lines 1, 4, 7, 12, 15, 18, 27, 33, 36.In the Ashkenazi tradition, the response to line 12 is \"Blessed be he\" (בְּרִיךְ הוּא ''b'rikh hu''), and in some communities the congregation says \"Blessed be He\" before the chazzan says it, rendering the next phrase \"''brikh hu le'eilah''\" (Blessed be He above) (see Darke Moshe OC 56:3).",
"* '''(B)''' On line 1, some say ''Yitgaddeyl veyitqaddeysh'' rather than ''Yitgaddal veyitqaddash'', because the roots of these two words are Hebrew and not Aramaic (the Aramaic equivalent would be ''Yitrabay veyitkadash''), some authorities (but not others) felt that both words should be rendered in pure Hebrew pronunciation.",
"* '''(C)''' Line 13: in the Ashkenazi tradition the repeated \"le'ela\" is used only during the Ten Days of Repentance, or on the High Holiday themselves in the German tradition.",
"In the Sephardi tradition it is never used.",
"In the Yemenite and Italian traditions it is the invariable wording.",
"The phrase \"le'ela le'ela\" is the Targum's translation of the Hebrew \"ma'la ma'la\" (Deuteronomy 28:43).",
"* '''(D)''' Lines 4 and 30–32 are not present in the Ashkenazi or Italian tradition.",
"\"Revaḥ vehatzala\" is said aloud by the congregation.",
"* '''(E)''' Line 26: some Sephardi Jews say ''malka'' or ''maram'' or ''mareh'' ''di-shmaya ve-ar'a'' (the King or Master of Heaven and Earth) instead of ''avuhon de-vi-shmaya'' (their Father in Heaven); De Sola Pool uses ''mara''; the London Spanish and Portuguese Jews use the same text as the Ashkenazim.",
"* '''(F)''' During the \"complete kaddish\" some include the following congregational responses, which are not regarded as part of the text:** Before line 16, \"accept our prayer with mercy and favour\"** Before line 28, \"May the name of God be blessed, from now and forever\"** Before line 34, \"My help is from God, creator of heaven and earth\"* '''(G)''' Line 35: \"b'rahamav\" is used by Sephardim in all versions of kaddish; by some Ashkenazim only in \"Kaddish deRabbanan\" and by others never.",
"* '''(H)''' Line 36: \"ammo\" is used by most Sephardim, but not by some of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews or Ashkenazim.",
"* '''(I)''' Lines 37 to 45: these lines are also recited by Yemenite Jews as part of every Kaddish DeRabbanan.",
"* '''(Z)''' In line 22, the bracketed word is added in many communities in the Land of Israel.",
"* In line 1, as noted in (a), the congregation responds \"Amen\", even though this commonly is not printed in most prayerbooks.",
"This longstanding and widespread tradition introduces a break in the verse which leads to varying opinions regarding whether the phrase \"according to His will\" applies to \"which he created\" or to \"Magnified and sanctified\".",
"* It is common that the entire congregation recites lines 8 and 9 with the leader, and it is also common that the congregation will include in its collective recitation the first word of the next line (line 10), ''Yitbarakh''.",
"This is commonly thought to be done to prevent any interruption before the next line (which begins with ''Yitbarakh'') is recited by the leader.",
"But this inclusion of ''Yitbarakh'' is subject to e major dispute among the Rishonim (early Halachic decisors).",
"Maimonides and the Tur did not include it in the congregation's recitation; Amram Gaon, the Vilna Gaon, and the Shulchan Aruch include it.",
"In some communities, the congregation recites in an undertone through and including the words \"da'amiran beʻalma\" (middle of line 15)."
],
[
"Analysis of the text",
"The opening words of the Kaddish are inspired by Ezekiel 38:23's vision of God becoming great in the eyes of all the nations.The central line of the Kaddish is the congregation's response: (Yǝhē šmēh rabbā mǝvārakh lǝʿālam u-lʿalmē ʿālmayyā, \"May His great name be blessed for ever, and to all eternity\"), a public declaration of God's greatness and eternality.",
"This response is similar to the wording of Daniel 2:20.It is also parallel to the Hebrew \"\" (commonly recited after the first verse of the Shema); Aramaic versions of both יה שמה רבה and ברוך שם כבוד appear in the various versions of Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Genesis 49:2 and Deuteronomy 6:4.The Mourners, Rabbis and Complete Kaddish end with a supplication for peace (\"Oseh Shalom...\"), which is in Hebrew, and is somewhat similar to the Tanakh Job 25:2.Kaddish does not contain God's name.",
"It is said that this is because Kaddish has 26 words, equalling the gematria of the Lord's name itself (יהוה), and the Kaddish text proves that from the very beginning with words ''\"May His great '''name''' be exalted and sanctified\"''."
],
[
"Customs",
"Kaddish may be spoken or chanted.",
"In services on certain special occasions, it may be sung to special melodies.",
"There are different melodies in different Jewish traditions, and within each tradition the melody can change according to the version, the day it is said and even the position in the service.",
"Many mourners recite Kaddish slowly and contemplatively.In Sephardi synagogues the whole congregation sits for Kaddish, except:* During the Kaddish immediately before the Amidah, where everyone stands;* During the Mourner's Kaddish, where those reciting it stand and everyone else sits.In Ashkenazi synagogues, the custom varies.",
"Very commonly, in both Orthodox and Reform congregations, everyone stands for the mourner's kaddish; but in some (especially many Conservative and Sephardic) synagogues, most of the congregants sit.",
"Sometimes, a distinction is made between the different forms of Kaddish, or each congregant stands or sits according to his or her own custom.",
"The Mourner's Kaddish is often treated differently from the other variations of Kaddish in the service, as is the Half Kaddish before the maftir.Those standing to recite Kaddish bow, by widespread tradition, at various places.",
"Generally: At the first word of the prayer, at each ''Amen'', at ''Yitbarakh'', at ''Brikh hu'', and for the last verse (''Oseh shalom'').",
"For ''Oseh shalom'' it is customary to take three steps back (if possible) then bow to one's left, then to one's right, and finally bow forward, as if taking leave of the presence of a king, in the same way as when the same words are used as the concluding line of the Amidah.According to the original Ashkenazic custom, as well as the Yemenite custom, one mourner recites each Kaddish, and the Halachic authorities set down extensive rules to determine who has priority for each kaddish.",
"In most (but not all) Ashkenazic communities, they have adopted the Sephardic custom to allow multiple mourners to recite Kaddish together.=== Minyan requirement ===''Masekhet Soferim'', an eighth-century compilation of Jewish laws regarding the preparation of holy books and public reading, states (Chapter 10:7) that Kaddish may be recited only in the presence of a minyan (a quorum of at least 10 men in Orthodox Judaism or 10 adults in Reform and Conservative Judaism).",
"While the traditional view is that \"If ''kaddish'' is said in private, then by definition it is not ''kaddish'',\" some alternatives have been suggested, including the ''Kaddish L'yachid'' (\"Kaddish for an individual\"), attributed to ninth-century Gaon Amram bar Sheshna, and the use of kavanah prayer, asking heavenly beings to join with the individual \"to make a minyan of both Earth and heaven\".",
"In some Reform congregations, a minyan is not required for recitation of the Kaddish, but other Reform congregations disagree and believe that the Kaddish should be said publicly."
],
[
"History and background",
"\"The Kaddish is in origin a closing doxology to an Aggadic discourse.\"",
"Most of it is written in Aramaic, which, at the time of its original composition, was the lingua franca of the Jewish people.",
"It is not composed in the vernacular Aramaic, however, but rather in a \"literary, jargon Aramaic\" that was used in the academies, and is identical to the dialect of the Targumim.Professor Yoel Elitzur, however, argues that the Kaddish was originally written in Hebrew, and later translated to Aramaic to be better understood by the masses.",
"He notes that quotations from the Kaddish in the Talmud and Sifrei are in Hebrew, and that even today some of the words are Hebrew rather than Aramaic.The oldest version of the Kaddish is found in the ''Siddur of Rab Amram Gaon'', c.",
"900.",
"\"The first mention of mourners reciting Kaddish at the end of the service is in a thirteenth century halakhic writing called the Or Zarua.",
"The Kaddish at the end of the service became designated as Kaddish Yatom or Mourner's Kaddish (literally, \"Orphan's Kaddish\").",
"\"The Kaddish was not always recited by mourners and instead became a prayer for mourners sometime between the 12th and 13th centuries when it started to be associated with a medieval legend about Rabbi Akiva who meets a dead man seeking redemption in the afterlife.",
"=== Hebrew reconstruction ===Elitzur made an attempt at reconstructing the theorized original Hebrew version of Kaddish:: יִתְגַּדֵּל וְיִתְקַדֵּשׁ שְׁמוֹ הַגָּדוֹל: בָּעוֹלָם שֶׁבָּרָא כִּרְצוֹנוֹ: וְתָמלוֹךְ מַלְכוּתוֹ בְּחַיֵּיכֶם וּבְיָמֵיכֶם וּבְחַיֵּיהֶם שֶׁל כֹל בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל בִּמְהֵרָה וּבִזְמָן קָרוֹב: יְהִי שְׁמוֹ הַגָּדוֹל מְבוֹרָךְ לְעוֹלָם וּלְעוֹלְמֵי עוֹלָמִיםRabbi David Bar-Hayim also attempted a reconstruction:: יִתְגַּדַּל וְיִתְקַדַּשׁ שׁמוֹ הַגָּדוֹל שֶׁל מֶלֶךְ מַלְכֵי הַמְּלָכִים הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא: בָּעוֹלָם שֶׁבָּרָא כִּרְצוֹנוֹ: וְיֵמְלִיךְ מַלְכוּתוֹ בְּחַיֵּיכֶם וּבִימֵיכֶם וּבְחַיֵּי כֹל בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל בִּמְהֵרָה וּבִזְמָן קָרוֹב: יְהִי שְׁמוֹ הַגָּדוֹל מְבוֹרָךְ לְעוֹלָם וּלְעוֹלְמֵי עוֹלָמִים==Mourner's Kaddish=='''Mourner's Kaddish''' is said in most communities at all prayer services and certain other occasions.",
"It is written in Aramaic.",
"It takes the form of ''Kaddish Yehe Shelama Rabba'', and is traditionally recited several times, most prominently at or towards the end of the service, after the Aleinu and/or closing Psalms and/or (on the Sabbath) Ani'im Zemirot.",
"In most communities, Kaddish is recited during the eleven months after the death of a parent, and then at every anniversary of the death (the Yahrzeit).",
"Technically, there is no obligation to recite Kaddish for other relatives, even though there is an obligation to mourn for them.Customs for reciting the Mourner's Kaddish vary markedly among various communities.",
"In Sephardi synagogues, the custom is that all the mourners stand and chant the Kaddish together.",
"In Ashkenazi synagogues before the 19th century, one mourner was chosen to lead the prayer on behalf of the rest, but gradually over the last two centuries, most (but certainly not all) communities have adopted the Sephardi custom.",
"In many Reform synagogues, the entire congregation recites the Mourner's Kaddish together.",
"This is sometimes said to be for those victims of the Holocaust who have no one left to recite the Mourner's Kaddish on their behalf and in support of the mourners.",
"In some congregations (especially Reform and Conservative ones), the Rabbi reads a list of the deceased who have a Yahrzeit on that day (or who have died within the past month), and then ask the congregants to name any people they are mourning for.",
"Some synagogues, especially Orthodox and Conservative ones, multiply the number of times that the Mourner's Kaddish is recited, for example by reciting a separate Mourner's Kaddish after both Aleinu and then each closing Psalm.",
"Other synagogues limit themselves to one Mourner's Kaddish at the end of the service.Notably, the Mourner's Kaddish does not mention death at all, but instead praises God.",
"Though the Kaddish is often popularly referred to as the \"Jewish Prayer for the Dead,\" that designation more accurately belongs to the prayer called \"El Malei Rachamim\", which specifically prays for the soul of the deceased.",
"The Mourner's Kaddish can be more accurately represented as an expression of \"justification for judgment\" by the mourners on their loved ones' behalf.",
"It is believed that mourners adopted this version of the Kaddish around the 13th century during harsh persecution of Jews by crusaders in Germany because of the opening messianic line about God bringing the dead back to life (though this line is not in many modern versions).=== Women and the Mourner's Kaddish ===There is evidence of some women saying the Mourner's Kaddish for their parents at the grave, during shiva, and in daily prayers since the 17th century.",
"Rabbi Yair Bacharach concluded that technically a woman can recite the Mourner's Kaddish, but since this is not the common practice, it should be discouraged.",
"As such, women reciting kaddish is controversial in some Orthodox communities, and it is almost unheard of in Haredi communities.",
"Nevertheless, Rabbi Aharon Soloveichik ruled that in our time, we should permit women to say Kaddish, and this is a common (but not universal) practice in Modern Orthodox circles.",
"In 2013, the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a halachic ruling that women may say the Kaddish in memory of their deceased parents (in presence of a male minyan).",
"In Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist Judaism, the Mourner's Kaddish is traditionally said by women who are there also counted in the minyan."
],
[
"Use of the Kaddish in the arts",
"The Kaddish has been a particularly common theme and reference point in the arts, including the following:=== In literature and publications ===(Alphabetical by author)* In Shai Afsai's \" The Kaddish\" (2010), a poignant short story that could happen in almost any town with a small Jewish community, a group of elderly men trying to form a minyan in order to recite the Kaddish confront the differences between Judaism's denominations.",
"* In the first chapter of Sholem Aleichem's novel ''Motl, Peysi the Cantor's Son'' the boy narrator, whose father just died, needs to quickly learn by heart the Kaddish - which he would have to recite - and struggling with the incomprehensible Aramaic words.",
"* ''Kaddish'' is a poem, divided into 21 sections and of almost 700 pages length, by German poet Paulus Böhmer.",
"The first ten sections appeared in 2002, the remaining eleven in 2007.It celebrates the world, through mourning its demise.",
"* ''Kaddish in Dublin'' (1990) crime novel by John Brady where an Irish Jew is involved with a plot to subvert the Irish government.",
"* Nathan Englander's third novel, ''Kaddish.com'' (2019), is about a grieving son who discovers a website that for a fee will match dead relatives with pious students who will recite the Mourner's Kaddish thrice daily on their behalf.",
"In this manner, he outsources his obligation to recite kaddish for his father.",
"* In Nathan Englander's novel set during the Dirty Wars in Argentina, ''The Ministry of Special Cases'', the protagonist is an Argentinian Jew named Kaddish.",
"* In ''Torch Song Trilogy'' (1982), written by Harvey Fierstein, the main character Arnold Beckoff says the Mourner's Kaddish for his murdered lover, Alan, much to the horror of his homophobic mother.",
"* In Frederick Forsyth's novel ''The Odessa File'', a Jew who commits suicide in 1960s Germany requests in his diary/suicide note that someone say Kaddish for him in Israel.",
"At the end of the novel, a Mossad agent involved in the plot, who comes into possession of the diary, fulfils the dead man's wish.",
"* ''Kaddish'' is one of the most celebrated poems by the beat poet Allen Ginsberg.",
"It appeared in ''Kaddish and Other Poems'', a collection he published in 1961.The poem was dedicated to his mother, Naomi Ginsberg (1894–1956).",
"* ''Kaddish'', a novel by Yehiel De-Nur, in which he explores actual, semi-fictional, and fictional stories relating to Hebrew struggles during the Holocaust.",
"* ''Kaddish for an Unborn Child'' is a novel by the Hungarian Nobel Laureate Imre Kertész.",
"* \"Who Will Say Kaddish?",
": A Search for Jewish Identity in Contemporary Poland,\" text by Larry N Mayer with photographs by Gary Gelb (Syracuse University Press, 2002)* In the September 20, 1998 Nickolodeon's ''Rugrats'' comic strip, the character Grandpa Boris recites the Mourner's Kaddish in the synagogue.",
"This particular strip led to controversy with the Anti-Defamation League.",
"* The Mystery of Kaddish.",
"Rav \"DovBer Pinson\".",
"Explains and explores the Kabbalistic and deeper meaning of the Kaddish.",
"* In Philip Roth's novel ''The Human Stain'', the narrator states that the Mourner's Kaddish signifies that \"a Jew is dead.",
"Another Jew is dead.",
"As though death were not a consequence of life but a consequence of having been a Jew.",
"\"* “Kaddish” is the penultimate and longest piece in poet Sam Sax's chapbook ''STRAIGHT'', in which he tells the story of the death of the speaker’s first love due to an overdose, following narratives of the speaker’s own addiction.",
"In August 2016, Sax performed this poem at the Rustbelt Regional Poetry Slam.",
"* Zadie Smith's novel, ''The Autograph Man'', revolves around Alex-Li Tandem, a dealer in autograph memorabilia whose father's Yahrzeit is approaching.",
"The epilogue of the novel features a scene in which Alex-Li recites Kaddish with a minyan.",
"* Several references to the Mourner's Kaddish are made in ''Night'' by Elie Wiesel.",
"Though the prayer is never directly said, references to it are common, including to times when it is customarily recited, but omitted.",
"* Leon Wieseltier's ''Kaddish'' (1998) is a book length hybrid of memoirs (of the author's year of mourning after the death of his father), history, historiography and philosophical reflection, all centered on the mourner's Kaddish.=== In music ===(Alphabetical by creator)* Matthew J. Armstrong quotes the final lines ('oseh shalom bimromav...) in his work ''\"Elegy for Dachau\"'' (2009).",
"* ''Kaddish'' is the name of Symphony No.",
"3 by Leonard Bernstein, a dramatic work for orchestra, mixed chorus, boys' choir, speaker and soprano solo dedicated to the memory of John F. Kennedy who was assassinated on November 22, 1963, just weeks before the first performance of this symphony.",
"The symphony is centered on the Kaddish text.",
"* The Kaddish is spoken in Part V of the Avodath Hakodesh (Sacred Service) by the composer Ernest Bloch (1933).",
"* Canadian poet/songwriter/artist Leonard Cohen uses words from the Kaddish in his 2016 final album entitled \"You Want It Darker\", specifically in the title song, during the chorus.",
"* ''Kaddish'' is a work for cello and orchestra by David Diamond.",
"* The Israeli rapper Dudu Faruk has mentioned the kaddish in the lyrics of his 2018 song, \"Eliran Sabag\"* Kaddish is a track by Gina X Performance.",
"* \"Kaddish\" is the 34th movement in ''La Pasión según San Marcos'' by composer Osvaldo Golijov.",
"* \"Kaddish\" is a song by Ofra Haza from her album ''Desert Wind''.",
"* Nili Isenberg put the words of kaddish to the tune of Hello (Adele song) while reciting kaddish for her father.",
"* ''Kaddish'' is the title of a 1979 composition for solo horn by the Russian-Israeli composer Lev Kogan (1927-2007).",
"* ''Kaddish'' is the title for a work by W. Francis McBeth for a concert band, based on the chant of the prayer.",
"McBeth composed this work as a memorial for his teacher J. Clifton Williams.",
"* ''Kaddish (ladder) canon'' is the final piece on the album \"These are the Generations\" by Larry Polansky.",
"It is an elegy for friends recently lost.",
"* The French composer Maurice Ravel composed a song for voice and piano using part of the Kaddish.",
"It was commissioned in 1914 by Alvina Alvi as part of a set of two songs: \"Deux mélodies hébraïques\" and was first performed in June 1914 by Alvi with Ravel at the piano.",
"* ''Kaddish Shalem'' is a musical work by Salamone Rossi (1570–c.",
"1628), composed for five voices in homophonic style, the very first polyphonic setting of this text, in his \"Hashirim Asher L'Shlomo\", The Song of Solomon.",
"* ''Inspired by Kaddish'' is a fifteen-movement musical composition by Lawrence Siegel.",
"One of the movements is the prayer itself; the remaining fourteen are stories of the experiences of a number of Holocaust survivors Lawrence interviewed.",
"It was debuted by the Keene State College Chamber Singers in 2008.",
"* Mieczysław Weinberg's Symphony No.",
"21 is subtitled \"Kaddish\".",
"The symphony, composed in 1991, is dedicated to Holocaust victims from the Warsaw Ghetto.",
"* Concept album ''Kaddish'' (1993) created by Richard Wolfson with Andy Saunders using the band name Towering Inferno.",
"* The song \"Israel\" by Ween on the album Shinola, Vol.",
"1 is a recitation of the mourner's Kaddish.=== In visual arts ===(Alphabetical by creator)* Potter Steven Branfman threw chawan (Japanese style tea bowls) every day for a year in honor of his departed son Jared.",
"For a year, they were the only pots he made.",
"One chawan each day, no matter where he was.",
"He and his family said Kaddish every day for a year.",
"His daily chawan made at his potter's wheel was his own personal Kaddish.",
"The exhibition is also included in ''The Teabowl: East and West'', by Bonnie Kemske.",
"* Artist Mauricio Lasansky, familiar with Kaddish from his background, produced his Kaddish series of eight intaglio prints, ten years after his Nazi Drawings, his statement of Nazi destruction and degradation.",
"In 1978, the Argentine-born 62 year-old Lasansky completed his answer of peace and survival, his Kaddish prints.",
"* Artist Max Miller traveled from synagogue to synagogue throughout New York and beyond, reciting the daily prayer in memory of his father and then painting a watercolor study of the synagogue in which he recited it.",
"* Following the deaths of both her parents within one week of one another, artist Wendy Meg Siegel created a painting with a focus on the Kaddish, as part of her canvas on canvas \"text-tures\" series, which explores methods of combining text and canvas in a somewhat “sculptural” manner.=== Online ===(Alphabetical by creator)* Mira Z. Amiras and Erin L. Vang have taken the Kaddish as a starting point for a yearlong collaboration titled, \"Kaddish in Two-Part Harmony\", consisting of a jointly written blog and daily podcast recording of Lev Kogan's \"Kaddish\" for solo horn.",
"* David Bogomolny chronicled his yearlong recitation of kaddish in honor of his father Dr. Alexander Bogomolny, originally on The Times of Israel blogs, in a series titled, \"The skeptic's kaddish for the atheist\", consisting of traditional Jewish sources, religious text analysis, modern interpretations and expressions of kaddish, philosophy, theology, eschatology, creative writing, and the personal reflections; memories; and experiences of a son in mourning.",
"* From 2016-2017 Rabbi Ariana Katz recorded a podcast called \"Kaddish\" focused on mourning ritual and customs, featuring first person storytelling and interviews, using Jewish tradition to contextualize and deepen themes of the show, and holding space at the intersection of life and death.",
"\"Kaddish\" covered topics including mourning chosen family, reproductive loss, illness, ritual writing, suicide, LGBT burial, tattoos and conversion status, and state violence.",
"Featured guests shared their personal and professional expertise and story.=== Onscreen, in film ===(Chronological)* In the 1973 film ''Les aventures de Rabbi Jacob'' (''The Mad Adventures of Rabbi Jacob''), it is chanted at the end of the Bar-Mitzvah service.",
"* In the film ''The Passover Plot'' (1976), a revived Jesus dies finally and is mourned with a Kaddish recitation by a disciple.",
"* In the film ''Mikey and Nicky'' (1976), while an inebriated Nicky (John Cassavetes) is laughing in front of his mothers grave, the disquieted Mikey (Peter Falk) attempts to recite the Kaddish despite the distractions from his friend.",
"* In the 1980 film ''The Jazz Singer'' starring Neil Diamond, character Cantor Rabinovitch (Laurence Olivier) says the Kaddish while disowning his son.",
"The Kaddish helps bring forth the power needed to evoke the emotion of loss.",
"* In ''Rocky III'' (1982), Rocky Balboa recites the Mourner's Kaddish for Mickey.",
"* In the film ''Yentl'' (1983), at Yentl's father's burial, the rabbi asks who will say Kaddish (Kaddish is traditionally said by a son).",
"Yentl replies that she will and, to the horror of those assembled, grabs the siddur and starts saying Kaddish.",
"* Steve Brand's feature documentary ''Kaddish'' (1984), about Yossi Klein Halevi's growing up as the child of his Holocaust survivor father, was named by the New York-based Village Voice as one of the ten best films of the year.",
"It won the Special Jury Prize at the 1985 Sundance Film Festival.",
"* In ''Torch Song Trilogy'' (1988), Arnold (portrayed by playwright Harvey Fierstein) says the Mourner's Kaddish for his murdered lover, Alan, and Arnold's mother (portrayed by Anne Bancroft) strongly protests.",
"* The Kaddish is recited in the film ''Schindler's List'' (1993), in the last scene at the factory.",
"* Film ''Saying the Kaddish'' (1999) by Dan Frazer* Konstantin Fam's ''Kaddish'' (2019) centers on the testament of a former concentration camp prisoner who confronts and turns the lives of two young people from different worlds around, shedding light on the tragic history of their family.",
"* The Kaddish as a form of religious excommunication (when recited for someone still alive) appears in the fantasy-documentary A Kaddish For Bernie Madoff (2021), created by musician/poet Alicia Jo Rabins and directed by Alicia J.",
"Rose.",
"The film tells the story of Madoff and the system that allowed him to function for decades through the eyes of Rabins, who watches the financial crash from her 9th floor studio in an abandoned office building on Wall Street.=== Onscreen, in television ===(Alphabetical by program title)* In the television series ''Babylon 5'', Lt. Comdr.",
"Susan Ivanova finally decides to sit Shiva and recite the Mourner's Kaddish at the end of episode \"TKO\" (Season 1, Ep.",
"14), for her father with an old family friend, Rabbi Koslov, who has come to the station to urge her to mourn.",
"* In the television series ''Drawn Together'', Toot Braunstein recites the Mourner's Kaddish in the episode \"A Very Special Drawn Together Afterschool Special\", after saying that her son was (metaphorically) dead.",
"* In the television show ''Everwood'', Ephram Brown recites the Mourner's Kaddish at his mother's unveiling.",
"* In the second-season finale of Homeland, The Choice, CIA agent Saul Berenson (Mandy Patinkin) recites the Mourner's Kaddish while standing over the corpses of victims of a terrorist attack.",
"* \"Kaddish\" is the title of ''Homicide: Life on the Street'' episode 5.17, in which detective John Munch (Richard Belzer), who is Jewish, investigates the rape and murder of his childhood sweetheart.",
"* ''Kaddish For Uncle Manny''\", episode 4.22 of ''Northern Exposure'' (first aired 5-3-93) relates to Joel's (Rob Morrow) seeking out of ten Jews in remote Alaska to join him for Kaddish in memory of his recently departed Uncle Manny in New York City.",
"Joel eventually decides, though, that saying Kaddish for his uncle is best accomplished in the presence of his new Cicely family, who although Gentile, are most near and dear to him.",
"* In the television show ''The Patient'', episode 1.7, Dr. Strauss recites the Kaddish for his recently deceased wife.",
"* The second season of the series Quantico, FBI Special Agent Nimah Amin, herself a Muslim, recites the Mourner's Kaddish at Simon Asher's unveiling.",
"* The fictional character Dan Turpin was killed by Darkseid in ''Superman: The Animated Series'', and a Rabbi said Kaddish at his funeral.",
"An onscreen, post-episode message dedicated the episode to Jack Kirby, a Jewish comic book artist, who influenced much of the comic book community.",
"* In the series ''Touched by an Angel'', episode 3.5 (season 3, episode 5), Henry Moskowitz, a proud archaeologist on a dig at a Navajo excavation site, receives a surprise visit from zayda (grandfather).",
"Sam hopes to reconcile with his grandson and Jewish family faith by asking him to say kaddish.",
"* \"Kaddish\" is the title of ''The X-Files'' episode 4.15 (season 4, episode 15), in which a Golem is avenging a murder.=== Onstage, in dance, theater and musicals ===* In Tony Kushner's play ''Angels in America'' (and the subsequent TV miniseries), the characters of Louis Ironson and Ethel Rosenberg say the Kaddish over Roy Cohn's dead body.",
"Louis, a non-practicing Jew, mistakenly identifies the Kaddish as being written in Hebrew.",
"* ''Kaddish'' is a female dance solo choreographed by Anna Sokolow to music by Maurice Ravel.",
"* The Mourner's Kaddish can be heard being recited by Collins and Roger during the song \"La Vie Boheme\" in the musical ''Rent''.",
"* A brief portion of the Mourner's Kaddish (lines 34-36 above) is recited during the song \"Prayer\" in the musical ''Come from Away''."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bereavement in Judaism"
],
[
"References",
"; Notes; Bibliography* Cyrus Adler, et al.",
"\"Kaddish\".",
"Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906.pp. 401–403.",
"* Yesodot Tefillah, Rabbi Eliezer Levi, published by Abraham Zioni Publishing House, Israel 1977.P173* Kaddish is a female dance solo choreographed by Anna Sokolow to Maurice Ravel.",
"* De Sola Pool, Kaddish (1909) The Kaddish"
],
[
"External links",
"* Jewish Virtual Library - Jewish Prayers: The Mourner's Kaddish* Neirot Foundation: The Importance of Kaddish* myKaddish.com* The Kaddish Foundation: A non-profit whose member recite the Kaddish every day for eleven months following the death of a Jewish relative, loved-one or friend.",
"* Birkat Hamazon: Kaddish"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kalevala"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''''Kalevala''''' (, ) is a 19th-century work of epic poetry compiled by Elias Lönnrot from Karelian and Finnish oral folklore and mythology, telling an epic story about the Creation of the Earth, describing the controversies and retaliatory voyages between the peoples of the land of Kalevala called Väinölä and the land of Pohjola and their various protagonists and antagonists, as well as the construction and robbery of the epic mythical wealth-making machine Sampo.The ''Kalevala'' is regarded as the national epic of Karelia and Finland and is one of the most significant works of Finnish literature with J. L. Runeberg's ''The Tales of Ensign Stål'' and Aleksis Kivi's ''The Seven Brothers''.",
"The ''Kalevala'' was instrumental in the development of the Finnish national identity and the intensification of Finland's language strife that ultimately led to Finland's independence from Russia in 1917.The work is also well known internationally and has partly influenced, for example, J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium (i.e.",
"Middle-earth mythology).The first version of the ''Kalevala'', called the ''Old Kalevala'', was published in 1835, consisting of 12,078 verses.",
"The version most commonly known today was first published in 1849 and consists of 22,795 verses, divided into fifty folk stories ().",
"An abridged version, containing all fifty poems but just 9732 verses, was published in 1862.In connection with the ''Kalevala'', there is another much more lyrical collection of poems, also compiled by Lönnrot, called ''Kanteletar'' from 1840, which is mostly seen as a \"sister collection\" of the ''Kalevala''."
],
[
"Collection and compilation",
"===Elias Lönnrot===Elias LönnrotElias Lönnrot (9 April 1802 – 19 March 1884) was a physician, botanist, linguist, and poet.",
"During the time he was compiling the ''Kalevala'' he was the district health officer based in Kajaani responsible for the whole Kainuu region in the eastern part of what was then the Grand Duchy of Finland.",
"He was the son of Fredrik Johan Lönnrot, a tailor and Ulrika Lönnrot; he was born in the village of Sammatti, Uusimaa.At the age of 21, he entered the Imperial Academy of Turku and obtained a master's degree in 1826.His thesis was entitled ''De Vainamoine priscorum fennorum numine'' (''Väinämöinen, a Divinity of the Ancient Finns'').",
"The monograph's second volume was destroyed in the Great Fire of Turku the same year.In the spring of 1828, he set out with the aim of collecting folk songs and poetry.",
"Rather than continue this work, though, he decided to complete his studies and entered Imperial Alexander University in Helsinki to study medicine.",
"He earned a master's degree in 1832.In January 1833, he started as the district health officer of Kainuu and began his work on collecting poetry and compiling the ''Kalevala''.",
"Throughout his career Lönnrot made a total of eleven field trips within a period of fifteen years.Prior to the publication of the ''Kalevala'', Elias Lönnrot compiled several related works, including the three-part ''Kantele'' (1829–1831), the ''Old Kalevala'' (1835) and the ''Kanteletar'' (1840).Lönnrot's field trips and endeavours helped him to compile the ''Kalevala'', and brought considerable enjoyment to the people he visited; he would spend much time retelling what he had collected as well as learning new poems.===Poetry===The statue of Väinämöinen by (1888) decorates the Old Student House in Helsinki====History====Before the 18th century, ''Kalevala'' poetry, also known as runic song was common throughout Finland and Karelia, but in the 18th century it began to disappear in Finland, first in western Finland, because European rhymed poetry became more common in Finland.",
"Finnish folk poetry was first written down in the 17th century and collected by hobbyists and scholars through the following centuries.",
"Despite this, the majority of Finnish poetry remained only in the oral tradition.Finnish born nationalist and linguist Carl Axel Gottlund (1796–1875) expressed his desire for a Finnish epic in a similar vein to the ''Iliad'', ''Ossian'' and the ''Nibelungenlied'' compiled from the various poems and songs spread over most of Finland.",
"He hoped that such an endeavour would incite a sense of nationality and independence in the native Finnish people.",
"In 1820, founded the journal ''Turun Wiikko-Sanomat'' (Turku Weekly News) and published three articles entitled ''Väinämöisestä'' (''Concerning Väinämöinen'').",
"These works were an inspiration for Elias Lönnrot in creating his masters thesis at Turku University.In the 19th century, collecting became more extensive, systematic and organised.",
"Altogether, almost half a million pages of verse have been collected and archived by the Finnish Literature Society and other collectors in what are now Estonia and the Republic of Karelia.",
"The publication ''Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot'' (''Ancient Poems of the Finns'') published 33 volumes containing 85,000 items of poetry over a period of 40 years.",
"They have archived 65,000 items of poetry that remain unpublished.",
"By the end of the 19th century this pastime of collecting material relating to Karelia and the developing orientation towards eastern lands had become a fashion called Karelianism, a form of national romanticism.The chronology of this oral tradition is uncertain.",
"The oldest themes, the origin of Earth, have been interpreted to have their roots in distant, unrecorded history and could be as old as 3,000 years.The newest events, e.g.",
"the arrival of Christianity, seem to be from the Iron Age, which in Finland lasted until c. 1300 CE.",
"Finnish folklorist Kaarle Krohn proposes that 20 of the 45 poems of the ''Kalevala'' are of possible Ancient Estonian origin or at least deal with a motif of Estonian origin (of the remainder, two are Ingrian and 23 are Western Finnish).It is understood that during the Finnish reformation in the 16th century the clergy forbade all telling and singing of pagan rites and stories.",
"In conjunction with the arrival of European poetry and music this caused a significant reduction in the number of traditional folk songs and their singers.",
"Thus the tradition faded somewhat but was never totally eradicated.====Lönnrot's field trips====A caricature of Elias Lönnrot by A. W. Linsen: \"Unus homo nobis currendo restituit rem\" – \"One man saved everything for us by running\".In total, Lönnrot made eleven field trips in search of poetry.",
"His first trip was made in 1828 after his graduation from Turku University, but it was not until 1831 and his second field trip that the real work began.",
"By that time he had already published three articles entitled ''Kantele'' and had significant notes to build upon.",
"This second trip was not very successful and he was called back to Helsinki to attend to victims of the Second cholera pandemic.The third field trip was much more successful and led Elias Lönnrot to Viena in east Karelia where he visited the town of Akonlahti, which proved most successful.",
"This trip yielded over 3,000 verses and copious notes.",
"In 1833, Lönnrot moved to Kajaani where he was to spend the next 20 years as the district health officer for the region, living in the Hövelö croft located near the Lake Oulujärvi in the Paltaniemi village, spending his spare time searching for poems.",
"His fourth field trip was undertaken in conjunction with his work as a doctor; a 10-day jaunt into Viena.",
"This trip resulted in 49 poems and almost 3,000 new lines of verse.",
"It was during this trip that Lönnrot formulated the idea that the poems might represent a wider continuity, when poem entities were performed to him along with comments in normal speech connecting them.On the fifth field trip, Lönnrot met Arhippa Perttunen who, over two days of continuous recitation, provided him with some 4,000 verses for the ''Kalevala''.",
"He also met a singer called Matiska in the hamlet of Lonkka on the Russian side of the border.",
"Although this singer had a somewhat poor memory, he did help to fill in many gaps in the work Lönnrot had already catalogued.",
"This trip resulted in the discovery of almost 300 poems at just over 13,000 verses.In autumn of 1834, Lönnrot had written the vast majority of the work needed for what was to become the ''Old Kalevala''; all that was required was to tie up some narrative loose ends and complete the work.",
"His sixth field trip took him into Kuhmo, a municipality in Kainuu to the south of Viena.",
"There he collected over 4,000 verses and completed the first draft of his work.",
"He wrote the foreword and published in February of the following year.With the ''Old Kalevala'' well into its first publication run, Lönnrot decided to continue collecting poems to supplement his existing work and to understand the culture more completely.",
"The seventh field trip took him on a long winding path through the southern and eastern parts of the Viena poem singing region.",
"He was delayed significantly in Kuhmo because of bad skiing conditions.",
"By the end of that trip, Lönnrot had collected another 100 poems consisting of over 4,000 verses.",
"Lönnrot made his eighth field trip to the Russian border town of Lapukka where the great singer Arhippa Perttunen had learned his trade.",
"In correspondence he notes that he has written down many new poems but is unclear on the quantity.Notable towns visited by Elias Lönnrot during his 15 years of field trips – both sides then belonged to RussiaElias Lönnrot departed on the first part of his ninth field trip on 16 September 1836.He was granted a 14-month leave of absence and a sum of travelling expenses from the Finnish Literary Society.",
"His funds came with some stipulations: he must travel around the Kainuu border regions and then on to the north and finally from Kainuu to the south-east along the border.",
"For the expedition into the north he was accompanied by Juhana Fredrik Cajan.",
"The first part of the trip took Lönnrot all the way to Inari in northern Lapland.",
"The second, southern part of the journey was more successful than the northern part, taking Lönnrot to the town of Sortavala on Lake Ladoga then back up through Savo and eventually back to Kajaani.",
"Although these trips were long and arduous, they resulted in very little Kalevala material; only 1,000 verses were recovered from the southern half and an unknown quantity from the northern half.The tenth field trip is a relative unknown.",
"What is known however, is that Lönnrot intended to gather poems and songs to compile into the upcoming work ''Kanteletar''.",
"He was accompanied by his friend C. H. Ståhlberg for the majority of the trip.",
"During that journey the pair met Mateli Magdalena Kuivalatar in the small border town of Ilomantsi.",
"Kuivalatar was very important to the development of the ''Kanteletar''.",
"The eleventh documented field trip was another undertaken in conjunction with his medical work.",
"During the first part of the trip, Lönnrot returned to Akonlahti in Russian Karelia, where he gathered 80 poems and a total of 800 verses.",
"The rest of the trip suffers from poor documentation.====Methodology====Karelian poem singing brothers Poavila and Triihvo Jamanen reciting runic song, Uhtua, 1894.Lönnrot and his contemporaries, e.g.",
"Matthias Castrén, Anders Johan Sjögren,and David Emmanuel Daniel Europaeus collected most of the poem variants; one poem could easily have countless variants, scattered across rural areas of Karelia and Ingria.",
"Lönnrot was not really interested in, and rarely wrote down the name of the singer except for some of the more prolific cases.",
"His primary purpose in the region was that of a physician and of an editor, not of a biographer or counsellor.",
"He rarely knew anything in-depth about the singer himself and primarily only catalogued verse that could be relevant or of some use in his work.The student David Emmanuel Daniel Europaeus is credited with discovering and cataloguing the majority of the Kullervo story.Of the dozens of poem singers who contributed to the ''Kalevala'', significant ones are:* Arhippa Perttunen (1769–1840)* Juhana Kainulainen* Matiska* Ontrei Malinen (1780–1855)* Vaassila Kieleväinen* Soava Trohkimainen====Form and structure====The poetry was often sung to music built on a pentachord, sometimes assisted by a kantele player.",
"The rhythm could vary but the music was arranged in either two or four lines in metre.",
"The poems were often performed by a duo, each person singing alternative verses or groups of verses.",
"This method of performance is called an antiphonic performance, it is a kind of \"singing match\".====Metre====Despite the vast geographical distance and customary spheres separating individual singers, the folk poetry the ''Kalevala'' is based on was always sung in the same metre.The ''Kalevala''s metre is a form of trochaic tetrameter that is now known as the ''Kalevala metre''.",
"The metre is thought to have originated during the Proto-Finnic period.",
"Its syllables fall into three types: strong, weak, and neutral.",
"Its main rules are as follows:* A long syllable (one that contains a long vowel or a diphthong, or ends in a consonant) with a main stress is metrically strong.",
":In the second, third, and fourth foot of a line, a strong syllable can occur in only the rising part::: (1:11):: (\"Dearest friend, and much-loved brother\"):The first foot has a freer structure, allowing strong syllables in a falling position as well as a rising one::: (1:37):: (\"These my father sang aforetime\")* A short syllable with a main stress is metrically weak.",
":In the second, third, and fourth feet, a weak syllable can occur only in the falling part::: (1:1):: (\"I am driven by my longing\"):Again, the first foot's structure is more free, allowing weak syllables in a rising position as well as a falling one::: (1:56):: (\"Others taken from the saplings\")* All syllables without a main stress are metrically neutral.",
"Neutral syllables can occur at any position.There are two main types of line:* A normal tetrameter, word-stresses and foot-stresses match, and there is a caesura between the second and third feet:: * A broken tetrameter (Finnish: ''murrelmasäe'') has at least one stressed syllable in a falling position.",
"There is usually no caesura:: Traditional poetry in the Kalevala metre uses both types with approximately the same frequency.",
"The alternating normal and broken tetrameters is a characteristic difference between the Kalevala metre and other forms of trochaic tetrameter.There are four additional rules:* In the first foot, the length of syllables is free.",
"It is also possible for the first foot to contain three or even four syllables.",
"* A one-syllable word can not occur at the end of a line.",
"* A word with four syllables should not stand in the middle of a line.",
"This also applies to non-compound words.",
"* The last syllable of a line may not include a long vowel.====Schemes====There are two main schemes featured in the ''Kalevala'':* Alliteration:Alliteration can be broken into two forms.",
"Weak: where only the opening consonant is the same, and strong: where both the first vowel or vowel and consonant are the same in the different words.",
"(e.g.",
").",
"* Parallelism:Parallelism in ''The Kalevala'' refers to the stylistic feature of repeating the idea presented in the previous line, often by using synonyms, rather than moving the plot forward.",
"(e.g.",
").",
"Lönnrot has been criticised for overusing parallelism in ''The Kalevala'': in the original poems, a line was usually followed by only one such parallel line.The verses are sometimes inverted into chiasmus.====Poetry example====Verses 221 to 232 of song forty.===Lönnrot's contribution to the ''Kalevala''===Very little is actually known about Elias Lönnrot's personal contributions to the ''Kalevala''.",
"Scholars to this day still argue about how much of the ''Kalevala'' is genuine folk poetry and how much is Lönnrot's own work – and the degree to which the text is 'authentic' to the oral tradition.",
"During the compilation process it is known that he merged poem variants and characters together, left out verses that did not fit and composed lines of his own to connect certain passages into a logical plot.",
"Similarly, as was normal in the preliterate conventions of oral poetry—according to the testimony of Arhippa Perttunen—traditional bards in his father's days would always vary the language of songs from performance to performance when reciting from their repertoire.The Finnish historian Väinö Kaukonen suggests that 3% of the lines are Lönnrot's own composition, 14% are Lönnrot compositions from variants, 50% are verses which Lönnrot kept mostly unchanged except for some minor alterations, and 33% are original unedited oral poetry.===Publishing=======Finnish language====Finland's national epic \"The Kalevala\", 3rd edition (1887, published by the Finnish Literature Society)The first version of Lönnrot's compilation was entitled ''Kalewala, taikka Wanhoja Karjalan Runoja Suomen Kansan muinoisista ajoista'' (\"The Kalevala, or old Karelian poems about ancient times of the Finnish people\"), also known as the ''Old Kalevala''.",
"It was published in two volumes in 1835–1836.The ''Old Kalevala'' consisted of 12,078 verses making up a total of thirty-two poems.Even after the publication of the ''Old Kalevala'' Lönnrot continued to collect new material for several years.",
"He later integrated this additional material, with significantly edited existing material, into a second version, the ''Kalevala''.",
"This ''New Kalevala'', published in 1849, contains fifty poems, with a number of plot differences compared with the first version, and is the standard text of the ''Kalevala'' read and translated to this day.",
"(Published as: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia.",
"14 Osa.",
"KALEVALA.",
")The word ''Kalevala'' rarely appears in the original folk songs.",
"The first appearance of the word in folk songs was recorded in April 1836.Lönnrot chose it as the title for his project sometime at the end of 1834, but his choice was not random.",
"The name \"Kalev\" appears in Finnic and Baltic folklore in many locations, and the ''Sons of Kalev'' are known throughout Finnish and Estonian folklore.Lönnrot produced ''Lyhennetty laitos'', an abridged version of the Kalevala, in 1862.It was intended for use in schools.",
"It retains all 50 poems from the 1849 version, but omits more than half of the verses.====Translations====Volume 1 of Crawford's English translation (PDF)Of the few complete translations into English, it is only the older translations by John Martin Crawford (1888) and William Forsell Kirby (1907) which attempt to strictly follow the original (Kalevala metre) of the poems.A notable partial translation of Franz Anton Schiefner's German translation was made by Prof. John Addison Porter in 1868 and published by Leypoldt & Holt.Edward Taylor Fletcher, a British-born Canadian literature enthusiast, translated selections of the ''Kalevala'' in 1869.He read them before the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec on 17 March 1869.Francis Peabody Magoun published a scholarly translation of the ''Kalevala'' in 1963 written entirely in prose.",
"The appendices of this version contain notes on the history of the poem, comparisons between the original ''Old Kalevala'' and the current version, and a detailed glossary of terms and names used in the poem.",
"Magoun translated the ''Old Kalevala'', which was published six years later entitled ''The Old Kalevala and Certain Antecedents''.Eino Friberg's 1988 translation uses the original metre selectively but in general is more attuned to pleasing the ear than being an exact metrical translation; it also often reduces the length of songs for aesthetic reasons.",
"In the introduction to his 1989 translation, Keith Bosley stated: \"The only way I could devise of reflecting the vitality of Kalevala metre was to invent my own, based on syllables rather than feet.",
"While translating over 17,000 lines of Finnish folk poetry before I started on the epic, I found that a line settled usually into seven syllables of English, often less, occasionally more.",
"I eventually arrived at seven, five and nine syllables respectively, using the ''impair'' (odd number) as a formal device and letting the stresses fall where they would.",
"\"Most recently, Finnish/Canadian author and translator Kaarina Brooks translated into English the complete runic versions of ''Old Kalevala'' 1835 (Wisteria Publications 2020) and ''Kalevala'' (Wisteria Publications 2021).",
"These works, unlike some previous versions, faithfully follow the Kalevala meter (Trochaic tetrameter) throughout and can be sung or chanted as Elias Lönnrot had intended.",
"Brooks says, \"It is essential that the translation of Kalevala into any language follows the Kalevala metre, for that was how these runes were sung in times immemorial.",
"So that readers get the full impact of these ancient runes, it is imperative that they be presented in the same chanting style.\"",
"Kaarina Brooks is also the translator of, An Illustrated Kalevala Myths and Legends from Finland, published by Floris Books UK.Modern translations were published in the Karelian and Urdu languages between 2009 and 2015.Thus, the ''Kalevala'' was published in its originating Karelian language only after 168 years since its first translation into Swedish.As of 2010, the ''Kalevala'' had been translated into sixty-one languages and is Finland's most translated work of literature."
],
[
"The story",
"===Introduction===The ''Kalevala'' begins with the traditional Finnish creation myth, leading into stories of the creation of the earth, plants, creatures, and the sky.",
"Creation, healing, combat and internal story telling are often accomplished by the character(s) involved singing of their exploits or desires.",
"Many parts of the stories involve a character hunting or requesting lyrics (spells) to acquire some skill, such as boatbuilding or the mastery of iron making.",
"As well as magical spell casting and singing, there are many stories of lust, romance, kidnapping and seduction.",
"The protagonists of the stories often have to accomplish feats that are unreasonable or impossible which they often fail to achieve, leading to tragedy and humiliation.The Sampo is a pivotal element of the whole work.",
"Many actions and their consequences are caused by the Sampo itself or a character's interaction with the Sampo.",
"It is described as a magical talisman or device that brings its possessor great fortune and prosperity, but its precise nature has been the subject of debate to the present day.===Cantos=======First Väinämöinen Cycle====''Ilmatar'' by Robert Wilhelm Ekman, 1860'''Cantos 1 to 2:''' The poem begins with an introduction by the singers.",
"The Earth is created from the shards of the egg of a goldeneye and the first man, Väinämöinen, is born to the goddess Ilmatar.",
"Väinämöinen brings trees and life to the barren world.",
"'''Cantos 3–5:''' Väinämöinen encounters the jealous Joukahainen and they engage in a battle of song.",
"Joukahainen loses and pledges his sister's hand in return for his life; the sister Aino soon drowns herself in the sea.",
"'''Cantos 6–10:''' Väinämöinen heads to Pohjola to propose to a maiden of the north, a daughter of the mistress of the north Louhi.",
"Joukahainen attacks Väinämöinen again, and Väinämöinen floats for days on the sea until he is carried by an eagle to Pohjola.",
"He makes a deal with Louhi to get Ilmarinen the smith to create the Sampo.",
"Ilmarinen refuses to go to Pohjola so Väinämöinen forces him against his will.",
"The Sampo is forged.",
"Ilmarinen returns without a bride.====First Lemminkäinen Cycle===='''Cantos 11–15:''' Lemminkäinen sets out in search of a bride.",
"He and the maid Kyllikki make vows but the happiness doesn't last long and Lemminkäinen sets off to woo a maiden of the north.",
"His mother tries to stop him, but he disregards her warnings and instead gives her his hairbrush, telling her that if it starts to bleed he has met his doom.",
"At Pohjola Louhi assigns dangerous tasks to him in exchange for her daughter's hand.",
"While hunting for the swan of Tuonela, Lemminkäinen is killed and falls into the river of death.",
"The brush he gave to his mother begins to bleed.",
"Remembering her son's words, she goes in search of him.",
"With a rake given to her by Ilmarinen, she collects the pieces of Lemminkäinen scattered in the river and pieces him back together.Lemminkäinen's Mother by Akseli Gallen-Kallela, 1897====Second Väinämöinen Cycle===='''Cantos 16–18:''' Väinämöinen builds a boat to travel to Pohjola once again in search of a bride.",
"He visits Tuonela and is held prisoner, but he manages to escape and sets out to gain knowledge of the necessary spells from the giant Antero Vipunen.",
"Väinämöinen is swallowed and has to torture Antero Vipunen for the spells and his escape.",
"With his boat completed, Väinämöinen sets sail for Pohjola.",
"Ilmarinen learns of this and resolves to go to Pohjola himself to woo the maiden.",
"The maiden of the north chooses Ilmarinen.====Ilmarinen's Wedding===='''Cantos 19–25:''' Ilmarinen is assigned dangerous unreasonable tasks to win the hand of the maiden.",
"He accomplishes these tasks with some help from the maiden herself.",
"In preparation for the wedding, beer is brewed, a giant steer is slaughtered, and invitations are sent out.",
"Lemminkäinen is uninvited.",
"The wedding party begins and all are happy.",
"Väinämöinen sings and lauds the people of Pohjola.",
"The bride and bridegroom are prepared for their roles in matrimony.",
"The couple arrive home and are greeted with drink and viands.====Second Lemminkäinen Cycle===='''Cantos 26–30:''' Lemminkäinen is resentful for not having been invited to the wedding and sets out immediately for Pohjola.",
"On his arrival he is challenged to and wins a duel with Sariola, the Master of the North.",
"Louhi is enraged and an army is conjured to enact revenge upon Lemminkäinen.",
"He flees to his mother, who advises him to head to Saari, the Island of Refuge.",
"On his return he finds his house burned to the ground.",
"He goes to Pohjola with his companion Tiera to exact his revenge, but Louhi freezes the seas and Lemminkäinen has to return home.",
"When he arrives home he is reunited with his mother and vows to build larger better houses to replace the ones burned down.====Kullervo Cycle====''Kullervo Speaks to His Sword'' by Carl Eneas Sjöstrand, 1868 (cast into bronze in 1932)'''Cantos 31–36:''' Untamo kills his brother Kalervo's people, but spares his wife who later conceives Kullervo.",
"Untamo sees the boy as a threat, and after trying to have him killed several times without success, sells Kullervo as a slave to Ilmarinen.",
"Ilmarinen's wife torments and bullies Kullervo, so he tricks her into being torn apart by a pack of wolves and bears.",
"Kullervo escapes from Ilmarinen's homestead and learns from an old lady in the forest that his family is still alive, and is soon reunited with them.",
"While returning home from paying taxes, he meets and seduces a young maiden, only to find out that she is his sister.",
"Upon realizing this, she kills herself and Kullervo returns home distressed.",
"He decides to wreak revenge upon Untamo and sets out to find him.",
"Kullervo wages war on Untamo and his people, laying all to waste, and then returns home, where he finds his farm deserted.",
"Filled with remorse and regret, he kills himself in the place where he seduced his sister.====Second Ilmarinen Cycle===='''Cantos 37–38:''' Grieving for his lost love, Ilmarinen forges himself a wife out of gold and silver, but finds her to be cold and discards her.",
"He heads for Pohjola and kidnaps the youngest daughter of Louhi.",
"The daughter insults him so badly that he instead sings a spell to turn her into a bird and returns to Kalevala without her.",
"He tells Väinämöinen about the prosperity and wealth that has met Pohjola's people thanks to the Sampo.====Theft of the Sampo===='''Cantos 39–44:''' Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen and Lemminkäinen sail to Pohjola to recover the Sampo.",
"While on their journey they kill a monstrous pike and from its jaw bone the first is made, with which Väinämöinen sings so beautifully even deities gather to listen.",
"The heroes arrive in Pohjola and demand a share of the Sampo's wealth or they will take the whole Sampo by force.",
"Louhi musters her army; however, Väinämöinen lulls everyone in Pohjola to sleep with his music.",
"The Sampo is taken from its vault of stone and the heroes set out for home.",
"Louhi conjures a great army, turns herself into a massive eagle and fights for the Sampo.",
"In the battle the Sampo is lost to the sea and destroyed.====Louhi's Revenge on Kalevala===='''Cantos 45–49:''' Enraged at the loss of the Sampo, Louhi sends the people of Kalevala diseases and a great bear to kill their cattle.",
"She hides the sun and the moon and steals fire from Kalevala.",
"Väinämöinen heals all of the ailments and, with Ilmarinen, restores the fire.",
"Väinämöinen forces Louhi to return the Sun and the Moon to the skies.====Marjatta cycle===='''Canto 50:''' The shy young virgin Marjatta becomes impregnated from a lingonberry she ate while tending to her flock.",
"She conceives a son.",
"Väinämöinen orders the killing of the boy, but the boy begins to speak and reproaches Väinämöinen for ill judgement.",
"The child is then baptised King of Karelia.",
"Väinämöinen sails away leaving only his songs and kantele as legacy but vowing to return when there's no moon or sun and happiness isn't free anymore.The poem ends and the singers sing a farewell and thank their audience.===Characters=======Väinämöinen====Väinämöinen is deeply identified with his kantele.",
"(''Väinämöinen's Play'', Robert Wilhelm Ekman, 1866)Väinämöinen, the central character of ''The Kalevala'', is a shamanistic hero with a magical power of song and music similar to that of Orpheus.",
"He is born of Ilmatar and contributes to the creation of Earth as it is today.",
"Many of his travels resemble shamanistic journeys, most notably one where he visits the belly of a ground-giant, Antero Vipunen, to find the songs of boat building.",
"Väinämöinen's search for a wife is a central element in many stories, but he never finds one.Väinämöinen is associated with playing a , a Finnish stringed instrument that resembles and is played like a zither.====Ilmarinen====Seppo Ilmarinen is a heroic artificer (comparable to the Germanic Weyland and the Greek Daedalus).",
"He crafted the dome of the sky, the Sampo and various other magical devices featured in ''The Kalevala''.",
"Ilmarinen, like Väinämöinen, also has many stories told of his search for a wife, reaching the point where he forges one of gold.====Lemminkäinen====Lemminkäinen, a handsome, arrogant and reckless seducer, is the son of .",
"He has a close relationship with his mother, who revives him after he has been drowned in the river of Tuonela while pursuing the object of his romantic desires.====Ukko==== is the god of sky and thunder, and the leading deity mentioned within ''The Kalevala''.",
"He corresponds to Thor and Zeus.====Joukahainen====Joukahainen is a base young man who arrogantly challenges Väinämöinen to a singing contest, which he loses.",
"In exchange for his life Joukahainen promises his young sister Aino to Väinämöinen.",
"Joukahainen attempts to gain his revenge on Väinämöinen by killing him with a crossbow, but only succeeds in killing Väinämöinen's horse.",
"Joukahainen's actions lead to Väinämöinen promising to build a Sampo in return for Louhi rescuing him.====Louhi====Mistress of the North, Louhi attacking Väinämöinen in the form of a giant eagle with her troops on her back.",
"(''The Defense of the Sampo'', Akseli Gallen-Kallela, 1896)Louhi, the Mistress of the North, is the shamanistic matriarch of the people of Pohjola, a people rivalling those of Kalevala.",
"She is the cause of much trouble for Kalevala and its people.Louhi at one point saves Väinämöinen's life.",
"She has many daughters whom the heroes of Kalevala make many attempts, some successful, to seduce.",
"Louhi plays a major part in the battle to prevent the heroes of Kalevala from stealing back the Sampo, which as a result is ultimately destroyed.",
"She is a powerful witch with a skill almost on a par with that of Väinämöinen.====Kullervo====Kullervo is the vengeful, mentally ill, tragic son of Kalervo.",
"He was abused as a child and sold into slavery to Ilmarinen.",
"He is put to work and treated badly by Ilmarinen's wife, whom he later kills.",
"Kullervo is a misguided and troubled youth, at odds with himself and his situation.",
"He often goes into berserk rage, and in the end commits suicide.====Marjatta====Marjatta is a young virgin of Kalevala.",
"She becomes pregnant from eating a lingonberry.",
"When her labour begins she is expelled from her parents' home and leaves to find a place where she can sauna and give birth.",
"She is turned away from numerous places but finally finds a place in the forest and gives birth to a son.",
"Marjatta's nature, impregnation and searching for a place to give birth are in allegory to the Virgin Mary and the Christianisation of Finland.",
"Marjatta's son is later condemned to death by Väinämöinen for being born out of wedlock.",
"The boy in turn chastises Väinämöinen and is later crowned King of Karelia.",
"This angers Väinämöinen, who leaves Kalevala after bequeathing his songs and kantele to the people as his legacy."
