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[ [ "Jerome K. Jerome" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jerome Klapka Jerome''' (2 May 1859 – 14 June 1927) was an English writer and humourist , best known for the comic travelogue ''Three Men in a Boat'' (1889).", "Other works include the essay collections ''Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow'' (1886) and ''Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow''; ''Three Men on the Bummel'', a sequel to ''Three Men in a Boat''; and several other novels.", "Jerome was born in Walsall, England, and, although he was able to attend grammar school, his family suffered from poverty at times, as did he as a young man trying to earn a living in various occupations.", "In his twenties, he was able to publish some work, and success followed.", "He married in 1888, and the honeymoon was spent on a boat on the Thames; he published ''Three Men in a Boat'' soon afterwards.", "He continued to write fiction, non-fiction and plays over the next few decades, though never with the same level of success." ], [ "Early life", "Jerome was born at Belsize House, 1 Caldmore Road, in Caldmore, Walsall, England.", "He was the fourth child of Marguerite Jones and Jerome Clapp (who later renamed himself Jerome Clapp Jerome), an ironmonger and lay preacher who dabbled in architecture.", "He had two sisters, Paulina and Blandina, and one brother, Milton, who died at an early age.", "Jerome was registered as Jerome Clapp Jerome, like his father's amended name, and the Klapka appears to be a later variation (after the exiled Hungarian general György Klapka).", "The family fell into poverty owing to bad investments in the local mining industry, and debt collectors visited often, an experience that Jerome described vividly in his autobiography ''My Life and Times'' (1926).", "At the age of two Jerome moved with his parents to Stourbridge, Worcestershire, then later to East London.The young Jerome attended St Marylebone Grammar School.", "He wished to go into politics or be a man of letters, but the death of his father when Jerome was 13 and of his mother when he was 15 forced him to quit his studies and find work to support himself.", "He was employed at the London and North Western Railway, initially collecting coal that fell along the railway, and he remained there for four years." ], [ "Acting career and early literary works", "Jerome was inspired by his elder sister Blandina's love for the theatre, and he decided to try his hand at acting in 1877, under the stage name Harold Crichton.", "He joined a repertory troupe that produced plays on a shoestring budget, often drawing on the actors' own meagre resources – Jerome was penniless at the time – to purchase costumes and props.", "After three years on the road with no evident success, the 21-year-old Jerome decided that he had had enough of stage life and sought other occupations.", "He tried to become a journalist, writing essays, satires, and short stories, but most of these were rejected.", "Over the next few years, he was a school teacher, a packer, and a solicitor's clerk.", "Finally, in 1885, he had some success with ''On the Stage – and Off'' (1885), a comic memoir of his experiences with the acting troupe, followed by ''Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow'' (1886), a collection of humorous essays which had previously appeared in the newly founded magazine, ''Home Chimes'', the same magazine that would later serialise ''Three Men in a Boat''.On 21 June 1888, Jerome married Georgina Elizabeth Henrietta Stanley Marris (\"Ettie\"), nine days after she divorced her first husband.", "She had a daughter from her previous five-year marriage nicknamed Elsie (her actual name was also Georgina).", "The honeymoon took place on the Thames \"in a little boat,\" a fact that was to have a significant influence on his next and most important work, ''Three Men in a Boat''." ], [ "''Three Men in a Boat'' and later career", "Jerome in about 1889Jerome sat down to write ''Three Men in a Boat'' as soon as the couple returned from their honeymoon.", "In the novel, his wife was replaced by his longtime friends George Wingrave (George) and Carl Hentschel (Harris).", "This allowed him to create comic (and non-sentimental) situations which were nonetheless intertwined with the history of the Thames region.", "The book, published in 1889, became an instant success and has never been out of print.", "Its popularity was such that the number of registered Thames boats went up fifty per cent in the year following its publication, and it contributed significantly to the Thames becoming a tourist attraction.", "In its first twenty years alone, the book sold over a million copies worldwide.", "It has been adapted into films, TV, radio shows, stage plays, and even a musical.", "Its writing style has influenced many humourists and satirists in England and elsewhere.With the financial security that the sales of the book provided, Jerome was able to dedicate all of his time to writing.", "He wrote a number of plays, essays, and novels, but was never able to recapture the success of ''Three Men in a Boat''.", "In 1892, he was chosen by Robert Barr to edit ''The Idler'' (over Rudyard Kipling).", "The magazine was an illustrated satirical monthly catering to gentlemen (who, following the theme of the publication, appreciated idleness).", "In 1893, he founded ''To-Day'', but had to withdraw from both publications because of financial difficulties and a libel suit.Jerome's play ''Biarritz'' had a run of two months at the Prince of Wales Theatre between April and June 1896.In 1898, a short stay in Germany inspired ''Three Men on the Bummel'', the sequel to ''Three Men in a Boat'', reintroducing the same characters in the setting of a foreign bicycle tour.", "The book was nonetheless unable quite to recapture the sheer comic energy and historic rootedness of its celebrated predecessor (lacking as it does the unifying thread that is the river Thames itself) and it has enjoyed only modest success by comparison.", "However, some of the individual comic vignettes that make up \"Bummel\" have been praised as highly as those of \"Boat\".In 1902, he published the novel ''Paul Kelver'', which is widely regarded as autobiographical.", "His 1908 play ''The Passing of the Third Floor Back'' introduced a more sombre and religious Jerome.", "The main character was played by one of the leading actors of the time, Johnston Forbes-Robertson, and the play was a tremendous commercial success.", "It was twice made into film, in 1918 and in 1935.However, the play was condemned by critics – Max Beerbohm described it as \"vilely stupid\" and as written by a \"tenth-rate writer\"." ], [ "First World War and last years", "Jerome's grave at Ewelme (2009)Jerome volunteered to serve his country at the outbreak of the