],
[
"Influence",
"The ''Kalevala'' is a major part of Finnish culture and history.",
"It has influenced the arts in Finland and in other cultures around the world.===Finnish daily life===Entrance hall of the National Museum of Finland with Kalevala frescoes by Gallen-KallelaThe influence of the ''Kalevala'' in daily life and business in Finland is tangible.",
"Names and places associated with the ''Kalevala'' have been adopted as company and brand names and as place names.There are several places within Finland with ''Kalevala''-related names, for example: the district of Tapiola in the city of Espoo; the district of Pohjola in the city of Turku, the district of Metsola in the city of Vantaa, and the districts of Kaleva and Sampo in the city of Tampere; the historic provinces of Savo and Karjala and the Russian town of Hiitola are all mentioned within the songs of the ''Kalevala''.",
"In addition, the Russian town of Ukhta was in 1963 renamed Kalevala.",
"In the United States a small community founded in 1900 by Finnish immigrants is named Kaleva, Michigan; many of the street names are taken from the ''Kalevala''.The banking sector of Finland has had at least three ''Kalevala''-related brands: Sampo Bank (name changed to Danske Bank in late 2012), OP-Pohjola Group and Tapiola Bank.The jewellery company Kalevala Koru was founded in 1935 on the 100th anniversary of the publication of the ''Old Kalevala''.",
"It specialises in the production of unique and culturally important items of jewellery.",
"It is co-owned by the Kalevala Women's League and offers artistic scholarships to a certain number of organisations and individuals every year.The Finnish dairy company Valio has a brand of ice-cream named Aino, specialising in more exotic flavours than their normal brand.The construction group Lemminkäinen was formed in 1910 as a roofing and asphalt company.",
"The name was chosen specifically to emphasise that they were a wholly Finnish company.",
"They now operate internationally.====Finnish calendar====Kalevala Day is celebrated in Finland on 28 February, to celebrate the publication date of Elias Lönnrot's first version of the ''Kalevala'' in 1835.By its other official name, the day is known as the Finnish Culture Day.Several of the names in the ''Kalevala'' are celebrated as Finnish name days.",
"The name days themselves and the dates they fall upon have no direct relationship with the ''Kalevala'' itself; however, the adoption of the names became commonplace after the release of the ''Kalevala''.===Art===The tragedy of Kullervo has been a source of inspiration for several artists.",
"(''Kullervo's Curse'', Gallen-Kallela, 1899)Several artists have been influenced by the ''Kalevala'', most notably Akseli Gallen-Kallela.Iittala group's Arabia brand kilned a series of ''Kalevala'' commemorative plates, designed by Raija Uosikkinen (1923–2004).",
"The series ran from 1976 to 1999, and the plates are highly sought-after collectibles.One of the earliest artists to depict the ''Kalevala'' was Robert Wilhelm Ekman.In 1989, the fourth full translation of the ''Kalevala'' into English was published, illustrated by Björn Landström.===Literature===The ''Kalevala'' has been translated over 150 times, into over 60 different languages.",
"(See § translations.",
")====Re-tellings====Finnish cartoonist Kristian Huitula illustrated a comic book adaptation of the ''Kalevala''.",
"The ''Kalevala Graphic Novel'' contains the storyline of all the 50 chapters in original text form.Finnish cartoonist and children's writer Mauri Kunnas wrote and illustrated .",
"The story is that of the ''Kalevala'', with the characters presented as anthropomorphised dogs, wolves and cats.",
"The story deviates from the full ''Kalevala'' to make the story more appropriate for children.In the late 1950s students from the Rose Bruford College of Speech and Drama performed excerpts from the Kalevala in a presentation to the poet laureate John Masefield at Oxford.",
"Some images from this presentation can be viewed onlineThe ''Kalevala'' inspired the American Disney cartoonist Don Rosa to draw a Donald Duck (who is himself a popular character in Finland) story based on the ''Kalevala'', called ''The Quest for Kalevala''.",
"The comic was released on the 150th anniversary of the ''Kalevala''.====Works inspired by====Franz Anton Schiefner's translation of the ''Kalevala'' was one inspiration for Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's 1855 poem ''The Song of Hiawatha'', which is written in a similar trochaic tetrameter.Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald's Estonian national epic ''Kalevipoeg'' was inspired by the ''Kalevala''.",
"Both Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen are mentioned in the work, and the overall story of Kalevipoeg, Kalev's son, bears similarities to the Kullervo story.J.",
"R. R. Tolkien claimed the ''Kalevala'' as one of his sources for ''The Silmarillion''.",
"For example, the tale of Kullervo is the basis of Túrin Turambar in ''Narn i Chîn Húrin'', including the sword that speaks when the anti-hero uses it to commit suicide.",
"Aulë, the Lord of Matter and the Master of All Crafts, was influenced by Ilmarinen, the Eternal Hammerer.",
"Echoes of the ''Kalevala''s characters, Väinämöinen in particular, can be found in Tom Bombadil of ''The Lord of the Rings''.Poet and playwright Paavo Haavikko took influence from the ''Kalevala'', including in his poem ''Kaksikymmentä ja yksi'' (1974), and the TV drama ''Rauta-aika'' (1982).American science fiction and fantasy authors L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt used the ''Kalevala'' as source materials for their 1953 fantasy novella \"The Wall of Serpents\".",
"This is the fourth story in the authors' Harold Shea series, in which the hero and his companions visit various mythic and fictional worlds.",
"In this story, the characters visit the world of the Kalevala, where they encounter characters from the epic, drawn with a skeptical eye.Emil Petaja was an American science fiction and fantasy author of Finnish descent.",
"His best known works, known as the ''Otava Series'', were a series of novels based on the ''Kalevala''.",
"The series brought Petaja readers from around the world, while his mythological approach to science fiction was discussed in scholarly papers presented at academic conferences.",
"He has a further ''Kalevala'' based work which is not part of the series, entitled ''The Time Twister''.British fantasy author Michael Moorcock's sword and sorcery anti-hero, Elric of Melniboné was influenced by the character Kullervo.British fantasy author Michael Scott Rohan's ''Winter of the World'' series feature Louhi as a major antagonist and include many narrative threads from the ''Kalevela''.The web comic \"A Redtail's Dream\", written and illustrated by Minna Sundberg, cites the ''Kalevala'' as an influence.",
"(Physical edition 2014.",
")The British science fiction writer Ian Watson's ''Books of Mana'' duology, ''Lucky's Harvest'' and ''The Fallen Moon'', both contain references to places and names from the ''Kalevala''.In 2008, Vietnamese author and translator Bùi Viêt Hoa published a piece of epic poetry ''The Children of Mon and Man'' (), which delves into Vietnamese folk poetry and mythology, but was partially influenced by the ''Kalevala''.",
"The work was written mainly in Finland and the Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs co-financed it.===Music===Jean Sibelius in the 1950s.",
"Sibelius is Finland's most famous composer.",
"Many of his works were influenced by the ''Kalevala''.Finnish music has been greatly influenced by the ''Kalevala'', following in the tradition of the original song-poems.====Classical music====The first recorded example of a musician influenced by the ''Kalevala'' is Filip von Schantz.",
"In 1860, he composed the Kullervo Overture.",
"The piece premièred at the opening of a new theatre in Helsinki on November of the same year.",
"Von Schantz's work was followed by Robert Kajanus' ''Kullervo's Funeral March'' and the symphonic poem ''Aino'' in 1880 and 1885, respectively.",
"''Aino'' is credited with inspiring Jean Sibelius to investigate the richness of the ''Kalevala''.",
"''Die Kalewainen in Pochjola'', the first opera freely based upon the ''Kalevala'', was composed by Karl Müller-Berghaus in 1890, but the work has never been performed.Jean Sibelius is the best-known ''Kalevala''-influenced classical composer.",
"Twelve of Sibelius' best-known works are based upon or influenced by the ''Kalevala'', including his ''Kullervo'', a tone poem for soprano, baritone, chorus and orchestra composed in 1892.Sibelius also composed the music of to words written by Finnish soldier and writer Heikki Nurmio.",
"The march features the line .Other classical composers influenced by the ''Kalevala'':* Einojuhani Rautavaara* Leevi Madetoja* Uuno Klami* Tauno Marttinen* Aulis Sallinen* Veljo Tormis====Folk metal====A number of folk metal bands have drawn on the ''Kalevala'' heavily for inspiration.",
"In 1993 the Finnish bands Amorphis and Sentenced released two concept albums, ''Tales from the Thousand Lakes'' and ''North from Here'' respectively, which were the first of many ''Kalevala''-inspired albums that have followed since.",
"Amorphis's 2009 album ''Skyforger'' also draws heavily on the ''Kalevala''.",
"The Finnish folk metal band Ensiferum have released songs such as \"Old Man\" and \"Little Dreamer\", which are influenced by the ''Kalevala''.",
"The third track of their ''Dragonheads'' EP, entitled \"Kalevala Melody\", is an instrumental piece following the rhythm of the Kalevala metre.",
"Another Finnish folk metal band, Turisas, have adapted several verses from song nine of the ''Kalevala'', \"The Origin of Iron\", for the lyrics of their song \"Cursed Be Iron\", which is the third track of the album ''The Varangian Way''.",
"Finnish metal band Amberian Dawn use lyrics inspired by the ''Kalevala'' on their album ''River of Tuoni'', as well as on its successor, ''The Clouds of Northland Thunder''.",
"On 3 August 2012, Finnish folk metal band Korpiklaani released a new album entitled ''Manala''.",
"Jonne Järvelä from the band said, \" is the realm of the dead – the underworld in Finnish mythology.",
"and are used synonymously.",
"This place is best known for its appearance in the Finnish national epic ''Kalevala'', on which many of our new songs are based.",
"\"====Other musical genres====In the mid-1960s, the progressive rock band Kalevala was active within Finland and in 1974, the now prolific singer-songwriter Jukka Kuoppamäki released the song \"Väinämöinen\".",
"These were some of the first pieces of modern popular music inspired by the ''Kalevala''.In 1998, Ruth MacKenzie recorded the album ''Kalevala: Dream of the Salmon Maiden'', a song cycle covering the story of Aino and her choice to refuse the hand of the sorcerer Väinämöinen, instead transforming herself into a salmon.",
"MacKenzie has continued to perform the piece live.The Karelian Finnish folk music group Värttinä has based some of its lyrics on motifs from the ''Kalevala''.",
"The Vantaa Chamber Choir have songs influenced by the ''Kalevala''.",
"Their ''Kalevala''-themed third album, ''Marian virsi'' (2005), combines contemporary folk with traditionally performed folk poetry.In 2003, the Finnish progressive rock quarterly Colossus and French Musea Records commissioned 30 progressive rock groups from around the world to compose songs based on parts of the ''Kalevala''.",
"The publication assigned each band with a particular song from the ''Kalevala'', which the band was free to interpret as they saw fit.",
"The result, titled ''Kalevala'', is a three-disc, multilingual, four-hour epic telling.In the beginning of 2009, in celebration of the 160th anniversary of the ''Kalevala''s first published edition, the Finnish Literature Society, the Kalevala Society, premièred ten new and original works inspired by the ''Kalevala''.",
"The works included poems, classical and contemporary music and artwork.",
"A book was published by the Finnish Literature Society in conjunction with the event and a large exhibition of ''Kalevala''-themed artwork and cultural artefacts was put on display at the Ateneum museum in Helsinki.In 2017 a New York-based production ''Kalevala the Musical'' premiered in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Republic of Finland.",
"The production featured original pop, folk and world music score written by Johanna Telander.",
"The concert version was performed across the United States and Finland.===Film and television===In 1959, a joint Finnish-Soviet production entitled ''Sampo'', also known as ''The Day the Earth Froze'', was released, inspired by the story of the ''Sampo'' from the ''Kalevala'', which is also featured in a 1993 episode of ''Mystery Science Theater 3000''.In 1982, the Finnish Broadcasting Company (YLE) produced a television mini-series called , with music composed by Aulis Sallinen and book by Paavo Haavikko.",
"The series was set \"during the Kalevala times\" and based upon events which take place in the ''Kalevala''.",
"The series' part 3/4 won Prix Italia in 1983.The martial arts film ''Jadesoturi'', also known as ''Jade Warrior'', released in Finland on 13 October 2006, was based upon the ''Kalevala'' and set in Finland and China.",
"Also, the 2013 film ''Kalevala: The New Era'', directed by Jari Halonen, takes place both in the ancient land of the Kalevala and also in modern Finland.",
"The film, made with a budget of €250,000, turned out to be a box-office bomb and received a mostly negative reception from critics.In \"Chapter 17: The Apostate\", the first episode of the third season of ''The Mandalorian'' series, Din Djarin meets with Bo-Katan in an old Mandalorian castle, which is located in the Mandalore system planet called Kalevala.",
"The same planet has also previously been mentioned in ''The Clone Wars'' series."
],
[
"Interpretations",
"''Väinämöinen Plays Kantele'', a 1814 relief by made before the publication of the Kalevala and considered to be the first depiction of VäinämöinenThe ''Kalevala'' has attracted many scholars and enthusiasts to interpret its contents in a historical context.",
"Many interpretations of the themes have been tabled.",
"Some parts of the epic have been perceived as ancient conflicts between the early Finns and the Sami.",
"In this context, the country of \"Kalevala\" could be understood as Southern Finland and ''Pohjola'' as Lapland.The coat of arms of the Kalevalsky District in the Republic of KareliaHowever, the place names in ''Kalevala'' seem to transfer the ''Kalevala'' further south, which has been interpreted as reflecting the Finnic expansion from the South that came to push the Sami further to the north.",
"Some scholars locate the lands of ''Kalevala'' in East Karelia, where most of the ''Kalevala'' stories were written down.",
"In 1961, the small town of ''Uhtua'' in the then Soviet Republic of Karelia was renamed Kalevala, perhaps to promote that theory.Finnish politician and linguist Eemil Nestor Setälä rejected the idea that the heroes of ''Kalevala'' are historical in nature and suggested they are personifications of natural phenomena.",
"He interprets Pohjola as the northern heavens and the Sampo as the pillar of the world.",
"Setälä suggests that the journey to regain the Sampo is a purely imaginary one with the heroes riding a mythological boat or magical steed to the heavens.The practice of bear worship was once very common in Finland and there are strong echoes of this in the ''Kalevala''.The old Finnish word (a strait of deep water with a slow current) appears to be the origin of the name Väinämöinen; one of Väinämöinen's other names is Suvantolainen, being the modern word for .",
"Consequently, it is possible that the might be the island of Saaremaa in Estonia and ''Kalevala'' the Estonian mainland.Finnish folklorists Matti Kuusi and Pertti Anttonen state that terms such as ''the people of Kalevala'' or ''the tribe of Kalevala'' were fabricated by Elias Lönnrot.",
"Moreover, they contend that the word ''Kalevala'' is very rare in traditional poetry and that by emphasizing dualism (Kalevala vs. Pohjola) Elias Lönnrot created the required tension that made the ''Kalevala'' dramatically successful and thus fit for a national epic of the time.There are similarities with mythology and folklore from other cultures, for example the Kullervo character and his story bearing some likeness to the Greek Oedipus.",
"The similarity of the virginal maiden Marjatta to the Christian Virgin Mary is striking.",
"The arrival of Marjatta's son in the final song spelling the end of Väinämöinen's reign over Kalevala is similar to the arrival of Christianity bringing about the end of Paganism in Finland and Europe at large."
],
[
"See also",
"* Finnish mythology* ''Mythologia Fennica''* Finnish national symbols* Kalevi (mythology)* ''Kalevipoeg'', an Estonian epic poetry inspired by the ''Kalevala''* ''Kanteletar'', a sister collection of the ''Kalevala''* ''Kojiki'', a mythological text similarly compiled and edited from oral transmission"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"=== Translations ===*.",
"Text at Project Gutenberg: Volume 1, Volume 2, and Complete work.**.",
"Text at Project Gutenberg: Volume 1 and Volume 2.",
"*** , translation of the 1835 ''Old Kalevala''*=== Retellings ===* , a sequel for Don Rosa's ''The Quest for Kalevala'' featuring Scrooge McDuck and some characters from the ''Kalevala''*, near complete prose translation based on Crawford**** , a retelling in a style friendly to children* , a story in tribute to the ''Kalevala'' featuring Scrooge McDuck and some characters from the ''Kalevala''*=== Analysis ===****** ********** Siikala, Anna-Leena.",
"\"The Kalevalaic Tradition as Finnish Mythology\".",
"In: ''Ethnographica et Folkloristica Carpathica'', 12–13 (2002).",
"Megjelent: Mental Spaces and Ritual Traditions pp.",
"107–122* Tolley, Clive.",
"\"The Kalevala as a Model for our Understanding of the Composition of the Codex Regius of the Poetic Edda.\"",
"The Retrospective Methods Network (2014).",
"*=== Encyclopedia ===* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* (in English)* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Ku Klux Klan"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Ku Klux Klan''' (), commonly shortened to the '''KKK''' or the '''Klan''', is the name of several historical and current American white supremacist, far-right terrorist organizations and hate groups.",
"According to historian Fergus Bordewich, the Klan was \"the first organized terror movement in American history.\"",
"Their primary targets at various times have been African Americans, as well as Jews and Catholics.Three separate Klans have existed in three non-overlapping time periods.",
"Each comprised local chapters with little or no central direction.",
"Each has advocated extremist reactionary positions such as white nationalism, anti-immigration and—especially in later iterations—Nordicism, antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, Prohibition, right-wing populism, anti-communism, homophobia, anti-atheism, and Islamophobia.",
"The first Klan, founded by Confederate veterans in the late 1860s, would assault and murder politically active Black people and their allies in the South.",
"The second iteration of the Klan originated in the late 1910s, and was the first to use cross burnings and white hooded robes.",
"The KKK of the 1920s had a nationwide membership in the millions and reflected a cross-section of the native-born white population.",
"The third Klan formed in the mid 20th century, largely as a reaction to the growing civil rights movement.",
"It committed murders and bombings to achieve its aims.",
"All three movements have called for the \"purification\" of American society, and are all considered far-right extremist organizations.",
"In each era, membership was secret and estimates of the total were highly exaggerated by both friends and enemies.The first Klan, established in the wake of the Civil War, was a defining organization of the Reconstruction era.",
"Federal law enforcement began taking action against it around 1871.The Klan sought to overthrow Republican state governments in the South, especially by using voter intimidation and targeted violence against African-American leaders.",
"The Klan was organized into numerous independent chapters across the Southern United States.",
"Each chapter was autonomous and highly secretive about membership and plans.",
"Members made their own, often colorful, costumes: robes, masks and pointed hats, designed to be terrifying and to hide their identities.The second Klan started in 1915 as a small group in Georgia.",
"It suddenly started to grow after 1920 and flourished nationwide in the early and mid-1920s, including urban areas of the Midwest and West.",
"Taking inspiration from D. W. Griffith's 1915 silent film ''The Birth of a Nation'', which mythologized the founding of the first Klan, it employed marketing techniques and a popular fraternal organization structure.",
"Rooted in local Protestant communities, it sought to maintain white supremacy, often took a pro-Prohibition stance, and it opposed Jews, while also stressing its opposition to the alleged political power of the pope and the Catholic Church.",
"This second Klan flourished both in the south and northern states; it was funded by initiation fees and selling its members a standard white costume.",
"The chapters did not have dues.",
"It used K-words which were similar to those used by the first Klan, while adding cross burnings and mass parades to intimidate others.",
"It rapidly declined in the latter half of the 1920s.The third and current manifestation of the KKK emerged after 1950, in the form of localized and isolated groups that use the KKK name.",
"They have focused on opposition to the civil rights movement, often using violence and murder to suppress activists.",
"This manifestation is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center.",
", the Anti-Defamation League puts total KKK membership nationwide at around 3,000, while the Southern Poverty Law Center puts it at 6,000 members total.The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to a false mythologized perception of America's \"Anglo-Saxon\" blood, hearkening back to 19th-century nativism.",
"Although members of the KKK swear to uphold \"Christian morality\", Christian denominations widely denounce them."
],
[
"Overview",
"===First Klan===Depiction of Ku Klux Klan in North Carolina in 1870, based on a photograph taken under the supervision of a federal officer who seized Klan costumesThe first Klan was founded in Pulaski, Tennessee, on December 24, 1865, by six former officers of the Confederate army: Frank McCord, Richard Reed, John Lester, John Kennedy, J. Calvin Jones, and James Crowe.",
"It started as a fraternal social club inspired at least in part by the then largely defunct Sons of Malta.",
"It borrowed parts of the initiation ceremony from that group, with the same purpose: \"ludicrous initiations, the baffling of public curiosity, and the amusement for members were the only objects of the Klan\", according to Albert Stevens in 1907.The manual of rituals was printed by Laps D. McCord of Pulaski.",
"The origins of the hood are uncertain; it may have been appropriated from the Spanish capirote hood, or it may be traced to the uniform of Southern Mardi Gras celebrations.According to ''The Cyclopædia of Fraternities'' (1907), \"Beginning in April, 1867, there was a gradual transformation. ...",
"The members had conjured up a veritable Frankenstein.",
"They had played with an engine of power and mystery, though organized on entirely innocent lines, and found themselves overcome by a belief that something must lie behind it all—that there was, after all, a serious purpose, a work for the Klan to do.",
"\"The KKK had no organizational structure above the chapter level.",
"However, there were similar groups across the South that adopted similar goals.",
"Klan chapters promoted white supremacy and spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement in resistance to Reconstruction.",
"Confederate veteran John W. Morton founded a KKK chapter in Nashville, Tennessee.",
"As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies; it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder.",
"\"They targeted white Northern leaders, Southern sympathizers and politically active Blacks.\"",
"In 1870 and 1871, the federal government passed the Enforcement Acts, which were intended to prosecute and suppress Klan crimes.The first Klan had mixed results in terms of achieving its objectives.",
"It seriously weakened the Black political leadership through its use of assassinations and threats of violence, and it drove some people out of politics.",
"On the other hand, it caused a sharp backlash, with passage of federal laws that historian Eric Foner says were a success in terms of \"restoring order, reinvigorating the morale of Southern Republicans, and enabling Blacks to exercise their rights as citizens\".",
"Historian George C. Rable argues that the Klan was a political failure and therefore was discarded by the Democratic Party leaders of the South.",
"He says:After the Klan was suppressed, similar insurgent paramilitary groups arose that were explicitly directed at suppressing Republican voting and turning Republicans out of office: the White League, which started in Louisiana in 1874; and the Red Shirts, which started in Mississippi and developed chapters in the Carolinas.",
"For instance, the Red Shirts are credited with helping elect Wade Hampton as governor in South Carolina.",
"They were described as acting as the military arm of the Democratic Party and are attributed with helping white Democrats regain control of state legislatures throughout the South.===Second Klan===KKK rally near Chicago in the 1920sIn 1915, the second Klan was founded atop Stone Mountain, Georgia, by William Joseph Simmons.",
"While Simmons relied on documents from the original Klan and memories of some surviving elders, the revived Klan was based significantly on the wildly popular film ''The Birth of a Nation''.",
"The earlier Klan had not worn the white costumes and had not burned crosses; these aspects were introduced in Thomas Dixon's book ''The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan,'' on which the film was based.",
"When the film was shown in Atlanta in December of that year, Simmons and his new klansmen paraded to the theater in robes and pointed hoods – many on robed horses – just like in the film.",
"These mass parades became another hallmark of the new Klan that had not existed in the original Reconstruction-era organization.Beginning in 1921, it adopted a modern business system of using full-time, paid recruiters and it appealed to new members as a fraternal organization, of which many examples were flourishing at the time.",
"The national headquarters made its profit through a monopoly on costume sales, while the organizers were paid through initiation fees.",
"It grew rapidly nationwide at a time of prosperity.",
"Reflecting the social tensions pitting urban versus rural America, it spread to every state and was prominent in many cities.Writer W. J.",
"Cash, in his 1941 book ''The Mind of the South'' characterized the second Klan as \"anti-Negro, anti-Alien, anti-Red, anti-Catholic, anti-Jew, anti-Darwin, anti-Modern, anti-Liberal, Fundamentalist, vastly Moral, and militantly Protestant.",
"And summing up these fears, it brought them into focus with the tradition of the past, and above all with the ancient Southern pattern of high romantic histrionics, violence and mass coercion of the scapegoat and the heretic.\"",
"It preached \"One Hundred Percent Americanism\" and demanded the purification of politics, calling for strict morality and better enforcement of Prohibition.",
"Its official rhetoric focused on the threat of the Catholic Church, using anti-Catholicism and nativism.",
"Its appeal was directed exclusively toward white Protestants; it opposed Jews, Black people, Catholics, and newly arriving Southern and Eastern European immigrants such as Italians, Russians, and Lithuanians, many of whom were Jewish or Catholic.Some local groups threatened violence against rum runners and those they deemed \"notorious sinners\"; the violent episodes generally took place in the South.",
"The Red Knights were a militant group organized in opposition to the Klan and responded violently to Klan provocations on several occasions.Judge'', August 16, 1924|alt=The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure.",
"During the resurgence of the second Klan in the 1920s, its publicity was handled by the Southern Publicity Association.",
"Within the first six months of the Association's national recruitment campaign, Klan membership had increased by 85,000.At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization's membership ranged from three to eight million members.In 1923, Simmons was ousted as leader of the KKK by Hiram Wesley Evans.",
"From September 1923 there were two Ku Klux Klan organizations: the one founded by Simmons and led by Evans with its strength primarily in the southern United States, and a breakaway group led by Grand Dragon D. C. Stephenson based in Evansville, Indiana with its membership primarily in the midwestern United States.Internal divisions, criminal behavior by leaders – especially Stephenson's conviction for the abduction, rape, and murder of Madge Oberholtzer – and external opposition brought about a collapse in the membership of both groups.",
"The main group's membership had dropped to about 30,000 by 1930.It finally faded away in the 1940s.",
"Klan organizers also operated in Canada, especially in Saskatchewan in 1926–1928, where Klansmen denounced immigrants from Eastern Europe as a threat to Canada's \"Anglo-Saxon\" heritage.===Third Klan===The \"Ku Klux Klan\" name was used by numerous independent local groups opposing the civil rights movement and desegregation, especially in the 1950s and 1960s.",
"During this period, they often forged alliances with Southern police departments, as in Birmingham, Alabama; or with governor's offices, as with George Wallace of Alabama.",
"Several members of Klan groups were convicted of murder in the deaths of civil rights workers in Mississippi in 1964 and of children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham in 1963.The United States government still considers the Klan to be a \"subversive terrorist organization\".",
"In April 1997, FBI agents arrested four members of the True Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Dallas for conspiracy to commit robbery and for conspiring to blow up a natural gas processing plant.",
"In 1999, the city council of Charleston, South Carolina, passed a resolution declaring the Klan a terrorist organization.The existence of modern Klan groups has been in a state of consistent decline, due to a variety of factors: from the American public's negative distaste of the group's image, platform, and history, infiltration and prosecution by law enforcement, civil lawsuit forfeitures, and the radical right-wing's perception of the Klan as outdated and unfashionable.",
"The Southern Poverty Law Center reported that between 2016 and 2019, the number of Klan groups in America dropped from 130 to just 51.A 2016 report by the Anti-Defamation League claims an estimate of just over 30 active Klan groups existing in the United States.",
"Estimates of total collective membership range from about 3,000 to 8,000.In addition to its active membership, the Klan has an \"unknown number of associates and supporters\"."
],
[
"History",
"===Origin of the name===The name was probably formed by combining the Greek '''' (κύκλος, which means circle) with ''clan''.",
"The word had previously been used for other fraternal organizations in the South such as Kuklos Adelphon.===First Klan: 1865–1871=======Creation and naming====A cartoon threatening that the KKK will lynch scalawags (left) and carpetbaggers (right) on March 4, 1869, the day President Grant takes office.",
"Tuscaloosa, Alabama, ''Independent Monitor'', September 1, 1868.Six Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee, created the original Ku Klux Klan on December 24, 1865, shortly after the Civil War, during the Reconstruction of the South.",
"The group was known for a short time as the \"Kuklux Clan\".",
"The Ku Klux Klan was one of a number of secret, oath-bound organizations using violence, which included the Southern Cross in New Orleans (1865) and the Knights of the White Camelia (1867) in Louisiana.Historians generally classify the KKK as part of the post-Civil War insurgent violence related not only to the high number of veterans in the population, but also to their effort to control the dramatically changed social situation by using extrajudicial means to restore white supremacy.",
"In 1866, Mississippi governor William L. Sharkey reported that disorder, lack of control, and lawlessness were widespread; in some states armed bands of Confederate soldiers roamed at will.",
"The Klan used public violence against Black people and their allies as intimidation.",
"They burned houses and attacked and killed Black people, leaving their bodies on the roads.",
"While racism was a core belief of the Klan, antisemitism was not.",
"Many prominent Southern Jews identified wholly with southern culture, resulting in examples of Jewish participation in the Klan.Confederate cause.|alt=At an 1867 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Klan members gathered to try to create a hierarchical organization with local chapters eventually reporting to a national headquarters.",
"Since most of the Klan's members were veterans, they were used to such military hierarchy, but the Klan never operated under this centralized structure.",
"Local chapters and bands were highly independent.Nathan Bedford Forrest in Confederate military uniform Former Confederate brigadier general George Gordon developed the ''Prescript'', which espoused white supremacist belief.",
"For instance, an applicant should be asked if he was in favor of \"a white man's government\", \"the reenfranchisement and emancipation of the white men of the South, and the restitution of the Southern people to all their rights\".",
"The latter is a reference to the Ironclad Oath, which stripped the vote from white persons who refused to swear that they had not borne arms against the Union.Confederate general Nathan Bedford Forrest was elected the first grand wizard, and claimed to be the Klan's national leader.",
"In an 1868 newspaper interview, Forrest stated that the Klan's primary opposition was to the Loyal Leagues, Republican state governments, people such as Tennessee governor William Gannaway Brownlow, and other \"carpetbaggers\" and \"scalawags\".",
"He argued that many Southerners believed that Black people were voting for the Republican Party because they were being hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues.",
"One Alabama newspaper editor declared \"The League is nothing more than a nigger Ku Klux Klan.",
"\"Despite Gordon's and Forrest's work, local Klan units never accepted the ''Prescript'' and continued to operate autonomously.",
"There were never hierarchical levels or state headquarters.",
"Klan members used violence to settle old personal feuds and local grudges, as they worked to restore general white dominance in the disrupted postwar society.",
"The historian Elaine Frantz Parsons describes the membership:Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of anti-Black vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white farmers, wartime guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic politicians, illegal whiskey distillers, coercive moral reformers, sadists, rapists, white workmen fearful of Black competition, employers trying to enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors with decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and white Republicans who allied with Democratic whites or had criminal agendas of their own.",
"Indeed, all they had in common, besides being overwhelmingly white, southern, and Democratic, was that they called themselves, or were called, Klansmen.Historian Eric Foner observed: \"In effect, the Klan was a military force serving the interests of the Democratic party, the planter class, and all those who desired restoration of white supremacy.",
"Its purposes were political, but political in the broadest sense, for it sought to affect power relations, both public and private, throughout Southern society.",
"It aimed to reverse the interlocking changes sweeping over the South during Reconstruction: to destroy the Republican party's infrastructure, undermine the Reconstruction state, reestablish control of the Black labor force, and restore racial subordination in every aspect of Southern life.",
"To that end they worked to curb the education, economic advancement, voting rights, and right to keep and bear arms of Black people.",
"The Klan soon spread into nearly every Southern state, launching a reign of terror against Republican leaders both Black and white.",
"Those political leaders assassinated during the campaign included Arkansas Congressman James M. Hinds, three members of the South Carolina legislature, and several men who served in constitutional conventions.",
"\"====Activities====In a 1933 interview, William Sellers, born enslaved in Virginia, recalled the post-war \"raids of the Ku Klux, young white men of Rockingham County who would go into the huts of the recently freed negroes or catch some negro who had been working for thirty cents a day on his way home from work...and cruelly whip him, leaving him to live or die.\"",
"Seemingly random whipping attacks, meant to be suggestive of previous condition of servitude, were a widespread aspect of the early Klan; for example in 1870–71 in Limestone Township (now Cherokee County), South Carolina, of 77 documented attacks, \"four were shot, sixty-seven whipped and six had had their ears cropped.",
"\"Three Ku Klux Klan members arrested in Tishomingo County, Mississippi, September 1871, for the attempted murder of an entire familyKlan members adopted masks and robes that hid their identities and added to the drama of their night rides, their chosen time for attacks.",
"Many of them operated in small towns and rural areas where people otherwise knew each other's faces, and sometimes still recognized the attackers by voice and mannerisms.",
"\"The kind of thing that men are afraid or ashamed to do openly, and by day, they accomplish secretly, masked, and at night.\"",
"The KKK night riders \"sometimes claimed to be ghosts of Confederate soldiers so, as they claimed, to frighten superstitious Blacks.",
"Few freedmen took such nonsense seriously.",
"\"The Klan attacked Black members of the Loyal Leagues and intimidated Southern Republicans and Freedmen's Bureau workers.",
"When they killed Black political leaders, they also took heads of families, along with the leaders of churches and community groups, because these people had many roles in society.",
"Agents of the Freedmen's Bureau reported weekly assaults and murders of Black people.",
"\"Armed guerrilla warfare killed thousands of Negroes; political riots were staged; their causes or occasions were always obscure, their results always certain: ten to one hundred times as many Negroes were killed as whites.\"",
"Masked men shot into houses and burned them, sometimes with the occupants still inside.",
"They drove successful Black farmers off their land.",
"\"Generally, it can be reported that in North and South Carolina, in 18 months ending in June 1867, there were 197 murders and 548 cases of aggravated assault.",
"\"George W. Ashburn was assassinated for his pro-Black sentiments.Klan violence worked to suppress Black voting, and campaign seasons were deadly.",
"More than 2,000 people were killed, wounded, or otherwise injured in Louisiana within a few weeks prior to the Presidential election of November 1868.Although St. Landry Parish had a registered Republican majority of 1,071, after the murders, no Republicans voted in the fall elections.",
"White Democrats cast the full vote of the parish for President Grant's opponent.",
"The KKK killed and wounded more than 200 Black Republicans, hunting and chasing them through the woods.",
"Thirteen captives were taken from jail and shot; a half-buried pile of 25 bodies was found in the woods.",
"The KKK made people vote Democratic and gave them certificates of the fact.In the April 1868 Georgia gubernatorial election, Columbia County cast 1,222 votes for Republican Rufus Bullock.",
"By the November presidential election, Klan intimidation led to suppression of the Republican vote and only one person voted for Ulysses S. Grant.Klansmen killed more than 150 African Americans in Jackson County, Florida, and hundreds more in other counties including Madison, Alachua, Columbia, and Hamilton.",
"Florida Freedmen's Bureau records provided a detailed recounting of Klansmen's beatings and murders of freedmen and their white allies.Garb and weapons of the Ku Klux Klan in Southern Illinois, as posed for Joseph A. Dacus of the ''Missouri Republican,'' in August 1875Milder encounters, including some against white teachers, also occurred.",
"In Mississippi, according to the Congressional inquiry:One of these teachers (Miss Allen of Illinois), whose school was at Cotton Gin Port in Monroe County, was visited ... between one and two o'clock in the morning in March 1871, by about fifty men mounted and disguised.",
"Each man wore a long white robe and his face was covered by a loose mask with scarlet stripes.",
"She was ordered to get up and dress which she did at once and then admitted to her room the captain and lieutenant who in addition to the usual disguise had long horns on their heads and a sort of device in front.",
"The lieutenant had a pistol in his hand and he and the captain sat down while eight or ten men stood inside the door and the porch was full.",
"They treated her \"gentlemanly and quietly\" but complained of the heavy school-tax, said she must stop teaching and go away and warned her that they never gave a second notice.",
"She heeded the warning and left the county.By 1868, two years after the Klan's creation, its activity was beginning to decrease.",
"Members were hiding behind Klan masks and robes as a way to avoid prosecution for freelance violence.",
"Many influential Southern Democrats feared that Klan lawlessness provided an excuse for the federal government to retain its power over the South, and they began to turn against it.",
"There were outlandish claims made, such as Georgian B. H. Hill stating \"that some of these outrages were actually perpetrated by the political friends of the parties slain.",
"\"====Resistance====Union Army veterans in mountainous Blount County, Alabama, organized \"the anti-Ku Klux\".",
"They put an end to violence by threatening Klansmen with reprisals unless they stopped whipping Unionists and burning Black churches and schools.",
"Armed Black people formed their own defense in Bennettsville, South Carolina, and patrolled the streets to protect their homes.National sentiment gathered to crack down on the Klan, even though some Democrats at the national level questioned whether the Klan really existed, or believed that it was a creation of nervous Southern Republican governors.",
"Many southern states began to pass anti-Klan legislation.Benjamin Franklin Butler wrote the Civil Rights Act of 1871.In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican senator John Scott convened a congressional committee which took testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities, accumulating 12 volumes.",
"In February, former Union general and congressman Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts introduced the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act).",
"This added to the enmity that Southern white Democrats bore toward him.",
"While the bill was being considered, further violence in the South swung support for its passage.",
"The governor of South Carolina appealed for federal troops to assist his efforts in keeping control of the state.",
"A riot and massacre occurred in a Meridian, Mississippi, courthouse, from which a Black state representative escaped by fleeing to the woods.",
"The 1871 Civil Rights Act allowed the president to suspend ''habeas corpus.",
"''In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's legislation.",
"The Ku Klux Klan Act and the Enforcement Act of 1870 were used by the federal government to enforce the civil rights provisions for individuals under the constitution.",
"The Klan refused to voluntarily dissolve after the 1871 Klan Act, so President Grant issued a suspension of ''habeas corpus'' and stationed federal troops in nine South Carolina counties by invoking the Insurrection Act of 1807.The Klansmen were apprehended and prosecuted in federal court.",
"Judges Hugh Lennox Bond and George S. Bryan presided over South Carolina Ku Klux Klan Trials in Columbia, S.C., during December 1871.The defendants were given from three months to five years of incarceration with fines.",
"More Black people served on juries in federal court than on local or state juries, so they had a chance to participate in the process.",
"Hundreds of Klan members were fined or imprisoned during the crackdown, \"once the national government became set upon a policy of military intervention whole populations which had scouted the authority of the weak 'Radical' government of the State became meek.",
"\"====End of the first Klan====Klan leader Nathan Bedford Forrest boasted that the Klan was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men and that he could muster 40,000 Klansmen within five days' notice.",
"However, the Klan had no membership rosters, no chapters, and no local officers, so it was difficult for observers to judge its membership.",
"It had created a sensation by the dramatic nature of its masked forays and because of its many murders.In 1870, a federal grand jury determined that the Klan was a \"terrorist organization\" and issued hundreds of indictments for crimes of violence and terrorism.",
"Klan members were prosecuted, and many fled from areas that were under federal government jurisdiction, particularly in South Carolina.",
"Many people not formally inducted into the Klan had used the Klan's costume to hide their identities when carrying out independent acts of violence.",
"Forrest called for the Klan to disband in 1869, arguing that it was \"being perverted from its original honorable and patriotic purposes, becoming injurious instead of subservient to the public peace\".",
"Historian Stanley Horn argues that \"generally speaking, the Klan's end was more in the form of spotty, slow, and gradual disintegration than a formal and decisive disbandment\".",
"A Georgia-based reporter wrote in 1870: \"A true statement of the case is not that the Ku Klux are an organized band of licensed criminals, but that men who commit crimes call themselves Ku Klux\".William Holden of North CarolinaIn many states, officials were reluctant to use Black militia against the Klan out of fear that racial tensions would be raised.",
"Republican governor of North Carolina William Woods Holden called out the militia against the Klan in 1870, adding to his unpopularity.",
"This and extensive violence and fraud at the polls caused the Republicans to lose their majority in the state legislature.",
"Disaffection with Holden's actions contributed to white Democratic legislators impeaching him and removing him from office, but their reasons for doing so were numerous.Klan operations ended in South Carolina and gradually withered away throughout the rest of the South.",
"Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman led the prosecutions.Foner argues that:New groups of insurgents emerged in the mid-1870s, local paramilitary organizations such as the White League, Red Shirts, saber clubs, and rifle clubs, that intimidated and murdered Black political leaders.",
"The White League and Red Shirts were distinguished by their willingness to cultivate publicity, working directly to overturn Republican officeholders and regain control of politics.In 1882, the Supreme Court ruled in ''United States v. Harris'' that the Klan Act was partially unconstitutional.",
"It ruled that Congress's power under the Fourteenth Amendment did not include the right to regulate against private conspiracies.",
"It recommended that persons who had been victimized should seek relief in state courts, which were entirely unsympathetic to such appeals.Klan costumes, also called \"regalia\", disappeared from use by the early 1870s, after Grand Wizard Forrest called for their destruction as part of disbanding the Klan.",
"The Klan was broken as an organization by 1872.===Second Klan: 1915–1944=======Refounding in 1915====In 1915, the film ''The Birth of a Nation'' was released, mythologizing and glorifying the first Klan and its endeavors.",
"The second Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons at Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, with fifteen \"charter members\".",
"Its growth was based on a new anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, Prohibitionist and anti-Semitic agenda, which reflected contemporary social tensions, particularly recent immigration.",
"The new organization and chapters adopted regalia featured in ''The Birth of a Nation''; membership was kept secret by wearing masks in public.=====''The Birth of a Nation''=====Frontispiece to the first edition of Dixon's ''The Clansman'', by Arthur I. Keller\"The Fiery Cross of old Scotland's hills!\"",
"Illustration from the first edition of ''The Clansman'', by Arthur I. Keller.",
"Note figures in background.Movie poster for ''The Birth of a Nation'', which has been widely credited with inspiring the 20th-century revival of the Ku Klux KlanDirector D. W. Griffith's ''The Birth of a Nation'' glorified the original Klan.",
"The film was based on the book and play ''The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan'', as well as the book ''The Leopard's Spots'', both by Thomas Dixon Jr. Much of the modern Klan's iconography is derived from it, including the standardized white costume and the burning cross.",
"Its imagery was based on Dixon's romanticized concept of old England and Scotland, as portrayed in the novels and poetry of Sir Walter Scott.",
"The film's influence was enhanced by a false claim of endorsement by President Woodrow Wilson.",
"Dixon was an old friend of Wilson's and, before its release, there was a private showing of the film at the White House.",
"A publicist claimed that Wilson said, \"It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true.\"",
"Wilson strongly disliked the film and felt he had been tricked by Dixon.",
"The White House issued a denial of the \"lightning\" quote, saying that he was entirely unaware of the nature of the film and at no time had expressed his approbation of it.====Goals====Three Ku Klux Klan members at a 1922 paradeIn this 1926 cartoon, the Ku Klux Klan chases the Catholic Church, personified by St. Patrick, from the shores of America.",
"Among the \"snakes\" are various supposed negative attributes of the Church, including superstition, the union of church and state, control of public schools, and intolerance.The first and third Klans were primarily Southeastern groups aimed against Black people.",
"The second Klan, in contrast, broadened the scope of the organization to appeal to people in the Midwestern and Western states who considered Catholics, Jews, and foreign-born minorities to be anti-American.The Second Klan saw threats from every direction.",
"According to historian Brian R. Farmer, \"two-thirds of the national Klan lecturers were Protestant ministers\".",
"Much of the Klan's energy went into guarding the home, and historian Kathleen Blee says that its members wanted to protect \"the interests of white womanhood\".",
"Joseph Simmons published the pamphlet ''ABC of the Invisible Empire'' in Atlanta in 1917; in it, he identified the Klan's goals as \"to shield the sanctity of the home and the chastity of womanhood; to maintain white supremacy; to teach and faithfully inculcate a high spiritual philosophy through an exalted ritualism; and by a practical devotedness to conserve, protect and maintain the distinctive institutions, rights, privileges, principles and ideals of a pure Americanism\".",
"Such moral-sounding purpose underlay its appeal as a fraternal organization, recruiting members with a promise of aid for settling into the new urban societies of rapidly growing cities such as Dallas and Detroit.",
"During the 1930s, particularly after James A. Colescott of Indiana took over as imperial wizard, opposition to Communism became another primary aim of the Klan.====Organization====New Klan founder William J. Simmons joined 12 different fraternal organizations and recruited for the Klan with his chest covered with fraternal badges, consciously modeling the Klan after fraternal organizations.",
"Klan organizers called \"Kleagles\" signed up hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and received KKK costumes in return.",
"The organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national officials.",
"When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a rally, often with burning crosses, and perhaps presented a Bible to a local Protestant preacher.",
"He left town with the money collected.",
"The local units operated like many fraternal organizations and occasionally brought in speakers.Simmons initially met with little success in either recruiting members or in raising money, and the Klan remained a small operation in the Atlanta area until 1920.The group produced publications for national circulation from its headquarters in Atlanta: ''Searchlight'' (1919–1924), ''Imperial Night-Hawk'' (1923–1924), and ''The Kourier''.====Perceived moral threats====The second Klan was a response to the growing power of Catholics and American Jews and the accompanying proliferation of non-Protestant cultural values, as well as some high-profile instances of violence against whites.",
"The Klan had a nationwide reach by the mid-1920s, with its densest per capita membership in Indiana.",
"It became most prominent in cities with high growth rates between 1910 and 1930, as rural Protestants flocked to jobs in Detroit and Dayton in the Midwest, and Atlanta, Dallas, Memphis, and Houston in the South.",
"Close to half of Michigan's 80,000 Klansmen lived in Detroit.Members of the KKK swore to uphold American values and Christian morality, and some Protestant ministers became involved at the local level.",
"However, no Protestant denomination officially endorsed the KKK; indeed, the Klan was repeatedly denounced by the major Protestant magazines, as well as by all major secular newspapers.",
"Historian Robert Moats Miller reports that \"not a single endorsement of the Klan was found by the present writer in the Methodist press, while many of the attacks on the Klan were quite savage.",
"...The Southern Baptist press condoned the aims but condemned the methods of the Klan.\"",
"National denominational organizations never endorsed the Klan, but they rarely condemned it by name.",
"Many nationally and regionally prominent churchmen did condemn it by name, and none endorsed it.The second Klan was less violent than either the first or third Klan were.",
"However, the second Klan, especially in the Southeast, was not an entirely non-violent organization.",
"The most violent Klan was in Dallas, Texas.",
"In April 1921, shortly after they began gaining popularity in the area, the Klan kidnapped Alex Johnson, a Black man who had been accused of having sex with a white woman.",
"They burned the letters \"KKK\" into his forehead and gave him a severe beating by a riverbed.",
"The police chief and district attorney refused to prosecute, explicitly and publicly stating they believed that Johnson deserved this treatment.",
"Encouraged by the approval of this whipping, the Dallas KKK whipped 68 people by the riverbed in 1922 alone.",
"Although Johnson had been Black, most of the Dallas KKK's whipping victims were white men who were accused of offenses against their wives such as adultery, wife beating, abandoning their wives, refusing to pay child support or gambling.",
"Far from trying to hide its vigilante activity, the Dallas KKK loved to publicize it.",
"The Dallas KKK often invited local newspaper reporters to attend their whippings so they could write a story about it in the next day's newspaper.The Alabama KKK was less chivalrous than the Dallas KKK was and whipped both white and Black women who were accused of fornication or adultery.",
"Although many people in Alabama were outraged by the whippings of white women, no Klansmen were ever convicted for the violence.====Rapid growth====In 1920, Simmons handed the day-to-day activities of the national office over to two professional publicists, Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young Clarke.",
"The new leadership invigorated the Klan and it grew rapidly.",
"It appealed to new members based on current social tensions, and stressed responses to fears raised by defiance of Prohibition and new sexual freedoms.",
"It emphasized anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant and later anti-Communist positions.",
"It presented itself as a fraternal, nativist and strenuously patriotic organization; and its leaders emphasized support for vigorous enforcement of Prohibition laws.",
"It expanded membership dramatically to a 1924 peak of 1.5 million to 4 million, which was between 4–15% of the eligible population.By the 1920s, most of its members lived in the Midwest and West.",
"Nearly one in five of the eligible Indiana population were members.",
"It had a national base by 1925.In the South, where the great majority of whites were Democrats, the Klansmen were Democrats.",
"In the rest of the country, the membership comprised both Republicans and Democrats, as well as independents.",
"Klan leaders tried to infiltrate political parties; as Cummings notes, \"it was non-partisan in the sense that it pressed its nativist issues to both parties\".",
"Sociologist Rory McVeigh has explained the Klan's strategy in appealing to members of both parties:Religion was a major selling point.",
"Kelly J. Baker argues that Klansmen seriously embraced Protestantism as an essential component of their white supremacist, anti-Catholic, and paternalistic formulation of American democracy and national culture.",
"Their cross was a religious symbol, and their ritual honored Bibles and local ministers.",
"But no nationally prominent religious leader said he was a Klan member.Economists Fryer and Levitt argue that the rapid growth of the Klan in the 1920s was partly the result of an innovative, multi-level marketing campaign.",
"They also argue that the Klan leadership focused more intently on monetizing the organization during this period than fulfilling the political goals of the organization.",
"Local leaders profited from expanding their membership.====Prohibition====Historians agree that the Klan's resurgence in the 1920s was aided by the national debate over Prohibition.",
"The historian Prendergast says that the KKK's \"support for Prohibition represented the single most important bond between Klansmen throughout the nation\".",
"The Klan opposed bootleggers, sometimes with violence.",
"In 1922, two hundred Klan members set fire to saloons in Union County, Arkansas.",
"Membership in the Klan and in other Prohibition groups overlapped, and they sometimes coordinated activities.====Urbanization====\"The End\" referring to the end of Catholic influence in the US.",
"''Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty'' 1926A significant characteristic of the second Klan was that it was an organization based in urban areas, reflecting the major shifts of population to cities in the North, West, and the South.",
"In Michigan, for instance, 40,000 members lived in Detroit, where they made up more than half of the state's membership.",
"Most Klansmen were lower- to middle-class whites who feared the waves of newcomers to the industrial cities: immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, who were mostly Catholic or Jewish; and Black and white migrants from the South.",
"As new populations poured into cities, rapidly changing neighborhoods created social tensions.",
"Because of the rapid pace of population growth in industrializing cities such as Detroit and Chicago, the Klan grew rapidly in the Midwest.",
"The Klan also grew in booming Southern cities such as Dallas and Houston.In the medium-size industrial city of Worcester, Massachusetts, in the 1920s, the Klan ascended to power quickly but declined as a result of opposition from the Catholic Church.",
"There was no violence and the local newspaper ridiculed Klansmen as \"night-shirt knights\".",
"Half of the members were Swedish Americans, including some first-generation immigrants.",
"The ethnic and religious conflicts among more recent immigrants contributed to the rise of the Klan in the city.",
"Swedish Protestants were struggling against Irish Catholics, who had been entrenched longer, for political and ideological control of the city.In some states, historians have obtained membership rosters of some local units and matched the names against city directory and local records to create statistical profiles of the membership.",
"Big city newspapers were often hostile and ridiculed Klansmen as ignorant farmers.",
"Detailed analysis from Indiana showed that the rural stereotype was false for that state:Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural, nor were they significantly more or less likely than other members of society to be from the working class, middle class, or professional ranks.",
"Klansmen were Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described exclusively or even predominantly as fundamentalists.",
"In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole of white Protestant society, including those who did not belong to any church.The Klan attracted people but most of them did not remain in the organization for long.",
"Membership in the Klan turned over rapidly as people found out that it was not the group which they had wanted.",
"Millions joined and at its peak in the 1920s the organization claimed numbers that amounted to 15% of the nation's eligible population.",
"The lessening of social tensions contributed to the Klan's decline.====Costumes and the burning cross====Cross burning was introduced by William J. Simmons, the founder of the second Klan in 1915.The distinctive white costume permitted large-scale public activities, especially parades and cross-burning ceremonies, while keeping the membership roles a secret.",
"Sales of the costumes provided the main financing for the national organization, while initiation fees funded local and state organizers.The second Klan embraced the burning Latin cross as a dramatic display of symbolism, with a tone of intimidation.",
"No crosses had been used as a symbol by the first Klan, but it became a symbol of the Klan's quasi-Christian message.",
"Its lighting during meetings was often accompanied by prayer, the singing of hymns, and other overtly religious symbolism.",
"In his novel ''The Clansman'', Thomas Dixon Jr. borrows the idea that the first Klan had used fiery crosses from 'the call to arms' of the Scottish Clans, and film director D.W. Griffith used this image in ''The Birth of a Nation''; Simmons adopted the symbol wholesale from the movie, and the symbol and action have been associated with the Klan ever since.====Women====By the 1920s, the KKK developed a women's auxiliary, with chapters in many areas.",
"Its activities included participation in parades, cross lightings, lectures, rallies, and boycotts of local businesses owned by Catholics and Jews.",
"The Women's Klan was active in promoting Prohibition, stressing liquor's negative impact on wives and children.",
"Its efforts in public schools included distributing Bibles and petitioning for the dismissal of Catholic teachers.",
"As a result of the Women's Klan's efforts, Texas would not hire Catholic teachers to work in its public schools.",
"As sexual and financial scandals rocked the Klan leadership late in the 1920s, the organization's popularity among both men and women dropped off sharply.====Political role====Sheet music to \"We Are All Loyal Klansmen\", 1923The second Klan expanded with new chapters in cities in the Midwest and West, and reached both Republicans and Democrats, as well as men without a party affiliation.",
"The goal of Prohibition in particular helped the Klan and some Republicans to make common cause in the North.The Klan had numerous members in every part of the United States but was particularly strong in the South and Midwest.",
"At its peak, claimed Klan membership exceeded four million and comprised 20% of the adult white male population in many broad geographic regions, and 40% in some areas.",
"The Klan also moved north into Canada, especially Saskatchewan, where it opposed Catholics.In Indiana, members were American-born, white Protestants and covered a wide range of incomes and social levels.",
"The Indiana Klan was perhaps the most prominent Ku Klux Klan in the nation.",
"It claimed more than 30% of white male Hoosiers as members.",
"In 1924 it supported Republican Edward Jackson in his successful campaign for governor.Catholic and liberal Democrats—who were strongest in northeastern cities—decided to make the Klan an issue at the 1924 Democratic National Convention in New York City.",
"Their delegates proposed a resolution indirectly attacking the Klan; it was defeated by one vote out of 1,100.The leading presidential candidates were William Gibbs McAdoo, a Protestant with a base in the South and West where the Klan was strong, and New York governor Al Smith, a Catholic with a base in the large cities.",
"After weeks of stalemate and bitter argumentation, both candidates withdrew in favor of a compromise candidate.Samuel Green, a Ku Klux Klan Grand Dragon, at Stone Mountain, Georgia, on July 24, 1948.|alt=In some states, such as Alabama and California, KKK chapters had worked for political reform.",
"In 1924, Klan members were elected to the city council in Anaheim, California.",
"The city had been controlled by an entrenched commercial-civic elite that was mostly German American.",
"Given their tradition of moderate social drinking, the German Americans did not strongly support Prohibition laws – the mayor had been a saloon keeper.",
"Led by the minister of the First Christian Church, the Klan represented a rising group of politically oriented non-ethnic Germans who denounced the elite as corrupt, undemocratic and self-serving.",
"The historian Christopher Cocoltchos says the Klansmen tried to create a model, orderly community.",
"The Klan had about 1,200 members in Orange County, California.",
"The economic and occupational profile of the pro- and anti-Klan groups shows the two were similar and about equally prosperous.",
"Klan members were Protestants, as were most of their opponents, but the latter also included many Catholic Germans.",
"Individuals who joined the Klan had earlier demonstrated a much higher rate of voting and civic activism than did their opponents.",
"Cocoltchos suggests that many of the individuals in Orange County joined the Klan out of that sense of civic activism.",
"The Klan representatives easily won the local election in Anaheim in April 1924.They fired city employees who were known to be Catholic and replaced them with Klan appointees.",
"The new city council tried to enforce Prohibition.",
"After its victory, the Klan chapter held large rallies and initiation ceremonies over the summer.",
"The opposition organized, bribed a Klansman for the secret membership list, and exposed the Klansmen running in the state primaries; they defeated most of the candidates.",
"Klan opponents in 1925 took back local government and succeeded in a special election in recalling the Klansmen who had been elected in April 1924.The Klan in Anaheim quickly collapsed, its newspaper closed after losing a libel suit, and the minister who led the local Klavern moved to Kansas.In the South, Klan members were still Democratic, as it was essentially a one-party region for whites.",
"Klan chapters were closely allied with Democratic police, sheriffs, and other functionaries of local government.",
"Due to disenfranchisement of most African Americans and many poor whites around the start of the 20th century, the only political activity for whites took place within the Democratic Party.In Alabama, Klan members advocated better public schools, effective Prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other political measures to benefit lower-class white people.",
"By 1925, the Klan was a political force in the state, as leaders such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black tried to build political power against the Black Belt wealthy planters, who had long dominated the state.",
"In 1926, with Klan support, Bibb Graves won the Alabama governor's office.",
"He was a former Klan chapter head.",
"He pushed for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation.",
"Because the Alabama state legislature refused to redistrict until 1972, and then under court order, the Klan was unable to break the planters' and rural areas' hold on legislative power.Scholars and biographers have recently examined Hugo Black's Klan role.",
"Ball finds regarding the KKK that Black \"sympathized with the group's economic, nativist, and anti-Catholic beliefs\".",
"Newman says Black \"disliked the Catholic Church as an institution\" and gave over 100 anti-Catholic speeches to KKK meetings across Alabama in his 1926 election campaign.",
"Black was elected US senator in 1926 as a Democrat.",
"In 1937 President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Black to the Supreme Court without knowing how active in the Klan he had been in the 1920s.",
"He was confirmed by his fellow Senators before the full KKK connection was known; Justice Black said he left the Klan when he became a senator.====Resistance and decline====D.",
"C. Stephenson, Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan.",
"His conviction in 1925 for the murder of Madge Oberholtzer, a white schoolteacher, led to the decline of the Indiana Klan.Many groups and leaders, including prominent Protestant ministers such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, spoke out against the Klan, gaining national attention.",
"The Jewish Anti-Defamation League was formed in the early 20th century in response to attacks on Jewish Americans, including the lynching of Leo Frank in Atlanta, and to the Klan's campaign to prohibit private schools (which was chiefly aimed at Catholic parochial schools).",
"Opposing groups worked to penetrate the Klan's secrecy.",
"After one civic group in Indiana began to publish Klan membership lists, there was a rapid decline in the number of Klan members.",
"The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) launched public education campaigns in order to inform people about Klan activities and lobbied in Congress against Klan abuses.",
"After its peak in 1925, Klan membership in most areas began to decline rapidly.",
"Specific events contributed to the Klan's decline as well.",
"In Indiana, the scandal surrounding the 1925 murder trial of Grand Dragon D. C. Stephenson destroyed the image of the KKK as upholders of law and order.",
"By 1926 the Klan was \"crippled and discredited\".",
"D. C. Stephenson was the grand dragon of Indiana and 22 northern states.",
"In 1923 he had led the states under his control in order to break away from the national KKK organization.",
"At his 1925 trial, he was convicted of second-degree murder for his part in the rape, and subsequent death, of Madge Oberholtzer.",
"After Stephenson's conviction, the Klan declined dramatically in Indiana.The historian Leonard Moore says that a failure in leadership caused the Klan's collapse:Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals.",
"They were uninterested in, or perhaps even unaware of, grass roots concerns within the movement.",
"For them, the Klan had been nothing more than a means for gaining wealth and power.",
"These marginal men had risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it became a political force, the Klan had never required strong, dedicated leadership.",
"More established and experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan, or who pursued some of the interests of their Klan constituents, also accomplished little.",
"Factionalism created one barrier, but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out of expedience.",
"When charges of crime and corruption began to taint the movement, those concerned about their political futures had even less reason to work on the Klan's behalf.alt=In Alabama, KKK vigilantes launched a wave of physical terror in 1927.They targeted both Black and white people for violations of racial norms and for perceived moral lapses.",
"This led to a strong backlash, beginning in the media.",
"Grover C. Hall Sr., editor of the ''Montgomery Advertiser'' from 1926, wrote a series of editorials and articles that attacked the Klan.",
"(Today the paper says it \"waged war on the resurgent KKK\".)",
"Hall won a Pulitzer Prize for the crusade, the 1928 Editorial Writing Pulitzer, citing \"his editorials against gangsterism, floggings and racial and religious intolerance\".",
"Other newspapers kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan, referring to the organization as violent and \"un-American\".",
"Sheriffs cracked down on activities.",
"In the 1928 presidential election, the state voters overcame their initial opposition to the Catholic candidate Al Smith and voted the Democratic Party line as usual.Although in decline, a measure of the Klan's influence was still evident when it staged its march along Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C., in 1928.By 1930, Klan membership in Alabama dropped to less than 6,000.Small independent units continued to be active in the industrial city of Birmingham.KKK units were active through the 1930s in parts of Georgia, with a group of \"night riders\" in Atlanta enforcing their moral views by flogging people who violated them, whites as well as Black people.",
"In March 1940, they were implicated in the beating murders of a young white couple taken from their car on a lovers lane, and flogged a white barber to death for drinking, both in East Point, a suburb of Atlanta.",
"More than 20 others were \"brutally flogged\".",
"As the police began to investigate, they found the records of the KKK had disappeared from their East Point office.",
"The cases were reported by the ''Chicago Tribune'' and the NAACP in its ''Crisis'' magazine, as well as local papers.In 1940, three lynchings of Black men by whites (no KKK affiliation is known) took place in the South: Elbert Williams was the first NAACP member known to be killed for civil rights activities: he was murdered in Brownsville, Tennessee, for working to register Black people to vote, and several other activists were run out of town; Jesse Thornton was lynched in Luverne, Alabama, for a minor social infraction; and 16-year-old Austin Callaway, a suspect in the assault of a white woman, was taken from jail in the middle of the night and killed by six white men in LaGrange, Georgia.",
"In January 2017, the police chief and mayor of LaGrange apologized for their offices' failures to protect Callaway, at a reconciliation service marking his death.====Labor and anti-unionism====In major Southern cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, Klan members kept control of access to the better-paying industrial jobs and opposed unions.",
"During the 1930s and 1940s, Klan leaders urged members to disrupt the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which advocated industrial unions and accepted African American members, unlike earlier unions.",
"With access to dynamite and using the skills from their jobs in mining and steel, in the late 1940s some Klan members in Birmingham used bombings to destroy houses in order to intimidate upwardly mobile Black people who moved into middle-class neighborhoods.",
"It has been said that \"By mid-1949, there were so many charred house carcasses that the area College Hills was informally named Dynamite Hill.",
"\"Activism by these independent KKK groups in Birmingham increased as a reaction to the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.",
"Independent Klan groups violently opposed the civil rights movement.",
"KKK members were implicated in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing on a Sunday in September 1963, which killed four African American girls and injured 22 other people.",
"Members of the Communist Workers' Party came to North Carolina to organize textile workers and pushed back against racial discrimination there, taunting the KKK, resulting in the 1979 Greensboro massacre.====Development of Christian Identity Theology====According to Professor Jon Schamber, Rev.",
"Philip E. J. Monson branched off from the teachings of British Israelism and began to develop Christian Identity Theology in the 1910s.",
"During the 1920s, Monson published ''Satan's Seat: The Enemy of Our Race'' in which he adopted Russel Kelso Carter's theory that Jews and non-whites were descended from the serpent in the Garden of Eden.",
"Monson connected the work of the corrupt race to the activities of the Catholic Church and the Pope.",
"Monson's ideas were popular among some KKK members in the 1950s.===National changes===Estimated membership statisticsYearMembershipReferences19254,000,000–6,000,000*193030,000196540,000196814,00019702,000–3,50019741,50019756,500197910,00019916,000–10,00020095,000–8,00020163,000In 1939, after experiencing several years of decline due to the Great Depression, the Imperial Wizard Hiram Wesley Evans sold the national organization to James A. Colescott, an Indiana veterinary physician, and Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician.",
"They could not revive the Klan's declining membership.",
"In 1944, the Internal Revenue Service filed a lien for $685,000 in back taxes against the Klan, and Colescott dissolved the organization by decree on April 23 of that year.",
"Local Klan groups closed down over the following years.After World War II, the folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the Klan; he provided internal data to media and law enforcement agencies.",
"He also provided secret code words to the writers of the ''Superman'' radio program, resulting in episodes in which Superman took on a thinly disguised version of the KKK.",
"Kennedy stripped away the Klan's mystique and trivialized its rituals and code words, which may have contributed to the decline in Klan recruiting and membership.",
"In the 1950s Kennedy wrote a bestselling book about his experiences, which further damaged the Klan.====Historiography of the second Klan====The historiography of the second Klan of the 1920s has changed over time.",
"Early histories were based on mainstream sources of the time, but since the late 20th century, other histories have been written drawing from records and analysis of members of the chapters in social histories.=====Anti-modern interpretations=====Ku Klux Klan parade in Washington, D.C., September 13, 1926The KKK was a secret organization; apart from a few top leaders, most members never identified as such and wore masks in public.",
"Investigators in the 1920s used KKK publicity, court cases, exposés by disgruntled Klansmen, newspaper reports, and speculation to write stories about what the Klan was doing.",
"Almost all the major national newspapers and magazines were hostile to its activities.",
"The historian Thomas R. Pegram says that published accounts exaggerated the official viewpoint of the Klan leadership and repeated the interpretations of hostile newspapers and the Klan's enemies.",
"There was almost no evidence in that time regarding the behavior or beliefs of individual Klansmen.",
"According to Pegram, the resulting popular and scholarly interpretation of the Klan from the 1920s into the mid-20th century emphasized its Southern roots and the violent vigilante-style actions of the Klan in its efforts to turn back the clock of modernity.",
"Scholars compared it to fascism in Europe.",
"Amann states that, \"Undeniably, the Klan had some traits in common with European fascism—chauvinism, racism, a mystique of violence, an affirmation of a certain kind of archaic traditionalism—yet their differences were fundamental.",
"...The KKK never envisioned a change of political or economic system.",
"\"Pegram says this original interpretation:=====New social history interpretations=====The \"social history\" revolution in historiography from the 1960s explored history from the bottom up.",
"In terms of the Klan, it developed evidence based on the characteristics, beliefs, and behavior of the typical membership, and downplayed accounts by elite sources.",
"Historians discovered membership lists and the minutes of local meetings from KKK chapters scattered around the country.",
"They discovered that the original interpretation was largely mistaken about the membership and activities of the Klan; the membership was not anti-modern, rural or rustic and consisted of fairly well-educated middle-class joiners and community activists.",
"Half the members lived in the fast-growing industrial cities of the period: Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Indianapolis, Denver, and Portland, Oregon, were Klan strongholds during the 1920s.Studies find that in general, the KKK membership in these cities was from the stable, successful middle classes, with few members drawn from the elite or the working classes.",
"Pegram, reviewing the studies, concludes, \"the popular Klan of the 1920s, while diverse, was more of a civic exponent of white Protestant social values than a repressive hate group.",
"\"Kelly J. Baker argues that religion was critical—the KKK based its hatred on a particular brand of Protestantism that resonated with mainstream Americans: \"Members embraced Protestant Christianity and a crusade to save America from domestic as well as foreign threats.\"",
"Member were primarily Baptists, Methodists, and members of the Disciples of Christ, while men of \"more elite or liberal\" Protestant denominations such as Unitarians, Episcopalians, Congregationalists and Lutherans, were less likely to join.===== Indiana =====In Indiana, traditional political historians focused on notorious leaders, especially D. C. Stephenson, the Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan, whose conviction for the 1925 kidnap, rape, and murder of Madge Oberholtzer helped destroy the Ku Klux Klan movement nationwide.",
"In his history of 1967, Kenneth T. Jackson described the Klan of the 1920s as associated with cities and urbanization, with chapters often acting as a kind of fraternal organization to aid people coming from other areas.Social historian Leonard Moore titled his monograph ''Citizen Klansmen'' (1997) and contrasted the intolerant rhetoric of the group's leaders with the actions of most of the membership.",
"The Klan was white Protestant, established Americans who were fearful of change represented by new immigrants and Black migrants to the North.",
"They were highly suspicious of Catholics, Jews and Black people, who they believed subverted ideal, Protestant moral standards.",
"Violence was uncommon in most chapters.",
"In Indiana, KKK members directed more threats and economic blacklisting primarily against fellow white Protestants for transgressions of community moral standards, such as adultery, wife-beating, gambling and heavy drinking.",
"Up to one third of Indiana's Protestant men joined the order making it, Moore argued, \"a kind of interest group for average white Protestants who believed that their values should be dominant in their community and state.",
"\"Northern Indiana's industrial cities had attracted a large Catholic population of European immigrants and their descendants.",
"They established the University of Notre Dame, a major Catholic college near South Bend.",
"In May 1924, when the KKK scheduled a regional meeting in the city, Notre Dame students blocked the Klansmen and stole some KKK regalia.",
"On the next day, the Klansmen counterattacked.",
"Finally, the college president and the football coach Knute Rockne kept the students on campus to avert further violence.===== Alabama =====In Alabama, some young, white, urban activists joined the KKK to fight the old guard establishment.",
"Hugo Black was a member before becoming nationally famous; he focused on anti-Catholicism.",
"However, in rural Alabama the Klan continued to operate to enforce Jim Crow laws; its members resorted more often to violence against Black people for infringements of the social order of white supremacy.Racial terrorism was used in smaller towns to suppress Black political activity.",
"Elbert Williams of Brownsville, Tennessee, was lynched in 1940 for trying to organize Black residents to register and vote; also that year, Jesse Thornton of Luverne, Alabama, was lynched for failing to address a police officer as \"Mister\".===Later Klans: 1950s–present===In 1944, the second KKK was disbanded by Imperial Wizard James A. Colescott after the IRS levied a large tax liability against the organization.",
"In 1946, Samuel Green reestablished the KKK at a ceremony on Stone Mountain.",
"His group primarily operated in Georgia.",
"Green was succeeded by Samuel Roper as Imperial Wizard in 1949, and Roper was succeeded by Eldon Edwards in 1950.Based in Atlanta, Edwards worked to rebuild the organization by uniting the different factions of the KKK from other parts of the United States, but the strength of the organization was short-lived, and the group fractured as it competed with other klan organizations.",
"In 1959, Roy Davis was elected to follow Edwards as national leader.",
"Edwards had previously appointed Davis Grand Dragon of Texas in an effort to unite their two klan organizations.",
"Davis was already leading the Original Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi.",
"Davis held rallies Florida and other southern states during 1961 and 1962 recruiting members.",
"Davis had been a close associate of William J. Simmons and been active in the KKK since it first reformed in 1915.Congress launched an investigation into the KKK in early 1964, following the assassination of John F. Kennedy in Dallas.",
"Davis, based in Dallas, resigned as Imperial Wizard of the Original Knights shortly after the Original Knights received a Congressional subpoena.",
"The Original Knights became increasingly fractured in the immediate aftermath as many members were forced to testify before Congress.",
"The White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan formed in 1964 after splitting from the Original Knights.",
"According to an FBI report published in May 1965, the KKK was divided into 14 different organizations at the time with a total membership of approximately 9,000.The FBI reported that Roy Davis's Original Knights was the largest faction and had about 1,500 members.",
"Robert Shelton of Alabama was leading a faction of 400–600 members.",
"Congressional investigators found that by the end of 1965 most members of Original Knights organization joined Shelton's United Klans and the Original Knights of the KKK disbanded.",
"Shelton's United Klan continued to absorb members from the competing factions and remained the largest Klan group unto the 1970s, peaking with an estimated 30,000 members and another 250,000 non-member supporters during the late 1960s.====1950s–1960s: post-war opposition to civil rights====After the decline of the national organization, small independent groups adopted the name \"Ku Klux Klan\", along with variations.",
"They had no formal relationships with each other, and most had no connection to the second KKK, except for the fact that they copied its terminology and costumes.",
"Beginning in the 1950s, for instance, individual Klan groups in Birmingham, Alabama, began to resist social change and Black people's efforts to improve their lives by bombing houses in transitional neighborhoods.",
"The white men worked in mining and steel industries, with access to these materials.",
"There were so many bombings of Black people's homes in Birmingham by Klan groups in the 1950s that the city was nicknamed \"Bombingham\".During the tenure of Bull Connor as police commissioner in Birmingham, Klan groups were closely allied with the police and operated with impunity.",
"When the Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham in 1961, Connor gave Klan members fifteen minutes to attack the riders before sending in the police to quell the attack.",
"When local and state authorities failed to protect the Freedom Riders and activists, the federal government began to establish intervention and protection.",
"In states such as Alabama and Mississippi, Klan members forged alliances with governors' administrations.",
"In Birmingham and elsewhere, the KKK groups bombed the houses of civil rights activists.",
"In some cases they used physical violence, intimidation, and assassination directly against individuals.",
"Continuing disfranchisement of Black people across the South meant that most could not serve on juries, which were all-white and demonstrably biased verdicts and sentences.Goodman, Chaney, and Schwerner were three civil rights workers abducted and murdered by members of the Ku Klux Klan.According to a report from the Southern Regional Council in Atlanta, the homes of 40 Black Southern families were bombed during 1951 and 1952.Some of the bombing victims were social activists whose work exposed them to danger, but most were either people who refused to bow to racist convention or were innocent bystanders, unsuspecting victims of random violence.Among the more notorious murders by Klan members in the 1950s and 1960s were:* The 1951 Christmas Eve bombing of the home of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) activists Harry and Harriette Moore in Mims, Florida, resulting in their deaths.",
"* The 1957 murder of Willie Edwards Jr., who was forced by Klansmen to jump to his death from a bridge into the Alabama River.",
"* The 1963 assassination of NAACP organizer Medgar Evers in Mississippi.",
"In 1994, former Ku Klux Klansman Byron De La Beckwith was convicted.",
"* The 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in September 1963 in Birmingham, Alabama, which killed four African American girls and injured 22 people.",
"The perpetrators were Klan members Robert Chambliss, convicted in 1977, Thomas Edwin Blanton Jr. and Bobby Frank Cherry, convicted in 2001 and 2002.The fourth suspect, Herman Cash, died before he was indicted.",
"* The 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner, three civil rights workers, in Mississippi.",
"Seven men were convicted of federal civil rights charges in the 1960s.",
"In June 2005, Klan member Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of state manslaughter charges.",
"* The 1964 murder of two Black teenagers, Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore in Mississippi.",
"In August 2007, based on the confession of Klansman Charles Marcus Edwards, James Ford Seale, a reputed Ku Klux Klansman, was convicted.",
"Seale was sentenced to serve three life sentences.",
"Seale, who died in prison in 2011, was a former Mississippi policeman and sheriff's deputy.",
"* The 1965 Alabama murder of Viola Liuzzo.",
"She was a Southern-raised Detroit mother of five who was visiting the state in order to attend a civil rights march.",
"At the time of her murder, Liuzzo was transporting Civil Rights marchers related to the Selma to Montgomery March.",
"* The 1966 firebombing death of NAACP leader Vernon Dahmer Sr., 58, in Mississippi.",
"In 1998 former Ku Klux Klan wizard Samuel Bowers was convicted of his murder and sentenced to life.",
"Two other Klan members were indicted with Bowers, but one died before trial and the other's indictment was dismissed.",
"* In July 1966, in Bogalusa, Louisiana, a stronghold of Klan activity, Clarence Triggs was found murdered.",
"* The 1967 multiple bombings in Jackson, Mississippi, of the residence of a Methodist activist, Robert Kochtitzky, the synagogue, and the residence of Rabbi Perry Nussbaum.",
"These were carried out by Klan member Thomas Albert Tarrants III, who was convicted in 1968.Another Klan bombing was averted in Meridian the same year.====Resistance====There was considerable resistance among African Americans and white allies to the Klan.",
"In 1953, newspaper publishers W. Horace Carter (Tabor City, North Carolina), who had campaigned for three years, and Willard Cole (Whiteville, North Carolina) shared the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service citing \"their successful campaign against the Ku Klux Klan, waged on their own doorstep at the risk of economic loss and personal danger, culminating in the conviction of over one hundred Klansmen and an end to terrorism in their communities\".",
"In a 1958 incident in North Carolina, the Klan burned crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans for associating with white people, and threatened more actions.",
"When the KKK held a nighttime rally nearby, they were quickly surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbee.",
"Gunfire was exchanged, and the Klan was routed at what became known as the Battle of Hayes Pond.While the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had paid informants in the Klan (for instance, in Birmingham in the early 1960s), its relations with local law enforcement agencies and the Klan were often ambiguous.",
"The head of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, appeared more concerned about Communist links to civil rights activists than about controlling Klan excesses against citizens.",
"In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began attempts to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights groups.As 20th-century Supreme Court rulings extended federal enforcement of citizens' civil rights, the government revived the Enforcement Acts and the Klan Act from Reconstruction days.",
"Federal prosecutors used these laws as the basis for investigations and indictments in the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner; and the 1965 murder of Viola Liuzzo.",
"They were also the basis for prosecution in 1991 in ''Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic''.In 1965, the House Un-American Activities Committee started an investigation on the Klan, putting in the public spotlight its front organizations, finances, methods and divisions.====1970s–present====Violence at a Klan march in Mobile, Alabama, 1977After federal legislation was passed prohibiting legal segregation and authorizing enforcement of protection of voting rights, KKK groups began to oppose court-ordered busing to desegregate schools, affirmative action, and the more open immigration authorized in the 1960s.",
"In 1971, KKK members used bombs to destroy 10 school buses in Pontiac, Michigan.",
"By 1975, there were known KKK groups on most college campuses in Louisiana as well as at Vanderbilt University, the University of Georgia, the University of Mississippi, the University of Akron, and the University of Southern California.=====Massacre of Communist Workers' Party protesters=====On November 3, 1979, five communist protesters were killed by KKK and American Nazi Party members in Greensboro, North Carolina, in what is known as the Greensboro massacre.",
"The Communist Workers' Party had sponsored a rally against the Klan in an effort to organize predominantly Black industrial workers in the area.",
"Klan members drove up with arms in their car trunks, and attacked marchers.=====Jerry Thompson infiltration=====Jerry Thompson, a newspaper reporter who infiltrated the KKK in 1979, reported that the FBI's COINTELPRO efforts were highly successful.",
"Rival KKK factions accused each other's leaders of being FBI informants.",
"William Wilkinson of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was revealed to have been working for the FBI.Thompson also related that KKK leaders showed great concern about a series of civil lawsuits filed by the Southern Poverty Law Center, claiming damages amounting to millions of dollars.",
"These were filed after KKK members shot into a group of African Americans.",
"Klansmen curtailed their activities in order to conserve money for defense against the lawsuits.",
"The KKK also used lawsuits as tools; they filed a libel suit in order to prevent the publication of a paperback edition of Thompson's book but were unsuccessful.=====Chattanooga, Tennessee, shooting=====In 1980, three KKK members shot four elderly Black women (Viola Ellison, Lela Evans, Opal Jackson, and Katherine Johnson) in Chattanooga, Tennessee, following a KKK initiation rally.",
"A fifth woman, Fannie Crumsey, was injured by flying glass in the incident.",
"Attempted murder charges were filed against the three KKK members, two of whom—Bill Church and Larry Payne—were acquitted by an all-white jury.",
"The third defendant, Marshall Thrash, was sentenced by the same jury to nine months on lesser charges.",
"He was released after three months.",
"In 1982, a jury awarded the five women $535,000 in a civil trial.=====Michael Donald lynching=====After Michael Donald was lynched in 1981 in Alabama, the FBI investigated his death.",
"The US attorney prosecuted the case.",
"Two local KKK members were convicted for his murder, including Henry Francis Hays who was sentenced to death.",
"After exhausting the appeals process, Hays was executed by electric chair for Donald's death in Alabama on June 6, 1997.It was the first time since 1913 that a white man had been executed in Alabama for a crime against an African American.With the support of attorneys Morris Dees of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) and state senator Michael A.",
"Figures, Donald's mother Beulah Mae Donald sued the KKK in civil court in Alabama.",
"Her lawsuit against the United Klans of America was tried in February 1987.The all-white jury found the Klan responsible for the lynching of Donald, and ordered the Klan to pay US$7 million, but the KKK did not have sufficient funds to pay the fine.",
"They had to sell off their national headquarters building in Tuscaloosa.=====Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront=====In 1995, Don Black and Chloê Hardin, the ex-wife of the KKK grand wizard David Duke, began a small bulletin board system (BBS) called Stormfront, which has become a prominent online forum for white nationalism, Neo-Nazism, hate speech, racism, and antisemitism in the early 21st century.In a 2007 article by the ADL, it was reported that many KKK groups had formed strong alliances with other white supremacist groups, such as neo-Nazis.",
"Some KKK groups have become increasingly \"nazified\", adopting the look and emblems of white power skinheads.=====Current developments=====The modern KKK is not one organization; rather, it is composed of small independent chapters across the United States.",
"According to a 1999 ADL report, the KKK's estimated size then was \"No more than a few thousand, organized into slightly more than 100 units\".",
"In 2017, the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), which monitors extremist groups, estimated that there were \"at least 29 separate, rival Klan groups currently active in the United States, and they compete with one another for members, dues, news media attention and the title of being the true heir to the Ku Klux Klan\".",
"The formation of independent chapters has made KKK groups more difficult to infiltrate, and researchers find it hard to estimate their numbers.",
"Analysts believe that about two-thirds of KKK members are concentrated in the Southern United States, with another third situated primarily in the lower Midwest.For some time, the Klan's numbers have been steadily dropping.",
"This decline has been attributed to the Klan's lack of competence in the use of the Internet, their history of violence, a proliferation of competing hate groups, and a decline in the number of young racist activists who are willing to join groups at all.In 2015, the number of KKK chapters nationwide grew from 72 to 190.The SPLC released a similar report stating that \"there were significant increases in Klan as well as Black separatist groups\".A 2016 analysis by the SPLC found that hate groups in general were on the rise in the United States.",
"The ADL published a report in 2016 that concluded: \"Despite a persistent ability to attract media attention, organized Ku Klux Klan groups are actually continuing a long-term trend of decline.",
"They remain a collection of mostly small, disjointed groups that continually change in name and leadership.",
"\"Recent KKK membership campaigns have stimulated people's anxieties about illegal immigration, urban crime, civil unions, and same-sex marriage.",
"In 2006, J. Keith Akins argued that \"Klan literature and propaganda is rabidly homophobic and encourages violence against gays and lesbians.",
"...Since the late 1970s, the Klan has increasingly focused its ire on this previously ignored population.\"",
"The Klan has produced Islamophobic propaganda and distributed anti-Islamic flyers.The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has provided legal support to various factions of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights to hold public rallies, parades, and marches, as well as their right to field political candidates.The February 14, 2019, edition of the Linden, Alabama, weekly newspaper ''The Democrat-Reporter'' carried an editorial titled \"Klan needs to ride again\" written by Goodloe Sutton—the newspaper's owner, publisher and editor—which urged the Klan to return to staging their night rides, because proposals were being made to raise taxes in the state.",
"In an interview, Sutton suggested that Washington, D.C., could be \"cleaned out\" by way of lynchings.",
"\"We'll get the hemp ropes out, loop them over a tall limb and hang all of them,\" Sutton said.",
"He also specified that he was only referring to hanging \"socialist-communists\" and compared the Klan to the NAACP.",
"The editorial and Sutton's subsequent comments provoked calls for his resignation from Alabama politicians and the Alabama Press Association, which later censured Sutton and suspended the newspaper's membership.",
"In addition, the University of Southern Mississippi's School of Communication removed Sutton—who is an alumnus of that school—from its Mass Communication and Journalism Hall of Fame, and \"strongly condemned\" his remarks.",
"Sutton was also stripped of a distinguished community journalism award he had been presented in 2009 by Auburn University's Journalism Advisory Council.",
"Sutton expressed no regret and said that the editorial was intended to be \"ironic\", but that \"not many people understand irony today.",
"\"=====Current Klan organizations=====A list is maintained by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL):* Bayou Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, prevalent in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, and other areas of the Southern U.S.* Church of the American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan* Imperial Klans of America* Knights of the White Camelia* Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, headed by national director and self-claimed pastor Thomas Robb, and based in Harrison and Zinc, Arkansas.",
"It claims to be the largest Klan organization in America today.",
"* Loyal White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, a North Carolina-based group headed by Will Quigg, is currently thought to be the largest KKK chapter.",
"* White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan"
],
[
"Outside the United States and Canada",
"Aside from the Ku Klux Klan in Canada, there have been various attempts to organize KKK chapters outside the United States in places such as: Asia, Europe and Oceania, with negligible results.=== Africa ===In apartheid South Africa in the 1960s, some far-right activists copied KKK actions, for example by writing \"Ku Klux Klan Africa\" on the ANC Cape Town offices or by wearing their costumes.",
"In response, American Klan leader Terry Venable attempted to establish a branch at Rhodes University.In the 1970s, Rhodesia had a Ku Klux Klan, led by Len Idensohn, attacking Ian Smith for his perceived moderation.=== America ===In Mexico, the KKK endorsed and funded the Calles government during the 1920s Cristero War with the intention of destroying Catholicism there.",
"On 1924 vigilantes claimed to have organized themselves into a Klan against \"criminals\", publishing a program of \"social epuration\".In São Paulo, Brazil, the website of a group called Imperial Klans of Brazil was shut down in 2003, and the group's leader was arrested.The Klan has also been established in the Canal Zone.Klan was present in Cuba, under the name of Ku Klux Klan Kubano, directed against both West Indian migrant workers and Afro-Cuban and using the fear of the 1912 Negro Rebellion.=== Asia ===During the Vietnam War, klaverns were established on some US military bases, often tolerated by military authorities.In the 1920s, the Klan briefly existed in Shanghai.=== Europe ===Recruitment activity has also been reported in the United Kingdom.",
"In the 1960s, \"klaverns\" were established in the Midlands, the following decade saw visits by leading Klansmen, and the 1990s saw recruitment drives in London, Scotland and the Midlands and huge internal turmoil and splintering: for example a leader, Allan Beshella, had to resign after 1972 conviction for child sex abuse was revealed.",
"In 2018, Klan-clad far-right activists marched in front of a Northern Irish mosque.In Germany, a KKK-related group, ''Ritter des Feurigen Kreuzes'' (\"Knights of the Fiery Cross\"), was established in 1925 by returning naturalized German-born US citizens in Berlin who managed to gather around 300 persons of middle-class occupations such as merchants and clerks.",
"It soon saw the original founders being removed by internal conflicts, and mocking newspapers about the affair.",
"After the Nazis took over Germany, the group disbanded and its members joined the Nazis.",
"On 1991, Dennis Mahon, then of Oklahoma's White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, reportedly helped to organize Klan groups.",
"Another German KKK-related group, the European White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, has organized and it gained notoriety in 2012 when the German media reported that two police officers who held membership in the organization would be allowed to keep their jobs.",
"In 2019, the German authorities conducted raids against a possibly dangerous group called National Socialist Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Deutschland.In 2001, David Duke came to Moscow to network with local anti-Semitic Russian nationalists.",
"Duke said that Russia was \"the key to white survival\" and blamed most of the events of the 20th century Russian history on the Jews.In the 1920s, the Klan was rumoured to exist in Lithuania and Czechoslovakia.=== Oceania ===In Australia in the late 1990s, former One Nation member Peter Coleman established branches throughout the country, and circa 2012 the KKK has attempted to infiltrate other political parties such as Australia First.",
"Branches of the Klan have previously existed in New South Wales and Victoria, as well as allegedly in Queensland.",
"Unlike in the United States, the Australian branches did not require members to be Christian, but did require them to be white.A Ku Klux Klan group was established in Fiji in 1874 by white American and British settlers wanting to enact White supremacy, although its operations were quickly put to an end by the British who, although not officially yet established as the major authority of Fiji, had played a leading role in establishing a new constitutional monarchy, the Kingdom of Fiji, that was being threatened by the activities of the Fijian Klan, which owned fortresses and artillery.",
"By March, it had become the \"British Subjects' Mutual Protection Society\", which included Francis Herbert Dufty.In the 1920s, the Klan had been rumoured to exist in New Zealand."
],
[
"Titles and vocabulary",
"Membership in the Klan is secret.",
"Like many fraternal organizations, the Klan has signs that members can use to recognize one another.",
"In conversation, a member may use the acronym ''AYAK'' (Are you a Klansman?)",
"to surreptitiously identify themselves to another potential member.",
"The response ''AKIA'' (A Klansman I am) completes the greeting.Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many words beginning with \"Kl\", including:* '''Klabee''' – treasurers* '''Klavern''' – local organization* '''Imperial Kleagle''' – recruiter* '''Klecktoken''' – initiation fee* '''Kligrapp''' – secretary* '''Klonvokation''' – gathering* '''Kloran''' – ritual book* '''Kloreroe''' – delegate* '''Imperial Kludd''' – chaplainAll of the above terminology was created by William Joseph Simmons, as part of his 1915 revival of the Klan.",
"The Reconstruction-era Klan used different titles; the only titles to carry over were \"Wizard\" for the overall leader of the Klan and \"Night Hawk\" for the official in charge of security.The imperial kludd was the chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and he performed \"such other duties as may be required by the imperial wizard\".The imperial kaliff was the second-highest position, after the imperial wizard."
],
[
"Symbols",
"The Ku Klux Klan has utilized a variety of symbols over its history.===Blood Drop Cross===The Primary symbol used by the clan for the past century has been the ''Mystic Insignia of a Klansman'', commonly known as the ''Blood Drop Cross'', a white cross on a red disk with what appears to be a blood drop in the middle.",
"It was first used in the early 1900s, with the symbol in the center originally appearing as a red and white yin-yang which in the subsequent years, lost the white part and was reinterpreted as a \"blood drop\".===Triangular Klan symbol===The Triangular Ku Klux Klan symbol is made of what looks like a triangle inside a triangle, similar to a Sierpiński triangle, but in fact represents three letter Ks interlocked and facing inward, referencing the name of the group.",
"A variation on this symbol has the K's facing outwards instead of inwards.",
"It is an old Klan symbol that has also been resurrected as a modern-day hate symbol.===Burning cross===Although predating the Klan, in modern times the symbol of the burning cross has become almost solely associated with the Ku Klux Klan and has become one of the most potent hate symbols in the United States.",
"Burning crosses did not become associated with the clan until Thomas Dixon's ''The Clansman'', and its film adaptation, D.W. Griffith's ''The Birth of a Nation'' inspired members of the second Klan to take up the practice.",
"In the modern day the symbol of the burning cross is so associated with racial intimidation that it is used by many non-Klan racist elements and has spread to locations outside the United States.File:KKK.svg|Blood Drop CrossFile:3 Triangles KKK.svg|Triangular Klan symbolFile:Klansmen in robes with burning cross (State's Exhibit No.4).",
"The photographer for this shot is not listed or known, and it is likely that this photo was taken at a Klan cross burning in earlyJanuary (8223346951).jpg|Cross burning in Lumberton, North Carolina (1958)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Anti-mask laws* Black Legion (political movement)* Camp Nordland* History of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey* Ku Klux Klan in Maine* Ku Klux Klan members in United States politics* Ku Klux Klan raid (Inglewood)* Ku Klux Klan titles and vocabulary* Leaders of the Ku Klux Klan* List of Confederate monuments and memorials* List of Ku Klux Klan organizations* List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups* List of white nationalist organizations* Mass racial violence in the United States* Ocoee massacre* ''One Hundred Percent American''* Racism in the United States* Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials* Rosewood massacre* Terrorism in the United States* White supremacy in the United States"
],
[
"References",
"===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Reviewed by * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Winner of the 1918 Pulitzer Prize for history .",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * ===Further reading===* Eagles, Charles W., \"Urban-Rural Conflict in the 1920s: A Historiographical Assessment\".",
"''Historian'' (1986) 49#1 pp. 26–48.",
"* Horowitz, David A., \"The Normality of Extremism: The Ku Klux Klan Revisited\".",
"''Society'' (1998) 35#6 pp. 71–77.",
"* Johnsen, Julia E. ed.",
"''Ku Klux Klan'' (H.H.",
"Wilson Reference Shelf) (1926) online, organized like a debate handbook with pro and con arguments from primary sources.",
"* Lay, Shawn, ed., ''The invisible empire in the west: Toward a new historical appraisal of the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s'' (2nd ed.",
"University of Illinois Press, 2004)* Lewis, Michael, and Serbu, Jacqueline, \"Kommemorating the Ku Klux Klan\".",
"''Sociological Quarterly'' (1999) 40#1: 139–158.Deals with the memory of the KKK in Pulaski, Tennessee.",
"Online * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"===Official websites===Because there are multiple Ku Klux Klan organizations, there are multiple official websites.",
"Following are third-party lists of such organizations:* From the Southern Poverty Law Center: '' Ku Klux Klan''* From the Anti-Defamation League:** '' Tattered Robes: The State of the Ku Klux Klan in the United States'' (2016) – not organized as a list of names but many names appear in this report** '' Ku Klux Klan – Active Groups (By State)'' (2011) – archived list===Other links===* '' Prescript of the * * '': first edition of the Klan's 1867 prescript* '' Revised and Amended Prescript of the Order of the * * *'': first edition of the Klan's 1868 prescript* The Ku Klux Klan in Shelby, N.C. as recorded in two manuscripts in 1871-1872 by Captain Albion Howe (1841–1873), from the collection of The Buffalo History Museum.",
"* Civil Rights Greensboro ()* The Ku Klux Klan in Washington State, from the Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, examines the influence of the second KKK in the state during the 1920s.",
"* Buffalo Ku Klux Klan Membership List, digitized by the Buffalo History Museum* Video clip of 2014 interview with hooded KKK member by biracial director and filmmaker Mo Asumang for her documentary The Aryan* \"Inside Today's KKK\", multimedia, ''Life'' magazine, April 13, 2009* Interview with Stanley F. Horn, author of ''Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871'' (1939), Forest History Society, Inc., May 1978* ''Booknotes'' interview with Jack Nelson on ''Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews'', February 7, 1993* Icons of Hate at A History of Central Florida Podcast, examines the Ku Klux Klan's role in Central Florida in the second quarter of the 20th century* FBI file on the Ku Klux Klan* 1871 Congressional Testimony on the Ku Klux Klan* Mapping the Second Ku Klux Klan, 1915–1940, VCU Libraries* Ku Klux Klan collection, circa 1875–1990, at the Stuart A.",
"Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library.",
"* \"Quaint Customs and Methods of the Ku Klux Klan\" from ''The Literary Digest'', August 1922* Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan No.",
"51 records, Mt.",
"Rainier, Maryland at the University of Maryland Libraries"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"King Kong (1933 film)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''King Kong''''' is a 1933 American pre-Code adventure horror monster film directed and produced by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack, with special effects by Willis H. O'Brien.",
"Produced and distributed by RKO Radio Pictures, it is the first film in the ''King Kong'' franchise.",
"The film stars Fay Wray, Robert Armstrong and Bruce Cabot.",
"In the film, a giant ape dubbed Kong captured from Skull Island attempts to possess a beautiful young woman.",
"''King Kong'' opened in New York City on March 2, 1933, to rave reviews.",
"It is ranked by Rotten Tomatoes as the greatest horror film of all time and the fifty-sixth greatest film of all time.",
"In 1991, it was deemed \"culturally, historically and aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.",
"A sequel, titled ''Son of Kong,'' was fast-tracked and released the same year, with several more films made in the following decades, including two remakes that were made in 1976 and 2005 respectively, and a cinematic universe (dubbed the MonsterVerse) featuring Kong starting with ''Kong: Skull Island'' in 2017."
],
[
"Plot",
"In New York Harbor, filmmaker Carl Denham, known for wildlife films in remote and exotic locations, charters Captain Englehorn's ship, the ''Venture,'' for his new project.",
"However, he is unable to secure an actress for a female role he has been reluctant to disclose.",
"Searching in the streets of New York City, he finds Ann Darrow and promises her the adventure of a lifetime.",
"The crew boards the ''Venture'' and sets off, during which the ship's first mate, Jack Driscoll, falls in love with Ann.",
"Denham reveals to the crew that their destination is in fact Skull Island, an uncharted territory.",
"He alludes to a mysterious entity named ''Kong,'' rumored to dwell on the island.",
"The crew arrives and anchor offshore.",
"They encounter a native village, separated from the rest of the island by an enormous stone wall with a large wooden gate.",
"They witness a group of natives preparing to sacrifice a young woman termed the \"bride of Kong\".",
"The intruders are spotted and the native chief stops the ceremony.",
"When he sees the blonde-haired Ann, he offers to trade six of his tribal women for the \"golden woman\".",
"They refuse him and return to the ship.That night, the natives kidnap Ann from the ship and take her through the gate and onto an altar, where she is offered to King Kong, a giant gorilla-like beast.",
"Kong carries a terrified Ann away as Denham, Jack and some volunteers enter the jungle in hopes of rescuing her.",
"They encounter a living dinosaur, a charging ''Stegosaurus,'' which they manage to kill.",
"Soon after, the crew runs into an aggressive ''Brontosaurus'' and eventually Kong himself, leaving Jack and Denham as the only survivors.",
"After Kong slays a ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' that tried to eat Ann, Jack continues to follow them while Denham returns to the village for more men.",
"Upon arriving in Kong's mountain lair, Ann is menaced by a snake-like ''Elasmosaurus,'' which Kong also kills.",
"While Kong is distracted killing a ''Pteranodon'' that tried to fly away with Ann, Jack reaches her and they climb down a vine dangling from a cliff ledge.",
"When Kong notices and starts pulling them back up, the two drop into the water below.",
"They run through the jungle and back to the village, where Denham, Englehorn, and the surviving crewmen are waiting.",
"Kong, following, breaks open the gate and relentlessly rampages through the village.",
"Onshore, Denham, now determined to bring Kong back alive, renders him unconscious with a gas bomb.Shackled in chains, Kong is taken to New York City and presented to a Broadway theatre audience as \"Kong, Eighth Wonder of the World!\"",
"Ann and Jack are brought on stage to join him, surrounded by a group of press photographers.",
"Kong, believing that the ensuing flash photography is an attack, breaks loose as the audience flees in horror.",
"Ann is whisked away to a hotel room on a high floor, but Kong, scaling the building, soon finds her.",
"He rampages through the city as Ann screams in his grasp; wrecking a crowded elevated train and eventually climbing the Empire State Building.",
"At its top, he is attacked by four biplanes.",
"Kong destroys one, but finally succumbs to their gunfire.",
"He gazes at Ann one last time before falling to his death.",
"Jack takes an elevator to the top of the building and reunites with Ann.",
"Denham arrives and pushes through a crowd surrounding Kong's corpse in the street.",
"When a policeman remarks that the planes got him, Denham tells him, \"No, it wasn't the airplanes.",
"It was Beauty killed the Beast.\""
],
[
"Cast",
"* Fay Wray as Ann Darrow* Robert Armstrong as Carl Denham* Bruce Cabot as John \"Jack\" Driscoll* Frank Reicher as Captain Englehorn* Sam Hardy as Charles Weston* Victor Wong as Charlie* James Flavin as Second Mate Briggs * Etta McDaniel as The Native Mother * Everett Brown as The Native In An Ape Costume * Noble Johnson as The Native Chief* Steve Clemente as The Witch King"
],
[
"Production",
"===Crew===Personnel taken from ''King Kong: The History of a Movie Icon From Fay Wray to Peter Jackson.",
"''===Development===Charles R. Knight's ''Tyrannosaurus'' in the American Museum of Natural History, on which the large theropod of the film was based''King Kong'' producer Ernest B. Schoedsack had earlier monkey experience directing ''Chang: A Drama of the Wilderness'' (1927), also with Merian C. Cooper, and ''Rango'' (1931), both of which prominently featured monkeys in authentic jungle settings.",
"Capitalizing on this trend, Congo Pictures released the hoax documentary ''Ingagi'' (1930), advertising the film as \"an authentic incontestable celluloid document showing the sacrifice of a living woman to mammoth gorillas.\"",
"''Ingagi'' is now often recognized as a racial exploitation film as it implicitly depicted black women having sex with gorillas, and baby offspring that looked more ape than human.",
"The film was an immediate hit, and by some estimates, it was one of the highest-grossing films of the 1930s at over $4 million.",
"Although Cooper never listed ''Ingagi'' among his influences for ''King Kong,'' it has long been held that RKO greenlighted ''Kong'' because of the bottom-line example of ''Ingagi'' and the formula that \"gorillas plus sexy women in peril equals enormous profits.",
"\"===Special effects===Promotional image featuring Kong battling the ''Tyrannosaurus''''King Kong'' is well known for its groundbreaking use of special effects, such as stop-motion animation, matte painting, rear projection and miniatures, all of which were conceived decades before the digital age.The numerous prehistoric creatures inhabiting Skull Island were brought to life through the use of stop-motion animation by Willis H. O'Brien and his assistant animator, Buzz Gibson.",
"The stop-motion animation scenes were painstaking and difficult to achieve and complete after the special effects crew realized that they could not stop because it would make the movements of the creatures seem inconsistent and the lighting would not have the same intensity over the many days it took to fully animate a finished sequence.",
"A device called the surface gauge was used in order to keep track of the stop-motion animation performance.",
"The iconic fight between Kong and the ''Tyrannosaurus'' took seven weeks to be completed.",
"O'Brien's protégé, Ray Harryhausen, later worked with him on several films.The backdrop of the island seen when the Venture crew first arrives was painted on glass by matte painters Henry Hillinck, Mario Larrinaga, and Byron L. Crabbe.",
"The scene was then composited with separate bird elements and rear-projected behind the ship and the actors.",
"The background of the scenes in the jungle (a miniature set) was also painted on several layers of glass to convey the illusion of deep and dense jungle foliage.The most difficult task for the special effects crew to achieve was to make live-action footage interact with separately filmed stop-motion animation – to make the interaction between the humans and the creatures of the island seem believable.",
"The most simple of these effects were accomplished by exposing part of the frame, then running the same piece of the film through the camera again by exposing the other part of the frame with a different image.",
"The most complex shots, where the live-action actors interacted with the stop-motion animation, were achieved via two different techniques, the Dunning process and the Williams process, in order to produce the effect of a traveling matte.",
"The Dunning process, invented by cinematographer Carroll H. Dunning, employed the use of blue and yellow lights that were filtered and photographed into the black-and-white film.",
"Bi-packing of the camera was used for these types of effects.",
"With it, the special effects crew could combine two strips of different films at the same time, creating the final composite shot in the camera.",
"It was used in the climactic scene where one of the Curtiss Helldiver planes attacking Kong crashes from the top of the Empire State Building, and in the scene where natives are running through the foreground, while Kong is fighting other natives at the wall.On the other hand, the Williams process, invented by cinematographer Frank D. Williams, did not require a system of colored lights and could be used for wider shots.",
"It was used in the scene where Kong is shaking the sailors off the log, as well as the scene where Kong pushes the gates open.",
"The Williams process did not use bipacking, but rather an optical printer, the first such device that synchronized a projector with a camera, so that several strips of film could be combined into a single composited image.",
"Through the use of the optical printer, the special effects crew could film the foreground, the stop-motion animation, the live-action footage, and the background, and combine all of those elements into one single shot, eliminating the need to create the effects in the camera.Colored publicity shot combining live actors with stop motion animation Another technique that was used in combining live actors and stop-motion animation was rear-screen projection.",
"The actor would have a translucent screen behind him where a projector would project footage onto the back of the translucent screen.",
"The translucent screen was developed by Sidney Saunders and Fred Jackman, who received a Special Achievement Oscar.",
"It was used in the famous scene where Kong and the ''Tyrannosaurus'' fight while Ann watches from the branches of a nearby tree.",
"The stop-motion animation was filmed first.",
"Fay Wray then spent a twenty-two-hour period sitting in a fake tree acting out her observation of the battle, which was projected onto the translucent screen while the camera filmed her witnessing the projected stop-motion battle.",
"She was sore for days after the shoot.",
"The same process was also used for the scene where sailors from the Venture kill a Stegosaurus.O'Brien and his special effects crew also devised a way to use rear projection in miniature sets.",
"A tiny screen was built into the miniature onto which live-action footage would then be projected.",
"A fan was used to prevent the footage that was projected from melting or catching fire.",
"This miniature rear projection was used in the scene where Kong is trying to grab Driscoll, who is hiding in a cave.",
"The scene where Kong puts Ann at the top of a tree switched from a puppet in Kong's hand to projected footage of Ann sitting.The scene where Kong fights the Tanystropheus in his lair was likely the most significant special effects achievement of the film, due to the way in which all of the elements in the sequence work together at the same time.",
"The scene was accomplished through the use of a miniature set, stop-motion animation for Kong, background matte paintings, real water, foreground rocks with bubbling mud, smoke, and two miniature rear screen projections of Driscoll and Ann.Over the years, some media reports have alleged that in certain scenes Kong was played by an actor wearing a gorilla suit.",
"However, film historians have generally agreed that all scenes involving Kong were achieved with animated models, except for the \"closeups\" of Kong's face and upper body which are dispersed throughout the film.",
"These shots were accomplished by filming a \"full size\" mechanical model of Kong's head and shoulders.",
"Operators could manipulate the eyes and mouth to simulate a living monster.",
"These shots can be identified immediately in two ways: the action is very smooth (not stop-motion jittery) and the footage is extremely sharp and clear because of the size of the subject being photographed.===Post-production===Theatrical advertisement from 1933Murray Spivack provided the sound effects for the film.",
"Kong's roar was created by mixing the recorded vocals of captive lions and tigers, subsequently played backward slowly.",
"Spivak himself provided Kong's \"love grunts\" by grunting into a megaphone and playing it at a slow speed.",
"For the huge ape's footsteps, Spivak stomped across a gravel-filled box with plungers wrapped in foam attached to his own feet, while the sounds of his chest beats were recorded by Spivak hitting his assistant (who had a microphone held to his back) on the chest with a drumstick.",
"Spivak created the hisses and croaks of the dinosaurs with an air compressor for the former and his own vocals for the latter.",
"The vocalizations of the Tyrannosaurus were additionally mixed in with puma screams while bird squawks were used for the Pteranodon.",
"Spivak also provided the numerous screams of the various sailors.",
"Fay Wray herself provided all of her character's screams in a single recording session.The score was unlike any that came before and marked a significant change in the history of film music.",
"King Kong's score was the first feature-length musical score written for an American \"talkie\" film, the first major Hollywood film to have a thematic score rather than background music, the first to mark the use of a 46-piece orchestra and the first to be recorded on three separate tracks (sound effects, dialogue, and music).",
"Steiner used a number of new film scoring techniques, such as drawing upon opera conventions for his use of leitmotifs.",
"Over the years, Steiner's score was recorded by multiple record labels and the original motion picture soundtrack has been issued on a compact disc."
],
[
"Release",
"Trailer for the 1938 re-release of ''King Kong'' (1:32).Grauman's Chinese Theatre, where ''King Kong'' held its world premiere.===Censorship and restorations===The Production Code's stricter decency rules were put into effect in Hollywood after the film's 1933 premiere and it was progressively censored further, with several scenes being either trimmed or excised altogether.",
"These scenes were as follows: * The Brontosaurus mauling crewmen in the water, chasing one up a tree and killing him.",
"* Kong undressing Ann Darrow and sniffing his fingers.",
"* Kong biting and stepping on natives when he attacks the village.",
"* Kong biting a man in New York.",
"* Kong mistaking a sleeping woman for Ann and dropping her to her death, after realizing his mistake.",
"* An additional scene portraying giant insects, spiders, a reptile-like predator and a tentacled creature devouring the crew members shaken off the log by Kong onto the floor of the canyon below was deemed too gruesome by RKO even by pre-Code standards, and thus the scene was studio self-censored prior to the original release.",
"The footage is now considered lost forever, with the exception of only a few stills and pre-production drawings.RKO did not preserve copies of the film's negative or release prints with the excised footage, and the cut scenes were considered lost for many years.",
"In 1969, a 16mm print, including the censored footage, was found in Philadelphia.",
"The cut scenes were added to the film, restoring it to its original theatrical running time of 100 minutes.",
"This version was re-released to art houses by Janus Films in 1970.Over the next two decades, Universal Studios undertook further photochemical restoration of ''King Kong.''",
"This was based on a 1942 release print with missing censor cuts taken from a 1937 print, which \"contained heavy vertical scratches from projection.\"",
"An original release print located in the UK in the 1980s was found to contain the cut scenes in better quality.",
"After a 6-year worldwide search for the best surviving materials, a further, fully digital restoration utilizing 4K resolution scanning was completed by Warner Bros. in 2005.This restoration also had a 4-minute overture added, bringing the overall running time to 104 minutes.Somewhat controversially, ''King Kong'' was colorized for a 1989 Turner Home Entertainment video release.",
"The following year, this colorized version was shown on Turner's TNT channel.===Television===After the 1956 re-release, the film was sold to television (first being broadcast March 5, 1956).===Home media===In 1984, ''King Kong'' was one of the first films to be released on LaserDisc by the Criterion Collection, and was the first movie to have an audio commentary track included.",
"Criterion's audio commentary was by film historian Ron Haver in 1985 Image Entertainment released another LaserDisc, this time with a commentary by film historian and soundtrack producer Paul Mandell.",
"The Haver commentary was preserved in full on the FilmStruck streaming service.",
"''King Kong'' had numerous VHS and LaserDisc releases of varying quality prior to receiving an official studio release on DVD.",
"Those included a Turner 60th-anniversary edition in 1993 featuring a front cover that had the sound effect of Kong roaring when his chest was pressed.",
"It also included a 25-minute documentary, ''It Was Beauty Killed the Beast'' (1992).",
"The documentary is also available on two different UK ''King Kong'' DVDs, while the colorized version is available on DVD in the UK and Italy.",
"Warner Home Video re-released the black and white version on VHS in 1998 and again in 1999 under the ''Warner Bros.",
"Classics'' label, with this release including the 25-minute 1992 documentary.In 2005, Warner Bros. released its digital restoration of ''King Kong'' in a US 2-disc Special Edition DVD, coinciding with the theatrical release of Peter Jackson's remake.",
"It had numerous extra features, including a new, third audio commentary by visual effects artists Ray Harryhausen and Ken Ralston, with archival excerpts from actress Fay Wray and producer/director Merian C. Cooper.",
"Warners issued identical DVDs in 2006 in Australia and New Zealand, followed by a US digibook-packaged Blu-ray in 2010.In 2014, the Blu-ray was repackaged with three unrelated films in a ''4 Film Favorites: Colossal Monster Collection.''",
"At present, Universal holds worldwide rights to Kong's home video releases outside of North America, Latin America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.",
"All of Universal's releases only contain the earlier, 100-minute, pre-2005 restoration."
],
[
"Reception",
"===Box office===The film was a box-office success, earning about $5 million in worldwide rentals on its initial release, and an opening weekend estimated at $90,000.Receipts fell by up to 50% during the second week of the film's release because of the national \"bank holiday\" declared by President Franklin D. Roosevelt's during his first days in office.",
"During the film's first run it made a profit of $650,000.Prior to the 1952 re-release, the film is reported to have worldwide rentals of $2,847,000 including $1,070,000 from the United States and Canada and profits of $1,310,000.After the 1952 re-release, ''Variety'' estimated the film had earned an additional $1.6 million in the United States and Canada, bringing its total to $3.9 million in cumulative domestic (United States and Canada) rentals.",
"Profits from the 1952 re-release were estimated by the studio at $2.5 million.===Critical response===On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 97% based on , with an average rating of 9/10.The site's critical consensus reads, \"''King Kong'' explores the soul of a monster – making audiences scream and cry throughout the film – in large part due to Kong's breakthrough special effects.\"",
"On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 90 out of 100, based on 12 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\".",
"''Variety'' thought the film was a powerful adventure.",
"''The New York Times'' gave readers an enthusiastic account of the plot and thought the film a fascinating adventure.",
"John Mosher of ''The New Yorker'' called it \"ridiculous\", but wrote that there were \"many scenes in this picture that are certainly diverting.\"",
"The ''New York World-Telegram'' said it was \"one of the very best of all the screen thrillers, done with all the cinema's slickest camera tricks.\"",
"The ''Chicago Tribune'' called it \"one of the most original, thrilling and mammoth novelties to emerge from a movie studio.",
"\"On February 3, 2002, Roger Ebert included ''King Kong'' in his \"Great Movies\" list, writing that \"In modern times the movie has aged, as critic James Berardinelli observes, and 'advances in technology and acting have dated aspects of the production.'",
"Yes, but in the very artificiality of some of the special effects, there is a creepiness that isn't there in today's slick, flawless, computer-aided images...",
"Even allowing for its slow start, wooden acting, and wall-to-wall screaming, there is something ageless and primeval about ''King Kong'' that still somehow works.",
"\"===Criticism of racism===In the 19th and early 20th century, people of African descent were commonly represented visually as ape-like, a metaphor that fit racist stereotypes further bolstered by the emergence of scientific racism.",
"Early films frequently mirrored racial tensions.",
"While ''King Kong'' is often compared to the story of ''Beauty and the Beast,'' many film scholars have argued that the film was a cautionary tale about interracial romance, in which the film's \"carrier of blackness is not a human being, but an ape.",
"\"Cooper and Schoedsack rejected any allegorical interpretations, insisting in interviews that the film's story contained no hidden meanings.",
"In an interview, which was published posthumously, Cooper actually explained the deeper meaning of the film.",
"The inspiration for the climactic scene came when, \"as he was leaving his office in Manhattan, he heard the sound of an airplane motor.",
"He reflexively looked up as the sun glinted off the wings of a plane flying extremely close to the tallest building in the city... he realized if he placed the giant gorilla on top of the tallest building in the world and had him shot down by the most modern of weapons, the armed airplane, he would have a story of the primitive doomed by modern civilization.",
"\"The film was initially banned in Nazi Germany, with the censors describing it as an \"attack against the nerves of the German people\" and a \"violation of German race feeling\".",
"However, according to confidant Ernst Hanfstaengl, Adolf Hitler was \"fascinated\" by the film and saw it several times.===Legacy===The film has since received some significant honors.",
"In 1975, ''Kong'' was named one of the 50 best American films by the American Film Institute.",
"In 1981, a video game titled ''Donkey Kong,'' starring a character with similarities to Kong, was released.",
"In 1991, the film was deemed \"culturally, historically and aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.",
"In 1998, the AFI ranked the film #43 on its list of the 100 greatest movies of all time.The film's stop motion effects by Willis H. O'Brien revolutionized special effects, leaving a lasting impact on the film industry worldwide and inspired other genre films such as ''Mighty Joe Young'', ''The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms'', ''Creature from the Black Lagoon'', ''Mothra'', and ''Jurassic Park''.",
"The film was also one of the biggest inspirations for ''Godzilla,'' with Tomoyuki Tanaka (the creator of Godzilla) stating, \"I felt like doing something big.",
"That was my motivation.",
"I thought of different ideas.",
"I like monster movies, and I was influenced by King Kong.",
"\"It has been suggested by author Daniel Loxton that ''King Kong'' inspired the modern day legend of the Loch Ness Monster.",
"'''American Film Institute Lists'''* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #43* AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – #12* AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – #24* AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains:** Kong – Nominated Villain * AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:** \"Oh, no, it wasn't the airplanes.",
"It was Beauty that killed the Beast.\"",
"– #84* AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – #13* AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #41* AFI's 10 Top 10 – #4 Fantasy film"
],
[
"Sequel and franchise",
"The 1933 ''King Kong'' film and characters inspired imitations and installments.",
"''The Son of Kong,'' a direct sequel to the 1933 film was released nine months after the first film's release.",
"In the early 1960s, RKO had licensed the King Kong character to Japanese studio Toho and produced two King Kong films, ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' which was also the third film in Toho's long-running '' Godzilla'' series, and ''King Kong Escapes,'' both directed by Ishirō Honda.",
"These films are mostly unrelated to the original and follow a very different style.In 1976, Italian producer Dino De Laurentiis released his version of ''King Kong,'' a modern remake of the 1933 film, following the same basic plot, but moving the setting to the present day and changing many details.",
"The remake was followed by a sequel in 1986 titled ''King Kong Lives.",
"''In 1998, the film also saw a loosely-adapted direct-to-video animated remake, ''The Mighty Kong,'' directed by Art Scott, scored by the Sherman Brothers and distributed by Warner Bros.In 2005, Universal Pictures released another remake of ''King Kong,'' co-written and directed by Peter Jackson, which is set in 1933, as in the original film.Legendary Pictures and Warner Bros. released a Kong reboot film titled ''Kong: Skull Island'' in 2017 which was directed by Jordan Vogt-Roberts and is the second installment of Legendary's ''MonsterVerse,'' with a sequel ''Godzilla vs. Kong'' directed by Adam Wingard released in 2021, marking the second time Kong fights Godzilla."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of films featuring dinosaurs* List of films featuring giant monsters* List of highest-grossing films* List of stop motion films* 1933 in film* Skull Island* ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1949)* ''Ingagi'' (1930)* ''Stark Mad'' (1929)* ''The Lost World'' (1925)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * Annette, Kuhn.",
"(2007).",
"\"King Kong.\"",
"In: Cook, Pam.",
"(ed.)",
"The Cinema Book.",
"London: British Film Institute.",
"P,41.and Robinson, D. (1983).",
"\"King Kong.\"",
"In: Lloyd, A.",
"(ed.)",
"Movies of the Thirties.",
"Orbis Publishing Ltd.* * Eagan, Daniel (2010).",
"America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry.",
"The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc, New York, NY p. 22..* * * * Grant, Elizabeth.",
"(1996).",
"\"Here Comes the Bride.\"",
"In Grant, Barry Keith (ed.",
"), ''The Dread of Difference: Gender and the Horror Film.''",
"Austin: University of Texas Press.",
"* * * * * * * * * * Ollier, Claude.",
"(May–June 1965).",
"\"Un roi à New York (A King in New York)\" (Milne, Tom, trans.",
"), in Hillier, Jim (ed.",
"), ''Cahiers du Cinéma: The 1960s: New Wave, New Cinema, Reevaluating Hollywood,'' Harvard University Press, 1986.",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Kong'' essay by Michael Price on the National Film Registry website * ''King Kong'' essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 205-207 * List of the 400 nominated screen characters* * * * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kenning"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''kenning''' (Icelandic: ) is a figure of speech in the type of circumlocution, a compound that employs figurative language in place of a more concrete single-word noun.",
"Kennings are strongly associated with Old Norse-Icelandic and Old English alliterative verse.",
"They continued to be a feature of Icelandic poetry (including ''rímur'') for centuries, together with the closely related heiti.A kenning has two parts: a base-word (also known as a head-word) and a determinant.",
"For example, the base-word of the kenning \"íss rauðra randa\" ('icicle of red shields' SWORD, Einarr Skúlason: ''Øxarflokkr'' 9) is ''íss'' ('ice, icicle') and the determinant is ''rǫnd'' ('rim, shield-rim, shield').",
"The thing, person, place or being to which the kenning refers is known as its referent (in this case a sword).",
"Although kennings are sometimes hyphenated in English translation, Old Norse poetry did not require kennings to be in normal word order, nor do the parts of the kenning need to be side-by-side.",
"The lack of grammatical cases in modern English makes this aspect of kennings difficult to translate."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The corresponding modern verb ''to ken'' survives in Scots and English dialects and in general English through the derivative existing in the standard language in the set expression ''beyond one's ken'', \"beyond the scope of one's knowledge\" and in the phonologically altered forms ''uncanny'', \"surreal\" or \"supernatural\", and ''canny'', \"shrewd\", \"prudent\".",
"Modern Scots retains (with slight differences between dialects) ''tae ken'' \"to know\", ''kent'' \"knew\" or \"known\", Afrikaans ''ken'' \"be acquainted with\" and \"to know\" and ''kennis \"knowledge\"''.",
"Old Norse ''kenna'' (Modern Icelandic ''kenna'', Swedish ''känna'', Danish ''kende'', Norwegian ''kjenne'' or ''kjenna'') is cognate with Old English ''cennan'', Old Frisian ''kenna'', ''kanna'', Old Saxon (''ant'')''kennian'' (Middle Dutch and Dutch ''kennen''), Old High German (''ir-'', ''in-'', ''pi-'') ''chennan'' (Middle High German and German ''kennen''), Gothic ''kannjan'' < Proto-Germanic *''kannjanan'', originally causative of *''kunnanan'' \"to know (how to)\", whence Modern English ''can'' 'to be able'.",
"The word ultimately derives from ''*ǵneh₃'', the same Proto-Indo-European root that yields Modern English ''know'', Latin-derived terms such as ''cognition'' and ''ignorant'', and Greek ''gnosis''."
],
[
"Structure",
"Old Norse kennings take the form of a genitive phrase (''báru fákr'' \"wave's horse\" = \"ship\" (Þorbjörn Hornklofi: Glymdrápa 3)) or a compound word (''gjálfr-marr'' \"sea-steed\" = \"ship\" (Anon.",
": ''Hervararkviða'' 27)).",
"The simplest kennings consist of a base-word (Icelandic ''stofnorð'', German ''Grundwort'') and a determinant (Icelandic ''kenniorð'', German ''Bestimmung'') which qualifies, or modifies, the meaning of the base-word.",
"The determinant may be a noun used uninflected as the first element in a compound word, with the base-word constituting the second element of the compound word.",
"Alternatively the determinant may be a noun in the genitive case placed before or after the base-word, either directly or separated from the base-word by intervening words.Thus the base-words in these examples are ''fákr'' \"horse\" and ''marr'' \"steed\", the determinants ''báru'' \"waves\" and ''gjálfr'' \"sea\".",
"The unstated noun which the kenning refers to is called its referent, in this case: ''skip'' \"ship\".In Old Norse poetry, either component of a kenning (base-word, determinant or both) could consist of an ordinary noun or a ''heiti'' \"poetic synonym\".",
"In the above examples, ''fákr'' and ''marr'' are distinctively poetic lexemes; the normal word for \"horse\" in Old Norse prose is ''hestr''.===Complex kennings===The skalds also employed complex kennings in which the determinant, or sometimes the base-word, is itself made up of a further kenning: ''grennir gunn-más'' \"feeder of war-gull\" = \"feeder of raven\" = \"warrior\" (Þorbjörn Hornklofi: ''Glymdrápa'' 6); ''eyðendr arnar hungrs'' \"destroyers of eagle's hunger\" = \"feeders of eagle\" = \"warrior\" (Þorbjörn Þakkaskáld: Erlingsdrápa 1) (referring to carrion birds scavenging after a battle).",
"Where one kenning is embedded in another like this, the whole figure is said to be ''tvíkent'' \"doubly determined, twice modified\".Frequently, where the determinant is itself a kenning, the base-word of the kenning that makes up the determinant is attached uninflected to the front of the base-word of the whole kenning to form a compound word: ''mög-fellandi mellu'' \"son-slayer of giantess\" = \"slayer of sons of giantess\" = \"slayer of giants\" = \"the god Thor\" (Steinunn Refsdóttir: Lausavísa 2).If the figure comprises more than three elements, it is said to be ''rekit'' \"extended\".",
"Kennings of up to seven elements are recorded in skaldic verse.",
"Snorri himself characterises five-element kennings as an acceptable license but cautions against more extreme constructions: ''Níunda er þat at reka til hinnar fimtu kenningar, er ór ættum er ef lengra er rekit; en þótt þat finnisk í fornskálda verka, þá látum vér þat nú ónýtt.''",
"\"The ninth license is extending a kenning to the fifth determinant, but it is out of proportion if it is extended further.",
"Even if it can be found in the works of ancient poets, we no longer tolerate it.\"",
"The longest kenning found in skaldic poetry occurs in ''Hafgerðingadrápa'' by Þórðr Sjáreksson and reads ''nausta blakks hlé-mána gífrs drífu gim-slöngvir'' \"fire-brandisher of blizzard of ogress of protection-moon of steed of boat-shed\", which simply means \"warrior\".===Word order and comprehension===Word order in Old Norse was generally much freer than in Modern English because Old Norse and Old English are synthetic languages, where added prefixes and suffixes to the root word (the core noun, verb, adjective or adverb) carry grammatical meanings, whereas Middle English and Modern English use word order to carry grammatical information, as analytic languages.",
"This freedom is exploited to the full in skaldic verse and taken to extremes far beyond what would be natural in prose.",
"Other words can intervene between a base-word and its genitive determinant, and occasionally between the elements of a compound word (tmesis).",
"Kennings, and even whole clauses, can be interwoven.",
"Ambiguity is usually less than it would be if an English text were subjected to the same contortions, thanks to the more elaborate morphology of Old Norse.Another factor aiding comprehension is that Old Norse kennings tend to be highly conventional.",
"Most refer to the same small set of topics, and do so using a relatively small set of traditional metaphors.",
"Thus a leader or important man will be characterised as generous, according to one common convention, and called an \"enemy of gold\", \"attacker of treasure\", \"destroyer of arm-rings\", etc.",
"and a friend of his people.",
"Nevertheless, there are many instances of ambiguity in the corpus, some of which may be intentional, and some evidence that, rather than merely accepting it from expediency, skalds favoured contorted word order for its own sake.===Semantics===Kennings could be developed into extended, and sometimes vivid, metaphors: ''tröddusk törgur fyr ... hjalta harðfótum'' \"shields were trodden under the hard feet of the hilt (sword blades)\" (Eyvindr Skáldaspillir: Hákonarmál 6); ''svarraði sárgymir á sverða nesi'' \"wound-sea (=blood) sprayed on headland of swords (=shield)\" (Eyvindr Skáldaspillir: Hákonarmál 7).",
"Snorri calls such examples ''nýgervingar'' and exemplifies them in verse 6 of his Háttatal.",
"The effect here seems to depend on an interplay of more or less naturalistic imagery and jarring artifice.",
"But the skalds were not averse either to arbitrary, purely decorative, use of kennings: \"That is, a ruler will be a distributor of gold even when he is fighting a battle and gold will be called the fire of the sea even when it is in the form of a man's arm-ring on his arm.",
"If the man wearing a gold ring is fighting a battle on land the mention of the sea will have no relevance to his situation at all and does not contribute to the picture of the battle being described\" (Faulkes (1997), pp.",
"8–9).Snorri draws the line at mixed metaphor, which he terms ''nykrat'' \"made monstrous\" (Snorri Sturluson: Háttatal 6), and his nephew called the practice ''löstr'' \"a fault\" (Óláfr hvítaskáld: Third Grammatical Treatise 80).",
"In spite of this, it seems that \"many poets did not object to and some must have preferred baroque juxtapositions of unlike kennings and neutral or incongruous verbs in their verses\" (Foote & Wilson (1970), p. 332).",
"E.g.",
"''heyr jarl Kvasis dreyra'' \"listen, earl, to Kvasir's blood (=poetry)\" (Einarr skálaglamm: Vellekla 1).Sometimes there is a kind of redundancy whereby the referent of the whole kenning, or a kenning for it, is embedded: ''barmi dólg-svölu'' \"brother of hostility-swallow\" = \"brother of raven\" = \"raven\" (Oddr breiðfirðingr: Illugadrápa 1); ''blik-meiðendr bauga láðs'' \"gleam-harmers of the land of rings\" = \"harmers of gleam of arm\" = \"harmers of ring\" = \"leaders, nobles, men of social standing (conceived of as generously destroying gold, i.e.",
"giving it away freely)\" (Anon.",
": Líknarbraut 42).While some Old Norse kennings are relatively transparent, many depend on a knowledge of specific myths or legends.",
"Thus the sky might be called naturalistically ''él-ker'' \"squall-vat\" (Markús Skeggjason: Eiríksdrápa 3) or described in mythical terms as ''Ymis haus'' \"Ymir's skull\" (Arnórr jarlaskáld: Magnúsdrápa 19), referring to the idea that the sky was made out of the skull of the primeval giant Ymir.",
"Still others name mythical entities according to certain conventions without reference to a specific story: ''rimmu Yggr'' \"Odin of battle\" = \"warrior\" (Arnórr jarlaskáld: Magnúsdrápa 5).Poets in medieval Iceland even treated Christian themes using the traditional repertoire of kennings complete with allusions to heathen myths and aristocratic epithets for saints: ''Þrúðr falda'' \"goddess of headdresses\" = \"Saint Catherine\" (Kálfr Hallsson: Kátrínardrápa 4).Kennings of the type AB, where B routinely has the characteristic A and thus this AB is tautological, tend to mean \"like B in that it has the characteristic A\", e.g.",
"\"shield-Njörðr\", tautological because the god Njörðr by nature has his own shield, means \"like Njörðr in that he has a shield\", i.e.",
"\"warrior\".",
"A modern English example is \"painted Jezebel\" as a disapproving expression for a woman too fond of using cosmetics.Kennings may include proper names.",
"A modern example of this is an ad hoc usage by a helicopter ambulance pilot: \"the Heathrow of hang gliders\" for the hills behind Hawes in Yorkshire in England, when he found the air over the emergency site crowded with hang-gliders.Sometimes a name given to one well-known member of a species, is used to mean any member of that species.",
"For example, Old Norse ''valr'' means \"falcon\", but Old Norse mythology mentions a horse named Valr, and thus in Old Norse poetry ''valr'' is sometimes used to mean \"horse\".===Ellipsis===A term may be omitted from a well-known kenning: ''val-teigs Hildr'' \"hawk-ground's valkyrie/goddess\" (Haraldr Harðráði: Lausavísa 19).",
"The full expression implied here is \"goddess of gleam/fire/adornment of ground/land/seat/perch of hawk\" = \"goddess of gleam of arm\" = \"goddess of gold\" = \"lady\" (characterised according to convention as wearing golden jewellery, the arm-kenning being a reference to falconry).",
"The poet relies on listeners' familiarity with such conventions to carry the meaning."
],
[
"Definitions",
"Some scholars take the term kenning broadly to include any noun-substitute consisting of two or more elements, including merely descriptive epithets (such as Old Norse ''grand viðar'' \"bane of wood\" = \"fire\" (Snorri Sturluson: Skáldskaparmál 36)), while others would restrict it to metaphorical instances (such as Old Norse ''sól húsanna'' \"sun of the houses\" = \"fire\" (Snorri Sturluson: Skáldskaparmál 36)), specifically those where \"the base-word identifies the referent with something which it is not, except in a specially conceived relation which the poet imagines between it and the sense of the limiting element'\" (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248–253).",
"Some even exclude naturalistic metaphors such as Old English ''forstes bend'' \"bond of frost\" = \"ice\" or ''winter-ġewǣde'' \"winter-raiment\" = \"snow\": \"A metaphor is a kenning only if it contains an incongruity between the referent and the meaning of the base-word; in the kenning the limiting word is essential to the figure because without it the incongruity would make any identification impossible\" (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248–253).",
"Descriptive epithets are a common literary device in many parts of the world, whereas kennings in this restricted sense are a distinctive feature of Old Norse and, to a lesser extent, Old English poetry.Snorri's own usage, however, seems to fit the looser sense: \"Snorri uses the term 'kenning' to refer to a structural device, whereby a person or object is indicated by a periphrastic description containing two or more terms (which can be a noun with one or more dependent genitives or a compound noun or a combination of these two structures)\" (Faulkes (1998 a), p. xxxiv).",
"The term is certainly applied to non-metaphorical phrases in Skáldskaparmál: ''En sú kenning er áðr var ritat, at kalla Krist konung manna, þá kenning má eiga hverr konungr.''",
"\"And that kenning which was written before, calling Christ the king of men, any king can have that kenning.",
"Likewise in Háttatal: ''Þat er kenning at kalla fleinbrak orrostu ...'' \"It is a kenning to call battle 'spear-crash' ...\".Snorri's expression ''kend heiti'' \"qualified terms\" appears to be synonymous with ''kenningar'', although Brodeur applies this more specifically to those periphrastic epithets which do not come under his strict definition of kenning.Sverdlov approaches the question from a morphological standpoint.",
"Noting that the modifying component in Germanic compound words can take the form of a genitive or a bare root, he points to behavioural similarities between genitive determinants and the modifying element in regular Old Norse compound words, such as the fact that neither can be modified by a free-standing (declined) adjective.",
"According to this view, all kennings are formally compounds, notwithstanding widespread tmesis."
],
[
"Old Norse kennings in context",
"In the following stanza, the Norwegian skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir (d. ca 990) compares the greed of King Harald Greycloak (Old Norse: ''Haraldr'') to the generosity of his predecessor, Haakon the Good (''Hákon'')::Bárum, Ullr, of alla,:ímunlauks, á hauka:fjöllum Fýrisvalla:fræ Hákonar ævi;:nú hefr fólkstríðir Fróða:fáglýjaðra þýja:meldr í móður holdi:mellu dolgs of folginn::—Eyvindr skáldaspillir, ''Lausavísa''A literal translation reveals several kennings: \"'''Ullr of the war-leek!'''",
"We carried the '''seed of Fýrisvellir''' on our '''hawk-mountains''' during all of Haakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden the '''flour of Fróði's hapless slaves''' in the '''flesh of the mother of the enemy of the giantess.",
"'''\"This could be paraphrased as \"O warrior, we carried gold on our arms during all of King Haakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden gold in the earth.\"",
"The kennings are:'''''Ullr ... ímunlauks''''', \"warrior\", from Ullr, the name of a god, and '''ímun-laukr''', \"sword\" (literally \"war-leek\").",
"By convention, the name of any god can be associated with another word to produce a kenning for a certain type of man; here \"Ullr of the sword\" means \"warrior.\"",
"\"War-leek\" is a kenning for \"sword\" that likens the shape of the sword to that of a leek.",
"The warrior referred to may be King Harald.",
"'''''Hauka fjöllum''''', \"arms\", from ''hauka'' \"hawk\" and ''fjöll'' mountain.",
"This is a reference to the sport of falconry, where a bird of prey is perched on the arm of the falconer.",
"By convention, \"hawk\" combined with a term for a geographic feature forms a kenning for \"arm.",
"\"'''''Fýrisvalla fræ''''', \"gold\", from \"Fýrisvellir\", the plains of the river Fýri, and ''fræ'', \"seed.\"",
"This is an allusion to a legend retold in ''Skáldskaparmál'' and ''Hrólfs saga kraka'' in which King Hrolf and his men scattered gold on the plains (''vellir'') of the river Fýri south of Gamla Uppsala to delay their pursuers.",
"'''''Fróða fáglýjaðra þýja meldr''''', \"flour of Fróði's hapless slaves\", is another kenning for \"gold.\"",
"It alludes to the Grottasöngr legend.",
"'''''Móður hold mellu dolgs''''', \"flesh of the mother of the enemy of the giantess.\"",
"\"earth.\"",
"Here the earth is personified as the goddess Jörð, mother of Thor, enemy of the jǫtnar."
],
[
"Old English and other kennings",
"The practice of forming kennings has traditionally been seen as a common Germanic inheritance, but this has been disputed since, among the early Germanic languages, their use is largely restricted to Old Norse and Old English poetry.",
"A possible early kenning for \"gold\" (''walha-kurna'' \"Roman/Gallic grain\") is attested in the Proto-Norse runic inscription on the Tjurkö (I)-C bracteate.",
"Kennings are virtually absent from the surviving corpus of continental West Germanic verse; the Old Saxon Heliand contains only one example: ''lîk-hamo'' \"body-raiment\" = \"body\" (Heliand 3453 b), a compound which, in any case, is normal in West Germanic and North Germanic prose (Old English ''līchama'', Old High German ''lîchamo'', ''lîchinamo'', Dutch ''lichaam'', Old Icelandic ''líkamr'', ''líkami'', Old Swedish ''līkhamber'', Swedish ''lekamen'', Danish and Norwegian Bokmål ''legeme'', Norwegian Nynorsk ''lekam'').Old English kennings are all of the simple type, possessing just two elements.",
"Examples for \"sea\": ''seġl-rād'' \"sail-road\" (Beowulf 1429 b), ''swan-rād'' \"swan-road\" (Beowulf 200 a), ''bæð-weġ'' \"bath-way\" (Andreas 513 a), ''hron-rād'' \"whale-road\" (Beowulf 10), ''hwæl-weġ'' \"whale-way\" (The Seafarer 63 a).",
"Most Old English examples take the form of compound words in which the first element is uninflected: \"heofon-candel\" \"sky-candle\" = \"the sun\" (Exodus 115 b).",
"Kennings consisting of a genitive phrase occur too, but rarely: ''heofones ġim'' \"heaven's gem\" = \"the sun\" (The Phoenix 183).Old English poets often place a series of synonyms in apposition, and these may include kennings (loosely or strictly defined) as well as the literal referent: ''Hrōðgar maþelode, helm Scyldinga'' ... \"Hrothgar, helm (=protector, lord) of the Scyldings, said ...\" (Beowulf 456).Although the word \"kenning\" is not often used for non-Germanic languages, a similar form can be found in Biblical poetry in its use of parallelism.",
"Some examples include Genesis 49:11, in which \"blood of grapes\" is used as a kenning for \"wine\", and Job 15:14, where \"born of woman\" is a parallel for \"man\"."
],
[
"Modern usage",
"Figures of speech similar to kennings occur in Modern English (both in literature and in regular speech), and are often found in combination with other poetic devices.",
"For example, the Madness song \"The Sun and the Rain\" contains the line \"standing up in the falling-down\", where \"the falling-down\" refers to rain and is used in juxtaposition to \"standing up\".",
"Some recent English writers have attempted to use approximations of kennings in their work.",
"John Steinbeck used kenning-like figures of speech in his 1950 novella ''Burning Bright'', which was adapted into a Broadway play that same year.",
"According to Steinbeck biographer Jay Parini, \"The experiment is well-intentioned, but it remains idiosyncratic to the point of absurdity.",
"Steinbeck invented compound phrases (similar to the Old English use of kennings), such as 'wife-loss' and 'friend-right' and 'laughter-starving,' that simply seem eccentric.",
"\"Kennings remain somewhat common in German (''Drahtesel'' \"wire-donkey\" for bicycle, ''Feuerstuhl'' \"fire-chair\" for motorcycle, ''Stubentiger'' \"parlour-tiger\" for cat, and so on).",
"Kennings are also found in Mandarin Chinese (火鸡 \"fire-chicken\" for turkey, 猫头鹰 \"cat-headed eagle\" for owl).The poet Seamus Heaney regularly employed kennings in his work; for example, 'bone-house' for \"skeleton\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bahuvrihi* Difrasismo* Elegant variation* Heiti* List of kennings* Makurakotoba* Metalepsis* Metonymy* Synecdoche"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (1959), ''The Art of Beowulf'', University of California Press* Faulkes, Anthony (1997), \" Poetic Inspiration in Old Norse and Old English Poetry.\"",
"Dorothea Coke Memorial Lecture in Northern Studies delivered at University College London 28 November 1997, Viking Society for Northern Research* Faulkes, Anthony (1998 a), \"Edda: Skáldskaparmál: 1, Introduction, Text and Notes.\"",
"Viking Society for Northern Research* Faulkes, Anthony (1998 b), \"Edda: Skáldskaparmál: 2, Glossary and Index of Names.\"",
"Viking Society for Northern Research* Foote, Peter & Wilson, D, M. (1970), ''The Viking Achievement'', Book Club Associates, London* * * * Krause, Wolfgang (1971), ''Die Sprache der urnordischen Runeninschriften'', Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, Heidelberg* Kuhn, Hans (1893), 'The rímur-poet and his audience', ''Saga-Book'' 23:6* Looijenga, Jantina Helena (1997), \" Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD150-700: Texts and Contexts.\"",
"University of Groningen dissertation.",
"* * * Sverdlov, Ilya V, (2006), \" Kenning Morphology: Towards a Formal Definition of the Skaldic Kenning, or Kennings and Adjectives.\"",
"13th International Saga Conference: Durham and York"
],
[
"External links",
"* Skaldic Project – Index of Kennings* Jörmungrund: Lexicon of Kennings – The Domain of Battle* Septentrionalia: The Medieval North (Lexica poetica)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kult (role-playing game)"
],
[
"Introduction",
" '''''Kult''''' (Swedish for \"Cult\", stylized as '''KULT''') is a contemporary horror role-playing game originally created by Gunilla Jonsson and Michael Petersén with illustrations by Nils Gulliksson, first published in Sweden by Äventyrsspel (later Target Games) in 1991.",
"''Kult'' is notable for its philosophical and religious depth as well as for its mature and controversial content.The first English edition was published in 1993 by Metropolis Ltd.",
"In 1995, 7ème Cercle translated the second Swedish edition into French.In 2018 current licensor Helmgast released the fourth edition called '''Kult: Divinity Lost''' created by Robin Liljenberg and Petter Nallo.",
"This edition moved the setting from the then-current 1990s to the now-current 2010s and was completely rewritten with new art, layout and a ruleset based on ''Powered by the Apocalypse''.",
"The new edition was well received by critics and fans and won two Ennies for ''Best Writing'' and ''Best Cover 2019'', and was also nominated for ''Best Interior Art''."
],
[
"Setting",
"=== Overview ===The default backdrop is that of present larger cities; players taking the roles of contemporary multi-genre protagonists, such as private investigators and femmes fatales, vigilantes and drug dealers, artists and journalists, or secret agents and mad scientists.",
"In the game, however, all of this and the entire visible world is an illusion held together by a monotheistic belief which is unravelling to reveal a darker backdrop where nightmarish monsters lurk, called \"reality\" in the game.",
"This illusion was created by the Demiurge to hold humanity prisoner and to prevent mankind from regaining the divinity it once had.",
"In the absence of this Demiurge, sinister forces plot to keep humanity from realizing the truth, or even to plunge the world into an apocalyptic war to restore humanity's ignorance and blind faith in the divine order.Some symbols and creatures appearing in Kult can also be seen in other Swedish games to which the Kult authors and production team also have contributed.",
"The Mutant Chronicles' universe (created by Nils Gulliksson and Michael Stenmark) its spin-offs share creatures such as Nepharites and Razides which appear in the game."
],
[
"Rules",
"The original system is a skill-based system utilizing 20-sided dice (related to Chaosium's BRP system, which had already been used by Äventyrsspel for their Drakar och Demoner rpgs), with point-based characters.",
"In the game, a natural 1 usually is great success with added bonuses and a natural 20 means a complete failure.",
"Normal characters usually have skill ranges of 3 to 20; to succeed in a skill roll, the player needs to roll equal or below his character's skill.",
"The lower the player rolls below the skill number, the greater the success.",
"Extraordinary characters and inhuman entities can have skill values far above the normal range.The recent edition KULT: Divinity Lost uses rules that are based on the Apocalypse World rules engine.",
"You roll two ten-sided dice, add possible modifications, and try to reach at least 10 to avoid failure or 15 to gain a complete success.",
"KULT: Divinity Lost also has a system where the Gamemaster builds the campaign around the Player Characters and aims to reach true personal horror.There are several different official rulesets for combat.",
"The second and third English edition rules use a system based on Damage Effect Factors (DEF).",
"The fourth edition, KULT: Divinity Lost, has less focus on combat than previous editions.Sorcerers can cast spells from one (or rarely more) of five different Lores; Death, Dream, Madness, Passion and Time & Space.",
"Because these spells have (very) long casting times (up to several days), highly specific and exacting verbal, material and somatic requirements, and can only be cast inside the sorcerer's consecrated temple, these spells are actually more like quasi-religious rituals.",
"These rules evoke a superficial similarity to Hermetical traditions, possibly to heighten the modern real-world aspect of the game setting."
],
[
"Mental Balance",
"Early editions of the game use \"mental balance\" as a gauge of player characters' sanity.",
"Both a high or low (+25/-25) mental balance affects how normal people and animals react to the character.",
"Characters with an extremely high or low mental balance can transcend the Illusion and regain their lost divine status through Awakening.",
"This occurs if mental balance reaches +500 or -500.A character's mental balance can move in a positive or negative direction due to trauma, influence from creatures or places, or by advantages and disadvantages from talents or traits, such as (on the positive side) animal friendship, artistic talent, body awareness, a code of honor, or (on the negative side) social ineptitude, addiction, paranoia, or a mystic curse.",
"The further the character strays away from the zero point, the more sociopathic, strange or eccentric they become.",
"Characters with a very high or very low mental balance start to involuntarily manifest outward physical signs.",
"In the fourth edition of ''Kult'', the mental balance system was removed, as the developers found it impractical during gameplay.",
"Instead, characters take on different archetypes in the path toward Awakening: ''The Sleeper'', ''The Aware'', and ''The Enlightened.''"
],
[
"Publication history",
"Kult was originally published by the company Target Games in 1991 as a Swedish role-playing game, and has later been translated into several other languages.",
"Kult has been published in Swedish, German, English, Italian, Spanish, Polish and French.American game company Metropolis Ltd. published the English-language game through three editions and new supplements, with a new US background and a revised page design and editing led by Terry K. Amthor.",
"After leaving Iron Crown Enterprises full-time in 1992, Amthor co-founded Metropolis Ltd. to produce the English-language version of ''Kult''.",
"In 1992–1994, Amthor edited, co-authored and art-directed several books for the line.The third English edition of Kult had two English books released in print form: a player's handbook named \"Kult Rumours\" in 2001 and the core rulebook, subtitled ''Beyond The Veil'', printed in 2004.Both are out of print, though copies can be purchased through secondary and specialized markets.The former publishers were 7ème Cercle (French) and Raven Distribution (Italian).The license has been the property of first Target Games, then Paradox Entertainment, and, in 2015, Cabinet Holdings."
],
[
"Current publishers",
"Currently, Kult is licensed by Helmgast.A 2016 Kickstarter campaign funded a new edition of the game, entitled 'Kult: Divinity Lost'.",
"This edition uses a different rules engine than previous editions, one based on ''Apocalypse World'' and its ''Powered by the Apocalypse'' rules engine.",
"It updates the setting to answer the question “What would Kult had been like if it was released in 2016 instead of 1991?” The game was released in 2018.In 2017 Free League Publishing published Anders Fager's novel \"För Gudinnan\" (for the love of the goddess) set in the Kult universe.",
"Fager has also written an audiolouge called \"Faraday\" set in the Kult adventure Tarroticum.In 2018 and 2020 Free League Publishing published two novels written by the original creators of Kult, Gunilla Jonsson and Michael Petersén.",
"They are both set in the Kult universe called \"Döden är bara början\" (Death is only the beginning, 2018) and \"De levande döda\" (The living dead, 2020)"
],
[
"Controversy",
"Similar to the moral panic of Dungeons & Dragons in the United States in the 1980s, Kult figured in Swedish controversies of the 1990s.",
"At the time of the game's initial publication, role-playing games in Sweden were still sold primarily through toy stores rather than bookstores or specialized hobby shops.",
"Kult was noted by the general press several times during the decade after its initial publication, and in 1997 the Kult core rules were quoted in a motion in the Parliament of Sweden.",
"The motion was to stop taxpayer funding of youth groups that were active with role-playing.",
"It refers to the Bjuv Murder where a 15-year-old in a small town in southern Sweden called Bjuv was killed by two 16- and 17-year-old friends who (according to the legal motion) were influenced by Kult.Writer Didi Örnstedt and painter Björn Sjöstedt wrote a book, ''De Övergivnas Armé'' (Army of the Abandoned), where they warn against the role-playing game hobby, with a particular focus on the game Kult.",
"The title refers to children supposedly ignored by their parents and therefore susceptible to a projected radicalization of RPGs.Critics of role-playing games have attempted to tie Kult to a 16-year-old Swedish boy who committed suicide by shotgun in November 1996.The local newspaper ''Tønsbergs Blad'' in Tønsberg, Norway similarly used Kult in relation to the disappearance of a boy called Andreas Hammer on July 1, 1994.Andreas Hammer allegedly played Kult the week prior to his disappearance.",
"He is still missing."
],
[
"Reception",
"Jeff Koke reviewed ''Kult'' for ''Pyramid'' #3 (Sept./Oct., 1993), and stated that \"All in all, Kult is a very good system and background for roleplayers who are mature enough to delve into truly dark roleplaying.",
"Even for those players who dislike being immersed in depressing, hopeless worlds, the background has enough tidbits of bleak imagery and morsels of horrific scenery that it's worth the cover price just to browse through the Metropolis.\""
],
[
"Reviews",
"*''Gizmodo''"
],
[
"Spin-offs",
"* Kult (card game) by Bryan Winter.",
"* In August–November 2011, Dark Horse Comics released a 4 issue mini series based on the RPG."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official home page* Cabinet Entertainment"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Carl Friedrich Abel"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Carl Friedrich Abel''' (22 December 1723 – 20 June 1787) was a German composer of the pre-Classical era.",
"He was a renowned player of the viola da gamba, and produced significant compositions for that instrument.",
"He was director of music at the Dresden court from 1743, and moved to London in 1759, becoming chamber-musician to Queen Charlotte in 1764.He founded a subscription concert series there with Johann Christian Bach.",
"According to the ''Catalogue of Works of Carl Friedrich Abel'' (AbelWV), he left 420 compositions, with a focus on chamber music."
],
[
"Life",
"Abel holding his viol, painted by Gainsborough, 1765Abel was born in Köthen, where his father, Christian Ferdinand Abel, had worked for years as the principal viola da gamba and cello player in the court orchestra of Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen.",
"In 1723 Abel senior became director of the orchestra, when the previous director, Johann Sebastian Bach, moved to Leipzig.",
"The young Abel later boarded at St. Thomas School, Leipzig, where he was taught by Bach.On Bach's recommendation in 1743 he was able to join Johann Adolph Hasse's orchestra at the Dresden court, where he remained for fifteen years.",
"In 1759 (or 1758 according to ''Chambers''), he went to England and became chamber-musician to Queen Charlotte, in 1764.He gave a concert of his own compositions in London, performing on various instruments, one of which was a five-string cello known as a pentachord, which had been recently invented by John Joseph Merlin.In 1762, Johann Christian Bach, a son of J. S. Bach, joined him in London, and the friendship between him and Abel led, in 1764 or 1765, to the establishment of the famous Bach-Abel concerts, England's first subscription concerts.",
"In those concerts, many celebrated guest artists appeared, and many works of Haydn received their first English performance.For ten years the concerts were organized by Teresa Cornelys, a retired Venetian opera singer who owned a concert hall at Carlisle House in Soho Square, then the height of fashionable events.",
"In 1775 the concerts became independent of her, to be continued by Abel and Bach until Bach's death in 1782.Abel still remained in great demand as a player on various instruments new and old.",
"He traveled to Germany and France between 1782 and 1785, and upon his return to London, became a leading member of the Grand Professional Concerts at the Hanover Square Rooms in Soho.",
"Throughout his life he had enjoyed excessive living, and his drinking probably hastened his death.Abel died in London on 20 June 1787.He was buried in the churchyard of St Pancras Old Church."
],
[
"Works",
"One of Abel's works became famous due to a misattribution: in the 19th century, a manuscript symphony in the hand of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was catalogued as his Symphony No.",
"3 in E flat, K. 18, and was published as such in the first complete edition of Mozart's works by Breitkopf & Härtel.",
"Later, it was discovered that this symphony was actually the work of Abel, copied by the boy Mozart, evidently for study purposes, while he was visiting London in 1764.That symphony was originally published as the concluding work in Abel's Six Symphonies, Op.",
"7.A first catalogue of Abel's works was published in 1971 by , ''Abel-Werkverzeichnis'', with 233 work numbers.In 2015 new manuscripts of Abel's viola da gamba music were found in the library of the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, in a collection from the Maltzahn family palace in the town of Milicz in Poland, originally brought back from London by .",
"Many of them were published by Edition Güntersberg.A new catalogue, of now 420 works, was published by Ortus Musikverlag in 2023, ''Catalogue of Works of Carl Friedrich Abel'' or AbelWV, edited by Günter von Zadow.",
"It takes into account many newly discovered works, and additional sources for known works.=== Major works by opus number ===* Op.",
"1: 6 Overtures or Sinfonias (1761)* Op.",
"2: 6 Sonatas for keyboard, and violin and cello (ad libitum) (1760)* Op.",
"3: 6 Trio Sonatas for 2 violins and basso continuo (1762)* Op.",
"4: 6 Overtures or Sinfonias (1762)* Op.",
"5: 6 Sonatas for keyboard, and violin and cello (ad libitum) (1762)* Op.",
"6: 6 Sonatas for keyboard and flute (1763)* Op.",
"7: 6 Symphonies (1767)* Op.",
"8: 6 String Quartets (1768)* Op.",
"9: 6 Trio Sonatas for violin, cello and basso continuo (1771)* Op.",
"10: 6 Symphonies (1771)* Op.",
"11: 6 Concerti for keyboard and strings (1771)* Op.",
"12: 6 Flute Quartets (1774)* Op.",
"13: 6 Sonatas for keyboard and violin (1777)* Op.",
"14: 6 Symphonies (1778)* Op.",
"15: 6 String Quartets (1780)* Op.",
"16: 4 Trio Sonatas for 2 flutes and basso continuo (1781)* Op.",
"16: 6 Trio Sonatas for violin, viola and cello (1782)* Op.",
"17: 6 Symphonies (1785)* Op.",
"18: 6 Sonatas for keyboard and violin (1784)"
],
[
"Abel Fest",
"Opening concert of the Abel Fest at the Spiegelsaal of Schloss KöthenLeonore von Zadow-Reichling and Günter von Zadow (r.) at the concertAs Abel was born in 1723, the city of Köthen announced an international festival around his music on four days in June 2023, held at historic locations including the palace and its gardens.",
"It was initiated by gambist and musicologist Thomas Fritzsch.",
"The city also created a biennial Abel Prize.",
"The first recipients in 2023 were Leonore von Zadow-Reichling and Günter von Zadow of Edition Güntersberg, for their efforts to retrieve and publish Abel's works.",
"They published more than 150 of the composer's works, many of them as first publications."
],
[
"Notes and references",
";Notes;References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * S. M. Helm: ''Carl Friedrich Abel, Symphonist''.",
"London 1953* ''Karl Friedrich Abel (1723–87)'' by Andrew Pink, in ''Le Monde maçonnique des Lumières (Europe-Amériques) Dictionnaire prosopographique''.",
"Charles Porset and Cécile Révauger (eds) Paris: Editions Champion, 2013.",
"* Knape, Walter: ''Bibliographisch-thematisches Verzeichnis der Kompositionen von Karl Friedrich Abel (1723–1787)'', Cuxhaven, 1971* Knape, Walter: ''Karl Friedrich Abel, Leben und Werk eines frühklassischen Komponisten'', Bremen: Schünemann, 1973"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kista"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Aerial overview of central KistaVictoria Tower in Kista'''Kista''' () is a district in the borough of Rinkeby-Kista, Stockholm, Sweden.",
"It has a strategic position located in between Sweden's main airport, the Stockholm-Arlanda International Airport and central Stockholm, and alongside the main national highway E4 economic artery.",
"Kista comprises residential and commercial areas, the latter in the highly technological telecommunication and information technology industry.",
"There are large research efforts in this entire area, which therefore is dubbed Kista Science City.",
"It is the research park of KTH Royal Institute of Technology.Kista is the largest Information and Communications Technology (ICT) cluster in Europe, and was ranked the world's second largest cluster after Silicon Valley in California during the internet boom of 2000.It is the largest corporate area in Sweden, important to the national economy due to the presence of, among others, Ericsson, one of the largest corporations in Sweden.Kista Science City is the location where a large portion of the research and development of the world's 4G LTE mobile telephony infrastructure is being developed, to a European ETSI standard used worldwide.",
"A majority is done at Ericsson, with 100,000 employees worldwide, but with its research and worldwide headquarters in the Kista Science City.Kista was named after an old farm \"Kista Gård\", still located in the area.",
"The construction of the modern parts were started in the 1970s.",
"Most of the streets in Kista are named after towns and places in Denmark, Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands.",
"Before the opening of the Mall of Scandinavia, Kista Galleria was the biggest shopping center in the Stockholm region.",
"Because of its ICT industries, it became in the 1980s referred to as \"Chipsta\" and, after Sweden joined the EU in 1995, also as Europe's \"Silicon Valley\"."
],
[
"Economy",
"Kista is the largest corporate area in Sweden and important to the national economy.The construction of the industrial section of Kista began in the 1970s with companies such as SRA (Svenska Radioaktiebolaget, now a part of Ericsson), RIFA AB (later Ericsson Components AB, and later still Ericsson Microelectronics AB, and now Infineon Technologies), and IBM Svenska AB (the Swedish branch of IBM).",
"Ericsson has had its headquarters in Kista since 2003."
],
[
"Research and higher learning",
"Kista hosts entire departments of both KTH Royal Institute of Technology, such as Wireless@KTH, and Stockholm University (formerly jointly known as \"the IT University\").There are also Swedish national research institutes (pure research, no students) such as the Swedish Institute of Computer Science and Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI who has its headquarters there, just as Ericsson, Swedish IBM and Tele 2, among others has.Also the Swedish Co-location Centre of EU innovation and entrepreneurial education organisation EIT Digital is located in Kista and offers a 2-year Master program in collaboration with KTH Royal Institute of Technology."
],
[
"Gallery"
],
[
"See also",
"* Kista Science Tower* Kista metro station"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Kista Science City* Kista Business Network"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Klondike, Yukon"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Hunker Creek Valley, KlondikeThe '''Klondike''' (; ) is a region of the territory of Yukon, in northwestern Canada.",
"It lies around the Klondike River, a small river that enters the Yukon River from the east at Dawson City.The area is merely an informal geographic region, and has no function to the territory as any kind of administrative region.",
"It is located in the traditional territory of the Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in First Nation.The Klondike is famed due to the Klondike Gold Rush, which started in 1896 and lasted until 1899.Gold has been mined continuously in that area, except for a pause in the late 1960s and early 1970s."
],
[
"Climate",
"Klondike has a subarctic climate (Köppen ''Dfc''), bordering on a tundra climate (Köppen ''ET'').",
"The climate is warm in the short summer, and very cold during the long winter.",
"By late October, ice forms over the rivers.",
"For the majority of the year, the ground is frozen to a depth of .There is a weather station for Klondike located along the Dempster Highway, near the southern entrance of Tombstone Territorial Park, at an elevation of 973 m (3192 ft)."
],
[
"Politics",
"Klondike is a district of the Legislative Assembly of Yukon.",
"The former Premier of the Yukon, Liberal Sandy Silver, represents the electoral district of Klondike."
],
[
"History",
"In mid-1901 an expedition left California hoping to prove that the Klondike was the site of the Biblical Garden of Eden.",
"It was sponsored ($50,000) by Mr Morris K. Jessup; with an American naturalist (Norman Buxton) and two Russian scientists (Waldemar Bogaras and Waldemar Jochelson)."
],
[
"Tr’ondëk-Klondike World Heritage Site",
"In 2023, the cultural landscape of the Tr’ondëk-Klondike was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, described as follows:The site contains eight subsites:* Fort Reliance* Ch’ëdähdëk (Forty Mile)* Ch’ëdähdëk Tth’än K’et (Dënezhu Graveyard)* Fort Cudahy and Fort Constantine* Tr'ochëk* Dawson City* Jëjik Dhä Dënezhu Kek’it (Moosehide Village)* Tthe Zra¸y Kek’it (Black City)"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Korean cuisine"
],
[
"Introduction",
", Korean-style delicate and fine dining, Korean-style marinated sliced meat, Korean-style cold noodles with buckwheat, Korean New Year soup with rice cake'''Korean cuisine''' has evolved through centuries of social and political change.",
"Originating from ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in Korea and southern Manchuria, Korean cuisine reflects a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends.Korean cuisine is largely based on rice, vegetables, seafood and (at least in South Korea) meats.",
"Dairy is largely absent from the traditional Korean diet.",
"Traditional Korean meals are named for the number of side dishes () that accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice.",
"Kimchi is served at nearly every meal.",
"Commonly used ingredients include sesame oil, (fermented bean paste), soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, (pepper flakes), (fermented red chili paste) and napa cabbage.Ingredients and dishes vary by province.",
"Many regional dishes have become national.",
"Korean royal court cuisine once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family.",
"Foods are regulated by Korean cultural etiquette.Kimjang, which means making kimchi, is listed on UNESCO Intangible Heritage List."
],
[
"History",
"===Prehistoric===In the Jeulmun pottery period (approximately 8000 to 1500 BCE), hunter-gatherer societies engaged in fishing and hunting, and incipient agriculture in the later stages.",
"Since the beginning of the Mumun pottery period (1500 BCE), agricultural traditions began to develop with new migrant groups from the Liao River basin of Manchuria.",
"During the Mumun period, people grew millet, barley, wheat, legumes and rice, and continued to hunt and fish.",
"Archaeological remains point to development of fermented beans during this period, and cultural contact with nomadic cultures to the north facilitated domestication of animals.===Three Kingdoms period===In a mural of ''Gakjeochong'' (각저총 \"Tombs of Wrestlers\"), a Goguryeo tomb built around the 5th century shows a Goguryeo nobleman having a meal with two ladies.The Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE – 668 CE) was one of rapid cultural evolution.",
"The kingdom of Goguryeo (37 BCE – 668 CE) was located in the northern part of the peninsula along much of modern-day Manchuria.",
"The second kingdom, Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE), was in the southwestern portion of the peninsula, and the third, Silla (57 BCE – 935 CE), was located at the southeastern portion of the peninsula.",
"Each region had its own distinct set of cultural practices and foods.",
"For example, Baekje was known for cold foods and fermented foods like ''kimchi''.",
"The spread of Buddhism and Confucianism through cultural exchanges with China during the fourth century CE began to change the distinct cultures of Korea.Attributed with the earliest kimchi, the Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.===Goryeo period=== Silver spoon and chopsticks entombed with King Injong in 1146During the latter Goryeo period, the Mongols invaded Goryeo in the 13th century.",
"Some traditional foods found today in Korea have their origins during this period.",
"The dumpling dish, ''mandu'', grilled meat dishes, noodle dishes, and the use of seasonings such as black pepper, all have their roots in this period.===Joseon period===Agricultural innovations were significant and widespread during this period, such as the invention of the rain gauge during the 15th century.",
"During 1429, the government began publishing books on agriculture and farming techniques, which included ''Nongsa jikseol'' (literally \"Straight Talk on Farming\"), an agricultural book compiled under King Sejong.A series of invasions in the earlier half of the Joseon caused a dynamic shift in the culture during the second half of the period.",
"Groups of ''silhak'' (\"practical learning\") scholars began to emphasize the importance of looking outside the country for innovation and technology to help improve the agricultural systems.",
"Crops traded by Europeans from the New World began to appear, acquired through trade with China, Japan, Europe, and the Philippines; these crops included maize, sweet potatoes, chili peppers, tomatoes, peanuts, and squash.",
"Potatoes and sweet potatoes were particularly favored as they grew in soils and on terrains that were previously unused.Government further developed agriculture through technology and lower taxation.",
"Complex irrigation systems built by government allowed peasant farmers to produce larger crop volumes and produce crops not only for sustenance but also as cash crops.",
"Reduced taxation of the peasantry also furthered the expanded commerce through increasing periodic markets, usually held every five days.",
"One thousand such markets existed in the 19th century, and were communal centers for economic trade and entertainment.The end of the Joseon period was marked by consistent encouragement to trade with the Western world, China and Japan.",
"In the 1860s, trade agreements pushed by the Japanese government led the Joseon dynasty to open its trade ports with the west, and to numerous treaties with the United States, Britain, France, and other Western countries.The opening of Korea to the Western world brought further exchange of culture and food.",
"Western missionaries introduced new ingredients and dishes to Korea.",
"Joseon elites were introduced to these new foods by way of foreigners who attended the royal court as advisers or physicians.",
"This period also saw the introduction of various seasonings imported from Japan via western traders and alcoholic drinks from China.===Colonial period to modern period===''Budae jjigae'', a spicy stew originated during the Korean War.Korean chicken dish (Jjimdak) in Sydney, AustraliaJapan occupied the Korean peninsula from 1910 to 1945.Many of its agricultural systems were taken over by the Japanese to support Japan's food supply.",
"Land changes resulting from the Japanese occupation included combining small farms into large-scale farms, which led to larger yields.",
"Rice production increased during this period to support the Japanese Empire's war efforts.",
"Many Koreans, in turn, increased the production of other grains for their own consumption.Meals during the Japanese occupation were quite varied.",
"Koreans usually ate two meals a day during the cold seasons, and three during the warm seasons.",
"For the lower classes, satiety, rather than quality, was most important.",
"Those in even lower economic levels were likely to enjoy only a single bowl of white rice ''each year'', while the remainder of the year was filled with cheaper grains, such as millet and barley.",
"For the Korean middle and upper classes during the occupation, things were quite different.",
"Western foods began emerging in the Korean diet, such as white bread and commercially produced staples such as precooked noodles.",
"The Japanese occupational period ended after the defeat of Japan during World War II.The country remained in a state of turmoil through the Korean War (1950–1953) and the Cold War, which separated the country into North Korea and South Korea.",
"Both of these periods continued the limited food provisions for Koreans, and the stew called ''budae jjigae'', which makes use of inexpensive meats such as sausage and Spam, originated during this period.At this point, the history of North and South Korea sharply diverged.",
"In the 1960s under President Park Chung Hee, industrialization began to give South Korea the economic and cultural power it holds in the global economy today.",
"Agriculture was increased through use of commercial fertilizers and modern farming equipment.",
"In the 1970s, food shortages began to lessen.",
"Consumption of instant and processed foods increased, as did the overall quality of foods.",
"Livestock and dairy production was increased during the 1970s through the increase of commercial dairies and mechanized farms.",
"The consumption of pork and beef increased vastly in the 1970s.",
"Per-capita consumption of meat was 3.6 kg in 1961 and 11 kg by 1979.The result of this increased meat consumption brought about the rise of ''bulgogi'' restaurants, which gave the middle class of South Korea the ability to enjoy meat regularly.",
"Meat eating continued to rise, reaching 40 kg in 1997, with fish consumption at 49.5 kg in 1998.Rice consumption continually decreased through these years, from 128 kg consumed per person in 1985 to 106 kg in 1995 and 83 kg in 2003.The decrease in rice consumption has been accompanied by an increase in the consumption of bread and noodles.",
"In 2009, the South Korean government launched a $77-million culinary diplomacy program called \"Korean Cuisine to the World\" to promote its cuisine and subsequently pivoted into the markets in the United States and Muslim countries."
],
[
"Food crops",
"===Grains===''Dolsotbap'', cooked rice in a stone pot (''dolsot'')Grains have been one of the most important staples of the Korean diet.",
"Early myths of the foundations of various kingdoms in Korea center on grains.",
"One foundation myth relates to Jumong, who received barley seeds from two doves sent by his mother after establishing the kingdom of Goguryeo.",
"Yet another myth speaks of the three founding deities of Jeju Island, who were to be wed to the three princesses of Tamna; the deities brought seeds of five grains which were the first seeds planted, which in turn became the first instance of farming.During the pre-modern era, grains such as barley and millet were the main staples.",
"They were supplemented by wheat, sorghum, and buckwheat.",
"Rice is not an indigenous crop to Korea and millet was likely the preferred grain before rice was cultivated.",
"Rice became the grain of choice during the Three Kingdoms period, particularly in the Silla and Baekje Kingdoms in the southern regions of the peninsula.",
"Rice was such an important commodity in Silla that it was used to pay taxes.",
"The Sino-Korean word for \"tax\" is a compound character that uses the character for the rice plant.",
"The preference for rice escalated into the Joseon period, when new methods of cultivation and new varieties emerged that would help increase production.As rice was prohibitively expensive when it first came to Korea, the grain was likely mixed with other grains to \"stretch\" the rice; this is still done in dishes such as ''boribap'' (rice with barley) and ''kongbap'' (rice with beans).",
"White rice, which is rice with the bran removed, has been the preferred form of rice since its introduction into the cuisine.",
"The most traditional method of cooking the rice has been to cook it in an iron pot called a ''sot'' (솥) or ''musoe sot'' (무쇠솥).",
"This method of rice cookery dates back to at least the Goryeo period, and these pots have even been found in tombs from the Silla period.",
"The ''sot'' is still used today, much in the same manner as it was in the past centuries.Rice is used to make a number of items, outside of the traditional bowl of plain white rice.",
"It is commonly ground into a flour and used to make rice cakes called ''tteok'' in over two hundred varieties.",
"It is also cooked down into a congee (''juk'') or gruel (''mieum'') and mixed with other grains, meat, or seafood.",
"Koreans also produce a number of rice wines, both in filtered and unfiltered versions.",
"Grains have also been used for centuries to make misu and misu-garu, drinks made from grain powder that are sometimes used as meal supplements.===Fruits===Encompassing a wide range of temperate climates, the Korean peninsula supports the growth of many cultivated and wild fruit species.",
"Asian pears of numerous varieties, apples, melons and berries and more are typical of summer and fall produce.===Legumes===''Kongguksu'', a cold noodle dish with a broth made from ground soy beansLegumes have been significant crops in Korean history and cuisine, according to the earliest preserved legumes found in archaeological sites in Korea.",
"The excavation at Okbang site, Jinju, South Gyeongsang province indicates soybeans were cultivated as a food crop ''circa'' 1000–900 BCE.",
"They are still made into dubu (tofu), while soybean sprouts are sauteed as a vegetable (''kongnamul'') and whole soybeans are seasoned and served as a side dish.",
"They are also made into soy milk, which is used as the base for the noodle dish called ''kongguksu''.",
"A byproduct of soy milk production is ''biji'' or ''kong-biji'', which is used to thicken stews and porridges.",
"Soybeans may also be one of the beans in ''kongbap'', boiled together with several types of beans and other grains, and they are also the primary ingredient in the production of fermented condiments collectively referred to as ''jang'', such as soybean pastes, ''doenjang'' and ''cheonggukjang'', a soy sauce called ''ganjang'', chili pepper paste or ''gochujang'' and others.",
"''Tangpyeongchae'', a dish made with ''nokdumuk'' (a mung bean starch jelly) and vegetablesNokdu (Mung bean) is commonly used in Korean cuisine.",
"''Sukju namuls (Mung bean sprouts)'' are often served as a side dish, blanched and sautéed with sesame oil, garlic, and salt.",
"Ground Nokdu is used to make a porridge called ''nokdujuk'', which is eaten as a nutritional supplement and digestive aid, especially for ill patients.",
"A popular snack, ''bindaetteok'' (mung bean pancake), is made with ground nokdu and fresh sukju namul.",
"Starch extracted from ground nokdu is used to make transparent dangmyeon ( cellophane noodles).",
"The dangmyeons are the main ingredients for ''japchae'' (a salad-like dish) and ''sundae'' (a blood sausage), and are a subsidiary ingredient for soups and stews.",
"The starch can be also used to make jelly-like foods, such as ''nokdumuk'' and ''hwangpomuk''.",
"The ''muk'' have a bland flavor, so are served seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil and crumbled seaweed or other seasonings such as ''tangpyeongchae''.Cultivation of azuki beans dates back to ancient times according to an excavation from Odong-ri, Hoeryong, North Hamgyong Province, which is assumed to be that of Mumun period (approximately 1500–300 BCE).",
"Azuki beans are generally eaten as ''patbap'', which is a bowl of rice mixed with the beans, or as a filling and covering for ''tteok'' (rice cake) and breads.",
"A porridge made with azuki beans, called ''patjuk'', is commonly eaten during the winter season.",
"On Dongjinal, a Korean traditional holiday which falls on December 22, Korean people eat ''donji patjuk'', which contains ''saealsim'' (새알심), a ball made from glutinous rice flour.",
"In old Korean tradition, ''patjuk'' is believed to have the power to drive evil spirits away.===Condiments and seasoning===Condiments are divided into fermented and nonfermented variants.",
"Fermented condiments include ''ganjang'', ''doenjang'', ''gochujang'' and vinegars.",
"Nonfermented condiments or spices include red pepper, black pepper, cordifolia, mustard, chinensis, garlic, onion, ginger, leek, and scallion (spring onion).===Gochujang===Gochujang can be found in many writings.",
"Some of the writings are the ''Mangi Yoram'', ''The Three States'', the ''Nonggawolryeongga'', the ''Gijaejapgi'', and the ''Hyangyak-jipsongbang''.",
"The ''Hyangyak-jipseongbang'', which dates back to around 1433 during the Chosun dynasty, is one of the oldest writings mentioning gochujang.Gochujang is a fermented bean paste that has red pepper powder, soybean powder and rice flour added to it to create a spicy paste.",
"It typically can be added to most dishes.",
"Gochujang can be used as a seasoning and sometimes as a dipping sauce.Many variations come from ''jang'', fermented bean paste.",
"Some variations can include doenjang (soybean and brine), kanjang (soybeans, water, and salt), chogochujang (gochujang and vinegar), and jeotgal (mixture of other jangs and seafoods).Vegetables such as cucumbers, carrots, and cabbage use gochujang as a dip.",
"Gochujang is a common seasoning for foods such as Korean barbecue including pork and beef.",
"One popular snack food that is very commonly eaten with gochujang is bibimbap.",
"Bibimbap includes rice, spinach, radish, bean sprouts.",
"Sometimes beef is added to bibimbap.",
"Another popular dish including gochujang is tteokbokki.Gochujang was believed to revitalize people who were sick with colds or exhaustion during the Gio period.",
"There have been some studies that show that red peppers fight obesity and diabetes.",
"Gochujang is also added to many foods so that there can be additional nutritional value with each meal.===Meat===Koreans enjoying grilled meat and alcohol in the 18th centuryIn antiquity, most meat in Korea was likely obtained through hunting and fishing.",
"Ancient records indicate rearing of livestock began on a small scale during the Three Kingdoms period.",
"Meat was consumed roasted or in soups or stews during this period.",
"Those who lived closer to the oceans were able to complement their diet with more fish, while those who lived in the interior had a diet containing more meat.====Beef====Marinated galbi before grillingBeef is the most prized of all, with the cattle holding an important cultural role in the Korean home.",
"Beef is prepared in numerous ways today, including roasting, grilling (''gui'') or boiling in soups.",
"Beef can also be dried into ''yukpo'', a type of ''po'', as with seafood, called ''eopo''.The cattle were valuable draught animals, often seen as equal to human servants, or in some cases, members of the family.",
"Cattle were also given their own holiday during the first 'cow' day of the lunar New Year.",
"The importance of cattle does not suggest Koreans ate an abundance of beef, however, as the cattle were valued as beasts of burden and slaughtering one would create dire issues in farming the land.",
"Pork and seafood were consumed more regularly for this reason.",
"The Buddhist ruling class of the Goryeo period forbade the consumption of beef.",
"The Mongols dispensed with the ban of beef during the 13th century, and they promoted the production of beef cattle.",
"This increased production continued into the Joseon period, when the government encouraged both increased quantities and quality of beef.",
"Only in the latter part of the 20th century has beef become regular table fare.====Chicken====Chicken has played an important role as a protein in Korean history, evidenced by a number of myths.",
"One myth tells of the birth of Kim Alji, founder of the Kim family of Gyeongju being announced by the cry of a white chicken.",
"As the birth of a clan's founder is always announced by an animal with preternatural qualities, this myth speaks to the importance of chicken in Korean culture.",
"Chicken is often served roasted or braised with vegetables or in soups.",
"All parts of the chicken are used in Korean cuisine, including the gizzard, liver, and feet.",
"Young chickens are braised with ginseng and other ingredients in medicinal soups eaten during the summer months to combat heat called ''samgyetang''.",
"The feet of the chicken, called ''dakbal'' (닭발), are often roasted and covered with hot and spicy ''gochujang''-based sauce and served as an ''anju'', or side dish, to accompany alcoholic beverages, especially ''soju''.====Pork====''Samgyeopsal''Pork has also been another important land-based protein for Korea.",
"Records indicate pork has been a part of the Korean diet back to antiquity, similar to beef.A number of foods have been avoided while eating pork, including Chinese bellflower (''doraji'', 도라지) and lotus root (''yeonn ppuri'', 연뿌리), as the combinations have been thought to cause diarrhea.",
"All parts of the pig are used in Korean cuisine, including the head, intestines, liver, kidney and other internal organs.",
"Koreans utilize these parts in a variety of cooking methods including steaming, stewing, boiling and smoking.",
"Koreans especially like to eat grilled pork belly, which is called ''samgyeopsal'' (삼겹살, 三--).====Fish and seafood====A bowl of ''gejang'', marinated crabs in soy sauce and plates of various ''banchan'' (small side dishes)Fish and shellfish have been a major part of Korean cuisine because of the oceans bordering the peninsula.",
"Evidence from the 12th century illustrates commoners consumed a diet mostly of fish and shellfish, such as shrimp, clams, oysters, abalone, and loach, while sheep and hogs were reserved for the upper class.Both fresh and saltwater fish are popular, and are served raw, grilled, broiled, dried or served in soups and stews.",
"Common grilled fish include mackerel, hairtail, croaker and Pacific herring.",
"Smaller fish, shrimp, squid, mollusks and countless other seafood can be salted and fermented as ''jeotgal''.",
"Fish can also be grilled either whole or in fillets as banchan.",
"Fish is often dried naturally to prolong storing periods and enable shipping over long distances.",
"Fish commonly dried include yellow corvina, anchovies (''myeolchi'') and croaker.",
"Dried anchovies, along with kelp, form the basis of common soup stocks.Shellfish is widely eaten in all different types of preparation.",
"They can be used to prepare broth, eaten raw with ''chogochujang'', which is a mixture of ''gochujang'' and vinegar, or used as a popular ingredient in countless dishes.",
"Raw oysters and other seafood can be used in making kimchi to improve and vary the flavor.",
"Salted baby shrimp are used as a seasoning agent, known as ''saeujeot'', for the preparation of some types of kimchi.",
"Large shrimp are often grilled as ''daeha gui'' (대하구이) or dried, mixed with vegetables and served with rice.",
"Mollusks eaten in Korean cuisine include octopus, cuttlefish, and squid.===Vegetables===Miyeok guk, a soup made from the sea seaweed, miyeokKorean cuisine uses a wide variety of vegetables, which are often served uncooked, either in salads or pickles, as well as cooked in various stews, stir-fried dishes, and other hot dishes.",
"Commonly used vegetables include Korean radish, napa cabbage, cucumber, potato, sweet potato, spinach, bean sprouts, scallions, garlic, chili peppers, seaweed, zucchini, mushrooms, lotus root.",
"Several types of wild greens, known collectively as ''chwinamul'' (such as ''Aster scaber''), are a popular dish, and other wild vegetables such as bracken fern shoots (''gosari'') or Korean bellflower root (''doraji'') are also harvested and eaten in season.",
"Traditional medicinal herbs in Korean cuisine, such as ginseng, lingzhi mushroom, wolfberry, ''Codonopsis pilosula'', and ''Angelica sinensis'', are often used as ingredients in cooking, as in ''samgyetang''.===Medicinal foods===Medicinal food (''boyangshik'') is a wide variety of specialty foods prepared and eaten for their purported medicinal purposes, especially during the hottest 30-day period in the lunar calendar, called ''sambok''.",
"Hot foods consumed are believed to restore ''ki'', as well as sexual and physical stamina lost in the summer heat.",
"Commonly eaten ''boyangshik'' include ginseng, chicken, black goat, abalone, eel, carp, beef bone soups, pig kidneys and dog.====Dog meat==== Gaegogi JeongolDog meat is less popular today in South Korea than in the past, being viewed largely as a kind of health tonic rather than as a diet staple, especially amongst the younger generations who view dogs as pets and service animals.",
"That said, historically the consumption of dog meat can be traced back to antiquity.",
"Dog bones were excavated in a neolithic settlement in Changnyeong, South Gyeongsang Province.",
"A wall painting in the Goguryeo tombs complex in South Hwanghae Province, a UNESCO World Heritage site which dates from 4th century AD, depicts a slaughtered dog in a storehouse.The ''Balhae'' people enjoyed dog meat, and the Koreans' appetite for canine cuisine seems to have come from that era.Koreans have distinguished Chinese terms for dog (\"견; 犬\", which refers to pet dogs, feral dogs, and wolves) from the Chinese term (\"구; 狗\") which is used specifically to indicate dog meat.",
"\"Hwangu\" has been considered better for consumption than \"Baekgu\" (White dog) and \"Heukgu\" (Black dog).Around 1816, Jeong Hak-yu, the second son of Jeong Yak-yong, a prominent politician and scholar of the Joseon dynasty, wrote a poem called ''Nongga Wollyeongga'' (농가월령가).",
"This poem, which is an important source of Korean folk history, describes what ordinary Korean farming families did in each month of the year.",
"In the description of the month of August the poem tells of a married woman visiting her birth parents with boiled dog meat, rice cake, and rice wine, thus showing the popularity of dog meat at the time (Ahn, 2000; Seo, 2002).",
"''Dongguk Sesigi'' (동국세시기), a book written by Korean scholar Hong Seok-mo in 1849, contains a recipe for Bosintang including a boiled dog, green onion, and red chili pepper powder.According to a 2006 survey, dog meat was the fourth most commonly consumed meat in South Korea.",
"In 2019, a majority (71.9%) of Koreans reported that they do not eat dog meat.==== Samgyetang (삼계탕)-Ginseng chicken soup ====Samgyetang is a chicken ginseng soup traditionally consumed during Boknal (복날) days: the hottest days of summer.",
"It is a Korean custom to eat hot food in hot weather called Iyeolchiyeol (이열치열), which means “controlling heat with heat”.",
"Consequently, Samgyetang is Koreans' favorite energizing food and it is common to have it on sambok (삼복) days — Chobok (초복), Jungbok (중복) and Malbok (말복) — which are believed to be the hottest days in Korea.As the “Dongui Bogam” says, (Kor.",
"동의보감, Chin.",
"東醫寶鑑, Exemplar of Korean Medicine, 1613), “eating the meat from a female chicken with yellow feathers helps to control excessive thirst and urination, vitalizes the five viscera, increases yang energy, and warms the small intestines….",
"Ginseng complements the five viscera, stabilizes the spirit and soul, and fills what is lacking and weak in our body.”↵It is served with radish kimchi, cabbage kimchi, chicken gizzard, fresh green peppers and ginseng wine (insamju -인삼주).",
"Commonly, it uses a chicken before the age of six months before it start to lay eggs.",
"Stew made from a young chicken served with yukgaejang (Kor.",
"육개장, spicy beef stew), were introduced as part of the (복날) ‘Canicular Days’ cuisine only in the early 20th century.Originally, samgyetang was called gyesamtang then it changed because of the increasingly popularity of ginseng in Korea and overseas.",
"That is also because as ginseng is the main ingredient of the soup Korean decided to reverse the first two syllables of the name putting ginseng first.==== Health Effects of Traditional Korean Diet (Hansik) ====Traditional Korean diet or Hansik is often associated with spiritual and physical health.",
"While the diet of modern Korean people has become increasingly westernized and consists of numerous non-traditional foods, many believe in the healing power of Hansik.",
"Vegetables and fermented foods are part of a healthy diet around the world, and Hansik includes many vegetable dishes and fermented foods.",
"Three dishes, soup, Kimchi and multigrain rice make up the basic meal pattern of Hansik called three Cheopbansang.",
"Fermented soybean paste Doenjang used in soups and fermented red chili paste Gochujang used in kimchi add health benefits to these foods.Certain foods are typically consumed to combat the heat of the summer or the cold months, regain strength during and after an illness, or for general health.",
"Cool noodle Naengmyeon originally from the northern part of the Korean peninsula is now enjoyed in South Korea as well as many parts of the world especially during the hot summer months.",
"Likewise, ginseng chicken soup Samgyetang is often eaten during summer to reduce heat exhaustion and regain stamina.Following a traditional Korean diet may lower the risk of some health issues including obesity and metabolic syndrome with a decrease in body mass index (BMI), body fat percent, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.",
"Fermented foods like kimchi and doenjang contain probiotics which may boost immunity and reduce the incidence or severity of allergic conditions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis.",
"It may also lower the risk of cardiovascular and chronic metabolic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes.Probiotics typically found in kimchi include species of genera Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Weissella, and they have been linked to anti-inflammatory effects and health benefits such as improved gut health.",
"Napa cabbage is prepared with much salt and approximately 20% of sodium intake comes from kimchi.",
"An increased risk of gastric cancer among subjects with frequent or high consumption of kimchi was found in some case-control studies.",
"As with other salted foods, moderate consumption may maximize health benefits of kimchi.Koreans commonly believe in the idea of Yak Sik Dong Won (약식동원, 藥食同源) as seen in Chinese traditions.",
"Food is the first step to good health, and medical treatment should be sought only if food does not improve health.",
"The diet of younger Koreans has become more westernized, yet hansik has been an integral part of the Korean culture since the ancient times.",
"Collaboration of modern science and traditional Korean diet will further strengthen the concept of Yak Sik Dong Won."
],
[
"Dishes",
"Korean foods can be largely categorized into groups of \"main staple foods\" (주식), \"subsidiary dishes\" (부식), and \"dessert\" (후식).",
"The main dishes are made from grains such as ''bap'' (a bowl of rice), ''juk'' (porridge), and ''guksu'' (noodles).Many Korean ''banchan'' rely on fermentation for flavor and preservation, resulting in a tangy, salty, and spicy taste.",
"Certain regions are especially associated with some dishes (for example, the city of Jeonju with ''bibimbap'') either as a place of origin or for a famous regional variety.",
"Restaurants will often use these famous names on their signs or menus (e.g.",
"\"Suwon galbi\").===Soups and stews===''Tteokguk'', soup made with ''tteok'', rice cakeSoups are a common part of any Korean meal.",
"Unlike other cultures, in Korean culture, soup is served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal, as an accompaniment to rice along with other banchan.",
"Soups known as ''guk'' are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables.",
"Soups can be made into more formal soups known as ''tang'', often served as the main dish of the meal.",
"''Jjigae'' are a thicker, heavier seasoned soups or stews.Some popular types of soups are:* ''Malgeunguk'' (맑은국), are flavored with ''ganjang''.",
"Small amounts of long boiled meat may be added to the soup, or seafood both fresh and dried may be added, or vegetables may be the main component for the clear soup.",
"* ''Doenjang-guk'' (된장국) are seasoned with ''doenjang''.",
"Common ingredients for ''tojang guk'' include seafood such as clams, dried anchovies, and shrimp.",
"For a spicier soup, ''gochujang'' is added.",
"* Tteok-guk is a rice cake soup commonly made with sliced rice cakes and beef broth.",
"White rice cake was called Baekbyeong (백병-白餠) or Geomo (거모-擧摸).",
"Tteok-guk is made with thinly sliced garae-tteok, are long, cylindrical shaped rice cakes made with rice flour.",
"Tteok-guk is boiled in chicken broth, but was originally boiled in pheasant meat soup.",
"It says, “hunting pheasant is not easy, and since they breed chickens, they use chicken instead of pheasant, and if there’s not chicken they even used beef”(꿩 대신 닭).",
"In North Korea, there is a variation of this recipe called joraengi tteokguk where rice cakes are made in the shape of balls.",
"it is eaten on New Year's Day because Koreans believe that if you eat a bowl of tteok-guk on the first of the lunar year, you get one year older.",
"There is the belief that rice cakes in oval shape bring fortune since they resemble old Korean coins known as yeopjeon (엽전).",
"* ''Gomguk'' (곰국) or ''gomtang'' (곰탕), and they are made from boiling beef bones or cartilage.",
"Originating as a peasant dish, all parts of beef are used, including tail, leg and rib bones with or without meat attached; these are boiled in water to extract fat, marrow, and gelatin to create a rich soup.",
"Some versions of this soup may also use the beef head and intestines.",
"The only seasoning generally used in the soup is salt.",
"* ''Naengguk'' (냉국), which are cold soups generally eaten during the summer months to cool the diner.",
"A light hand is usually used in the seasoning of these soups usually using ''ganjang'' and sesame oil.",
"*Shin-son-ro (or koo-ja tang), the name of it came from its special cook pot with chimney for burning charcoal.",
"The meaning is a hearth or furnace or a pot for fire or incense burning that always contains nineteen fillings.",
"The nineteen fillings were including beef, fish, eggs, carrot, mushrooms, and onion.Stews are referred to as ''jjigae'', and are often a shared side dish.",
"''Jjigae'' is often both cooked and served in the glazed earthenware pot (''ttukbaegi'') in which it is cooked.",
"The most common version of this stew is ''doenjang jjigae'', which is a stew of soybean paste, with many variations; common ingredients include vegetables, saltwater or freshwater fish, and tofu.",
"The stew often changes with the seasons and which ingredients are available.",
"Other common varieties of ''jjigae'' contain kimchi (''kimchi jjigae'') or tofu (''sundubu jjigae'').",
"* Seaweed soup (miyeok-guk; 미역국).This soup is made of dried miyeok or seaweed according to 조선요리제법, it says it is usually made by frying 미역 with beef pouring water and making the soup.",
"Adding mussel can make it taste better.",
"Also in coastal areas they use fish instead of beef too.",
"It is usually consumed on Koreans birthday, specifically on samchil day (삼칠일: a resting period after giving birth to the newborn); baek-il (백일: the 100th day after a baby is born); doljanchi (돌잔치: the baby's first birthday).===Kimchi===Baek-kimchiKimchi refers to often fermented vegetable dishes usually made with napa cabbage, Korean radish, or sometimes cucumber.",
"There are 4 types of raw materials which are major ones: spices, seasonings, and other additional materials.",
"Red and black pepper, cinnamon, garlic, ginger, onion, and mustard are the example of spices.",
"There are endless varieties with regional variations, and it is served as a side dish or cooked into soups and rice dishes.",
"In the late 15th century, it depicted Korean's custom that Korean ancestors buried kimchi jars in the ground for storage for the entire winter season, as fermented foods can keep for several years.",
"These were stored in traditional Korean mud pots known as jangdokdae, although with the advent of refrigerators, special kimchi freezers and commercially produced kimchi, this practice has become less common.",
"Kimchi is a vegetable-based food which includes low calorie, low fat, and no cholesterol.",
"Also, it is a rich source of various vitamins and minerals.",
"It contains vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, and vitamin K and minerals which are calcium, iron, phosphorus, and selenium.The same lactobacilli bacteria found in yogurt and other fermented dairy products are also found in kimchi.",
"In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily.===Noodles===Japchae, a kind of Korean noodle dish made with marinated beef and vegetables in soy sauce and sesame oil.Noodles or noodle dishes in Korean cuisine are collectively referred to as ''guksu'' in native Korean or ''myeon'' in hanja.",
"While noodles were eaten in Korea from ancient times, productions of wheat was less than other crops, so wheat noodles did not become a daily food until 1945.Wheat noodles (''milguksu'') were specialty foods for birthdays, weddings or auspicious occasions because the long and continued shape were thought to be associated with the bliss for longevity and long-lasting marriage.In Korean traditional noodle dishes are ''onmyeon'' or ''guksu jangguk'' (noodles with a hot clear broth), ''naengmyeon'' (cold buckwheat noodles), ''bibim guksu'' (cold noodle dish mixed with vegetables), ''kalguksu'' (knife-cut noodles), ''kongguksu'' (noodles with a cold soybean broth), ''japchae'' (cellophane noodles made from sweet potato with various vegetables) and others.",
"In royal court, ''baekmyeon'' (literally \"white noodles\") consisting of buckwheat noodles and pheasant broth, was regarded as the top quality noodle dish.",
"''Naengmyeon'' with a cold soup mixed with ''dongchimi'' (watery radish kimchi) and beef brisket broth was eaten in court during summer.",
"* ''Jajangmyeon'', a staple Koreanized Chinese noodle dish, is extremely popular in Korea as fast, take-out food.",
"It is made with a black bean sauce usually fried with diced pork or seafood and a variety of vegetables, including zucchini and potatoes.",
"It is popularly ordered and delivered, like Chinese take-out food in other parts of the world.",
"* ''Ramyeon'' refers to Korean instant noodles similar to ramen.",
"* Japchae (잡채; 雜菜) is a dish made by inserting in boiling water roasted vegetables, mushrooms and meat, each of them roasted.",
"This is one of the most popular dishes in Korean tradition enjoyed on special occasion like weddings, holidays and birthday.",
"There are two types of Japchae, one that includes glass noodles and another without noodles.",
"According to the Korean cookbook Diminbang 음식디미방 (around 1670), there's only the recipe without glass noodles.",
"The original recipe without glass noodles is made by boiling vegetables such as cucumbers, pine mushrooms bean, sprouts, bellflowers green onion, then they are sprinkled with ginger, pepper, sesame oil, and flour.",
"The sauce is made by boiling minced pink meat and soybean paste that is lightly filtered with sesame oil and flour.",
"To match the name more than 20 ingredients were used.",
"In Gyongon Yoram 규곤요람閨壼要覽 (1896) is also recorded japchae seasoned with mustard sauce without glass noodles.",
"However, since the 1930s, appears the japchae recipe with glass noodles alongside the original recipe.",
"Also, during the Joseon dynasty 조선요리법朝鮮料理法 the recipe of japchae, with and without glass noodles, was added to the cookbook.",
"Also, there is also a variant of japchae with meat, or one with abalone or other seafood in 1930s.It is a local food that shows the traditional recipe.",
"In the Jinju region, Jamung-sam, Yokimun, is a local dish with soy sauce and sesame oil, and the seafood, such as octopus, skates, and mixed several vegetables stained in oil.",
"Because it uses various ingredients, it has high calorie, protein, fat, vitamin, mineral, and sufficient nutritional.",
"It is the first item to choose when you want a feast table.===Banchan===Banchan is a term referring collectively to side dishes in Korean cuisine.",
"Soups and stews are not considered banchan.",
"''Bulgogi'', a grilled Korean dish; the meat and vegetables shown here have not yet been grilled.",
"''Gui'' are grilled dishes, which most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetable ingredients.",
"At traditional restaurants, meats are cooked at the center of the table over a charcoal grill, surrounded by various ''banchan'' and individual rice bowls.",
"The cooked meat is then cut into small pieces and wrapped with fresh lettuce leaves, with rice, thinly sliced garlic, ''ssamjang'' (a mixture of ''gochujang'' and ''dwenjang''), and other seasonings.",
"The suffix ''gui'' is often omitted in the names of meat-based ''gui'' such as ''galbi'', the name of which was originally ''galbi gui''.",
":*List of grilled dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine''Jjim'' and ''seon'' (steamed dishes) are generic terms referring to steamed or boiled dishes in Korean cuisine.",
"However, the former is made with meat or seafood-based ingredients marinated in ''gochujang'' or ''ganjang'' while ''seon'' is made with vegetable stuffed with fillings.",
":*List of steamed dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine''Hoe'' (raw dishes): although the term originally referred to any kind of raw dish, it is generally used to refer to ''saengseonhweh'' (생선회, raw fish dishes).",
"It is dipped in ''gochujang'', or soy sauce with wasabi, and served with lettuce or perilla leaves.",
":* list of raw dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine''Bindaeddeok''Jeon (전, 煎) (or ''buchimgae'') is a Korean savory pancake made from various ingredients.",
"Chopped kimchi or seafood is mixed into a wheat flour-based batter, and then pan fried.",
"This dish is typically dipped in a mixture of soy sauce, vinegar, and red pepper powder.",
"It can be served as an appetizer, side dish (banchan - 반찬) or accompanied by alcohol (anju - 안주).There are some sweet varieties called Hwajeon (화전) which means flower pancakes.There are different types of jeon: jeon-yu 전유어(煎油魚) and jeon-hwa 전유화(煎油花), the former has recently developed to only refer to fish pancakes.",
"The previous ingredients can be used in various ways, such as meat, fish, and vegetables.",
"The meat used can be quail, beef and pork.",
"Seafood is mainly white sea fish such as croaker, cod, and Pollack.",
"Vegetables used are: pumpkins, pepper,sesame leaves etc.",
"In the summer potatoes are harvested, and the mung beans are made in the winter.",
"According to the regional cases many buckwheat production are in Pyeongchang and Bongpyeong area, first set the small green onions or cabbage leaves and turn the thin buckwheat dough on it.",
"There is no special taste, but the hands are still in the hand of buckwheat.Cooking oils such as soy and corn are used today, though technology required for producing these oils was not available during the Joseon dynasty.",
":*List of ''jeon'' dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine''Namul''''Namul'' may refer to either ''saengchae'' (생채, literally \"fresh vegetables\") or ''sukchae'' (숙채, literally \"heated vegetables\"), although the term generally indicates the latter.",
"''Saengchae'' is mostly seasoned with vinegar, chili pepper powder and salt to give a tangy and refreshing taste.",
"On the other hand, ''sukchae'' (숙채) is blanched and seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil, chopped garlic, or sometimes chili pepper powder.",
":*List of ''namul'' dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine===''Anju'' (side dishes accompanying alcoholic beverages)===Jokbal : pig's feet, a type of Anju.Anju is a general term for a Korean side dish consumed with alcohol.",
"It matches well with Korean traditional alcohol such as Soju or Makgeolli and helps people to enjoy their drinking more.",
"Some examples of ''anju'' include steamed squid with ''gochujang'', assorted fruit, ''dubu kimchi'' (tofu with kimchi), peanuts, ''odeng''/''ohmuk'', ''sora'' (소라) (a kind of shellfish popular in street food tents), and ''nakji'' (small octopus) and Jokbal (pig's leg served with salted shrimp sauce).",
"Samgyupsal (pork belly) is also considered as Anju with Soju.",
"Most Korean foods can be considered as 'anju', as the food consumed alongside the alcohol depends on the diner's taste and preferences."
],
[
"Holiday food",
"=== Songpyeon (송편) ===Songpyeon (송편, 松䭏) is a Korean dish made of rice powder mostly eaten during Chuseok/ Korean thanksgiving (추석) to express gratitude towards ancestors.",
"Songpyeon recordings appear from the 17th century.",
"It is said in 『Yorok 要 錄』, \"Make rice cakes with white rice flour, steam them with pine and pine needles and wash them off with water.\"",
"At the beginning of Songpyeon, rice cakes were made simply with white rice powder, pine needles were steamed and then washed in water.",
"It is said that \"red beans, pine nuts, walnuts, ginger and cinnamon\" were added in the \"Buyin Pilji 婦人 必 知\".",
"In 『Korean Rice Cakes, Hangwa, Eumcheongryu』, “In mountainous regions such as Gangwon-do and Chungcheong-do, potato songpyeon, acorn songpyeon and songgisongpyeon have been prepared and eaten.",
"In the coastal areas of Hamgyeong-do, Pyeongan-do and Gyeonggi-do, shellfish songpyeon as produced and eaten, and in the southern regions of Jeolla-do and Gyeongsang-do, songpyeon with moss leaves was produced and eaten.Songpyeon represents the moon and hope, which is why while eating this Koreans make wishes.There is a proverb that says, \"When virgins make a nice songpyeon, they will meet a good spouse, and when a pregnant woman makes a nice songpyeon, they have beautiful daughters.\"",
"Songpyeon served on the Baekilsang and the stone table is described in Yorok, \"I cooked it so that the convex shaped part of songpyeon came out without adding any filling, but it looks like it is full.",
"It has the meaning of wishing good luck.In the Seoul region, the floral songpyeon and five-color songpyeon were made small and beautiful, and in Hwanghae-do and Gangwon-do they fingerprinted and ate them coarsely.The method of making five-color songpyeon is achieved by adding natural ingredients such as mugwort, gardenia water, omija water and cinnamon powder to the rice flour, kneading the rice cake with the five colors and adding the filling.",
"However, in the past, pine endodermis were used in place of cinnamon powder to make the dough brown.=== Ogok-bap (오곡밥) ===Ogok-bap means five rice dish, which consists of rice mixed with glutinous rice, cornstarch, red bean, perilla, and soybean.",
"By consuming grains with the energy of blue, red, yellow, white, and black, we pray for good health as well as a good year for our body with the energy of the five elements, and to chase away bad luck and happiness and well-being.In addition, there is a custom of sharing five grains of rice between neighbors because it is said that three or more families of different surnames share rice with each other.It is consumed on the day of the first full moon of the year when people make rituals for guardian spirits against disasters and misfortune.",
"Koreans also celebrate the upcoming spring."
],
[
"Beverages",
"===Non-alcoholic beverages===''Daechu cha'' (jujube tea)All Korean traditional nonalcoholic beverages are referred to as ''eumcheong'' or ''eumcheongnyu'' (음청류 ) which literally means \"clear beverages\".",
"According to historical documents regarding Korean cuisine, 193 items of ''eumcheongnyu'' are recorded.",
"''Eumcheongnyu'' can be divided into the following categories: ''tea'', ''hwachae'' (fruit punch), ''sikhye'' (sweet rice drink), ''sujeonggwa'' (persimmon punch), ''tang'' (탕, boiled water), ''jang'' (장, fermented grain juice with a sour taste), ''suksu'' (숙수, beverage made of herbs), ''galsu'' (갈수, drink made of fruit extract, and Oriental medicine), honeyed water, juice and milk by their ingredient materials and preparation methods.",
"Among the varieties, tea, ''hwachae'', ''sikhye'', and ''sujeonggwa'' are still widely favored and consumed; however, the others almost disappeared by the end of the 20th century.In Korean cuisine, tea, or ''cha'', refers to various types of herbal tea that can be served hot or cold.",
"Not necessarily related to the leaves, leaf buds, and internodes of the ''Camellia sinensis'' plant, they are made from diverse substances, including fruits (e.g.",
"''yuja-cha''), flowers (e.g.",
"''gukhwa-cha''), leaves, roots, and grains (e.g.",
"''bori-cha'', ''hyeonmi-cha'') or herbs and substances used in traditional Korean medicine, such as ginseng (e.g.",
"''insam-cha'') and ginger (e.g.",
"''saenggang-cha'').===Alcoholic beverages===A bowl of ''makgeolli'', a type of ''takju''While ''soju'' is the best known liquor, there are well over 100 different alcoholic beverages, such as beers, rice and fruit wines, and liquors produced in South Korea as well as a sweet rice drink.",
"The top-selling domestic beers (''maekju'' in Korean) are lagers, which differ from Western beers in that they are brewed from rice, rather than barley.",
"Consequently, Korean beers are lighter, sweeter and have less head than their Western counterparts.",
"The South Korean beer market is dominated by the two major breweries: Hite and OB.",
"Taedonggang is a North Korean beer produced at a brewery based in Pyongyang since 2002.Microbrewery beers and bars are growing in popularity after 2002.",
"''Soju'' is a clear spirit which was originally made from grain, especially rice, and is now also made from sweet potatoes or barley.",
"''Soju'' made from grain is considered superior (as is also the case with grain vs. potato vodka).",
"''Soju'' is around 22% ABV, and is a favorite beverage of hard-up college students, hard-drinking businessmen, and blue-collar workers.",
"''Yakju'' is a refined pure liquor fermented from rice, with the best known being ''cheongju''.",
"''Takju'' is a thick unrefined liquor made with grains, with the best known being ''makgeolli'', a white, milky rice wine traditionally drunk by farmers.In addition to the rice wine, various fruit wines and herbal wines exist in Korean cuisine.",
"Acacia, ''maesil'' plum, Chinese quince, cherry, pine cone, and pomegranate are most popular.",
"''Majuang wine'' (a blended wine of Korean grapes with French or American wines) and ginseng-based wines are also available."
],
[
"Sweets",
"''Tteok''Various ''hahngwa''Traditional rice cakes, ''tteok'' and Korean confectionery ''hangwa'' are eaten as treats during holidays and festivals.",
"''Tteok'' refers to all kinds of rice cakes made from either pounded rice (메떡, ''metteok''), pounded glutinous rice (찰떡, ''chaltteok''), or glutinous rice left whole, without pounding.",
"It is served either filled or covered with sweetened mung bean paste, red bean paste, mashed red beans, raisins, a sweetened filling made with sesame seeds, sweet pumpkin, beans, jujubes, pine nuts or honey).",
"''Tteok'' is usually served as dessert or as a snack.",
"Among varieties, ''songpyeon'' is a chewy stuffed ''tteok'' served at ''Chuseok''.",
"Honey or another soft sweet material such as sweetened sesame or black beans are used as fillings.",
"Pine needles can be used for imparting flavor during the steaming process.",
"''Yaksik'' is a sweet rice cake made with glutinous rice, chestnuts, pine nuts, jujubes, and other ingredients, while ''chapssaltteok'' is a ''tteok'' filled with sweet bean paste.On the other hand, ''hangwa'' is a general term referring to all types of Korean traditional confectionery.",
"The ingredients of ''hahngwa'' mainly consist of grain flour, honey, ''yeot'', and sugar, or of fruit and edible roots.",
"''Hangwa'' is largely divided into ''yumilgwa'' (fried confectionery), ''suksilgwa'', ''jeonggwa'', ''gwapyeon'', ''dasik'' (tea food) and ''yeot''.",
"''Yumilgwa'' is made by stir frying or frying pieces of dough, such as ''maejakgwa'' and ''yakgwa''.",
"''Maejakgwa'' is a ring-shaped confection made of wheat flour, vegetable oil, cinnamon, ginger juice, ''jocheong'', and pine nuts, while ''yakgwa'', literally \"medicinal confectionery\", is a flower-shaped biscuit made of honey, sesame oil and wheat flour.",
"''Suksilgwa'' is made by boiling fruits, ginger, or nuts in water, and then forming the mix into the original fruit's shape, or other shapes.",
"''Gwapyeon'' is a jelly-like confection made by boiling sour fruits, starch, and sugar.",
"''Dasik'', literally \"eatery for tea\", is made by kneading rice flour, honey, and various types of flour from nuts, herbs, sesame, or jujubes.",
"''Jeonggwa'', or ''jeongwa'', is made by boiling fruits, plant roots and seeds in honey, mullyeot (''물엿'', liquid candy) or sugar.",
"It is similar to marmalade or jam/jelly.",
"''Yeot'' is a Korean traditional candy in liquid or solid form made from steamed rice, glutinous rice, glutinous kaoliang, corn, sweet potatoes or mixed grains.",
"The steamed ingredients are lightly fermented and boiled in a large pot called ''sot'' (솥) for a long time.Yugwa(유과) and Yak-gwa(약과).They are traditional desserts enjoyed during Chuseok, marriage or the sixtieth birthday (Hwangap - 환갑).Yugwa is a generic name for 산자, 강정 and 빈사과.",
"They are classified as: square shaped 산자, finger shaped 강정, drop shaped and square shaped 빈사과 .",
"Furthermore, many different names have been given based on coatings, toppings and fillings.",
"Plum blossoms obtained by frying sesame seeds and nutmeg, steamed dried and fried glutinous rice, sebann with finely chopped sesame seeds, seunggeomcho and pine nut powder are used.",
"In addition, they are dyed pink, yellow, etc.",
"Depending on the region, it is also called Gwajul or Sanja.",
"First, soak some good glutinous rice in water and let it ferment so that the glutinous rice sticks.",
"The fermentation period varies from one week to ten days depending on the season, and after having fermented until crushed by hand, knead and steam it for a long time, then beat until cherries form.Sanja is a large square shape, gangjeong is the thickness of a finger and bell gangjeong is the size of a thumb.",
"빈사과 is one the size of a red bean, which is lumped together with the syrup or sugar syrup and cut into squares.",
"Once the excess oil has been removed, honey or syrup is applied and the ginger juice is added at this time.",
"Ginger juice has the effect of preventing rancidity of fats.",
"It is completed by covering with various types of gluten wheat.Yugwa, which is difficult to make, is best prepared in the winter.",
"Honey or syrup is an important ingredient in making Yugwa, which crumbles and melts when you put it in your mouth.↵During the Joseon dynasty, Yugwa was used during the rite of passage and in the royal family various types of Yugwa were placed high on the banquet table.",
"In the aristocratic family, it is customary to send gangjeong to accompany the groom or to business guests returning from a wedding party to the bride's house, full of dongguri intertwined with stones or willows.↵Furthermore, Yugwa was chosen as the ancestral food par excellence for the ancestors, and is a food not to be missed during the Lunar New Year holiday.Yakgwa (약과; 藥菓) is a dessert made of wheat flour, honey, ginger juice and rice wine.",
"In premodern Korea they were enjoyed by upper classes as a rare dish, today is common to serve it with tea.Yakgwa is a traditional and good quality dish with a sweet and savory taste.",
"In Korean, the Yak character is used to name foods that commonly contain honey and sesame oil.",
"From ancient times, instead of fruit, honey and sesame oil were used to medicate and it has become a sweet.",
"Even today the yakgwa among the bourgeois class is a dish that can never be missing.",
"However, they are not prepared with difficulty as in ancient times and are easily found on the market.",
"You can buy them anywhere easily and enjoy them comfortably for a snack.",
"The Yakgwa was developed as a Buddhist banquet and was a very important ancestral food, it was food that was given as a gift for weddings.Also this reputation spread nationwide from China, Koryeo's oil and honey pastry was generally known for festivities."
],
[
"Regional and variant cuisines",
"A traditional meal in Kaesong, North Korea.Korean regional cuisines (Korean: ''hyangto eumsik'', literally \"native local foods\") are characterized by local specialties and distinctive styles within Korean cuisine.",
"The divisions reflected historical boundaries of the provinces where these food and culinary traditions were preserved until modern times.Although Korea has been divided into two nation-states since 1948 (North Korea and South Korea), it was once divided into eight provinces (''paldo'') according to the administrative districts of the Joseon dynasty.",
"The northern region consisted of Hamgyeong Province, Pyeongan Province and Hwanghae Province.",
"The central region comprised Gyeonggi Province, Chungcheong Province, and Gangwon Province.",
"Gyeongsang Province and Jeolla Province made up the southern region.Until the late 19th century, transportation networks were not well developed, and each provincial region preserved its own characteristic tastes and cooking methods.",
"Geographic differences are also reflected by the local specialty foodstuffs depending on the climate and types of agriculture, as well as the natural foods available.",
"With the modern development of transportation and the introduction of foreign foods, Korean regional cuisines have tended to overlap and integrate.",
"However, many unique traditional dishes in Korean regional cuisine have been handed down through the generations.===Buddhist cuisine===Korean temple cuisine at Sanchon, a restaurant located in Insadong, Seoul.Korean temple cuisine originated in Buddhist temples of Korea.",
"Since Buddhism was introduced into Korea, Buddhist traditions have strongly influenced Korean cuisine, as well.",
"During the Silla period (57 BCE – 935 CE), ''chalbap'' (찰밥, a bowl of cooked glutinous rice) ''yakgwa'' (a fried dessert) and ''yumilgwa'' (a fried and puffed rice snack) were served for Buddhist altars and have been developed into types of ''hangwa'', Korean traditional confectionery.",
"During the Goryeo dynasty, ''sangchu ssam'' (wraps made with lettuce), ''yaksik'', and ''yakgwa'' were developed, and since spread to China and other countries.",
"Since the Joseon dynasty, Buddhist cuisine has been established in Korea according to regions and temples.On the other hand, royal court cuisine is closely related to Korean temple cuisine.",
"In the past, when the royal court maids, ''sanggung'', who were assigned to ''Suragan'' (hangul: 수라간; hanja: 水剌間; the name of the royal kitchen), where they prepared the king's meals, became old, they had to leave the royal palace.",
"Therefore, many of them entered Buddhist temples to become nuns.",
"As a result, culinary techniques and recipes of the royal cuisine were integrated into Buddhist cuisine.===Vegetarian cuisine===goldongban'' or ''bibimbap''Vegetarian cookery in Korea may be linked to the Buddhist traditions that influenced Korean culture from the Goryeo dynasty onwards.",
"There are hundreds of vegetarian restaurants in Korea, although historically they have been local restaurants that are unknown to tourists.",
"Most have buffets, with cold food, and vegetarian kimchi and tofu being the main features.",
"''Bibimbap'' is a common vegan dish.",
"Menus change with seasons.",
"Wine with the alcohol removed and fine teas are also served.",
"The Korean tea ceremony is suitable for all vegetarians and vegans, and began with Buddhist influences.",
"All food is eaten with a combination of stainless steel oval chopsticks and a long-handled shallow spoon called together ''sujeo''.===Ceremonial food===Food is an important part of traditions of Korean family ceremonies, which are mainly based on the Confucian culture.",
"Gwan Hon Sang Je (관혼상제; 冠婚喪祭), the four family ceremonies (coming-of-age ceremony, wedding, funeral, and ancestral rite) have been considered especially important and elaborately developed, continuing to influence Korean life to these days.",
"Ceremonial food in Korea has developed with variation across different regions and cultures.For example, ancestral rites called ''jesa'' are mainly held on the anniversary of an ancestor's death.",
"Ritual food includes rice, alcohol (clear alcohol), soup, vinegar, and soy sauce (first line).",
"Various meats, various rice cakes, and fish (row 2).",
"When placing meat and fish, make sure your head faces east (right).",
"Also, meat is placed on the left and fish is placed on the right; three types of hot soup prepared.",
"Meat stew, beef stew, fish stew (3rd row); dried snacks''kimchi''No red pepper powder used, glutinous rice drink (line 4); and various fruits.",
"Red fruits are to the east, white fruits are to the west.",
"(Line 5) ===Street food===''Gimbap'', rice (bap) and various filler ingredients, rolled in sheets of dried seaweed (gim)|190x190pxKorea Street Food ''tteokbokki'' (떡볶이) and ''Eomuk'' (어묵/오뎅)In South Korea, inexpensive food may be purchased from ''pojangmacha'', street carts during the day, where customers may eat standing beside the cart or have their food wrapped up to take home.",
"At night, ''pojangmacha'' (포장마차) become small tents that sell food, drinks, and alcoholic beverages.Seasonal street foods include ''hotteok'', and ''bungeoppang'', which are enjoyed in autumn and winter.",
"''Gimbap'' (김밥) and ''tteokbokki'' (떡볶이)are also very popular street food.People also enjoy to eat ''Sundae'' (순대), ''Twigim'' (튀김), and ''Eomuk'' (오뎅/어묵) which are popular with ''tteokbokki''.",
"Also, ''Gyeran-ppang'' (계란빵) which is Egg Bread and ''Hoppang'' (호빵) are also enjoyed in winter.",
"''Dak-kkochi'' (닭꼬치) is a popular food in Korea with various sauces on chicken.",
"''Beondegi'' (번데기) and ''dalgona/ppopgi'' (뽑기) are two examples of original street foods many people have enjoyed since childhood.",
"''Dak-kkochi'', Bbopki/Dalgona, Korean chicken skewers consisting of grilled small pieces of chicken."
],
[
"Etiquette",
"===Dining===A single-person ''bapsang'' (meal table).",
"Each person was given a table in a traditional dining setting.Korean chopsticks and spoon made of stainless steel.Dining etiquette in Korea can be traced back to the Confucian philosophies of the Joseon period.",
"Guidebooks, such as ''Sasojeol'' (士小節, ''Elementary Etiquette for Scholar Families''), written in 1775 by Yi Deokmu (이덕무; 李德懋), comment on the dining etiquette for the period.",
"Suggestions include items such as \"when you see a fat cow, goat, pig, or chicken, do not immediately speak of slaughtering, cooking or eating it\", \"when you are having a meal with others, do not speak of smelly or dirty things, such as boils or diarrhea,\" \"when eating a meal, neither eat so slowly as to appear to be eating against your will nor so fast as if to be taking someone else's food.",
"Do not throw chopsticks on the table.",
"Spoons should not touch plates, making a clashing sound\", among many other recommendations which emphasized proper table etiquette.Other than the etiquette mentioned above, blowing one's nose when having a meal is considered an inappropriate act as well.The eldest male at the table was always served first, and was commonly served in the men's quarters by the women of the house.",
"Women usually dined in a separate portion of the house after the men were served.",
"The eldest men or women always ate before the younger family members.",
"The meal was usually quiet, as conversation was discouraged during meals.",
"In modern times, these rules have become lax, as families usually dine together now and use the time to converse.",
"Of the remaining elements of this decorum, one is that the younger members of the table should not pick up their chopsticks or start eating before the elders of the table or guests and should not finish eating before the elders or guests finish eating.In Korea, unlike in other East Asian cuisines such as Chinese and Japanese, the rice or soup bowl is not lifted from the table when eating from it.",
"This is due to the fact that each diner is given a metal spoon along with the chopsticks known collectively as sujeo.",
"The use of the spoon for eating rice and soups is expected.",
"There are rules which reflect the decorum of sharing communal side dishes; rules include not picking through the dishes for certain items while leaving others, and the spoon used should be clean, because usually diners put their spoons in the same serving bowl on the table.",
"Diners should also cover their mouths when using a toothpick after the meal.The table setup is important as well, and individual place settings, moving from the diner's left should be as follows: rice bowl, spoon, then chopsticks.",
"Hot foods are set to the right side of the table, with the cold foods to the left.",
"Soup must remain on the right side of the diner along with stews.",
"Vegetables remain on the left along with the rice, and kimchi is set to the back while sauces remain in the front.===Drinking===The manner of drinking alcoholic drinks while dining is significant in Korean dining etiquette.",
"Each diner is expected to face away from the eldest male and cover his mouth when drinking alcohol.According to Hyang Eum Ju Rye (향음주례; 鄕飮酒禮), the drinking etiquette established in Choseon dynasty, it is impolite for a king and his vassal, a father and his son, or a teacher and his student to drink face to face.",
"Also, a guest should not refuse the first drink offered by host, and in the most formal situations, the diner should politely twice refuse a drink offered by the eldest male or a host.",
"When the host offers for the third time, then finally the guest can receive it.",
"If the guest refuses three times, drink is not to be offered any more."
],
[
"Royal court cuisine",
"Anapji Lake in Gyeongju, the capital of Silla Kingdom.Collectively known as ''gungjung eumsik'' during the pre-modern era, the foods of the royal palace were reflective of the opulent nature of the past rulers of the Korean peninsula.",
"This nature is evidenced in examples as far back as the Silla kingdom, where a man-made lake (Anapji Lake, located in Gyeongju), was created with multiple pavilions and halls for the sole purpose of opulent banquets, and a spring fed channel, Poseokjeong, was created for the singular purpose of setting wine cups afloat while they wrote poems.Reflecting the regionalism of the kingdoms and bordering countries of the peninsula, the cuisine borrowed portions from each of these areas to exist as a showcase.",
"The royalty would have the finest regional specialties and delicacies sent to them at the palace.",
"Although there are records of banquets predating the Joseon period, the majority of these records mostly reflect the vast variety of foods, but do not mention the specific foods presented.",
"The meals cooked for the royal family did not reflect the seasons, as the commoner's meals would have.",
"Instead, their meals varied significantly day-to-day.",
"Each of the eight provinces was represented each month in the royal palace by ingredients presented by their governors, which gave the cooks a wide assortment of ingredients to use for royal meals.A model of the royal kitchen in the Dae Jang Geum theme park, South Korea.Food was considered significant in the Joseon period.",
"Official positions were created within the Six Ministries (''Yukjo'', 육조) that were charged with all matters related to procurement and consumption of food and drink for the royal court.",
"The Board of Personnel (''Ijo'', 이조) contained positions specific for attaining rice for the royal family.",
"The Board of Rights (''Yejo'') were responsible for foods prepared for ancestor rites, attaining wines and other beverages, and medicinal foods.",
"There were also hundreds of slaves and women who worked in the palace that had tasks such as making tofu, liquor, tea, and ''tteok'' (rice cakes).",
"The women were the cooks to the royal palace and were of commoner or low-born families.",
"These women would be split into specific skill sets or \"bureau\" such as the bureau of special foods (''Saenggwa-bang'', 생과방) or the bureau of cooking foods (''Soju-bang'', 소주방).",
"These female cooks may have been assisted by male cooks from outside the palace during larger banquets when necessary.Five meals were generally served in the royal palace each day during the Joseon period, and records suggest this pattern had existed from antiquity.",
"Three of these meals would be full meals, while the afternoon and after dinner meals would be lighter.",
"The first meal, ''mieumsang'' (미음상), was served at sunrise and was served only on days when the king and queen were not taking herbal medicines.",
"The meal consisted of rice porridge (''juk'', 죽) made with ingredients such as abalone (''jeonbokjuk''), white rice (''huinjuk''), mushrooms (''beoseotjuk''), pine nuts (''jatjuk''), and sesame (''kkaejuk'').",
"The side dishes could consist of ''kimchi'', ''nabak kimchi'', oysters, soy sauce, and other items.",
"The porridge was thought to give vitality to the king and queen throughout the day.The ''sura'' (수라) were the main meals of the day.",
"Breakfast was served at ten in the morning, and the evening meals were served between six and seven at night.",
"The set of three tables (''surasang'', 수라상), were usually set with two types of rice, two types of soup, two types of stew (''jjigae''), one dish of ''jjim'' (meat stew), one dish of ''jeongol'' (a casserole of meat and vegetables), three types of ''kimchi'', three types of ''jang'' (장) and twelve side dishes, called 12 cheop (12첩).",
"The meals were set in the ''suragan'' (수라간), a room specifically used for taking meals, with the king seated to the east and the queen to the west.",
"Each had their own set of tables and were attended by three palace servant women known as ''sura sanggung'' (수라상궁).",
"These women would remove bowl covers and offer the foods to the king and queen after ensuring the dishes were not poisoned.Banquets (궁중 연회 음식) were held on special occasions in the Korean Royal Palace.",
"These included birthdays of the royal family members, marriages, and national festivals, including Daeborum, Dano, Chuseok, and Dongji.",
"Banquet food was served on individual tables which varied according to the rank of the person.",
"Usually banquet food consisted of ten different types of dishes.",
"Main dishes were prepared based on the seasonal foods.",
"Main dishes of the banquet included ''sinseollo'', ''jeon'', ''hwayang jeok'', ''honghapcho'', ''nengmyun'' and ''mulgimchi''.",
"A typical banquet ingredient was ''chogyetang'' (chicken broth with vinegar), which was prepared with five different chickens, five abalones, ten sea cucumbers, twenty eggs, half a bellflower root, mushrooms, two cups of black pepper, two peeled pine nuts, starch, soy sauce and vinegar.",
"''Yaksik'' was a favorite banquet dessert."
],
[
"See also",
"* Asian cuisine* Chinese cuisine* Japanese cuisine* Korean baked goods* List of Korean desserts* List of Korean dishes* List of Korean drinks* Korean fried chicken* North Korean cuisine* South Korean cuisine"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*Baek Un-hwa (백운화).",
"Inje Food Science Forum (인제식품과학 FORUM), \"Part 3 Status quo and prospect about the industrialization of Korean traditional beverages (제 3 주제 전통 음청류의 산업화 현황과 전망)\" taken from on 2008-06-15.pp. 75~95.",
"* Coultrip-Davis, Deborah, Young Sook Ramsay, and Deborah Davis (1998).",
"''Flavors of Korea: Delicious Vegetarian Cuisine''.",
"Tennessee: Book Publishing Company.",
".",
"*Cost, Bruce.",
"''Asian ingredients: a guide to the foodstuffs of China, Japan, Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam''.",
"New York: Harper Perennial, 2000.",
"*Crawford, Gary W. (2006) East Asian Plant Domestication.",
"In ''Archaeology of East Asia'', edited by Miriam Stark.",
"Wiley-Blackwell, 2006 *Food in Korea, \"Jontongjoo – Kinds of Traditional Liquors\" taken from *Herskovitz, Jon.",
"Reuters, \"North Korean beer: great taste, low proliferation risk\", Mar 9, 2008, taken from *Hopkins, Jerry.",
"''Extreme Cuisine: The Weird & Wonderful Foods that People Eat'', Singapore: Tuttle Publishing, 2004.",
"*Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation.",
"\"Introduction of Eumcheongryu\" taken from on 2008-05-22.",
"*Korea Tourism Organization.",
"\"Experience Royal Cuisine\" taken from on 2008-06-13.",
"*''Koryǒsa'', ''The History of the Koryǒ Dynasty'', Seoul, 1990.",
"*National Assembly of the Republic of Korea.",
"\"King Sejong's Humanism\" taken from on 2008-06-10.",
"*Marks, Copeland.",
"''The Korean Kitchen: Classic Recipes from the Land of the Morning Calm''.",
"San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1993.",
"*O'Brien, Betsy.",
"''Let's Eat Korean Food''.",
"Elizabeth, NJ:Hollym, 1997.",
"**Sohn Gyeong-hee (손경희).",
"Inje Food Science Forum (인제식품과학 FORUM), \"Part 1 HIstorical overview of Korean traditional eumcheongryu (제 1 주제 한국 전통 음청류의 역사적 고찰)\" taken from on 2008-06-16.",
"*The Academy of Korean Studies.",
"\"농사직설(農事直說), Nongsa jikseol\" taken from on 2008-06-10.",
"**The Korea Economic Daily, \"Brew master.. the only beer in the world\" (브루 마스터 .. 세계 유일의 맥주) taken from *Yi Kyubo, Tongmyǒng-wang p'yǒn' (The lay of King Tongmyǒng) in ''Tongguk Yi Sangguk chip'' (''The Collected Works of Minister Yi of the Eastern Country''), Seoul, 1982.",
"* Yi Yang-Cha, and Armin E. Möller (1999).",
"''Koreanisch vegetarisch: Die kaum bekannte, fettarme, phantasievolle und küchenfreundliche Art asiatisch zu kochen'' (Korean Vegetarian: Almost Unknown, Low Fat, Creative and Kitchen-friendly Way of Asian Cooking).",
".",
"*Yi Tǒngmu, ''Sasojǒl'' (''Elementary Etiquette for Scholar Families''), quaoted in Sources of Korean Tradition, Volume Two: From the Twentieth Centuries, ed.",
"Yǒongho Ch'oe, Peter H. Lee and W. Theodore de Bary.",
"New York, 2000.",
"*Yu Jisang (유지상).",
"\"How about today?",
"''Pojangmacha'', outing at night\" (오늘 어때?",
"포장마차 ‘밤마실’) taken from on 2008-06-13."
],
[
"External links",
"* 공공 용어의 외국어 번역 및 표기 지침 (List of names of Korean foods in English)* Official site of Korea National Tourism List of Korean Food * at the Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation* Food in Korea* List of articles about Korean cuisine at the Doosan Encyclopedia * Categories of Korean cuisine at the Empas / EncyKorea *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/( in Korean)*https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7618(in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7929(in Korean)*https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7858(in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7777(in Korean)*https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7544#(in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7963(in Korean) *https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/4128(in Korean)*https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/detail/7981(in Korean) *https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kimjang-making-and-sharing-kimchi-in-the-republic-of-korea-00881( in English)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kilobyte"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''kilobyte''' is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information.The International System of Units (SI) defines the prefix ''kilo'' as a multiplication factor of 1000 (103); therefore, one kilobyte is 1000 bytes.",
"The internationally recommended unit symbol for the kilobyte is '''kB'''.In some areas of information technology, particularly in reference to random-access memory capacity, ''kilobyte'' instead typically refers to 1024 (210) bytes.",
"This arises from the prevalence of sizes that are powers of two in modern digital memory architectures, coupled with the coincidence that 210 differs from 103 by less than 2.5%.",
"A kibibyte is 1024 bytes."
],
[
"Definitions and usage",
"===Decimal (1000 bytes)===In the International System of Units (SI) the prefix ''kilo'' means 1000 (103); therefore, one kilobyte is 1000 bytes.",
"The unit symbol is kB.This is the definition recommended by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).This definition, and the related definitions of the prefixes mega (), giga (), etc., are most commonly used for data transfer rates in computer networks, internal bus, hard drive and flash media transfer speeds, and for the capacities of most storage media, particularly hard drives, flash-based storage, and DVDs.",
"It is also consistent with the other uses of the SI prefixes in computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance.The international standard IEC 80000-13 uses the term 'byte' to mean eight bits (1 B = 8 bit).",
"Therefore, 1 kB = 8000 bit.",
"One thousand kilobytes (1000 kB) is equal to one megabyte (1 MB), where 1 MB is one million bytes.===Binary (1024 bytes)===The term 'kilobyte' has traditionally been used to refer to 1024 bytes (210 B).",
"The usage of the metric prefix ''kilo'' for binary multiples arose as a convenience, because 1024 is approximately 1000.The binary interpretation of metric prefixes is still prominently used by the Microsoft Windows operating system.",
"Binary interpretation is also used for random-access memory capacity, such as main memory and CPU cache size, due to the prevalent binary addressing of memory.The binary meaning of the kilobyte for 1024 bytes typically uses the symbol KB, with an uppercase letter ''K''.",
"The ''B'' is sometimes omitted in informal use.",
"For example, a processor with 65,536 bytes of cache memory might be said to have \"64 K\" of cache.",
"In this convention, one thousand and twenty-four kilobytes (1024 KB) is equal to one megabyte (1 MB), where 1 MB is 10242 bytes.In December 1998, the IEC addressed such multiple usages and definitions by creating prefixes such as kibi, mebi, gibi, etc., to unambiguously denote powers of 1024.Thus the kibibyte, symbol KiB, represents 210 bytes = 1024 bytes.",
"These prefixes are now part of IEC 80000-13.The IEC further specified that the kilobyte should only be used to refer to 1000 bytes.",
"The International System of Units restricts the use of the SI prefixes strictly to powers of 10."
],
[
"Examples",
"* The Shugart SA-400 5-inch floppy disk (1976) held 109,375 bytes unformatted, and was advertised as \"110 Kbyte\", using the 1000 convention.",
"Likewise, the 8-inch DEC RX01 floppy (1975) held 256,256 bytes formatted, and was advertised as \"256k\".",
"On the other hand, the Tandon 5-inch DD floppy format (1978) held 368,640 (which is 360×1024) bytes, but was advertised as \"360 KB\", following the 1024 convention.",
"* Early home computer systems would often advertise using the 1024 convention, hence the naming of the Commodore 64, Commodore 128, and the Amstrad CPC 464.",
"* On modern systems, all versions of Microsoft Windows including the newest () Windows 10 divide by 1024 and represent a 65,536-byte file as \"64 KB\".",
"Conversely, Mac OS X Snow Leopard and newer represent this as 66 kB, rounding to the nearest 1000 bytes.",
"File sizes are reported with decimal prefixes.",
"* the binary interpretation was still used in marketing and billing by some telecommunication companies, such as Vodafone, AT&T, Orange and Telstra."
],
[
"See also",
"* History of the floppy disk* Binary prefix* Timeline of binary prefixes* * *"
],
[
"References",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Karl Andree"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Karl Andree (date unknown)'''Karl Andree''' (20 October 1808 – 10 August 1875) was a German geographer, publicist and consul."
],
[
"Biography",
"Andree was born in Braunschweig.",
"He was educated at Jena, Göttingen, and Berlin in historical science.",
"After having been implicated in a students' political agitation he became a journalist, and in 1851 founded the newspaper ''Bremer Handelsblatt''.",
"From 1855, however, he devoted himself entirely to geography and ethnography, working successively at Leipzig and at Dresden.",
"During the American Civil War, he advocated the cause of the secessionists.",
"In 1862 he founded the important geographical periodical ''Globus''.",
"He died at Wildungen.",
"His son Richard Andree followed in his father's career."
],
[
"Works",
"His most famous works include ''North America in geographical and historical outline'' (''Nordamerika in geographischen und geschichtlichen Umrissen'') (Brunswick, 1854) or ''Buenos Aires and the Argentinian Republic'' (''Buenos Ayres und die argentinische Republik'') (Leipzig, 1856).",
"In ''Geographic Migrations'' (''Geographische Wanderungen'') (Dresden, 1859), he put emphasis on ethnological moments and argued that ethnology should be considered a main foundational point of political science.",
"He understood the term ''ethnology'' (German: ''Völkerkunde'') to be defined as concerning racial anthropology and not as comparative cultural anthropology.",
"*''Geographie des Welthandels'' (Stuttgart, 1867-1872)"
],
[
"References",
";Attribution**"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kuiper belt"
],
[
"Introduction",
"AU; epoch as of January 2015.",
")''Distances but not sizes are to scale.",
"The yellow disk is about the size of Mars' orbit.Source: Minor Planet Center, and others''The '''Kuiper belt''' ( ) is a circumstellar disc in the outer Solar System, extending from the orbit of Neptune at 30 astronomical units (AU) to approximately 50 AU from the Sun.",
"It is similar to the asteroid belt, but is far larger—20 times as wide and 20–200 times as massive.",
"Like the asteroid belt, it consists mainly of small bodies or remnants from when the Solar System formed.",
"While many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal, most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles (termed \"ices\"), such as methane, ammonia, and water.",
"The Kuiper belt is home to most of the objects that astronomers generally accept as dwarf planets: Orcus, Pluto, Haumea, Quaoar, and Makemake.",
"Some of the Solar System's moons, such as Neptune's Triton and Saturn's Phoebe, may have originated in the region.The Kuiper belt is named in honor of the Dutch astronomer Gerard Kuiper, who conjectured the existence of the belt in 1951.Although the Kuiper belt is named after Gerard Kuiper, there were researchers before and after him who also speculated on its existence, such as Kenneth Edgeworth in the 1930s.",
"And the astronomer Julio Angel Fernandez in 1980, who also published a paper suggesting the existence of a comet belt beyond Neptune, which could serve as a source for short-period comets.In 1992, minor planet (15760) Albion was discovered, the first Kuiper belt object (KBO) since Pluto (in 1930) and Charon (in 1978).",
"Since its discovery, the number of known KBOs has increased to thousands, and more than 100,000 KBOs over in diameter are thought to exist.",
"The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets, those with orbits lasting less than 200 years.",
"Studies since the mid-1990s have shown that the belt is dynamically stable and that comets' true place of origin is the scattered disc, a dynamically active zone created by the outward motion of Neptune 4.5 billion years ago; scattered disc objects such as Eris have extremely eccentric orbits that take them as far as 100 AU from the Sun.The Kuiper belt is distinct from the hypothesized Oort cloud, which is believed to be a thousand times more distant and mostly spherical.",
"The objects within the Kuiper belt, together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects, are collectively referred to as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs).",
"Pluto is the largest and most massive member of the Kuiper belt and the largest and the second-most-massive known TNO, surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc.",
"Originally considered a planet, Pluto's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006.It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt, and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs, known as \"plutinos,\" that share the same 2:3 resonance with Neptune.The Kuiper belt and Neptune may be treated as a marker of the extent of the Solar System, alternatives being the heliopause and the distance at which the Sun's gravitational influence is matched by that of other stars (estimated to be between and )."
],
[
"History",
"Pluto and CharonAfter the discovery of Pluto in 1930, many speculated that it might not be alone.",
"The region now called the Kuiper belt was hypothesized in various forms for decades.",
"It was only in 1992 that the first direct evidence for its existence was found.",
"The number and variety of prior speculations on the nature of the Kuiper belt have led to continued uncertainty as to who deserves credit for first proposing it.=== Hypotheses ===The first astronomer to suggest the existence of a trans-Neptunian population was Frederick C. Leonard.",
"Soon after Pluto's discovery by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930, Leonard pondered whether it was \"not likely that in Pluto there has come to light the ''first'' of a ''series'' of ultra-Neptunian bodies, the remaining members of which still await discovery but which are destined eventually to be detected\".",
"That same year, astronomer Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto \"may be one of many long-period planetary objects yet to be discovered.",
"\"Astronomer Gerard Kuiper, after whom the Kuiper belt is namedIn 1943, in the ''Journal of the British Astronomical Association'', Kenneth Edgeworth hypothesized that, in the region beyond Neptune, the material within the primordial solar nebula was too widely spaced to condense into planets, and so rather condensed into a myriad smaller bodies.",
"From this he concluded that \"the outer region of the solar system, beyond the orbits of the planets, is occupied by a very large number of comparatively small bodies\" and that, from time to time, one of their number \"wanders from its own sphere and appears as an occasional visitor to the inner solar system\", becoming a comet.In 1951, in a paper in ''Astrophysics: A Topical Symposium'', Gerard Kuiper speculated on a similar disc having formed early in the Solar System's evolution and concluded that the disc consisted of \"remnants of original clusterings which have lost many members that became stray asteroids, much as has occurred with open galactic clusters dissolving into stars.\"",
"In another paper, based upon a lecture Kuiper gave in 1950, also called ''On the Origin of the Solar System'', Kuiper wrote about the \"outermost region of the solar nebula, from 38 to 50 astr.",
"units (i.e., just outside proto-Neptune)\" where \"condensation products (ices of H20, NH3, CH4, etc.)",
"must have formed, and the flakes must have slowly collected and formed larger aggregates, estimated to range up to 1 km.",
"or more in size.\"",
"He continued to write that \"these condensations appear to account for the comets, in size, number and composition.\"",
"According to Kuiper \"the planet Pluto, which sweeps through the whole zone from 30 to 50 astr.",
"units, is held responsible for having started the scattering of the comets throughout the solar system.\"",
"It is said that Kuiper was operating on the assumption, common in his time, that Pluto was the size of Earth and had therefore scattered these bodies out toward the Oort cloud or out of the Solar System; there would not be a Kuiper belt today if this were correct.The hypothesis took many other forms in the following decades.",
"In 1962, physicist Al G.W.",
"Cameron postulated the existence of \"a tremendous mass of small material on the outskirts of the solar system\".",
"In 1964, Fred Whipple, who popularised the famous \"dirty snowball\" hypothesis for cometary structure, thought that a \"comet belt\" might be massive enough to cause the purported discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus that had sparked the search for Planet X, or, at the very least, massive enough to affect the orbits of known comets.",
"Observation ruled out this hypothesis.In 1977, Charles Kowal discovered 2060 Chiron, an icy planetoid with an orbit between Saturn and Uranus.",
"He used a blink comparator, the same device that had allowed Clyde Tombaugh to discover Pluto nearly 50 years before.",
"In 1992, another object, 5145 Pholus, was discovered in a similar orbit.",
"Today, an entire population of comet-like bodies, called the centaurs, is known to exist in the region between Jupiter and Neptune.",
"The centaurs' orbits are unstable and have dynamical lifetimes of a few million years.",
"From the time of Chiron's discovery in 1977, astronomers have speculated that the centaurs therefore must be frequently replenished by some outer reservoir.Further evidence for the existence of the Kuiper belt later emerged from the study of comets.",
"That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time.",
"As they approach the Sun, its heat causes their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space, gradually dispersing them.",
"In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System, they must be replenished frequently.",
"A proposal for such an area of replenishment is the Oort cloud, possibly a spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50,000 AU from the Sun first hypothesised by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort in 1950.The Oort cloud is thought to be the point of origin of long-period comets, which are those, like Hale–Bopp, with orbits lasting thousands of years.Julio Fernandez was the first to predict the existence of the belt.",
"Because the words \"Kuiper\" and \"comet belt\" appeared in the opening sentence of Fernandez's paper, this hypothetical region was referred to as the \"Kuiper belt\".There is another comet population, known as short-period or periodic comets, consisting of those comets that, like Halley's Comet, have orbital periods of less than 200 years.",
"By the 1970s, the rate at which short-period comets were being discovered was becoming increasingly inconsistent with their having emerged solely from the Oort cloud.",
"For an Oort cloud object to become a short-period comet, it would first have to be captured by the giant planets.",
"In a paper published in ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' in 1980, Uruguayan astronomer Julio Fernández stated that for every short-period comet to be sent into the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud, 600 would have to be ejected into interstellar space.",
"He speculated that a comet belt from between 35 and 50 AU would be required to account for the observed number of comets.",
"Following up on Fernández's work, in 1988 the Canadian team of Martin Duncan, Tom Quinn and Scott Tremaine ran a number of computer simulations to determine if all observed comets could have arrived from the Oort cloud.",
"They found that the Oort cloud could not account for all short-period comets, particularly as short-period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System, whereas Oort-cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky.",
"With a \"belt\", as Fernández described it, added to the formulations, the simulations matched observations.",
"Reportedly because the words \"Kuiper\" and \"comet belt\" appeared in the opening sentence of Fernández's paper, Tremaine named this hypothetical region the \"Kuiper belt\".=== Discovery ===Mauna Kea, with which the Kuiper belt was discoveredIn 1987, astronomer David Jewitt, then at MIT, became increasingly puzzled by \"the apparent emptiness of the outer Solar System\".",
"He encouraged then-graduate student Jane Luu to aid him in his endeavour to locate another object beyond Pluto's orbit, because, as he told her, \"If we don't, nobody will.\"",
"Using telescopes at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona and the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, Jewitt and Luu conducted their search in much the same way as Clyde Tombaugh and Charles Kowal had, with a blink comparator.",
"Initially, examination of each pair of plates took about eight hours, but the process was sped up with the arrival of electronic charge-coupled devices or CCDs, which, though their field of view was narrower, were not only more efficient at collecting light (they retained 90% of the light that hit them, rather than the 10% achieved by photographs) but allowed the blinking process to be done virtually, on a computer screen.",
"Today, CCDs form the basis for most astronomical detectors.",
"In 1988, Jewitt moved to the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii.",
"Luu later joined him to work at the University of Hawaii's 2.24 m telescope at Mauna Kea.",
"Eventually, the field of view for CCDs had increased to 1024 by 1024 pixels, which allowed searches to be conducted far more rapidly.",
"Finally, after five years of searching, Jewitt and Luu announced on 30 August 1992 the \"Discovery of the candidate Kuiper belt object 1992 QB1\".",
"This object would later be named 15760 Albion.",
"Six months later, they discovered a second object in the region, (181708) 1993 FW.",
"By 2018, over 2000 Kuiper belts objects had been discovered.Over one thousand bodies were found in a belt in the twenty years (1992–2012), after finding (named in 2018, 15760 Albion), showing a vast belt of bodies more than just Pluto and Albion.",
"By the 2010s the full extent and nature of Kuiper belt bodies is largely unknown.",
"Finally, in the late 2010s, two KBOs were closely flown past by an uncrewed spacecraft, providing much closer observations of the Plutonian system and another KBO.Studies conducted since the trans-Neptunian region was first charted have shown that the region now called the Kuiper belt is not the point of origin of short-period comets, but that they instead derive from a linked population called the scattered disc.",
"The scattered disc was created when Neptune migrated outward into the proto-Kuiper belt, which at the time was much closer to the Sun, and left in its wake a population of dynamically stable objects that could never be affected by its orbit (the Kuiper belt proper), and a population whose perihelia are close enough that Neptune can still disturb them as it travels around the Sun (the scattered disc).",
"Because the scattered disc is dynamically active and the Kuiper belt relatively dynamically stable, the scattered disc is now seen as the most likely point of origin for periodic comets.=== Name ===Astronomers sometimes use the alternative name Edgeworth–Kuiper belt to credit Edgeworth, and KBOs are occasionally referred to as EKOs.",
"Brian G. Marsden claims that neither deserves true credit: \"Neither Edgeworth nor Kuiper wrote about anything remotely like what we are now seeing, but Fred Whipple did\".",
"David Jewitt comments: \"If anything ... Fernández most nearly deserves the credit for predicting the Kuiper Belt.",
"\"KBOs are sometimes called \"kuiperoids\", a name suggested by Clyde Tombaugh.",
"The term \"trans-Neptunian object\" (TNO) is recommended for objects in the belt by several scientific groups because the term is less controversial than all others—it is not an exact synonym though, as TNOs include all objects orbiting the Sun past the orbit of Neptune, not just those in the Kuiper belt."
],
[
"Structure",
"At its fullest extent (but excluding the scattered disc), including its outlying regions, the Kuiper belt stretches from roughly 30–55 AU.",
"The main body of the belt is generally accepted to extend from the 2:3 mean-motion resonance (see below) at 39.5 AU to the 1:2 resonance at roughly 48 AU.",
"The Kuiper belt is quite thick, with the main concentration extending as much as ten degrees outside the ecliptic plane and a more diffuse distribution of objects extending several times farther.",
"Overall it more resembles a torus or doughnut than a belt.",
"Its mean position is inclined to the ecliptic by 1.86 degrees.The presence of Neptune has a profound effect on the Kuiper belt's structure due to orbital resonances.",
"Over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System, Neptune's gravity destabilises the orbits of any objects that happen to lie in certain regions, and either sends them into the inner Solar System or out into the scattered disc or interstellar space.",
"This causes the Kuiper belt to have pronounced gaps in its current layout, similar to the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt.",
"In the region between 40 and 42 AU, for instance, no objects can retain a stable orbit over such times, and any observed in that region must have migrated there relatively recently.The various dynamical classes of trans-Neptunian objects.=== Classical belt ===Between the 2:3 and 1:2 resonances with Neptune, at approximately 42–48 AU, the gravitational interactions with Neptune occur over an extended timescale, and objects can exist with their orbits essentially unaltered.",
"This region is known as the classical Kuiper belt, and its members comprise roughly two thirds of KBOs observed to date.",
"Because the first modern KBO discovered (Albion, but long called (15760) 1992 QB1), is considered the prototype of this group, classical KBOs are often referred to as cubewanos (\"Q-B-1-os\").",
"The guidelines established by the IAU demand that classical KBOs be given names of mythological beings associated with creation.The classical Kuiper belt appears to be a composite of two separate populations.",
"The first, known as the \"dynamically cold\" population, has orbits much like the planets; nearly circular, with an orbital eccentricity of less than 0.1, and with relatively low inclinations up to about 10° (they lie close to the plane of the Solar System rather than at an angle).",
"The cold population also contains a concentration of objects, referred to as the kernel, with semi-major axes at 44–44.5 AU.",
"The second, the \"dynamically hot\" population, has orbits much more inclined to the ecliptic, by up to 30°.",
"The two populations have been named this way not because of any major difference in temperature, but from analogy to particles in a gas, which increase their relative velocity as they become heated up.",
"Not only are the two populations in different orbits, the cold population also differs in color and albedo, being redder and brighter, has a larger fraction of binary objects, has a different size distribution, and lacks very large objects.",
"The mass of the dynamically cold population is roughly 30 times less than the mass of the hot.",
"The difference in colors may be a reflection of different compositions, which suggests they formed in different regions.",
"The hot population is proposed to have formed near Neptune's original orbit and to have been scattered out during the migration of the giant planets.",
"The cold population, on the other hand, has been proposed to have formed more or less in its current position because the loose binaries would be unlikely to survive encounters with Neptune.",
"Although the Nice model appears to be able to at least partially explain a compositional difference, it has also been suggested the color difference may reflect differences in surface evolution.=== Resonances ===Distribution of cubewanos (blue), Resonant trans-Neptunian objects (red), Sednoids (yellow) and scattered objects (grey)semi-major axes)When an object's orbital period is an exact ratio of Neptune's (a situation called a mean-motion resonance), then it can become locked in a synchronised motion with Neptune and avoid being perturbed away if their relative alignments are appropriate.",
"If, for instance, an object orbits the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits, and if it reaches perihelion with Neptune a quarter of an orbit away from it, then whenever it returns to perihelion, Neptune will always be in about the same relative position as it began, because it will have completed orbits in the same time.",
"This is known as the 2:3 (or 3:2) resonance, and it corresponds to a characteristic semi-major axis of about 39.4 AU.",
"This 2:3 resonance is populated by about 200 known objects, including Pluto together with its moons.",
"In recognition of this, the members of this family are known as plutinos.",
"Many plutinos, including Pluto, have orbits that cross that of Neptune, although their resonance means they can never collide.",
"Plutinos have high orbital eccentricities, suggesting that they are not native to their current positions but were instead thrown haphazardly into their orbits by the migrating Neptune.",
"IAU guidelines dictate that all plutinos must, like Pluto, be named for underworld deities.",
"The 1:2 resonance (whose objects complete half an orbit for each of Neptune's) corresponds to semi-major axes of ~47.7 AU, and is sparsely populated.",
"Its residents are sometimes referred to as twotinos.",
"Other resonances also exist at 3:4, 3:5, 4:7, and 2:5.Neptune has a number of trojan objects, which occupy its Lagrangian points, gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing it in its orbit.",
"Neptune trojans are in a 1:1 mean-motion resonance with Neptune and often have very stable orbits.Additionally, there is a relative absence of objects with semi-major axes below 39 AU that cannot apparently be explained by the present resonances.",
"The currently accepted hypothesis for the cause of this is that as Neptune migrated outward, unstable orbital resonances moved gradually through this region, and thus any objects within it were swept up, or gravitationally ejected from it.=== Kuiper cliff ===Histogram of the semi-major axes of Kuiper belt objects with inclinations above and below 5 degrees.",
"Spikes from the plutinos and the 'kernel' are visible at 39–40 AU and 44 AU.The 1:2 resonance at 47.8 AU appears to be an edge beyond which few objects are known.",
"It is not clear whether it is actually the outer edge of the classical belt or just the beginning of a broad gap.",
"Objects have been detected at the 2:5 resonance at roughly 55 AU, well outside the classical belt; predictions of a large number of bodies in classical orbits between these resonances have not been verified through observation.Based on estimations of the primordial mass required to form Uranus and Neptune, as well as bodies as large as Pluto ''(see )'', earlier models of the Kuiper belt had suggested that the number of large objects would increase by a factor of two beyond 50 AU, so this sudden drastic falloff, known as the ''Kuiper cliff'', was unexpected, and to date its cause is unknown.",
"Bernstein, Trilling, et al.",
"(2003) found evidence that the rapid decline in objects of 100 km or more in radius beyond 50 AU is real, and not due to observational bias.",
"Possible explanations include that material at that distance was too scarce or too scattered to accrete into large objects, or that subsequent processes removed or destroyed those that did.",
"Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University claimed that the gravitational attraction of an unseen large planetary object, perhaps the size of Earth or Mars, might be responsible.",
"An analysis of the TNO data available prior to September 2023 shows that the distribution of objects at the outer rim of the classical Kuiper belt resembles that of the outer main asteroid belt with a gap at about 72 AU, far from any mean-motion resonances with Neptune; the outer main asteroid belt exhibits a gap induced by the 5:6 mean-motion resonance with Jupiter at 5.875 AU."
],
[
"Origin",
"Simulation showing outer planets and Kuiper belt: (a) before Jupiter/Saturn 1:2 resonance, (b) scattering of Kuiper belt objects into the Solar System after the orbital shift of Neptune, (c) after ejection of Kuiper belt bodies by JupiterThe Kuiper belt (green), in the Solar System's outskirtsThe precise origins of the Kuiper belt and its complex structure are still unclear, and astronomers are awaiting the completion of several wide-field survey telescopes such as Pan-STARRS and the future LSST, which should reveal many currently unknown KBOs.",
"These surveys will provide data that will help determine answers to these questions.",
"Pan-STARRS 1 finished its primary science mission in 2014, and the full data from the Pan-STARRS 1 surveys were published in 2019, helping reveal many more KBOs.The Kuiper belt is thought to consist of planetesimals, fragments from the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into planets and instead formed into smaller bodies, the largest less than in diameter.",
"Studies of the crater counts on Pluto and Charon revealed a scarcity of small craters suggesting that such objects formed directly as sizeable objects in the range of tens of kilometers in diameter rather than being accreted from much smaller, roughly kilometer scale bodies.",
"Hypothetical mechanisms for the formation of these larger bodies include the gravitational collapse of clouds of pebbles concentrated between eddies in a turbulent protoplanetary disk or in streaming instabilities.",
"These collapsing clouds may fragment, forming binaries.Modern computer simulations show the Kuiper belt to have been strongly influenced by Jupiter and Neptune, and also suggest that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed in their present positions, because too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass.",
"Instead, these planets are estimated to have formed closer to Jupiter.",
"Scattering of planetesimals early in the Solar System's history would have led to migration of the orbits of the giant planets: Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune drifted outwards, whereas Jupiter drifted inwards.",
"Eventually, the orbits shifted to the point where Jupiter and Saturn reached an exact 1:2 resonance; Jupiter orbited the Sun twice for every one Saturn orbit.",
"The gravitational repercussions of such a resonance ultimately destabilized the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, causing them to be scattered outward onto high-eccentricity orbits that crossed the primordial planetesimal disc.While Neptune's orbit was highly eccentric, its mean-motion resonances overlapped and the orbits of the planetesimals evolved chaotically, allowing planetesimals to wander outward as far as Neptune's 1:2 resonance to form a dynamically cold belt of low-inclination objects.",
"Later, after its eccentricity decreased, Neptune's orbit expanded outward toward its current position.",
"Many planetesimals were captured into and remain in resonances during this migration, others evolved onto higher-inclination and lower-eccentricity orbits and escaped from the resonances onto stable orbits.",
"Many more planetesimals were scattered inward, with small fractions being captured as Jupiter trojans, as irregular satellites orbiting the giant planets, and as outer belt asteroids.",
"The remainder were scattered outward again by Jupiter and in most cases ejected from the Solar System reducing the primordial Kuiper belt population by 99% or more.The original version of the currently most popular model, the \"Nice model\", reproduces many characteristics of the Kuiper belt such as the \"cold\" and \"hot\" populations, resonant objects, and a scattered disc, but it still fails to account for some of the characteristics of their distributions.",
"The model predicts a higher average eccentricity in classical KBO orbits than is observed (0.10–0.13 versus 0.07) and its predicted inclination distribution contains too few high inclination objects.",
"In addition, the frequency of binary objects in the cold belt, many of which are far apart and loosely bound, also poses a problem for the model.",
"These are predicted to have been separated during encounters with Neptune, leading some to propose that the cold disc formed at its current location, representing the only truly local population of small bodies in the solar system.A recent modification of the Nice model has the Solar System begin with five giant planets, including an additional ice giant, in a chain of mean-motion resonances.",
"About 400 million years after the formation of the Solar System the resonance chain is broken.",
"Instead of being scattered into the disc, the ice giants first migrate outward several AU.",
"This divergent migration eventually leads to a resonance crossing, destabilizing the orbits of the planets.",
"The extra ice giant encounters Saturn and is scattered inward onto a Jupiter-crossing orbit and after a series of encounters is ejected from the Solar System.",
"The remaining planets then continue their migration until the planetesimal disc is nearly depleted with small fractions remaining in various locations.As in the original Nice model, objects are captured into resonances with Neptune during its outward migration.",
"Some remain in the resonances, others evolve onto higher-inclination, lower-eccentricity orbits, and are released onto stable orbits forming the dynamically hot classical belt.",
"The hot belt's inclination distribution can be reproduced if Neptune migrated from 24 AU to 30 AU on a 30 Myr timescale.",
"When Neptune migrates to 28 AU, it has a gravitational encounter with the extra ice giant.",
"Objects captured from the cold belt into the 1:2 mean-motion resonance with Neptune are left behind as a local concentration at 44 AU when this encounter causes Neptune's semi-major axis to jump outward.",
"The objects deposited in the cold belt include some loosely bound 'blue' binaries originating from closer than the cold belt's current location.",
"If Neptune's eccentricity remains small during this encounter, the chaotic evolution of orbits of the original Nice model is avoided and a primordial cold belt is preserved.",
"In the later phases of Neptune's migration, a slow sweeping of mean-motion resonances removes the higher-eccentricity objects from the cold belt, truncating its eccentricity distribution."
],
[
"Composition",
"The infrared spectra of both Eris and Pluto, highlighting their common methane absorption linesBeing distant from the Sun and major planets, Kuiper belt objects are thought to be relatively unaffected by the processes that have shaped and altered other Solar System objects; thus, determining their composition would provide substantial information on the makeup of the earliest Solar System.",
"Due to their small size and extreme distance from Earth, the chemical makeup of KBOs is very difficult to determine.",
"The principal method by which astronomers determine the composition of a celestial object is spectroscopy.",
"When an object's light is broken into its component colors, an image akin to a rainbow is formed.",
"This image is called a spectrum.",
"Different substances absorb light at different wavelengths, and when the spectrum for a specific object is unravelled, dark lines (called absorption lines) appear where the substances within it have absorbed that particular wavelength of light.",
"Every element or compound has its own unique spectroscopic signature, and by reading an object's full spectral \"fingerprint\", astronomers can determine its composition.Analysis indicates that Kuiper belt objects are composed of a mixture of rock and a variety of ices such as water, methane, and ammonia.",
"The temperature of the belt is only about 50 K, so many compounds that would be gaseous closer to the Sun remain solid.",
"The densities and rock–ice fractions are known for only a small number of objects for which the diameters and the masses have been determined.",
"The diameter can be determined by imaging with a high-resolution telescope such as the Hubble Space Telescope, by the timing of an occultation when an object passes in front of a star or, most commonly, by using the albedo of an object calculated from its infrared emissions.",
"The masses are determined using the semi-major axes and periods of satellites, which are therefore known only for a few binary objects.",
"The densities range from less than 0.4 to 2.6 g/cm3.The least dense objects are thought to be largely composed of ice and have significant porosity.",
"The densest objects are likely composed of rock with a thin crust of ice.",
"There is a trend of low densities for small objects and high densities for the largest objects.",
"One possible explanation for this trend is that ice was lost from the surface layers when differentiated objects collided to form the largest objects.Artist's impression of plutino and possible former C-type asteroid Initially, detailed analysis of KBOs was impossible, and so astronomers were only able to determine the most basic facts about their makeup, primarily their color.",
"These first data showed a broad range of colors among KBOs, ranging from neutral grey to deep red.",
"This suggested that their surfaces were composed of a wide range of compounds, from dirty ices to hydrocarbons.",
"This diversity was startling, as astronomers had expected KBOs to be uniformly dark, having lost most of the volatile ices from their surfaces to the effects of cosmic rays.",
"Various solutions were suggested for this discrepancy, including resurfacing by impacts or outgassing.",
"Jewitt and Luu's spectral analysis of the known Kuiper belt objects in 2001 found that the variation in color was too extreme to be easily explained by random impacts.",
"The radiation from the Sun is thought to have chemically altered methane on the surface of KBOs, producing products such as tholins.",
"Makemake has been shown to possess a number of hydrocarbons derived from the radiation-processing of methane, including ethane, ethylene and acetylene.Although to date most KBOs still appear spectrally featureless due to their faintness, there have been a number of successes in determining their composition.",
"In 1996, Robert H. Brown et al.",
"acquired spectroscopic data on the KBO 1993 SC, which revealed that its surface composition is markedly similar to that of Pluto, as well as Neptune's moon Triton, with large amounts of methane ice.",
"For the smaller objects, only colors and in some cases the albedos have been determined.",
"These objects largely fall into two classes: gray with low albedos, or very red with higher albedos.",
"The difference in colors and albedos is hypothesized to be due to the retention or the loss of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) on the surface of these objects, with the surfaces of those that formed far enough from the Sun to retain H2S being reddened due to irradiation.The largest KBOs, such as Pluto and Quaoar, have surfaces rich in volatile compounds such as methane, nitrogen and carbon monoxide; the presence of these molecules is likely due to their moderate vapor pressure in the 30–50 K temperature range of the Kuiper belt.",
"This allows them to occasionally boil off their surfaces and then fall again as snow, whereas compounds with higher boiling points would remain solid.",
"The relative abundances of these three compounds in the largest KBOs is directly related to their surface gravity and ambient temperature, which determines which they can retain.",
"Water ice has been detected in several KBOs, including members of the Haumea family such as , mid-sized objects such as 38628 Huya and 20000 Varuna, and also on some small objects.",
"The presence of crystalline ice on large and mid-sized objects, including 50000 Quaoar where ammonia hydrate has also been detected, may indicate past tectonic activity aided by melting point lowering due to the presence of ammonia."
],
[
"Mass and size distribution",
"Despite its vast extent, the collective mass of the Kuiper belt is relatively low.",
"The total mass of the dynamically hot population is estimated to be 1% the mass of the Earth.",
"The dynamically cold population is estimated to be much smaller with only 0.03% the mass of the Earth.",
"While the dynamically hot population is thought to be the remnant of a much larger population that formed closer to the Sun and was scattered outward during the migration of the giant planets, in contrast, the dynamically cold population is thought to have formed at its current location.",
"The most recent estimate (2018) puts the total mass of the Kuiper belt at Earth masses based on the influence that it exerts on the motion of planets.The small total mass of the dynamically cold population presents some problems for models of the Solar System's formation because a sizable mass is required for accretion of KBOs larger than in diameter.",
"If the cold classical Kuiper belt had always had its current low density, these large objects simply could not have formed by the collision and mergers of smaller planetesimals.",
"Moreover, the eccentricity and inclination of current orbits make the encounters quite \"violent\" resulting in destruction rather than accretion.",
"The removal of a large fraction of the mass of the dynamically cold population is thought to be unlikely.",
"Neptune's current influence is too weak to explain such a massive \"vacuuming\", and the extent of mass loss by collisional grinding is limited by the presence of loosely bound binaries in the cold disk, which are likely to be disrupted in collisions.",
"Instead of forming from the collisions of smaller planetesimals, the larger object may have formed directly from the collapse of clouds of pebbles.Illustration of the power lawThe size distributions of the Kuiper belt objects follow a number of power laws.",
"A power law describes the relationship between ''N''(''D'') (the number of objects of diameter greater than ''D'') and ''D'', and is referred to as brightness slope.",
"The number of objects is inversely proportional to some power of the diameter ''D'':: which yields (assuming ''q'' is not 1) :(The constant may be non-zero only if the power law doesn't apply at high values of ''D''.",
")Early estimates that were based on measurements of the apparent magnitude distribution found a value of q = 4 ± 0.5, which implied that there are 8 (=23) times more objects in the 100–200 km range than in the 200–400 km range.",
"Recent research has revealed that the size distributions of the hot classical and cold classical objects have differing slopes.",
"The slope for the hot objects is q = 5.3 at large diameters and q = 2.0 at small diameters with the change in slope at 110 km.",
"The slope for the cold objects is q = 8.2 at large diameters and q = 2.9 at small diameters with a change in slope at 140 km.",
"The size distributions of the scattering objects, the plutinos, and the Neptune trojans have slopes similar to the other dynamically hot populations, but may instead have a divot, a sharp decrease in the number of objects below a specific size.",
"This divot is hypothesized to be due to either the collisional evolution of the population, or to be due to the population having formed with no objects below this size, with the smaller objects being fragments of the original objects.The smallest known Kuiper belt objects with radii below 1 km have only been detected by stellar occultations, as they are far too dim (magnitude 35) to be seen directly by telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope.",
"The first reports of these occultations were from Schlichting et al.",
"in December 2009, who announced the discovery of a small, sub-kilometre-radius Kuiper belt object in archival ''Hubble'' photometry from March 2007.With an estimated radius of or a diameter of , the object was detected by ''Hubble'' star tracking system when it briefly occulted a star for 0.3 seconds.",
"In a subsequent study published in December 2012, Schlichting et al.",
"performed a more thorough analysis of archival ''Hubble'' photometry and reported another occultation event by a sub-kilometre-sized Kuiper belt object, estimated to be in radius or in diameter.",
"From the occultation events detected in 2009 and 2012, Schlichting et al.",
"determined the Kuiper belt object size distribution slope to be q = 3.6 ± 0.2 or q = 3.8 ± 0.2, with the assumptions of a single power law and a uniform ecliptic latitude distribution.",
"Their result implies a strong deficit of sub-kilometer-sized Kuiper belt objects compared to extrapolations from the population of larger Kuiper belt objects with diameters above 90 km."
],
[
"Scattered objects",
"Comparison of the orbits of scattered disc objects (black), classical KBOs (blue), and 2:5 resonant objects (green).",
"Orbits of other KBOs are gray.",
"(Orbital axes have been aligned for comparison.",
")The scattered disc is a sparsely populated region, overlapping with the Kuiper belt but extending to beyond 100 AU.",
"Scattered disc objects (SDOs) have very elliptical orbits, often also very inclined to the ecliptic.",
"Most models of Solar System formation show both KBOs and SDOs first forming in a primordial belt, with later gravitational interactions, particularly with Neptune, sending the objects outward, some into stable orbits (the KBOs) and some into unstable orbits, the scattered disc.",
"Due to its unstable nature, the scattered disc is suspected to be the point of origin of many of the Solar System's short-period comets.",
"Their dynamic orbits occasionally force them into the inner Solar System, first becoming centaurs, and then short-period comets.According to the Minor Planet Center, which officially catalogues all trans-Neptunian objects, a KBO is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition.",
"Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects.",
"In some scientific circles the term \"Kuiper belt object\" has become synonymous with any icy minor planet native to the outer Solar System assumed to have been part of that initial class, even if its orbit during the bulk of Solar System history has been beyond the Kuiper belt (e.g.",
"in the scattered-disc region).",
"They often describe scattered disc objects as \"scattered Kuiper belt objects\".",
"Eris, which is known to be more massive than Pluto, is often referred to as a KBO, but is technically an SDO.",
"A consensus among astronomers as to the precise definition of the Kuiper belt has yet to be reached, and this issue remains unresolved.The centaurs, which are not normally considered part of the Kuiper belt, are also thought to be scattered objects, the only difference being that they were scattered inward, rather than outward.",
"The Minor Planet Center groups the centaurs and the SDOs together as scattered objects.=== Triton ===Neptune's moon TritonDuring its period of migration, Neptune is thought to have captured a large KBO, Triton, which is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit (that is, it orbits opposite to Neptune's rotation).",
"This suggests that, unlike the large moons of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus, which are thought to have coalesced from rotating discs of material around their young parent planets, Triton was a fully formed body that was captured from surrounding space.",
"Gravitational capture of an object is not easy: it requires some mechanism to slow down the object enough to be caught by the larger object's gravity.",
"A possible explanation is that Triton was part of a binary when it encountered Neptune.",
"(Many KBOs are members of binaries.",
"See below.)",
"Ejection of the other member of the binary by Neptune could then explain Triton's capture.",
"Triton is only 14% larger than Pluto, and spectral analysis of both worlds shows that their surfaces are largely composed of similar materials, such as methane and carbon monoxide.",
"All this points to the conclusion that Triton was once a KBO that was captured by Neptune during its outward migration."
],
[
"Largest KBOs",
"Since 2000, a number of KBOs with diameters of between 500 and , more than half that of Pluto (diameter 2370 km), have been discovered.",
"50000 Quaoar, a classical KBO discovered in 2002, is over 1,200 km across.",
"and , both announced on 29 July 2005, are larger still.",
"Other objects, such as 28978 Ixion (discovered in 2001) and 20000 Varuna (discovered in 2000), measure roughly across.=== Pluto ===The discovery of these large KBOs in orbits similar to Pluto's led many to conclude that, aside from its relative size, Pluto was not particularly different from other members of the Kuiper belt.",
"Not only are these objects similar to Pluto in size, but many also have natural satellites, and are of similar composition (methane and carbon monoxide have been found both on Pluto and on the largest KBOs).",
"Thus, just as Ceres was considered a planet before the discovery of its fellow asteroids, some began to suggest that Pluto might also be reclassified.The issue was brought to a head by the discovery of Eris, an object in the scattered disc far beyond the Kuiper belt, that is now known to be 27% more massive than Pluto.",
"(Eris was originally thought to be larger than Pluto by volume, but the ''New Horizons'' mission found this not to be the case.)",
"In response, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) was forced to define what a planet is for the first time, and in so doing included in their definition that a planet must have \"cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit\".",
"As Pluto shares its orbit with many other sizable objects, it was deemed not to have cleared its orbit and was thus reclassified from a planet to a dwarf planet, making it a member of the Kuiper belt.It is not clear how many KBOs are large enough to be dwarf planets.",
"Consideration of the surprisingly low densities of many dwarf-planet candidates suggests that not many are.",
", Pluto, Haumea, , and Makemake are accepted by most astronomers; some have proposed other bodies, such as , , , and .=== Satellites ===The six largest TNOs (Eris, Pluto, Gonggong, Makemake, Haumea and Quaoar) are all known to have satellites, and two of them have more than one.",
"A higher percentage of the larger KBOs have satellites than the smaller objects in the Kuiper belt, suggesting that a different formation mechanism was responsible.",
"There are also a high number of binaries (two objects close enough in mass to be orbiting \"each other\") in the Kuiper belt.",
"The most notable example is the Pluto–Charon binary, but it is estimated that around 11% of KBOs exist in binaries."
],
[
"Exploration",
"The KBO 486958 Arrokoth (green circles), the selected target for the ''New Horizons'' Kuiper belt object missionOn 19 January 2006, the first spacecraft to explore the Kuiper belt, ''New Horizons'', was launched, which flew by Pluto on 14 July 2015.Beyond the Pluto flyby, the mission's goal was to locate and investigate other, farther objects in the Kuiper belt.Diagram showing the location of 486958 Arrokoth and trajectory for rendezvous''New Horizons'' color composite image of Arrokoth showing its red color, suggesting organic compounds.",
"So far, it is the only KBO besides Pluto and its satellites to be visited by a spacecraft.On 15 October 2014, it was revealed that ''Hubble'' had uncovered three potential targets, provisionally designated PT1 (\"potential target 1\"), PT2 and PT3 by the ''New Horizons'' team.",
"The objects' diameters were estimated to be in the 30–55 km range; too small to be seen by ground telescopes, at distances from the Sun of 43–44 AU, which would put the encounters in the 2018–2019 period.",
"The initial estimated probabilities that these objects were reachable within ''New Horizons'' fuel budget were 100%, 7%, and 97%, respectively.",
"All were members of the \"cold\" (low-inclination, low-eccentricity) classical Kuiper belt, and thus very different from Pluto.",
"PT1 (given the temporary designation \"1110113Y\" on the HST web site), the most favorably situated object, was magnitude 26.8, 30–45 km in diameter, and was encountered in January 2019.Once sufficient orbital information was provided, the Minor Planet Center gave official designations to the three target KBOs: (PT1), (PT2), and (PT3).",
"By the fall of 2014, a possible fourth target, , had been eliminated by follow-up observations.",
"PT2 was out of the running before the Pluto flyby.On 26 August 2015, the first target, (nicknamed \"Ultima Thule\" and later named 486958 Arrokoth), was chosen.",
"Course adjustment took place in late October and early November 2015, leading to a flyby in January 2019.On 1 July 2016, NASA approved additional funding for ''New Horizons'' to visit the object.On 2 December 2015, ''New Horizons'' detected what was then called (later named ''15810 Arawn'') from away.On 1 January 2019, ''New Horizons'' successfully flew by Arrokoth, returning data showing Arrokoth to be a contact binary 32 km long by 16 km wide.",
"The Ralph instrument aboard ''New Horizons'' confirmed Arrokoth's red color.",
"Data from the fly-by will continue to be downloaded over the next 20 months.No follow-up missions for ''New Horizons'' are planned, though at least two concepts for missions that would return to orbit or land on Pluto have been studied.",
"Beyond Pluto, there exist many large KBOs that cannot be visited with ''New Horizons'', such as the dwarf planets Makemake and Haumea.",
"New missions would be tasked to explore and study these objects in detail.",
"Thales Alenia Space has studied the logistics of an orbiter mission to Haumea, a high priority scientific target due to its status as the parent body of a collisional family that includes several other TNOs, as well as Haumea's ring and two moons.",
"The lead author, Joel Poncy, has advocated for new technology that would allow spacecraft to reach and orbit KBOs in 10–20 years or less.",
"''New Horizons'' Principal Investigator Alan Stern has informally suggested missions that would flyby the planets Uranus or Neptune before visiting new KBO targets, thus furthering the exploration of the Kuiper belt while also visiting these ice giant planets for the first time since the ''Voyager 2'' flybys in the 1980s.===Design studies and concept missions===Quaoar has been considered as a flyby target for a probe tasked with exploring the interstellar medium, as it currently lies near the heliospheric nose; Pontus Brandt at Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory and his colleagues have studied a probe that would flyby Quaoar in the 2030s before continuing to the interstellar medium through the heliospheric nose.",
"Among their interests in Quaoar include its likely disappearing methane atmosphere and cryovolcanism.",
"The mission studied by Brandt and his colleagues would launch using SLS and achieve 30 km/s using a Jupiter flyby.",
"Alternatively, for an orbiter mission, a study published in 2012 concluded that Ixion and Huya are among the most feasible targets.",
"For instance, the authors calculated that an orbiter mission could reach Ixion after 17 years cruise time if launched in 2039."
],
[
"Extrasolar Kuiper belts",
"Debris discs around the stars HD 139664 and HD 53143 – black circle from camera hiding stars to display discs.By 2006, astronomers had resolved dust discs thought to be Kuiper belt-like structures around nine stars other than the Sun.",
"They appear to fall into two categories: wide belts, with radii of over 50 AU, and narrow belts (tentatively like that of the Solar System) with radii of between 20 and 30 AU and relatively sharp boundaries.",
"Beyond this, 15–20% of solar-type stars have an observed infrared excess that is suggestive of massive Kuiper-belt-like structures.",
"Most known debris discs around other stars are fairly young, but the two images on the right, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in January 2006, are old enough (roughly 300 million years) to have settled into stable configurations.",
"The left image is a \"top view\" of a wide belt, and the right image is an \"edge view\" of a narrow belt.",
"Computer simulations of dust in the Kuiper belt suggest that when it was younger, it may have resembled the narrow rings seen around younger stars."
],
[
"See also",
"* Asteroid belt* List of possible dwarf planets* List of trans-Neptunian objects* Planet Nine"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Dave Jewitt's page @ UCLA** The belt's name* List of short period comets by family* Kuiper Belt Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration* The Kuiper Belt Electronic Newsletter* Wm.",
"Robert Johnston's TNO page* Minor Planet Center: Plot of the Outer Solar System, illustrating Kuiper gap* List of TNOS"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kraftwerk"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kraftwerk''' (, \"power plant\") are a German electronic band formed in Düsseldorf in 1970 by Ralf Hütter and Florian Schneider.",
"Widely considered innovators and pioneers of electronic music, Kraftwerk were among the first successful acts to popularize the genre.",
"The group began as part of West Germany's experimental krautrock scene in the early 1970s before fully embracing electronic instrumentation, including synthesizers, drum machines, and vocoders.",
"Wolfgang Flür joined the band in 1973 and Karl Bartos in 1975, expanding the band to a quartet.",
"Since the band's formation, it has seen numerous lineup changes, with Hütter as its only constant member.On commercially successful albums such as ''Autobahn'' (1974), ''Trans-Europe Express'' (1977), ''The Man-Machine'' (1978), and ''Computer World'' (1981), Kraftwerk developed a self-described \"robot pop\" style that combined electronic music with pop melodies, sparse arrangements, and repetitive rhythms, while adopting a stylized image including matching suits.",
"Following the release of ''Electric Café'' (1986), Flür left the group in 1987, followed by Bartos in 1990.The band released ''Tour de France Soundtracks'', their latest album of new material, in 2003.Founding member Schneider left in 2008.The band, with new members, has continued to tour under the leadership of Hütter.The band's work has influenced a diverse range of artists and many genres of modern music, including synth-pop, hip hop, post-punk, techno, house music, ambient, and club music.",
"In 2014, the Recording Academy honoured Kraftwerk with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.",
"They later won the Grammy Award for Best Dance/Electronic Album with their live album ''3-D The Catalogue'' (2017) at the 2018 ceremony.",
"In 2021, Kraftwerk was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame in the early influence category.",
"As of 2023, the band continues to tour, with the members' live performances celebrating Kraftwerk's fiftieth anniversary."
],
[
"History",
"=== Formation and early years (1970–1973) ===Florian Schneider (flutes, synthesizers, violin) and Ralf Hütter (organ, synthesizers) met as students at the Robert Schumann Hochschule in Düsseldorf in the late 1960s, participating in the German experimental music and art scene of the time, which ''Melody Maker'' jokingly dubbed \"krautrock\".They joined a quintet known as Organisation, which released one album, ''Tone Float'' in 1970, issued on RCA Records in the UK, and split shortly thereafter.",
"Schneider became interested in synthesizers, deciding to acquire one in 1970.While visiting an exhibition in their hometown about visual artists Gilbert and George, they see \"two men wearing suits and ties, claiming to bring art into everyday life.",
"The same year, Hütter and Schneider started bringing everyday life into art and form Kraftwerk\".Early Kraftwerk line-ups from 1970 to 1974 fluctuated, as Hütter and Schneider worked with around a half-dozen other musicians during the preparations for and the recording of three albums and sporadic live appearances, including guitarist Michael Rother and drummer Klaus Dinger, who left to form Neu!.",
"The only constant figure in these line-ups was Schneider, whose main instrument at the time was the flute; at times he also played the violin and guitar, all processed through a varied array of electronic devices.",
"Hütter, who left the band for eight months to focus on completing his university studies, played synthesizer and keyboards (including Farfisa organ and electric piano).The band released two free-form experimental rock albums, ''Kraftwerk'' (1970) and ''Kraftwerk 2'' (1972).",
"The albums were mostly exploratory musical improvisations played on a variety of traditional instruments including guitar, bass, drums, organ, flute, and violin.",
"Post-production modifications to these recordings were used to distort the sound of the instruments, particularly audio-tape manipulation and multiple dubbings of one instrument on the same track.",
"Both albums are purely instrumental.",
"Live performances from 1972 to 1973 were mostly made as a duo, using a simple beat-box-type electronic drum machine with preset rhythms taken from an electric organ.",
"Occasionally, they performed with bass players as well.",
"These shows were mainly in Germany, with occasional shows in France.",
"Later in 1973, Wolfgang Flür joined the group for rehearsals, and the unit performed as a trio on the television show ''Aspekte'' for German television network ZDF.With ''Ralf und Florian'', released in 1973, Kraftwerk began to rely more heavily on synthesizers and drum machines.",
"Although almost entirely instrumental, the album marks Kraftwerk's first use of the vocoder in the song \"Ananas Symphonie\" (Pineapple Symphony,) which became one of its musical signatures.",
"According to English music journalist Simon Reynolds, Kraftwerk were influenced by what he called the \"adrenalized insurgency\" of Detroit artists of the late '60s MC5 and the Stooges.The input, expertise, and influence of producer and engineer Konrad \"Conny\" Plank was highly significant in the early years of Kraftwerk.",
"Plank also worked with many of the other leading German electronic acts of that time, including members of Can, Neu!, Cluster, and Harmonia.",
"As a result of his work with Kraftwerk, Plank's studio near Cologne became one of the most sought-after studios in the late 1970s.",
"Plank co-produced the first four Kraftwerk albums.=== International breakthrough: ''Autobahn'' and ''Radioactivity'' (1974–1976) ===Concert in Zürich, 1976The release of ''Autobahn'' in 1974 saw Kraftwerk moving away from the sound of its first three albums.",
"Hütter and Schneider had invested in newer technology such as the Minimoog and the EMS Synthi AKS, helping give Kraftwerk a newer, \"disciplined\" sound.",
"''Autobahn'' was also the last album that Conny Plank engineered.",
"After the commercial success of ''Autobahn'' in the US, where it peaked at number 5 in the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes, Hütter and Schneider invested in updating their studio, thus lessening their reliance on outside producers.",
"At this time the painter and graphic artist Emil Schult became a regular collaborator, designing artwork, cowriting lyrics, and accompanying the group on tour.The year 1975 saw a turning point in Kraftwerk's live shows.",
"With financial support from Phonogram Inc., in the US, they were able to undertake a tour to promote the ''Autobahn'' album, a tour which took them to the US, Canada and the UK for the first time.",
"The tour also saw a new, stable, live line-up in the form of a quartet.",
"Hütter and Schneider continued playing keyboard synthesizers such as the Minimoog and ARP Odyssey, with Schneider's use of flute diminishing.",
"The two men started singing live for the first time, and Schneider processing his voice with a vocoder live.",
"Wolfgang Flür and new recruit Karl Bartos performed on home-made electronic percussion instruments.",
"Bartos also used a Deagan vibraphone on stage.",
"The Hütter-Schneider-Bartos-Flür formation remained in place until the late 1980s and is now regarded as the classic live line-up of Kraftwerk.",
"Emil Schult generally fulfilled the role of tour manager.After the 1975 ''Autobahn'' tour, Kraftwerk began work on a follow-up album, ''Radio-Activity'' (German title: ''Radio-Aktivität'').",
"After further investment in new equipment, the Kling Klang Studio became a fully working recording studio.",
"The group used the central theme in radio communication, which had become enhanced on their last tour of the United States.",
"With Emil Schult working on artwork and lyrics, Kraftwerk began to compose music for the new record.",
"Even though ''Radio-Activity'' was less commercially successful than ''Autobahn'' in the UK and United States, the album served to open up the European market for Kraftwerk, earning them a gold disc in France.",
"Kraftwerk made videos and performed several European live dates to promote the album.",
"With the release of ''Autobahn'' and ''Radio-Activity'', Kraftwerk left behind avant-garde experimentation and moved towards the electronic pop tunes for which they are best known.In 1976, Kraftwerk toured in support of the ''Radio-Activity'' album.",
"David Bowie was among the fans of the record and invited the band to support him on his ''Station to Station'' tour, an offer the group declined.",
"Despite some innovations in touring, Kraftwerk took a break from live performances after the ''Radio-Activity'' tour of 1976.Also, in this tour, they played some \"demo-test\" versions for Trans Europe Express songs (Showroom Dummies, Trans Europe Express and Europe Endless) as you could hear on some YouTube videos with show bootlegs.=== ''Trans-Europe Express'', ''The Man-Machine'' and ''Computer World'' (1977–1982) ===After having finished the Radio-Activity tour Kraftwerk began recording ''Trans-Europe Express'' (German: ''Trans-Europa Express'') at the Kling Klang Studio.",
"''Trans-Europe Express'' was mixed at the Record Plant Studios in Los Angeles.",
"It was around this time that Hütter and Schneider met David Bowie at the Kling Klang Studio.",
"A collaboration was mentioned in an interview (Brian Eno) with Hütter, but it never materialised.",
"The release of ''Trans-Europe Express'' in March 1977 was marked with an extravagant train journey used as a press conference by EMI France.",
"The album won a disco award in New York later that year.In May 1978 Kraftwerk released ''The Man-Machine'' (German: ''Die Mensch-Maschine''), recorded at the Kling Klang Studio.",
"Due to the complexity of the recording, the album was mixed at Studio Rudas in Düsseldorf.",
"The band hired sound engineer Leanard Jackson from Detroit to work with Joschko Rudas on the final mix.",
"''The Man-Machine'' was the first Kraftwerk album where Karl Bartos was cocredited as a songwriter.",
"The cover, produced in black, white and red, was inspired by Russian artist El Lissitzky and the Suprematism movement.",
"Gunther Frohling photographed the group for the cover, a now-iconic image which featured the quartet dressed in red shirts and black ties.",
"After it was released Kraftwerk did not release another album for three years.In May 1981 Kraftwerk released ''Computer World'' (German: ''Computerwelt'') on EMI Records.",
"It was recorded at Kling Klang Studio between 1978 and 1981.Much of this time was spent modifying the studio to make it portable so the band could take it on tour.",
"Some of the electronic vocals on ''Computer World'' were generated using a Texas Instruments language translator.",
"\"Computer Love\" was released as a single backed with the ''Man-Machine'' track \"The Model\".",
"Radio DJs were more interested in the B-side so the single was repackaged by EMI and re-released with \"The Model\" as the A-side.",
"The single reached number one in the UK, making \"The Model\" Kraftwerk's most successful song in that country.",
"As a result, the ''Man-Machine'' album also became a success in the UK, peaking at number 9 in the album chart in February 1982.The band's live set focused increasingly on song-based material, with greater use of vocals and the use of sequencing equipment for both percussion and music.",
"In contrast to their cool and controlled image, the group used sequencers interactively, which allowed for live improvisation.",
"Ironically, Kraftwerk did not own a computer at the time of recording ''Computer World''.Kraftwerk returned to live performance with the ''Computer World'' tour of 1981, where the band effectively packed up its entire Kling Klang studio and took it along on the road.",
"They also made greater use of live visuals including back-projected slides and films synchronized with the music as the technology developed, the use of hand-held miniaturized instruments during the set, and the use of replica mannequins of themselves to perform on stage during the song \"The Robots\".=== ''Electric Café'' (1982–1989) ===In 1982 Kraftwerk began to work on a new album that initially had the working title ''Technicolor'' but due to trademark issues was changed to ''Electric Café'' for its original release in 1986 (for a remastered re-release in 2009, it was retitled again after its original working title, ''Techno Pop'').",
"One of the songs from these recording sessions was \"Tour de France\", which EMI released as a single in 1983.This song was a reflection of the band's new-found obsession for cycling.",
"After the physically demanding ''Computer World'' tour, Ralf Hütter had been looking for forms of exercise that fitted in with the image of Kraftwerk; subsequently he encouraged the group to become vegetarians and take up cycling.",
"\"Tour de France\" included sounds that followed this theme including bicycle chains, gear mechanisms and the breathing of the cyclist.",
"At the time of the single's release Ralf Hütter tried to persuade the rest of the band that they should record a whole album based on cycling.",
"The other members of the band were not convinced, and the theme was left to the single alone.",
"\"Tour de France\" was released in German and French.",
"The vocals of the song were recorded on the Kling Klang Studio stairs to create the right atmosphere.",
"\"Tour de France\" was featured in the 1984 film ''Breakin''', showing the influence that Kraftwerk had on black American dance music.In May or June 1982, during the recording of \"Tour de France\", Ralf Hütter was involved in a serious cycling accident.",
"He suffered head injuries and remained in a coma for several days.",
"During 1983 Wolfgang Flür was beginning to spend less time in the studio.",
"Since the band began using sequencers his role as a drummer was becoming less frequent.",
"He preferred to spend his time travelling with his girlfriend.",
"Flür was also experiencing artistic difficulties with the band.",
"Though he toured the world with Kraftwerk as a drummer in 1981, his playing does not appear on that year's ''Computer World'' or on the 1986 album ''Electric Café''.",
"In 1987 he left the band and was replaced by Fritz Hilpert.=== ''The Mix'' (1990–1999) ===After years of withdrawal from live performance Kraftwerk began to tour Europe more frequently.",
"In February 1990 the band played a few secret shows in Italy.",
"Karl Bartos left the band shortly afterwards.",
"The next proper tour was in 1991, for the album ''The Mix''.",
"Hütter and Schneider wished to continue the synth-pop quartet style of presentation, and recruited Fernando Abrantes as a replacement for Bartos.",
"Abrantes left the band shortly after though.",
"In late 1991, long-time Kling Klang Studio sound engineer Henning Schmitz was brought in to finish the remainder of the tour and to complete a new version of the quartet that remained active until 2008.In 1997 Kraftwerk made a famous appearance at the dance festival Tribal Gathering held in England.",
"In 1998, the group toured the US and Japan for the first time since 1981, along with shows in Brazil and Argentina.",
"Three new songs were performed during this period and a further two tested in soundchecks, which remain unreleased.",
"Following this trek, the group decided to take another break.In July 1999 the single \"Tour de France\" was reissued in Europe by EMI after it had been out of print for several years.",
"It was released for the first time on CD in addition to a repressing of the 12-inch vinyl single.",
"Both versions feature slightly altered artwork that removed the faces of Flür and Bartos from the four-man cycling paceline depicted on the original cover.",
"In 1999 ex-member Flür published his autobiography in Germany, ''Ich war ein Roboter''.",
"Later English-language editions of the book were titled ''Kraftwerk: I Was a Robot''.In 1999, Kraftwerk were commissioned to create an a cappella jingle for the Hannover Expo 2000 world's fair in Germany.",
"The jingle was subsequently developed into the single \"Expo 2000\", which was released in December 1999, and remixed and re-released as \"Expo Remix\" in November 2000.=== ''Tour de France Soundtracks'' and touring the world (2000–2009) ===In Stockholm, February 2004In August 2003 the band released ''Tour de France Soundtracks'', its first album of new material since 1986's ''Electric Café''.",
"In January and February 2003, before the release of the album, the band started the extensive ''Minimum-Maximum'' world tour, using four customised Sony VAIO laptop computers, effectively leaving the entire Kling Klang studio at home in Germany.",
"The group also obtained a new set of transparent video panels to replace its four large projection screens.",
"This greatly streamlined the running of all of the group's sequencing, sound-generating, and visual-display software.",
"From this point, the band's equipment increasingly reduced manual playing, replacing it with interactive control of sequencing equipment.",
"Hütter retained the most manual performance, still playing musical lines by hand on a controller keyboard and singing live vocals and having a repeating ostinato.",
"Schneider's live vocoding had been replaced by software-controlled speech-synthesis techniques.",
"In November, the group made a surprising appearance at the MTV European Music Awards in Edinburgh, Scotland, performing \"Aerodynamik\".",
"The same year a promotional box set entitled ''12345678'' (subtitled ''The Catalogue'') was issued, with plans for a proper commercial release to follow.",
"The box featured remastered editions of the group's eight core studio albums, from ''Autobahn'' to ''Tour de France Soundtracks''.",
"This long-awaited box-set was eventually released in a different set of remasters in November 2009.In June 2005 the band's first-ever official live album, ''Minimum-Maximum'', which was compiled from the shows during the band's tour of spring 2004, received extremely positive reviews.",
"The album contained reworked tracks from existing studio albums.",
"This included a track titled \"Planet of Visions\" that was a reworking of \"Expo 2000\".",
"In support of this release, Kraftwerk made another quick sweep around the Balkans with dates in Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Turkey, and Greece.",
"In December, the ''Minimum-Maximum'' DVD was released.",
"During 2006, the band performed at festivals in Norway, Ireland, the Czech Republic, Spain, Belgium, and Germany.In April 2008 the group played three shows in US cities Minneapolis, Milwaukee, and Denver, and were a coheadliner at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival.",
"This was their second appearance at the festival since 2004.Further shows were performed in Ireland, Poland, Ukraine, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and Singapore later that year.",
"The touring quartet consisted of Ralf Hütter, Henning Schmitz, Fritz Hilpert, and video technician Stefan Pfaffe, who became an official member in 2008.Original member Florian Schneider was absent from the lineup.",
"Hütter stated that he was working on other projects.",
"On 21 November, Kraftwerk officially confirmed Florian Schneider's departure from the band; ''The Independent'' commented: \"There is something brilliantly Kraftwerkian about the news that Florian Schneider, a founder member of the German electronic pioneers, is leaving the band to pursue a solo career.",
"Many successful bands break up after just a few years.",
"It has apparently taken Schneider and his musical partner, Ralf Hütter, four decades to discover musical differences.\"",
"Kraftwerk's headline set at Global Gathering in Melbourne, Australia, on 22 November was cancelled moments before it was scheduled to begin, due to Fritz Hilpert experiencing a medical emergency.In 2009, Kraftwerk performed concerts with special 3D background graphics in Wolfsburg, Germany; Manchester, UK; and Randers, Denmark.",
"Members of the audience were able to watch this multimedia part of the show with 3D glasses, which were given out.",
"During the Manchester concert (part of the 2009 Manchester International Festival) four members of the GB cycling squad (Jason Kenny, Ed Clancy, Jamie Staff and Geraint Thomas) rode around the Velodrome while the band performed \"Tour de France\".",
"The group also played several festival dates, the last being at the Bestival 2009 in September, on the Isle of Wight.",
"2009 also saw the release of ''The Catalogue'' box set in November.",
"It is a 12-inch album-sized box set containing all eight remastered CDs in cardboard slipcases, as well as LP-sized booklets of photographs and artwork for each individual album.=== ''The Catalogue'' and continued touring (2010–2017) ===Although not officially confirmed, Ralf Hütter suggested that a second boxed set of their first three experimental albums—''Kraftwerk'', ''Kraftwerk 2'' and ''Ralf and Florian''—could be on its way, possibly seeing commercial release after their next studio album: \"We've just never really taken a look at those albums.",
"They've always been available, but as really bad bootlegs.",
"Now we have more artwork.",
"Emil has researched extra contemporary drawings, graphics, and photographs to go with each album, collections of paintings that we worked with, and drawings that Florian and I did.",
"We took a lot of Polaroids in those days.\"",
"Kraftwerk also released an iOS app called Kraftwerk Kling Klang Machine.",
"The Lenbach House in Munich exhibited some Kraftwerk 3-D pieces in Autumn 2011.Kraftwerk performed three concerts to open the exhibit.Kraftwerk played at Ultra Music Festival in Miami on 23 March 2012.Initiated by Klaus Biesenbach, the Museum of Modern Art of New York organized an exhibit titled ''Kraftwerk – Retrospective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8'' where the band performed their studio discography from ''Autobahn'' to ''Tour de France'' over the course of eight days to sell-out crowds.",
"The exhibit later toured to the Tate Gallery as well as to K20 in Düsseldorf.",
"Kraftwerk performed at the No Nukes 2012 Festival in Tokyo, Japan.",
"Kraftwerk were also going to play at the Ultra Music Festival in Warsaw, but the event was cancelled; instead, Kraftwerk performed at Way Out West in Gothenburg.",
"A limited edition version of the ''Catalogue'' box set was released during the retrospective, restricted to 2000 sets.",
"Each box was individually numbered and inverted the colour scheme of the standard box.",
"In December, Kraftwerk stated on their website that they would be playing their ''Catalogue'' in Düsseldorf and at London's Tate Modern.",
"Kraftwerk tickets were priced at £60 in London, but fans compared that to the $20 ticket price for tickets at New York's MoMA in 2012, which caused consternation.",
"Even so, the demand for the tickets at The Tate was so high that it shut down the website.In March 2013, the band was not allowed to perform at a music festival in China due to unspecified \"political reasons\".",
"In an interview in June after performing the eight albums of ''The Catalogue'' in Sydney, Ralf Hütter stated: \"Now we have finished one to eight, now we can concentrate on number nine.\"",
"In July, they performed at the 47th Montreux Jazz Festival.",
"The band also played a 3-D concert on 12 July at Scotland's biggest festival – T in the Park – in Balado, Kinross, as well as 20 July at Latitude Festival in Suffolk, and 21 July at the Longitude Festival in Dublin.In October 2013 the band played four concerts, over two nights, in Eindhoven, Netherlands.",
"The venue, Evoluon (the former technology museum of Philips Electronics, now a conference center) was handpicked by Ralf Hütter, for its retro-futuristic UFO-like architecture.",
"Bespoke visuals of the building, with the saucer section descending from space, were displayed during the rendition of ''Spacelab.",
"''In 2014, Kraftwerk brought their four-night, 3D ''Catalogue'' tour to the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, and at NYC's United Palace Theatre.",
"They also played at the Cirkus in Stockholm, Sweden and at the music festival Summer Sonic in Tokyo, Japan.",
"In November 2014 the 3D ''Catalogue'' live set was played in Paris, France, at the brand new Fondation Louis-Vuitton from 6 to 14 November.",
"and then in the iconic Paradiso concert hall in Amsterdam, Netherlands, where they played before in 1976.In 2015, Ralf Hütter, being told that the Tour de France would be starting that year in the nearby Dutch city of Utrecht, decided that Kraftwerk would perform during the \"Grand Départ\".",
"Eventually the band played three concerts 3 and 4 July in TivoliVredenburg performing \"Tour de France Soundtracks\" and visited the start of the Tour in-between.At the request of race director Christian Prudhomme, Kraftwerk performed at the Tour de France on 1 July 2017, this time in Kraftwerk's hometown Düsseldorf.",
"French electronic band Air opened the concert, invited by Kraftwerk.",
"Concertgoers were offered 3D glasses to perceive stereoscopic effects on the video screen.=== ''3-D The Catalogue'' and Schneider's death (2017–present) ===In April 2017, Kraftwerk announced ''3-D The Catalogue'', a live album and video documenting performances of all eight albums in ''The Catalogue'' that was released 26 May 2017.It is available in multiple formats, the most extensive of which being a 4-disc Blu-ray set with a 236-page hardback book.",
"The album was nominated for the Grammy Awards for Best Dance/Electronic Album and Best Surround Sound Album at the ceremony that took place on 28 January 2018, winning the former, which became the band's first Grammy win.On 20 July 2018, at a concert in Stuttgart, German astronaut Alexander Gerst performed \"Spacelab\" with the band while aboard the International Space Station, joining via a live video link.",
"Gerst played melodies using a tablet as his instrument alongside Hütter as a duet, and delivered a short message to the audience.On 20 July 2019, Kraftwerk headlined the Saturday night lineup on the Lovell Stage at Bluedot Festival, a music and science festival held annually at Jodrell Bank Observatory, Cheshire, UK.",
"The 2019 festival celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon landing.On 21 April 2020, Florian Schneider died at age 73 after a brief battle with cancer.",
"On 3 July 2020, the German-language versions of ''Trans Europe Express'', ''The Man Machine'', ''Computer World'', ''Techno Pop'' and ''The Mix'', alongside ''3-D The Catalogue'', were released worldwide on streaming services for the first time.On 21 December 2020, Parlophone/WEA released ''Remixes'', a digital compilation album.",
"It includes remixed tracks taken from singles released 1991, 1999, 2000, 2004 and 2007, plus the previously unreleased \"Non Stop\", a version of \"Musique Non-Stop\" used as a jingle by MTV Europe beginning in 1993.The cover re-uses the cover from \"Expo Remix\".",
"The compilation was released on CD and vinyl in 2022.On 30 October 2021, Kraftwerk were inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.",
"In November 2021, the band announced plans for a 2022 North American tour.",
"With the members' live performances celebrating Kraftwerk's fiftieth anniversary, the ''Remixes'' compilation album came out on compact disc and vinyl for the first time in addition.From 27 May to 10 July 2022, the formation undertook a successful North American tour, performing in 24 cities.In May 2024, they will hold a residency in Los Angeles at Walt Disney Concert Hall performing their albums."
],
[
"Music and artistry",
"=== Style ===Kraftwerk have been recognized as pioneers of electronic music as well as subgenres such as electropop, art pop, house music, synth-pop and electronic rock.",
"In its early incarnation, the band pursued an avant-garde, experimental rock style inspired by the compositions of Karlheinz Stockhausen.",
"Hütter has also listed the Beach Boys as a major influence.",
"The group was also inspired by the funk music of James Brown and, later, punk rock.",
"They were initially connected to the German krautrock scene.",
"In the mid-1970s, they transitioned to an electronic sound which they described as \"robot pop\".",
"Kraftwerk's lyrics dealt with post-war European urban life and technology—traveling by car on the ''Autobahn'', traveling by train, using home computers, and the like.",
"They were influenced by the modernist Bauhaus aesthetic, seeing art as inseparable from everyday function.",
"Usually, the lyrics are very minimal but reveal both an innocent celebration of, and a knowing caution about, the modern world, as well as playing an integral role in the rhythmic structure of the songs.",
"Many of Kraftwerk's songs express the paradoxical nature of modern urban life: a strong sense of alienation existing side by side with a celebration of the joys of modern technology.Starting with the release of ''Autobahn'', Kraftwerk began to release a series of concept albums (''Radio-Activity'', ''Trans-Europe Express'', ''The Man-Machine'', ''Computer World'', ''Tour de France Soundtracks'').",
"All of Kraftwerk's albums from ''Trans Europe Express'' onwards, except ''Tour de France Soundtracks'', have been released in separate versions: one with German vocals for sale in Germany, Switzerland and Austria and one with English vocals for the rest of the world, with occasional variations in other languages when conceptually appropriate.",
"Live performance has always played an important part in Kraftwerk's activities.",
"Also, despite its live shows generally being based around formal songs and compositions, live improvisation often plays a noticeable role in its performances.",
"This trait can be traced back to the group's roots in the first experimental Krautrock scene of the late 1960s, but, significantly, it has continued to be a part of its playing even as it makes ever greater use of digital and computer-controlled sequencing in its performances.",
"Some of the band's familiar compositions have been observed to have developed from live improvisations at its concerts or sound-checks.=== Technological innovations ===Throughout their career, Kraftwerk have pushed the limits of music technology with some notable innovations, such as home-made instruments and custom-built devices.",
"The group has always perceived their Kling Klang Studio as a complex music instrument, as well as a sound laboratory; Florian Schneider in particular developed a fascination with music technology, with the result that the technical aspects of sound generation and recording gradually became his main fields of activity within the band.",
"Alexei Monroe called Kraftwerk the \"first successful artists to incorporate representations of industrial sounds into non-academic electronic music\".Early 1970s vocoder, custom-built for KraftwerkKraftwerk used a custom-built vocoder on their albums ''Ralf und Florian'' and ''Autobahn''; the device was constructed by engineers P. Leunig and K. Obermayer of the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt Braunschweig.",
"Hütter and Schneider hold a patent for an electronic drum kit with sensor pads, filed in July 1975 and issued in June 1977.It must be hit with metal sticks, which are connected to the device to complete a circuit that triggers analog synthetic percussion sounds.",
"The band first performed in public with this device in 1973, on the television program ''Aspekte'' (on the all-German channel Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen), where it was played by Wolfgang Flür.",
"They created drum machines for ''Autobahn'' and ''Trans-Europe Express''.On the ''Radio-Activity'' tour in 1976 Kraftwerk tested out an experimental light-beam-activated drum cage allowing Flür to trigger electronic percussion through arm and hand movements.",
"Unfortunately, the device did not work as planned, and it was quickly abandoned.",
"The same year Ralf Hütter and Florian Schneider commissioned Bonn-based \"Synthesizerstudio Bonn, Matten & Wiechers\" to design and build the Synthanorma Sequenzer with Intervallomat, a 4×8 / 2×16 / 1×32 step-sequencer system with some features that commercial products couldn't provide at that time.",
"The music sequencer was used by the band for the first time to control the electronic sources creating the rhythmic sound of the album ''Trans-Europe Express''.Since 2002, Kraftwerk's live performances have been conducted with the use of virtual technology (i.e.",
"software replicating and replacing original analogue or digital equipment).",
"According to Fritz Hilpert, \"the mobility of music technology and the reliability of the notebooks and software have greatly simplified the realization of complex touring setups: we generate all sounds on the laptops in real time and manipulate them with controller maps.",
"It takes almost no time to get our compact stage system set up for performance.",
"...",
"This way, we can bring our Kling-Klang Studio with us on stage.",
"The physical light weight of our equipment also translates into an enormous ease of use when working with software synthesizers and sound processors.",
"Every tool imaginable is within immediate reach or just a few mouse clicks away on the Internet.",
"\"=== Reclusiveness and eccentricity ===The band is also known for being notoriously reclusive, providing rare and enigmatic interviews, using life-size mannequins and robots while conducting official photo shoots, refusing to answer fanmail and barring visitors from the Kling Klang Studio, the precise location of which they used to keep secret.Another notable example of this eccentric behavior was reported to Johnny Marr of the Smiths by Karl Bartos, who explained that anyone trying to contact the band for collaboration would be told the studio telephone did not have a ringer since, while recording, the band did not like to hear any kind of noise pollution.",
"Instead, callers were instructed to phone the studio precisely at a certain time, whereupon the phone would be answered by Ralf Hütter, despite never hearing the phone ring.Chris Martin of Coldplay recalled in a 2007 article in ''Q'' magazine the process of requesting permission to use the melody from the track \"Computer Love\" on \"Talk\" from the album ''X&Y''.",
"He sent a letter through the lawyers of the respective parties and several weeks later received an envelope containing a handwritten reply that simply said \"yes\"."
],
[
"Influence and legacy",
"According to music journalist Neil McCormick, Kraftwerk might be \"the most influential group in pop history\".",
"''NME'' wrote: The Beatles and Kraftwerk' may not have the ring of 'the Beatles and the Stones', but nonetheless, these are the two most important bands in music history\".",
"AllMusic wrote that their music \"resonates in virtually every new development to impact the contemporary pop scene of the late 20th century\".Kraftwerk's musical style and image can be heard and seen in 1980s synth-pop groups such as Gary Numan, Ultravox, John Foxx, Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, The Human League, Depeche Mode, Visage, Soft Cell and Yellow Magic Orchestra.",
"Kraftwerk influenced other forms of music such as hip hop, house, and drum and bass, and they are also regarded as pioneers of the electro genre.",
"Karl Hyde of Underworld has referenced Kraftwerk as a prominent influence.",
"Most notably, \"Trans Europe Express\" and \"Numbers\" were interpolated into \"Planet Rock\" by Afrika Bambaataa & the Soul Sonic Force, one of the earliest hip-hop/electro hits.",
"Kraftwerk helped ignite the New York electro-movement.",
"Techno was created by three musicians from Detroit, often referred to as the 'Belleville three' (Juan Atkins, Kevin Saunderson & Derrick May), who fused the repetitive melodies of Kraftwerk with funk rhythms.",
"The Belleville three were heavily influenced by Kraftwerk and their sounds because Kraftwerk's sounds appealed to the middle-class black people residing in Detroit at this time.Depeche Mode's composer Martin Gore said: \"For anyone of our generation involved in electronic music, Kraftwerk were the godfathers\".",
"Daniel Miller, founder of Mute Records, purchased the vocoder used by Kraftwerk in their early albums, comparing it to owning \"the guitar Jimi Hendrix used on 'Purple Haze.",
"Andy McCluskey and Paul Humphreys, founding members of OMD, have stated that Kraftwerk was a major reference on their early work, and covered \"Neon Lights\" on the 1991 album, ''Sugar Tax''.",
"The electronic band Ladytron were inspired by Kraftwerk's song \"The Model\" when they composed their debut single \"He Took Her to a Movie\".",
"Aphex Twin noted Kraftwerk as one of his biggest influences and cited ''Computer World'' as a very influential album towards his music and sound.",
"Björk has cited the band as one of her main musical influences.",
"Electronic musician Kompressor has cited Kraftwerk as an influence.",
"The band was also mentioned in the song \"Rappers We Crush\" by Kompressor and MC Frontalot (\"I hurry away, get in my Chrysler.",
"Oh, the dismay!/Someone's replaced all of my Backstreet Boys with Kraftwerk tapes!\").",
"Dr. Alex Paterson of the Orb listed ''The Man-Machine'' as one of his 13 favourite albums of all time.",
"According to ''NME'', Kraftwerk's pioneering \"robot pop\" also spawned groups like The Prodigy and Daft Punk.Kraftwerk inspired many acts from other styles and genres, along with having their work been repeatedly sampled.",
"David Bowie's \"V-2 Schneider\", from the 1977's ''\"Heroes\"'' album, was a tribute to Florian Schneider.",
"Post-punk bands Joy Division and New Order were heavily influenced by the band.",
"Joy Division frontman Ian Curtis was a fan, and showed his colleagues records that would influence their music.",
"New Order also sampled \"Uranium\" in its biggest hit \"Blue Monday\".",
"Siouxsie and the Banshees recorded a cover of \"Hall of Mirrors\" on their 1987 album ''Through the Looking Glass'', which was lauded by Ralf Hütter: \"In general, we consider cover versions as an appreciation of our work.",
"The version of 'Hall of Mirrors' by Siouxsie and the Banshees is extraordinary, just like the arrangements of Alexander Bălănescu for his Balanescu Quartet release of ''Possessed'', 1992.We also like the album ''El Baile Alemán'' of Señor Coconut a lot.\"",
"Members of Blondie have admitted on several occasions that Kraftwerk were an important reference for their sound by the time they were working on their third album ''Parallel Lines''.",
"The worldwide hit \"Heart of Glass\" turned radically from an initial reggae-flavoured style to its distinctive electronic sound in order to imitate the technological approach of Kraftwerk's albums and adapt it to a disco concept.",
"Simple Minds and U2 each recorded cover versions of \"Neon Lights\"; Simple Minds' version was included on their 2001 all-covers album ''Neon Lights'', and U2 included \"Neon Lights\" as the B-side of their 2004 single \"Vertigo\".",
"LCD Soundsystem song called \"Get Innocuous!\"",
"is built on a sample of \"The Robots\".",
"Rammstein also covered their song \"Das Modell\", releasing it as a non-album single in 1997.John Frusciante cited the group's ability to experiment of as an inspiration when working in a recording studio.In 1989, a speeded up version of Kraftwerk's song \"Electric Café\" began appearing as the theme song for a series of sketches on ''Saturday Night Live'' called \"Sprockets\", a German television spoof by Mike Myers.",
"The 1998 comedy ''The Big Lebowski'' features a fictional band called Autobahn, a parody of Kraftwerk and their 1974 record ''Autobahn''.In January 2018, BBC Radio 4 broadcast the 30-minute documentary ''Kraftwerk: Computer Love'', which examined \"how Kraftwerk's classic album ''Computer World'' has changed people's lives.",
"\"In October 2019, Kraftwerk were nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for 2020.On 12 May 2021, Kraftwerk were announced as an official inductee into the Hall, for the class of 2021.Their technical application and sound dynamics have been cited numerous times as being the foundation for both the development of hip hop and techno."
],
[
"Discography",
";Studio albums* ''Kraftwerk'' (1970)* ''Kraftwerk 2'' (1972)* ''Ralf und Florian'' (1973)* ''Autobahn'' (1974)* ''Radio-Aktivität'' (1975)* ''Trans Europa Express'' (1977)* ''Die Mensch-Maschine'' (1978)* ''Computerwelt'' (1981)* ''Electric Café'' (1986)* ''The Mix'' (1991)* ''Tour de France Soundtracks'' (2003)"
],
[
"Members",
"=== Current members ===* Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards (1970–1971, 1971–present); organ, drums and percussion, bass guitar, guitar (1970–1971, 1971–1974)* Henning Schmitz – sound effects, live keyboards (1991–present) * Falk Grieffenhagen – live video technician (2013–2022); electronic percussion (2023–present)* Georg Bongartz - live video technician (2023–present)=== Former members ===* Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin (1970–2008; died 2020)* Andreas Hohmann – drums (1970)* Thomas Lohmann – drums (1970)* Hans-Günther \"Charly\" Weiss – drums (1970)* Klaus Dinger – drums (1970–1971; died 2008)* Eberhard Kranemann – bass guitar (1970–1971)* Houschäng Nejadépour – electric guitar (1970–1971)* Peter Schmidt – drums (1970–1971)* Michael Rother – electric guitar (1971)* Plato Kostic (a.k.a.",
"Plato Riviera) – bass guitar (1973)* Emil Schult – electric guitar, electronic violin (1973)* Wolfgang Flür – electronic percussion (1973–1987)* Klaus Röder – electric guitar, electronic violin (1974–1975)* Karl Bartos – electronic percussion, vocals, live vibraphone, live keyboards (1975–1990)* Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion (1987–2022)* Fernando Abrantes – electronic percussion, synthesizer (1991)* Stefan Pfaffe – live video technician (2008–2012)=== Timeline ====== Lineups ===PeriodMembersReleases1970*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Ralf Hütter – vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards1970*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Ralf Hütter – vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Thomas Lohmann - drums1970*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Ralf Hütter – vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Andreas Hohmann - drums*''Kraftwerk'' (1970)1970*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Ralf Hütter – vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Hans-Günther \"Charly\" Weiss – drums*Klaus Dinger - drums*''Kraftwerk'' (1970)1970-1971*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Ralf Hütter – vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Klaus Dinger - drums*Peter Schmidt - drums*Houschäng Nejadépour - guitar*Eberhard Kranemann - bass1971*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Klaus Dinger - drums*Peter Schmidt - drums*Houschäng Nejadépour - guitar*Eberhard Kranemann - bass guitar1971*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Klaus Dinger - drums1971*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Klaus Dinger - drums*Michael Rother - guitar1971*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Ralf Hütter – vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Klaus Dinger - drums*Michael Rother - guitar1971-1973*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion, electric guitar, violin*Ralf Hütter – vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*''Kraftwerk 2'' (1972)*''Ralf and Florian'' (1973)1973*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Emil Schult – electric guitar, electronic violin1973*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Emil Schult – electric guitar, electronic violin*Plato Kostic - bass guitar1973*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Emil Schult – electric guitar, electronic violin1973*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Emil Schult – electric guitar, electronic violin*Wolfgang Flür – electronic percussion1974*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Wolfgang Flür – electronic percussion1974-1975*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Wolfgang Flür – electronic percussion*Klaus Röder - electric guitar, electronic violin*''Autobahn'' (1974)1975-1987*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Wolfgang Flür – electronic percussion*Karl Bartos - electronic percussion, vocals, live vibraphone, live keyboards*''Radio-Activity'' (1975)*''Trans-Europe Express'' (1977)*''The Man-Machine'' (1978)*''Computer World'' (1981)*''Electric Café'' (1986)1987-1990*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Karl Bartos - electronic percussion, vocals, live vibraphone, live keyboards*Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion*''The Mix'' (1991)1990*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion1990-1991*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion*Fernando Abrantes - electronic percussion, synthesizer1991*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion1991-2008*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussi*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion*Henning Schmitz – sound effects, live keyboards*''Tour de France Soundtracks'' (2003)2008-2009*Florian Schneider – synthesizers, background vocals, vocoder, computer-generated vocals, acoustic and electronic flute, live saxophone, percussion*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion*Henning Schmitz – sound effects, live keyboards*Stefan Pfaffe – live video technician2009-2012*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion*Henning Schmitz – sound effects, live keyboards*Stefan Pfaffe – live video technician2012-2013*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion*Henning Schmitz – sound effects, live keyboards2013-2022*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Fritz Hilpert – electronic percussion*Henning Schmitz – sound effects, live keyboards*Falk Grieffenhagen – live video technician2022-2023*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Henning Schmitz – sound effects, live keyboards*Falk Grieffenhagen – live video technician2023–present*Ralf Hütter – lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers, keyboards*Henning Schmitz – sound effects, live keyboards*Falk Grieffenhagen – electronic percussion*Georg Bongartz – live video technician"
],
[
"Videography",
"* Minimum Maximum (2005)* 3-D The Catalogue (2017)* 3-D Der Katalog (2017)"
],
[
"Awards and achievements",
"=== Grammy Awards === 1982 \"Computer World\" Best Rock Instrumental Performance 2006 ''Minimum-Maximum'' Best Dance/Electronic Album 2014 Kraftwerk Lifetime Achievement Award 2015 ''Autobahn'' Hall of Fame 2018 ''3-D The Catalogue'' Best Dance/Electronic Album Best Surround Sound Album"
],
[
"See also",
"* Grammy Award recipients for Best Dance/Electronic Album* List of ambient music artists* List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Tim Barr, ''Kraftwerk: From Düsseldorf to the Future'' 1998* Vanni Neri & Giorgio Campani: ''A Short Introduction to Kraftwerk'' 2000* Albert Koch: ''Kraftwerk: The Music Makers'' 2002* Kraftwerk: ''Kraftwerk Photobook'' 2005 (included in the ''Minimum-Maximum Notebook'' set)* Sean Albiez and David Pattie: ''Kraftwerk: Music Non-Stop'' 2010* David Buckley: ''Kraftwerk: Publikation'' 2012* Toby Mott: ''Kraftwerk: 45 RPM'' 2012* ''The Guardian'': \"Kraftwerk sue makers of Kraftwerk charging devices\" 2015"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * Kraftwerk: Free Listening at SoundCloud* ANTENNA – The International Kraftwerk Mailing List (since 2003 September)* Kraftwerk FAQ – The Kraftwerk FAQ: Frequently asked questions and answers* BBC Radio 1 Kraftwerk documentary– 2006 Kraftwerk documentary with Alex Kapranos* Kraftwerk Vinyl Site for collectors* AllKraftwerk* Mats's Kraftwerk Page with lots of images and information, since 1997* Good evening Kraftwerk, good evening Stuttgart!",
"by the European Space Agency"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kalmar Union"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Kalmar Union''' (Danish, Norwegian, and ; ; Icelandic: Kalmarsambandið; ) was a personal union in Scandinavia, agreed at Kalmar in Sweden as designed by widowed Queen Margaret of Norway and Sweden.",
"From 1397 to 1523, it joined under a single monarch the three kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden (then including much of present-day Finland), and Norway, together with Norway's overseas colonies (then including Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland).",
"The union was not quite continuous; there were several short interruptions.",
"Legally, the countries remained separate sovereign states.",
"However, their domestic and foreign policies were directed by a common monarch.",
"Gustav Vasa's election as King of Sweden on 6 June 1523, and his triumphant entry into Stockholm eleven days later, marked Sweden's final secession from the Kalmar Union.",
"Formally, the Danish king acknowledged Sweden's independence in 1524 at the Treaty of Malmö."
],
[
"Inception",
"The union was the work of Scandinavian aristocracy who sought to counter the influence of the Hanseatic League, a northern German trade league centered around the Baltic and North Seas.",
"Denmark in particular was in a power struggle with the League and recently suffered a humiliating defeat in 1370 that allowed the Hanseatic League become even more powerful.",
"More personally, it was achieved by Queen Margaret I of Denmark (1353–1412).",
"She was a daughter of King Valdemar IV and had married King Haakon VI of Norway and Sweden, who was the son of King Magnus IV of Sweden, Norway and Scania.",
"Margaret succeeded in having her and Haakon's son Olaf recognized as heir to the throne of Denmark.",
"In 1376 Olaf inherited the crown of Denmark from his maternal grandfather as King Olaf II, with his mother as guardian; when Haakon VI died in 1380, Olaf also inherited the crown of Norway.Margaret became regent of Denmark and Norway when Olaf died in 1387, leaving her without an heir.",
"She adopted her great-nephew Eric of Pomerania the same year.",
"The following year, 1388, Swedish nobles called upon her help against King Albert.",
"After Margaret defeated Albert in 1389, her heir Eric was proclaimed King of Norway.",
"Eric was subsequently elected King of Denmark and Sweden in 1396 under the banner of the House of Griffin.",
"His coronation was held in Kalmar on 17 June 1397.One main impetus for its formation was to block German expansion northward into the Baltic region.",
"The main reason for its failure to survive was the perpetual struggle between the monarch, who wanted a strong unified state, and the Swedish and Danish nobility, which did not.The Union lost territory when Orkney and Shetland were pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as King of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland in 1468.The money was never paid, so in 1472 the islands were annexed by the Kingdom of Scotland."
],
[
"Internal conflict",
"Diverging interests (especially the Swedish nobility's dissatisfaction with the dominant role played by Denmark and Holstein) gave rise to a conflict that hampered the union in several intervals starting in the 1430s.",
"The Engelbrekt rebellion, which started in 1434, led to the overthrow of King Erik (in Denmark and Sweden in 1439, as well as Norway in 1442).",
"The aristocracy sided with the rebels.",
"King Erik's foreign policy, in particular his conflict with the Hanseatic League, necessitated greater taxation and complicated exports of iron, which in turn may have precipitated the rebellion.",
"Discontent with the nature of King Erik's regime has also been cited as a motivating factor for the rebellion.",
"King Erik also lacked a standing army and had limited tax revenues.The death of Christopher of Bavaria (who had no heirs) in 1448 ended a period in which the three Scandinavian kingdoms were uninterruptedly united for a lengthy period.",
"Karl Knutsson Bonde ruled as king of Sweden (1448–1457, 1464–1465 and 1467–1470) and Norway (1449-1450).",
"Christian of Oldenburg was king of Denmark (1448–1481), Norway (1450–1481) and Sweden (1457–1464).",
"Karl and Christian fought over control of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, leading Christian to seize Sweden from him from 1457 to 1464 before a rebellion led Karl to become king of Sweden again.",
"When Karl died in 1470, Christian tried to become king of Sweden again, but was defeated by Sten Sture the Elder in the 1471 battle of Brunkeberg outside Stockholm.",
"After the death of Karl, Sweden was mostly ruled by a series of \"protectors of the realm\" (''riksföreståndare''), with the Danish kings attempting to assert control.",
"First of these protectors was Sten Sture, who kept Sweden under his control until 1497 when the Swedish nobility deposed him.",
"A peasant rebellion led Sture to become regent of Sweden again in 1501.After his death, Sweden was ruled by Svante Nilsson (1504–1512) and then Svante's son Sten Sture the Younger (1512–1520).",
"Sten Sture the Younger was killed in the 1520 Battle of Bogesund when the Danish king Christian II invaded Sweden with a large army.",
"Subsequently, Christian II was crowned King of Sweden, and supporters of Sten Sture were executed en masse in the Stockholm Bloodbath.=== Swedish War of Liberation ===After the Stockholm Bloodbath, Gustav Vasa (whose father, Erik Johansson, was executed) travelled to Dalarna, where he organized a rebellion against Christian II.",
"Vasa made an alliance with Lübeck and successfully conquered most of Sweden.",
"He was elected King of Sweden in 1523, effectively ending the Kalmar Union.",
"After the Northern Seven Years' War, the Treaty of Stettin (1570) saw Frederick II renounce all claims to Sweden."
],
[
"End and aftermath",
"One of the last structures of the Union remained until 1536/1537 when the Danish Privy Council, in the aftermath of the Count's Feud, unilaterally declared Norway to be a Danish province.",
"This did not happen.",
"Instead, Norway became a hereditary kingdom in a real union with Denmark.",
"Norway continued to remain a part of the realm of Denmark–Norway under the Oldenburg dynasty for nearly three centuries, until it was transferred to Sweden in 1814.The ensuing union between Sweden and Norway lasted until 1905, when prince Carl of Denmark, a grandson of both the incumbent king of Denmark and the late king of Sweden, was elected king of Norway.According to historian Sverre Bagge, the Kalmar Union was unstable for several reasons: * The power of national aristocracies.",
"* The varied effects of the Kalmar Union's foreign policy on the three kingdoms.",
"For example, attempted expansions into Northern Germany may have served Danish interests, but was costly to Swedes who had to pay higher taxes and were unable to export iron to the Hanseatic League.",
"* Geography complicated control of the union in the event of rebellion.",
"* The large territorial size of the union complicated control.",
"* Denmark was not strong enough to force Norway and Sweden to stay within the union."
],
[
"Gallery",
"The Kalmar Union monarchs were:File:Margaret of Denmark, Norway & Sweden (1389) effigy 2010 (2).jpg|Queen MargaretFile:Erik I, 1382-1459, hertig av Pommern konung av Danmark Norge och Sverige - Nationalmuseum - 15058.tif|King EricFile:Christopher of Bavaria crop.jpg|King ChristopherFile:Christian I of Denmark, Norway & Sweden 1440s.jpg|King Christian IFile:John II of Sweden sculpture c 1530 (photo 2009).jpg|King John (\"Hans\")File:ChristianII of denmark.jpg|King Christian II"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Kalmar Union monarchs* Scandinavian royal lineage chart for the time around the founding of the Kalmar Union"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Albrectsen, Esben, Fælleskabet bliver til.",
"Danmark-Norge 1380–1814, vol.",
"1, 1380–1536, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1997* Carlsson, Gottfrid, Medeltidens nordiska unionstanke, Stockholm: Gebers, 1945* Christensen, Aksel E., Kalmarunionen og nordisk politik 1319–1439, Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1980* Enemark, Poul, Fra Kalmarbrev til Stockholms blodbad.",
"Den nordiske trestatsunions epoke 1397–1521, Copenhagen: Nordisk ministerråd/Gyldendal/Liber, 1979* Harald Gustafsson (2017) The Forgotten Union, Scandinavian Journal of History, 42:5, 560–582.",
"* Dick Harrison (2020) ''Kalmarunionen'' * Helle, Knut, ed.",
"''The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, Volume 1: Prehistory to 1520'' (2003) excerpt and text search* Imsen, Steinar.",
"\"The Union of Calmar: Northern Great Power or Northern German Outpost?\"",
"in Christopher Ocker, ed.",
"''Politics and Reformations: Communities, Polities, Nations, and Empires'' (BRILL, 2007) pp 471–90 online* Kirby, David.",
"''Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period.",
"The Baltic World 1492–1772'' (1990)* Larsson, Lars-Olof, Kalmarunionens tid.",
"Från drottning Margareta till Kristian II, Stockholm: Rabén-Prisma, 1997* Roberts, Michael.",
"''The Early Vasas: A History of Sweden 1523–1611'' (1968)"
],
[
"External links",
"* * The Kalmar Union – Maps of the Kalmar Union"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Krav Maga"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Krav Maga''' ( ; , ; ) is an Israeli martial art.",
"Developed for the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), it is derived from a combination of techniques used in aikido, judo, karate, boxing, and wrestling.",
"It is known for its focus on real-world situations and its extreme efficiency.",
"Krav Maga was originally developed by Hungarian-born Israeli martial artist Imi Lichtenfeld.",
"Having grown up in Bratislava during a time of anti-Semitic unrest, Lichtenfeld used his training as a boxer and wrestler to defend Jewish neighborhoods against attackers in the mid-to-late 1930s, becoming an experienced street fighter.",
"After his immigration to Mandatory Palestine in the late 1940s, he began to provide lessons on combat training to Jewish paramilitary groups that would later form the IDF during the 1948 Palestine war.",
"As an instructor, he compiled his knowledge and experience into the combat system that would later become known as Krav Maga.",
"This system would continue to be taught long after he left the IDF.From the outset, the original concept of Krav Maga was to take the most effective and practical techniques of other fighting styles (originally European boxing, wrestling, and street fighting) and make them rapidly teachable to conscripted soldiers.",
"It has a philosophy emphasizing aggression and simultaneous defensive and offensive manoeuvres.",
"It has been used by Israeli special forces and regular infantry units alike.",
"Closely related variations have been developed and adopted by Israeli law enforcement and intelligence organizations, and there are several organizations teaching variations of Krav Maga internationally.",
"There are two forms of Krav Maga, with one type adapted for Israeli security forces and the other type adapted for civilian use."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The term ''krav maga'' in Hebrew is literally translated as 'contact combat' – the three letter root of the first word is ''k-r-v'' (), and the noun derived from this root means either \"combat\" or \"battle\"; whereas the second word is a participle form derived from the verb root ''n-g-'a'' (), that literally means either \"contact\" or \"touch\"."
],
[
"Basic principles",
"IDF soldier sparring in full combat gearUS Air Force and British Royal Air Force security personnel during Krav Maga training.Like most martial arts, Krav Maga encourages students to avoid physical confrontation.",
"If this is impossible or unsafe, it promotes finishing a fight as quickly and aggressively as possible.",
"Attacks are aimed at the most vulnerable parts of the body, and training is not limited to techniques that avoid severe injury; some even permanently injure or cause death to the opponent.Students learn to defend against all variety of attacks and are taught to counter in the quickest and most efficient way.Ideas in Krav Maga include:* Simultaneous defense and attack.",
"* Developing physical aggression (not to be confused with emotional aggression or anger), with the view that physical aggression is the most important component in a fight.",
"* Continuing to strike the opponent until they are completely incapacitated.",
"* Attacking pre-emptively or counterattacking as soon as possible.",
"* Using any objects at hand that could be used to hit an opponent.",
"* Targeting attacks to the body's most vulnerable points, such as: the eyes, neck or throat, face, solar plexus, groin, ribs, knee, foot, fingers, liver, etc.",
"* Using simple and easily repeatable strikes.",
"* Maintaining awareness of surroundings while dealing with the threat in order to look for escape routes, further attackers, or objects that could be used to strike an opponent.",
"* Developing muscle memory for quick reaction in fight.",
"* Recognizing the importance of and expanding on instinctive response under stress.Training can also cover the study and development of situational awareness to develop an understanding of one's surroundings, learning to understand the psychology of a street confrontation, and identifying potential threats before an attack occurs.",
"It may also cover physical and verbal methods to avoid violence whenever possible.",
"It also teaches mental toughness, using controlled scenarios to strengthen mental fortitude in order for students to control the impulse and not do something rash, but instead attack only when necessary and as a last resort."
],
[
"Techniques",
"Media footage demonstrating Krav Maga techniques to deal with assailants in mock combat using multiple different types of weapons; namely a pole, a knife, a gun, a rifle and hand-to-hand.Krav Maga trainingSome of the key focuses of techniques in Krav Maga are—as described above—effectiveness and instinctive response under stress.",
"To that end, Krav Maga is an eclectic system that has not sought to replace existing effective techniques, taking what is useful from available systems, for example:* Strikes – as per karate and boxing;* Take-downs and throws – as per judo, aikido and wrestling;* Ground work – as per judo and wrestling; * Escapes from chokes and holds – as per judo, aikido and wrestling;* Empty-hand weapon defenses – as per aikido."
],
[
"History",
"Imre \"Imi\" Lichtenfeld (also known as Imi S'de-Or) was born in 1910 in Budapest, Austro-Hungary to a Jewish family and grew up in Bratislava (Slovakia).",
"Lichtenfeld became active in a wide range of sports, including gymnastics, wrestling, and boxing.",
"In 1928, Lichtenfeld won the Slovak Youth Wrestling Championship, and in 1929 the adult championship (light and middle weight divisions).",
"That same year, he also won the national boxing championship and an international gymnastics championship.",
"During the ensuing decade, Lichtenfeld's athletic activities focused mainly on wrestling, both as a contestant and a trainer.In the mid-1930s, anti-Semitic riots began to threaten the Jews of Bratislava, Czechoslovakia.",
"Lichtenfeld became the leader of a group of Jewish boxers and wrestlers who took to the streets to defend Jewish neighborhoods against the growing numbers of anti-Semitic Nazis.",
"Lichtenfeld quickly discovered, however, that actual fighting was very different from competition fighting, and although boxing and wrestling were good sports, they were not always practical for the aggressive and brutal nature of street combat.",
"It was then that he started to re-evaluate his ideas about fighting and started developing the skills and techniques that would eventually become Krav Maga.",
"Having become a thorn in the side of the equally anti-Semitic local authorities, in 1940 Lichtenfeld left his home with his family and friends on the last refugee ship to escape Europe.US Air Force Security forces members during Krav Maga training.After making his way to Mandatory Palestine, Lichtenfeld joined the Haganah paramilitary organization.",
"In 1944 Lichtenfeld began training fighters in his areas of expertise: physical fitness, swimming, wrestling, use of the knife, and defense against knife attacks.",
"During this period, Lichtenfeld trained several elite units of the Haganah, including the Palmach (striking force of the Haganah and forerunner of the special units of the Israel Defense Forces) and the Palyam, as well as groups of police officers.In 1948, when the State of Israel was founded and the IDF was formed, Lichtenfeld became Chief Instructor for Physical Fitness and Krav Maga at the IDF School of Combat Fitness.",
"He served in the IDF for about 20 years, during which time he developed and refined his unique method for self-defense and hand-to-hand combat.",
"Self-defense was not a new concept, since nearly all martial arts had developed some form of defensive techniques in their quest for tournament or sport dominance.",
"However, self-defense was based strictly upon the scientific and dynamic principles of the human body.",
"In 1965 judo training was added as part of the Krav Maga training.",
"Until 1968 there were no grades in Krav Maga.",
"Then a trainee's grades were determined largely by his knowledge in judo.In 1968, Eli Avikzar, Lichtenfeld's principal student and first black belt, began learning aikido.",
"In 1971 Eli left for France, where he received a black belt in aikido.",
"Upon his return, Avikzar started working as an instructor alongside Imi to integrate more traditional martial arts into krav maga.",
"Then in 1974 Imre retired and gave Eli Avikzar control over the Krav Maga training center in Netanya.",
"Shortly after, in 1976, Avikzar joined the permanent force of IDF, as head of the Krav Maga section.",
"The role of Krav Maga in the army advanced greatly after Eli's appointment.",
"More courses were given, and every P.E.",
"instructor was obliged to learn Krav Maga.",
"Avikzar continued to develop Krav Maga within the IDF until his retirement in 1987.Up to this date, Eli had trained 80,000 male soldiers and 12,000 female soldiers.Further pursuing excellence as a student of martial arts, Eli went to Germany in 1977 and received a black belt in aikido from the European Federation.",
"In 1978 the Krav Maga association was established, and in 1989, as an active member of the judo association, Eli Avikzar helped to establish the professional and rank committees by founding the Israeli Krav Maga Association (IKMA or KAMI).",
"Eli retired as the Chief Krav Maga instructor in 1987 and Boaz Aviram became the third person to hold the position, being the last head instructor to have studied directly with both Lichtenfeld and Avikzar."
],
[
"Israeli Defense Forces",
"The IDF offers a five-week Krav Maga instructor course.",
"It has held an annual Krav Maga competition since May 2013."
],
[
"Civilian use",
"Krav Maga Grand Master Imi Lichtenfeld and Yaron LichtensteinUpon Imi Lichtenfeld's retirement from the IDF, he decided to open a school and teach Krav Maga to civilians.The first Krav Maga course took place at the Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel, in 1971, under his direct supervision.===Grading system===Most of the Krav Maga organizations in Israel use Imi Lichtenfeld's colored belt grading system which is based upon the Judo ranking system.",
"It starts with white belt, and then yellow, orange, green, blue, brown and black belts.",
"Black belt students can move up the ranks from 1st to 9th Dan.",
"The time and requirements for advancing have some differences between the organizations.Other organizations that teach Krav Maga in and outside of Israel use similar grading systems.A patch system was developed by Eyal Yanilov in the late 1980s.",
"The grades are divided into three main categories: Practitioner, Graduate and Expert.",
"Each of the categories, which are often abbreviated to their initials, has five ranks.",
"Grades P1 through to P5 are the student levels and make up the majority of the Krav Maga community.",
"After P5 are G1-G5, and in order to achieve Graduate level the student has to demonstrate a proficiency in all of the P level techniques before advancing.+Belt colors and IKMF patches White Yellow Orange Green Blue Brown Black 55x55px 55x55px 55x55px 55x55px 55x55px 55x55px 55x55px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35px35x35pxAlthough there are some subtle differences, the various organizations teach the same core techniques and principles.",
"Some other organizations have less formal grading ranks without belts or patches but do have levels by which students can monitor their progress.===Sparring===In some organizations sparring is slow and light until the student reaches G2 level.",
"This takes approximately four to six years because rising one level in the Practitioner and Graduate categories takes at minimum half a year of consistent training.",
"It is, however, more common to observe regular trainees grading only once a year from P3 and up.Once in G2, students also practice simulated \"real\" fighting with protective gear."
],
[
"In media",
"* Krav maga was represented in the UFC by former IDF soldier Moti Horenstein.",
"He fought Mark Coleman at UFC 10 and Mark Kerr at UFC 14, losing decisively each time.",
"Both Coleman and Kerr were NCAA Division I wrestling champions and would go on to win their respective tournaments.",
"* Jennifer Lopez trained in krav maga for her role in ''Enough'', and the martial art was featured in the story.",
"* Leonardo DiCaprio trained in krav maga for his role in ''Blood Diamond'', where he played a Rhodesian-South African smuggler and mercenary.",
"* Jessica Chastain trained in krav maga for her role in ''The Debt'', and the martial art was featured in fight scene choreography.",
"* Tom Cruise trained in krav maga for fight choreography in ''Jack Reacher''.",
"* Daniel Craig trained in krav maga for fight choreography as James Bond in ''Spectre''.",
"* Sean Penn trained in krav maga for fight choreography in ''The Gunman''."
],
[
"See also",
"* Close-quarters combat* Jieitaikakutojutsu* Defendu* Combatives* Marine Corps Martial Arts Program* Sambo (martial art)** ARB (martial art)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"The Katzenjammer Kids"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''The Katzenjammer Kids''''' is an American comic strip created by Rudolph Dirks in 1897 and later drawn by Harold Knerr for 35 years (1914 to 1949).",
"It debuted on December 12, 1897, in the ''American Humorist'', the Sunday supplement of William Randolph Hearst's ''New York Journal''.",
"The comic strip was turned into a stage play in 1903.It inspired several animated cartoons and was one of 20 strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of U.S. commemorative postage stamps.After a series of legal battles between 1912 and 1914, Dirks left the Hearst organization and began a new strip, first titled '''''Hans and Fritz''''' and then '''''The Captain and the Kids'''''.",
"It featured the same characters seen in ''The Katzenjammer Kids'', which was continued by Knerr.",
"The two separate versions of the strip competed with each other until 1979, when ''The Captain and the Kids'' ended its six-decade run.",
"''The Katzenjammer Kids'' published its last original strip in 2006, but is still distributed in reprints by King Features Syndicate, making it the oldest comic strip still in syndication and the longest-running ever."
],
[
"History",
"===Creation and early years===A Sunday comic strip from May 14, 1922, by Harold Knerr.",
"''The Katzenjammer Kids'' was inspired by ''Max and Moritz'', a children's story of the 1860s by German author Wilhelm Busch.",
"''Katzenjammer'' translates literally as ''the wailing of cats'' (i.e.",
"\"caterwaul\") but is used to mean ''contrition after a failed endeavor'' or ''hangover'' in German (and, in the latter sense, in English too).",
"Whereas Max & Moritz were grotesquely but comically put to death after seven destructive pranks, the Katzenjammer Kids and the other characters still thrive.===Dirks and Knerr===''The Katzenjammer Kids'' was so popular that it became two competing comic strips and the subject of a lawsuit.",
"This happened because Dirks, in 1912, wanted to take a break after drawing the strip for 15 years, but the Hearst newspaper syndicate would not allow it.",
"Dirks left anyway, and the strip was taken over by Harold Knerr.",
"Dirks' last strip appeared March 16, 1913.Dirks sued, and after a long legal battle, the Hearst papers were allowed to continue ''The Katzenjammer Kids'', with Knerr as writer and artist.",
"He took over permanently in the summer of 1914, but Dirks was allowed to create an almost identical strip of his own for the rival Pulitzer newspapers, although he had to use a different name for the strip.===''The Captain and the Kids''===Initially named ''Hans und Fritz'' after the two naughty protagonist brothers, Dirks' new feature was called ''The Captain and the Kids'' from 1918 on.",
"''The Captain and the Kids'' was very similar to ''The Katzenjammer Kids'' in terms of content and characters, but Dirks had a looser and more verbal style than Knerr, who on the other hand often produced stronger, more direct gags and drawings.",
"''The Captain and the Kids'' soon proved equal in popularity to ''The Katzenjammer Kids''.",
"It was later distributed by the United Feature Syndicate, while Hearst's King Features distributed ''The Katzenjammer Kids''.===1950s to the present===''The Captain and the Kids'' expanded as a daily strip during the 1930s, but it had only a short run.",
"However, the Sunday strip remained popular for decades.",
"From 1946, Dirks' son, John Dirks, gradually began doing more of the work on ''The Captain and the Kids''.",
"They introduced new characters and plots during the 1950s, including a 1958 science fiction storyline about a brilliant inventor and alien invasions.",
"Even as John Dirks took over most of the work, Rudolph Dirks signed the strip until his death in 1968.John Dirks' drawing shifted slightly towards a more square-formed line, though it maintained the original style until ''The Captain and the Kids'' ended its run in 1979.Knerr continued drawing ''The Katzenjammer Kids'' until his death in 1949; the strip was then written and drawn by C.H.",
"\"Doc\" Winner (1949–1956), with Joe Musial taking over in 1956.Musial was replaced on ''The Katzenjammer Kids'' by Mike Senich (1976–1981), Angelo DeCesare (1981–1986), and Hy Eisman (1986–2006).",
"Now syndicated in reprint form, the strip is distributed internationally to some 50 newspapers and magazines.",
"Eisman reused a lot of old gags and stories in later years."
],
[
"Characters and story",
"''The Katzenjammer Kids'' (three brothers in the first strip but soon reduced to two) featured Hans and Fritz, twins who rebelled against authority, particularly in the form of their mother, Mama; der Captain, a sailor who acted as a surrogate father; and der Inspector, a long-bearded school official.",
"Other characters included John Silver, a pirate sea captain; the Herring Brothers, John Silver's three-man crew; and King Bongo, a primitive-living but sophisticated-acting Black jungle monarch who ruled a tropical island.As originally created, Mama's husband was Papa Katzenjammer, her brother was the bungling sailor Heinie, and der Captain–introduced in 1902—was Heinie's boss.",
"After a short while, Papa was dropped from the strip without explanation, with der Captain taking over his function.",
"By the 1940s, der Captain and Mama were often presented as a de facto couple.The immediate Katzenjammer family usually spoke stereotypical German-accented English.",
"When first introduced, der Captain and der Inspector did not, but within months adopted the accent as well.",
"During World Wars I and II, when the United States was at war with Germany, the Katzenjammer family were temporarily presented as Dutch.The defining theme of the strip was Hans and Fritz pranking der Captain, der Inspector, Mama, or all three, for which the boys were often spanked, but sometimes shifted the blame to others.",
"Other stories involved der Captain taking the Katzenjammers on treasure hunts or cargo voyages, sometimes aided by or competing with John Silver.",
"Still other stories involved King Bongo enlisting the Katzenjammers to run errands or go on missions related to his kingdom; in both strips, by the mid-1930s, the family lived on Bongo's island—usually called Squee-Jee—and were readily at hand.Knerr's version of ''The Katzenjammer Kids'' introduced several major new characters in the 1930s.",
"Miss Twiddle, a pompous tutor, and her brainy niece Lena came to stay permanently with the Katzenjammers in early 1936.Later in the year Twiddle's ex-pupil, \"boy prodigy\" Rollo Rhubarb joined them.",
"The ever-smug Rollo is always trying to outwit Hans and Fritz, but his cunning plans often backfire.",
"''The Captain and the Kids'' also introduced some new characters.",
"Ginga Dun is a snooty Indian trader who can outsmart almost anyone and only talks in verse.",
"Captain Bloodshot is a pint-sized pirate rival of John Silver's.Notable features of the later strips, at both syndicates, included a more constructive relationship between the Captain and the boys, who sometimes bickered like friendly rivals rather than pranking each other outright.",
"The King and his people, also in both strips, were now Polynesian rather than African."
],
[
"In other media",
"''Policy and Pie'' (''The Katzenjammer Kids'') part 1 of 2 (1918)''Policy and Pie'' (''The Katzenjammer Kids'') part 2 of 2 (1918)The title card for ''The Captain and the Kids''.=== ''The Katzenjammer Kids'' ===The ''Katzenjammer Kids'' characters initially appeared outside comics in a two of live-action silent films.",
"The first film, titled ''The Katzenjammer Kids in School'' released in 1898, was made for the Biograph Company by William George Bitzer.",
"The second film, titled ''The Katzenjammer Kids in Love'', was released in 1900.Between December 1916 and August 1918, a total of 37 ''Katzenjammer Kids'' silent cartoon shorts were produced by William Randolph Hearst's own cartoon studio International Film Service, which adapted Hearst's well-known comic strips.",
"The series was retired in 1918 at the height of the characters' popularity – partly because of the growing tension against titles with German associations after World War I.",
"The comic strip was briefly renamed to ''The Shenanigan Kids'' around this time, and in 1920 another five cartoons were produced under this title.",
"All ''Katzenjammer Kids''/''Shenanigan Kids'' cartoons from International Film Services were directed (and most likely also animated) by Gregory La Cava.",
"The series was transferred and continued by Bray Productions in 1920.The Katzenjammer Kids also appeared (along with other King Features comic-strip stars) in Hal Seeger's TV special ''Popeye Meets the Man Who Hated Laughter'' (1972).=== ''The Captain and the Kids'' ===In 1938, ''The Captain and the Kids'' became the subject of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's first self-produced series of theatrical short subject cartoons, directed by William Hanna, Bob Allen and Friz Freleng: ''The Captain and the Kids''.",
"Unlike the strip, which focused most of all on the gruesomely amusing antics of Hans and Fritz, the MGM cartoons often centered on the Captain.",
"The series was overall unsuccessful, ending after one year and a total of 15 cartoons.",
"Following that cancellation, Freleng returned to Warner Bros., where he had earlier been an animation director.",
"The Captain was voiced by Billy Bletcher, Mama was voiced by Martha Wentworth, and John Silver was voiced by Mel Blanc.",
"''The Captain and the Kids'' version of the strip was also animated for television as a back-up segment on Filmation's ''Archie's TV Funnies'' in 1971, and in the spin-off series ''Fabulous Funnies'' from 1978 to 1979."
],
[
"Cultural legacy",
"* In July 2009, a street in Heide, Germany (where Dirks was born) was named after the cartoonist.=== ''The Katzenjammer Kids'' ===* Mad Magazine #20 featured \"The KatchandhammerKids\", a spoof by Will Elder and Harvey Kurtzman.",
"* ''The Katzenjammer Kids'' are still very popular in the Scandinavian countries Denmark and Norway (where they are known as ''Knoll og Tott''); in both countries, an annual comic book has been published almost every Christmas since 1911 (the only exceptions reportedly being the years 1913 and 1944).",
"For the most part, Harold Knerr's version of the comic is used in these annual comic books.",
"In Sweden, the annual Katzenjammer Kids comic book was also a tradition for many years, from 1928 to 1977.",
"* Art Clokey, the creator of Gumby, has claimed that ''The Katzenjammer Kids'' inspired the creation of Gumby's nemeses, The Block-heads.",
"* ''Playboy'' frequently featured in its late 1970s-early 1980s \"Playboy Funnies\" pages a spoof of ''The Katzenjammer Kids'', called ''The Krautzenbummer Kids'', with adult-style gags.",
"* French dark cabaret band Katzenjammer Kabarett is named in a homage to the strip, as is the Norwegian symphonic pop/swing group ''Katzenjammer''.",
"* Deputy Barney Fife makes a reference to the Katzenjammer Kids in the third season of ''The Andy Griffith Show'', in the episode titled \"Andy and the New Mayor\".",
"It is also referenced in season 1 episode \"The Inspector\", and in season 3, \"Andy's Rich Girfriend\".",
"* In the film, ''Inglourious Basterds'', Lt. Archie Hicox is interviewed by Gen. Ed Fenech.",
"Reading his briefing notes, Gen. Fenech states, \"It says here that you speak German fluently\".",
"To this, Lt. Hicox reassures the general by saying, \"Like a Katzenjammer Kid\".",
"* In the documentary film, ''Poto and Cabengo'', narrator Jean-Pierre Gorin makes references to The Katzenjammer Kids.",
"* In season 5 episode of ''The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel'', Joel Maisel tells Suzie Meyerson that she's not cute even though she dresses like a \"Katzenjammer Kid\".=== ''The Captain and the Kids'' ===* ''The Captain and the Kids'' has been published as an annual comic book in Norway since 1987.When no more reproducible material was available in 2001, Per Sanderhage, the editor of the Danish comic strip agency PIB, negotiated a deal where ''Ferd'nand'' cartoonist Henrik Rehr would redraw 32 pages loosely based on old magazine clippings for the annual.",
"This arrangement continues to this day."
],
[
"See also",
"*"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Katzenjammer Kids at Comics Kingdom* The Katzenjammer Kids at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.",
"Archived from the original on September 9, 2015.",
"* The Captain and the Kids at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.",
"Archived from the original on April 9, 2012."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Ketone"
],
[
"Introduction",
"KetoneIn organic chemistry, a '''ketone''' is an organic compound with the structure , where R and R' can be a variety of carbon-containing substituents.",
"Ketones contain a carbonyl group (which contains a carbon-oxygen double bond C=O).",
"The simplest ketone is acetone (where R and R' is methyl), with the formula .",
"Many ketones are of great importance in biology and in industry.",
"Examples include many sugars (ketoses), many steroids (e.g., testosterone), and the solvent acetone."
],
[
"Nomenclature and etymology",
"The word ''ketone'' is derived from ''Aketon'', an old German word for ''acetone''.According to the rules of IUPAC nomenclature, ketone names are derived by changing the suffix ''-ane'' of the parent alkane to ''-anone''.",
"Typically, the position of the carbonyl group is denoted by a number, but traditional nonsystematic names are still generally used for the most important ketones, for example acetone and benzophenone.",
"These nonsystematic names are considered retained IUPAC names, although some introductory chemistry textbooks use systematic names such as \"2-propanone\" or \"propan-2-one\" for the simplest ketone () instead of \"acetone\".The derived names of ketones are obtained by writing separately the names of the two alkyl groups attached to the carbonyl group, followed by \"ketone\" as a separate word.",
"Traditionally the names of the alkyl groups were written in order of increasing complexity, for example methyl ethyl ketone.",
"However, according to the rules of IUPAC nomenclature, the alkyl groups are written alphabetically, for example ethyl methyl ketone.",
"When the two alkyl groups are the same, the prefix \"di-\" is added before the name of alkyl group.",
"The positions of other groups are indicated by Greek letters, the α-carbon being the atom adjacent to carbonyl group.Although used infrequently, ''oxo'' is the IUPAC nomenclature for the oxo group (=O) and used as prefix when the ketone does not have the highest priority.",
"Other prefixes, however, are also used.",
"For some common chemicals (mainly in biochemistry), ''keto'' refer to the ketone functional group."
],
[
"Structure and properties",
"Representative ketones, from the left: acetone, a common solvent; oxaloacetate, an intermediate in the metabolism of sugars; acetylacetone in its (mono) enol form (the enol highlighted in blue); cyclohexanone, precursor to nylon; muscone, an animal scent; and tetracycline, an antibiotic.The ketone carbon is often described as sp2 hybridized, a description that includes both their electronic and molecular structure.",
"Ketones are trigonal planar around the ketonic carbon, with C–C–O and C–C–C bond angles of approximately 120°.",
"Ketones differ from aldehydes in that the carbonyl group (C=O) is bonded to two carbons within a carbon skeleton.",
"In aldehydes, the carbonyl is bonded to one carbon and one hydrogen and are located at the ends of carbon chains.",
"Ketones are also distinct from other carbonyl-containing functional groups, such as carboxylic acids, esters and amides.The carbonyl group is polar because the electronegativity of the oxygen is greater than that for carbon.",
"Thus, ketones are nucleophilic at oxygen and electrophilic at carbon.",
"Because the carbonyl group interacts with water by hydrogen bonding, ketones are typically more soluble in water than the related methylene compounds.",
"Ketones are hydrogen-bond acceptors.",
"Ketones are not usually hydrogen-bond donors and cannot hydrogen-bond to themselves.",
"Because of their inability to serve both as hydrogen-bond donors and acceptors, ketones tend not to \"self-associate\" and are more volatile than alcohols and carboxylic acids of comparable molecular weights.",
"These factors relate to the pervasiveness of ketones in perfumery and as solvents.===Classes of ketones===Ketones are classified on the basis of their substituents.",
"One broad classification subdivides ketones into symmetrical and unsymmetrical derivatives, depending on the equivalency of the two organic substituents attached to the carbonyl center.",
"Acetone and benzophenone () are symmetrical ketones.",
"Acetophenone is an unsymmetrical ketone.====Diketones====Many kinds of diketones are known, some with unusual properties.",
"The simplest is diacetyl , once used as butter-flavoring in popcorn.",
"Acetylacetone (pentane-2,4-dione) is virtually a misnomer (inappropriate name) because this species exists mainly as the monoenol .",
"Its enolate is a common ligand in coordination chemistry.====Unsaturated ketones====Ketones containing alkene and alkyne units are often called unsaturated ketones.",
"The most widely used member of this class of compounds is methyl vinyl ketone, , which is useful in the Robinson annulation reaction.",
"Lest there be confusion, a ketone itself is a site of unsaturation; that is, it can be hydrogenated.====Cyclic ketones====Many ketones are cyclic.",
"The simplest class have the formula , where ''n'' varies from 2 for cyclopropanone () to the tens.",
"Larger derivatives exist.",
"Cyclohexanone (), a symmetrical cyclic ketone, is an important intermediate in the production of nylon.",
"Isophorone, derived from acetone, is an unsaturated, asymmetrical ketone that is the precursor to other polymers.",
"Muscone, 3-methylpentadecanone, is an animal pheromone.",
"Another cyclic ketone is cyclobutanone, having the formula .===Keto-enol tautomerization===Keto-enol tautomerism.",
"'''1''' is the keto form; '''2''' is the enol.Ketones that have at least one alpha-hydrogen, undergo keto-enol tautomerization; the tautomer is an enol.",
"Tautomerization is catalyzed by both acids and bases.",
"Usually, the keto form is more stable than the enol.",
"This equilibrium allows ketones to be prepared via the hydration of alkynes.===Acid/base properties of ketones=== bonds adjacent to the carbonyl in ketones are more acidic p''K''a ≈ 20) than the bonds in alkane (p''K''a ≈ 50).",
"This difference reflects resonance stabilization of the enolate ion that is formed upon deprotonation.",
"The relative acidity of the α-hydrogen is important in the enolization reactions of ketones and other carbonyl compounds.",
"The acidity of the α-hydrogen also allows ketones and other carbonyl compounds to react as nucleophiles at that position, with either stoichiometric and catalytic base.",
"Using very strong bases like lithium diisopropylamide (LDA, p''K''a of conjugate acid ~36) under non-equilibrating conditions (–78 °C, 1.1 equiv LDA in THF, ketone added to base), the less-substituted ''kinetic'' ''enolate'' is generated selectively, while conditions that allow for equilibration (higher temperature, base added to ketone, using weak or insoluble bases, e.g., in , or NaH) provides the more-substituted ''thermodynamic enolate''.Ketones are also weak bases, undergoing protonation on the carbonyl oxygen in the presence of Brønsted acids.",
"Ketonium ions (i.e., protonated ketones) are strong acids, with p''K''a values estimated to be somewhere between –5 and –7.Although acids encountered in organic chemistry are seldom strong enough to fully protonate ketones, the formation of equilibrium concentrations of protonated ketones is nevertheless an important step in the mechanisms of many common organic reactions, like the formation of an acetal, for example.",
"Acids as weak as pyridinium cation (as found in pyridinium tosylate) with a p''K''a of 5.2 are able to serve as catalysts in this context, despite the highly unfavorable equilibrium constant for protonation (''K''eq −10)."
],
[
"Characterization",
"An aldehyde differs from a ketone in that it has a hydrogen atom attached to its carbonyl group, making aldehydes easier to oxidize.",
"Ketones do not have a hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl group, and are therefore more resistant to oxidation.",
"They are oxidized only by powerful oxidizing agents which have the ability to cleave carbon–carbon bonds.===Spectroscopy===Ketones (and aldehydes) absorb strongly in the infra-red spectrum near 1750 cm−1, which is assigned to νC=O (\"carbonyl stretching frequency\").",
"The energy of the peak is lower for aryl and unsaturated ketones.Whereas 1H NMR spectroscopy is generally not useful for establishing the presence of a ketone, 13C NMR spectra exhibit signals somewhat downfield of 200 ppm depending on structure.",
"Such signals are typically weak due to the absence of nuclear Overhauser effects.",
"Since aldehydes resonate at similar chemical shifts, multiple resonance experiments are employed to definitively distinguish aldehydes and ketones.===Qualitative organic tests===Ketones give positive results in Brady's test, the reaction with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to give the corresponding hydrazone.",
"Ketones may be distinguished from aldehydes by giving a negative result with Tollens' reagent or with Fehling's solution.",
"Methyl ketones give positive results for the iodoform test.",
"Ketones also give positive results when treated with ''m''-dinitrobenzene in presence of dilute sodium hydroxide to give violet coloration.==Synthesis==Many methods exist for the preparation of ketones in industrial scale and academic laboratories.",
"Ketones are also produced in various ways by organisms; see the section on biochemistry below.In industry, the most important method probably involves oxidation of hydrocarbons, often with air.",
"For example, a billion kilograms of cyclohexanone are produced annually by aerobic oxidation of cyclohexane.",
"Acetone is prepared by air-oxidation of cumene.For specialized or small scale organic synthetic applications, ketones are often prepared by oxidation of secondary alcohols::Typical strong oxidants (source of \"O\" in the above reaction) include potassium permanganate or a Cr(VI) compound.",
"Milder conditions make use of the Dess–Martin periodinane or the Moffatt–Swern methods.Many other methods have been developed, examples include:* By geminal halide hydrolysis.",
"* By hydration of alkynes.",
"Such processes occur via enols and require the presence of an acid and mercury(II) sulfate ().",
"Subsequent enol–keto tautomerization gives a ketone.",
"This reaction always produces a ketone, even with a terminal alkyne, the only exception being the hydration of acetylene, which produces acetaldehyde.",
"*From Weinreb Amides using stoichiometric organometallic reagents.",
"* Aromatic ketones can be prepared in the Friedel–Crafts acylation, the related Houben–Hoesch reaction, and the Fries rearrangement.",
"* Ozonolysis, and related dihydroxylation/oxidative sequences, cleave alkenes to give aldehydes or ketones, depending on alkene substitution pattern.",
"* In the Kornblum–DeLaMare rearrangement ketones are prepared from peroxides and base.",
"* In the Ruzicka cyclization, cyclic ketones are prepared from dicarboxylic acids.",
"* In the Nef reaction, ketones form by hydrolysis of salts of secondary nitro compounds.",
"* In the Fukuyama coupling, ketones form from a thioester and an organozinc compound.",
"* By the reaction of an acid chloride with organocadmium compounds or organocopper compounds.",
"* The Dakin–West reaction provides an efficient method for preparation of certain methyl ketones from carboxylic acids.",
"* Ketones can be prepared by the reaction of Grignard reagents with nitriles, followed by hydrolysis.",
"* By decarboxylation of carboxylic anhydride.",
"* Ketones can be prepared from haloketones in reductive dehalogenation of halo ketones.",
"* In ketonic decarboxylation symmetrical ketones are prepared from carboxylic acids.",
"* Hydrolysis of unsaturated secondary amides, β-Keto acid esters, or β-diketones (the acetoacetic ester synthesis).",
"* Acid-catalysed rearrangement of 1,2-diols, or Criegee oxidation of the same."
],
[
"Reactions",
"The Haller-Bauer reaction occurs between a ''non-enolizable'' ketone and a strong amide base.",
"In this prototypical example involving benzophenone, the tetrahedral intermediate expels phenyl anion to give benzamide and benzene as the organic productsKetones engage in many organic reactions.",
"The most important reactions follow from the susceptibility of the carbonyl carbon toward nucleophilic addition and the tendency for the enolates to add to electrophiles.Nucleophilic additions include in approximate order of their generality:* With water (hydration) gives geminal diols, which are usually not formed in appreciable (or observable) amounts* With an acetylide to give the α-hydroxyalkyne* With ammonia or a primary amine gives an imine* With secondary amine gives an enamine* With Grignard and organolithium reagents to give, after aqueous workup, a tertiary alcohol* With an alcohols or alkoxides to gives the hemiketal or its conjugate base.",
"With a diol to the ketal.",
"This reaction is employed to protect ketones.",
"* With sodium amide resulting in C–C bond cleavage with formation of the amide RCONH2 and the alkane or arene R'H, a reaction called the Haller–Bauer reaction.",
"* With strong oxidizing agents to give carboxylic acids.",
"Ketones are generally oxidized under vigorous conditions, i.e., strong oxidizing agents and at elevated temperatures.",
"Their oxidation involves carbon-carbon bond cleavage to afford a mixture of carboxylic acids having lesser number of carbon atoms than the parent ketone.",
"500px* Electrophilic addition, reaction with an electrophile gives a resonance stabilized cation* With phosphonium ylides in the Wittig reaction to give the alkenes* With thiols to give the thioacetal* With hydrazine or 1-disubstituted derivatives of hydrazine to give hydrazones.",
"* With a metal hydride gives a metal alkoxide salt, hydrolysis of which gives the alcohol, an example of ketone reduction* With halogens to form an α-haloketone, a reaction that proceeds via an enol (see Haloform reaction)* With heavy water to give an α-deuterated ketone* Fragmentation in photochemical Norrish reaction* Reaction of 1,4-aminodiketones to oxazoles by dehydration in the Robinson–Gabriel synthesis* In the case of aryl–alkyl ketones, with sulfur and an amine give amides in the Willgerodt reaction* With hydroxylamine to produce oximes* With reducing agents to form secondary alcohols* With peroxy acids to form esters in the Baeyer–Villiger oxidation"
],
[
"Biochemistry",
"Ketones are pervasive in nature.",
"The formation of organic compounds in photosynthesis occurs via the ketone ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate.",
"Many sugars are ketones, known collectively as ketoses.",
"The best known ketose is fructose; it mostly exists as a cyclic hemiketal, which masks the ketone functional group.",
"Fatty acid synthesis proceeds via ketones.",
"Acetoacetate is an intermediate in the Krebs cycle which releases energy from sugars and carbohydrates.In medicine, acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate are collectively called ketone bodies, generated from carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids in most vertebrates, including humans.",
"Ketone bodies are elevated in the blood (ketosis) after fasting, including a night of sleep; in both blood and urine in starvation; in hypoglycemia, due to causes other than hyperinsulinism; in various inborn errors of metabolism, and intentionally induced via a ketogenic diet, and in ketoacidosis (usually due to diabetes mellitus).",
"Although ketoacidosis is characteristic of decompensated or untreated type 1 diabetes, ketosis or even ketoacidosis can occur in type 2 diabetes in some circumstances as well."
],
[
"Applications",
"Ketones are produced on massive scales in industry as solvents, polymer precursors, and pharmaceuticals.",
"In terms of scale, the most important ketones are acetone, methylethyl ketone, and cyclohexanone.",
"They are also common in biochemistry, but less so than in organic chemistry in general.",
"The combustion of hydrocarbons is an uncontrolled oxidation process that gives ketones as well as many other types of compounds."
],
[
"Toxicity",
"Although it is difficult to generalize on the toxicity of such a broad class of compounds, simple ketones are, in general, not highly toxic.",
"This characteristic is one reason for their popularity as solvents.",
"Exceptions to this rule are the unsaturated ketones such as methyl vinyl ketone with of 7 mg/kg (oral)."
],
[
"See also",
"*Diketone*Ketone bodies*Thioketone*Triketone*Ynone*Ketosis"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Ketene"
],
[
"Introduction",
"General formula for a ketene.In organic chemistry, a '''ketene''' is an organic compound of the form , where R and R' are two arbitrary monovalent chemical groups (or two separate substitution sites in the same molecule).",
"The name may also refer to the specific compound ethenone , the simplest ketene.Although they are highly useful, most ketenes are unstable.",
"When used as reagents in a chemical procedure, they are typically generated when needed, and consumed as soon as (or while) they are produced."
],
[
"History",
"Ketenes were first studied as a class by Hermann Staudinger before 1905.Ketenes were systematically investigated by Hermann Staudinger in 1905 in the form of diphenylketene (conversion of -chlorodiphenyl acetyl chloride with zinc).",
"Staudinger was inspired by the first examples of reactive organic intermediates and stable radicals discovered by Moses Gomberg in 1900 (compounds with triphenylmethyl group)."
],
[
"Properties",
"Ketenes are highly electrophilic at the carbon atom bonded with the heteroatom, due to its ''sp'' character.",
"Ketene can be formed with different heteroatom bonded to the ''sp'' carbon atom, such as O, S or Se, respectively named ketene, thioketene and selenoketene.Ethenone, the simplest ketene, has different experimental lengths for each of the double bonds; the C=O bond is 1,160Å and the C=C bond is 1,314Å.",
"The angle between the two H atoms is 121.5°, similar to the theoretically ideal angle formed in alkenes between ''sp2 ''carbon atom and H substituents.Ketenes are unstable and cannot be stored.",
"In the absence of nucleophiles with which to react, ethenone dimerises to give β-lactone, a cyclic ester.",
"If the ketene is disubstituted, the dimerisation product is a substituted cyclobutadione.",
"For monosubstituted ketenes, the dimerisation could afford either the ester or the diketone product."
],
[
"Synthesis",
"Ketene is produced on a commercial scale by thermal dehydration of acetic acid.",
"Substituted ketenes can be prepared from acyl chlorides by an elimination reaction in which HCl is lost::Formation of a ketene from an acyl chloride.In this reaction, a base, usually triethylamine, removes the acidic proton alpha to the carbonyl group, inducing the formation of the carbon-carbon double bond and the loss of a chloride ion:Synthesis of KeteneKetenes can also be formed from α-diazoketones by the Wolff rearrangement.Another way to generate ketenes is through flash vacuum thermolysis (FVT) with 2-pyridylamines.",
"Plüg and Wentrup developed a method in 1997 that improved on FVT reactions to produce ketenes with a stable FVT that is moisture insensitive, using mild conditions (480 °C).",
"The N-pyridylamines are prepared via a condensation with R-malonates with N-amino(pyridene) and DCC as the solvent.A more robust method for preparing ketenes is the carbonylation of metal-carbenes, and ''in situ'' reaction of the thus produced highly reactive ketenes with suitable reagents such as imines, amines, or alcohols.",
"This method is an efficient one‐pot tandem protocol of the carbonylation of α‐diazocarbonyl compounds and a variety of ''N''‐tosylhydrazones catalysed by Co(II)–porphyrin metalloradicals leading to the formation of ketenes, which subsequently react with a variety of nucleophiles and imines to form esters, amides and β‐lactams.",
"This system has a broad substrate scope and can be applied to various combinations of carbene precursors, nucleophiles and imines."
],
[
"Reactions and applications",
"Due to their cumulated double bonds, ketenes are very reactive.=== Formation of carboxylic acid esters ===By reaction with alcohols, carboxylic acid esters are formed::none=== Formation of carboxylic anhydrides ===Ketenes react with a carboxylic acids to form carboxylic acid anhydrides::none=== Formation of amides ===Ketenes react with ammonia and amines to give the corresponding amides::380x380px=== Hydrolysis ===By reaction with water, carboxylic acids are formed from ketenes:350x350px=== Formation of enol esters ===Enol esters are formed from ketenes with enolisable carbonyl compounds.",
"The following example shows the reaction of ethenone with acetone to form a propen-2-yl acetate::480x480px=== Dimerisation ===At room temperature, ketene quickly dimerizes to diketene, but the ketene can be recovered by heating::500px=== 2+2-cycloaddition ===Ketenes can react with alkenes, carbonyl compounds, carbodiimides and imines in a Enone–alkene cycloadditions|2+2 cycloaddition.",
"The example shows the synthesis of a β-lactam by the reaction of a ketene with an imine (see Staudinger synthesis)::450x450px===Applications===Ketenes are generally very reactive, and participate in various cycloadditions.",
"One important process is the dimerization to give propiolactones.",
"A specific example is the dimerization of the ketene of stearic acid to afford alkyl ketene dimers, which are widely used in the paper industry.",
"AKD's react with the hydroxyl groups on the cellulose via esterification reaction.They will also undergo 2+2 cycloaddition reactions with electron-rich alkynes to form cyclobutenones, or carbonyl groups to form beta-lactones.",
"With imines, beta-lactams are formed.",
"This is the Staudinger synthesis, a facile route to this important class of compounds.",
"With acetone, ketene reacts to give isopropenyl acetate.A variety of hydroxylic compounds can add as nucleophiles, forming either enol or ester products.",
"As examples, a water molecule easily adds to ketene to give 1,1-dihydroxyethene and acetic anhydride is produced by the reaction of acetic acid with ketene.",
"Reactions between diols () and bis-ketenes () yield polyesters with a repeat unit of ().Ethyl acetoacetate, an important starting material in organic synthesis, can be prepared using a diketene in reaction with ethanol.",
"They directly form ethyl acetoacetate, and the yield is high when carried out under controlled circumstances; this method is therefore used industrially."
],
[
"See also",
"*Ynol*Thioketene"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kistvaen"
],
[
"Introduction",
"capstone and cist structure (Dartmoor in Drizzlecombe)'''Kistvaen''' on the southern edge of Dartmoor in DrizzlecombeA '''kistvaen''' or '''cistvaen''' is a tomb or burial chamber formed from flat stone slabs in a box-like shape.",
"If set completely underground, it may be covered by a ''tumulus''.",
"The word is derived from the Welsh ''cist'' (chest) and ''maen'' (stone).",
"The term originated in relation to Celtic structures, typically pre-Christian, but in antiquarian scholarship of the 19th and early 20th centuries it was sometimes applied to similar structures outside the Celtic world.Merrivale on DartmoorOne of the most numerous kinds of kistvaen are the Dartmoor kistvaens.",
"These often take the form of small rectangular pits about 3 ft. (0.9 m) long by 2 feet (0.6 m) wide.",
"The kistvaens were usually covered with a mound of earth and surrounded by a circle of small stones.",
"When a body was placed in the kistvaen, it was usually lain in a contracted position.",
"Sometimes however the body was cremated with the ashes placed in a cinerary urn."
],
[
"Kistvaens and Celtic saints",
"Kistvaens are also found associated with holy sites or burial places of early Celtic saints, who are often semi-legendary.",
"Saints associated with kistvaens include Callwen daughter of Brychan, Geraint, Begnet, and Melangell.",
"Foundation remains of stone slab- or gable-shrines, or the ''cella memoriae'' of Mediterranean origin, may sometimes have been misunderstood in an earlier era of scholarship as a kistvaen, and the subject is complicated by this \"woolly nomenclature.\""
],
[
"See also",
"* Dolmen, a type of above-ground burial chamber"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Dartmoor tomb raiders* Dartmoor Kistvaen"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kim Stanley Robinson"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kim Stanley Robinson''' (born March 23, 1952) is an American writer of science fiction.",
"He has published 22 novels and numerous short stories and is best known for his ''Mars'' trilogy.",
"His work has been translated into 24 languages.",
"Many of his novels and stories have ecological, cultural, and political themes and feature scientists as heroes.",
"Robinson has won numerous awards, including the Hugo Award for Best Novel, the Nebula Award for Best Novel and the World Fantasy Award.",
"''The Atlantic'' has called Robinson's work \"the gold standard of realistic, and highly literary, science-fiction writing.\"",
"According to an article in ''The New Yorker'', Robinson is \"generally acknowledged as one of the greatest living science-fiction writers.\""
],
[
"Early life and education",
"Robinson was born in Waukegan, Illinois.",
"He moved to Southern California as a child.In 1974, he earned a B.A.",
"in literature from the University of California, San Diego.",
"In 1975, he earned an M.A.",
"in English from Boston University.",
"In 1978 Robinson moved to Davis, California, to take a break from his graduate studies at the University of California, San Diego (UC San Diego).",
"During this time, he worked as a bookseller for Orpheus Books.",
"He also taught freshman composition and other courses at University of California, Davis.In 1982, Robinson earned a PhD in English from UC San Diego under the direction of Donald Wesling.",
"His initial PhD advisor was literary critic and Marxist scholar Fredric Jameson, who told Robinson to read works by Philip K. Dick.",
"Jameson described Dick to Robinson as \"the greatest living American writer\".",
"Robinson's doctoral thesis, ''The Novels of Philip K. Dick'', was published in 1984 and a hardcover version was published by UMI Research Press."
],
[
"Career",
"In 2009, Robinson was an instructor at the Clarion Workshop.",
"In 2010, he was the guest of honor at the 68th World Science Fiction Convention, held in Melbourne.",
"In April 2011, Robinson presented at the second annual Rethinking Capitalism conference, held at the University of California, Santa Cruz.",
"Among other points made, his talk addressed the cyclical nature of capitalism.Robinson was appointed as a Muir Environmental Fellow in 2011 by John Muir College at UC San Diego."
],
[
"Major themes",
"===Nature and culture===Sheldon Brown described Robinson's novels as ways to explore how nature and culture continuously reformulate one another; ''Three Californias Trilogy'' as California in the future; Washington DC undergoing the impact of climate change in the ''Science in the Capital'' series; or Mars as a stand-in for Earth in the ''Mars'' trilogy to think about re-engineering on a global scale, both social and natural conditions.===Ecological sustainability===Virtually all of Robinson's novels have an ecological component; sustainability is one of his primary themes (a strong contender for the primary theme would be the nature of a plausible utopia).",
"The ''Orange County'' trilogy is about the way in which the technological intersects with the natural, highlighting the importance of keeping the two in balance.",
"In the ''Mars'' trilogy, one of the principal divisions among the population of Mars is based on dissenting views on terraforming.",
"Colonists debate whether or not the barren Martian landscape has a similar ecological or spiritual value when compared with a living ecosphere like Earth's.",
"''Forty Signs of Rain'' has an entirely ecological thrust, taking global warming as its principal subject.===Economic and social justice===Kim Stanley Robinson speaking at the Bay Area Anarchist Bookfair on the social themes of his workRobinson's work often explores alternatives to modern capitalism.",
"In the ''Mars'' trilogy, it is argued that capitalism is an outgrowth of feudalism, which could be replaced in the future by a more democratic economic system.",
"Worker ownership and cooperatives figure prominently in ''Green Mars'' and ''Blue Mars'' as replacements for traditional corporations.",
"The ''Orange County'' trilogy explores similar arrangements; ''Pacific Edge'' includes the idea of attacking the legal framework behind corporate domination to promote social egalitarianism.",
"Tim Kreider writes in the ''New Yorker'' that Robinson may be our greatest political novelist and describes how Robinson uses the ''Mars'' trilogy as a template for a credible utopia.",
"His works have made reference to real-world examples of economic organization that have been cited as examples of alternatives to conventional capitalist structures, such as the Mondragon Corporation and the Kerala model.Robinson's writing also reflects an interest in economic models that reject the growth-oriented basis of capitalism: Robert Markley has identified the work of Murray Bookchin as an influence on his thinking, as well as steady-state economics.Robinson's work often portrays characters struggling to preserve and enhance the world around them in an environment characterized by individualism and entrepreneurialism, often facing the political and economic authoritarianism of corporate power acting in this environment.",
"Robinson has been described as anti-capitalist, and his work often portrays a form of frontier capitalism that promotes egalitarian ideals that closely resemble socialist systems, but faced with a capitalism that is maintained by entrenched hegemonic corporations.",
"In particular, his Martian Constitution draws upon social democratic ideals explicitly emphasizing a community-participation element in political and economic life.Robinson's works often portray the worlds of tomorrow in a manner similar to the mythologized American Western frontier, showing a sentimental affection for the freedom and wildness of the frontier.",
"This aesthetic includes a preoccupation with competing models of political and economic organization.The environmental, economic, and social themes in Robinson's oeuvre stand in marked contrast to the right-libertarian science fiction prevalent in much of the genre (Robert A. Heinlein, Poul Anderson, Larry Niven, and Jerry Pournelle being prominent examples).",
"He has been described as \"one of America's best-selling … left-wing novelists\" and his work has been called \"probably the most successful attempt to reach a mass audience with an anti-capitalist utopian vision since Ursula K. Le Guin's 1974 novel, ''The Dispossessed''\".===Scientists as heroes===Robinson's work often features scientists as heroes.",
"They are portrayed in a mundane way compared to most work featuring scientists: rather than being adventurers or action heroes, Robinson's scientists become critically important because of research discoveries, networking and collaboration with other scientists, political lobbying, or becoming public figures.",
"Robinson captures the joy of scientists as they work at something they care about.",
"Robert Markley has argued that Robinson \"views science as the model for a utopian politics...",
"Even in Robinson's novels that don't seem to be sci-fi, like ''Shaman'', the inductive method, the collective search for greater knowledge about the world that can be put to use for the good for all, is front and center\".",
"The ''Mars'' trilogy and ''The Years of Rice and Salt'' rely heavily on the idea that scientists must take responsibility for ensuring public understanding and responsible use of their discoveries.",
"Robinson's scientists often emerge as the best people to direct public policy on important environmental and technological questions, of which politicians are often ignorant.===Climate change and global warming===Related to Robinson's focus on the environment are his themes of the imminent catastrophe of global warming and the need to limit greenhouse gas emissions in the present day.",
"His 2012 novel ''2312'' explores the detrimental, long-term effects of climate change, which include food shortages, global instability, mass extinction, and sea level rise that has drowned many major coastal cities.",
"The novel condemns the people of the period it calls \"the Dithering\", from 2005 to 2060, for failing to address climate change and thereby causing mass suffering and death in the future.",
"Robinson and his work accuse global capitalism for the failure to address climate change.",
"In his 2017 novel ''New York 2140'' Robinson explores the themes of climate change and global warming, setting the novel in the year 2140 when the New York City he imagines is beset by a sea level rise that submerges half of the city.",
"Climate change is also the focus of his ''Science in the Capital'' series and his 2020 novel ''The Ministry for the Future''."
],
[
"Awards and honors",
"Asteroid 72432 Kimrobinson discovered by astronomer Donald P. Pray in 2001, was named in his honor.",
"The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on April 22, 2016 ().In 2008, ''Time'' magazine named Robinson a \"Hero of the Environment\" for his optimistic focus on the future.",
"Year Award Work honored for 1984 World Fantasy Award for Best Novella \"Black Air\" 1984 Science Fiction Chronicle Readers Poll-novella \"Black Air\" 1985 Locus Award for Best First Novel ''The Wild Shore'' 1988 Nebula Award for Best Novella \"The Blind Geometer\" 1988 Asimov's Reader Poll Novella \"Mother Goddess of the World\" 1991 John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel ''Pacific Edge'' 1991 Locus Award for Best Novella \"A Short, Sharp Shock\" 1992 Science Fiction Chronicle Readers Poll Short Fiction \"Vinland the Dream\" 1993 BSFA Award for Best Novel ''Red Mars'' 1994 Hugo Award for Best Novel ''Green Mars'' 1994 Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel ''Green Mars'' 1994 Nebula Award for Best Novel ''Red Mars'' 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novel ''Blue Mars'' 1997 Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel ''Blue Mars'' 1997 Ignotus Award-foreign novel ''Red Mars'' 1998 Ignotus Award-foreign novel ''Green Mars'' 1998 Prix Ozone SF novel, foreign ''Blue Mars'' 1999 Seiun Awards foreign novel ''Red Mars'' 2000 Locus Awards Best Collection ''The Martians'' 2003 Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel ''The Years of Rice and Salt'' 2013 Nebula Award for Best Novel ''2312''2016 Robert A. Heinlein Award Entire body of works 2018 Arthur C. Clarke Award for Imagination in Service to Society Entire body of works"
],
[
"Personal life",
"Robinson and his wife have two sons.",
"Robinson has lived in Washington, D.C., California, and during some of the 1980s, in Switzerland.",
"At times, Robinson was a stay-at-home dad.",
"He later moved to Davis, California, in a cohousing community.Robinson has described himself as an avid backpacker with the Sierra Nevada serving as his home range and a big influence on how he sees the world.Politically, Robinson identifies as a democratic socialist, and in a February 2019 interview mentioned he is a dues-paying member of the Democratic Socialists of America.",
"He has also remarked that libertarianism has never \"made any sense to me, nor sounds attractive as a principle.\""
],
[
"Works"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * KimStanleyRobinson.info – unofficial site* Short descriptions of K.S.",
"Robinson's novels* All of Kim Stanley Robinson's audio interviews on the podcast ''The Future And You'' (in which he describes his expectations of the future)* * Guardian interview with K.S.",
"Robinson (Wednesday September 14, 2005)* \"Comparative Planetology: an Interview with Kim Stanley Robinson\" at BLDGBLOG* Complete list of sci-fi award wins and nominations by novel* Interview on the SciFiDimensions Podcast (original webpage down; link to archive.org version of page.",
")* \"Terraforming Earth\", essay by KSR at Slate, December 4, 2012* * Worldwatch Institute State of the World – Kim Stanley Robinson, 04/16/2013 Washington, DC* Kim Stanley Robinson discusses Marxism, scientism and bureaucrats with The Dig podcast."
]
] | wikipedia |
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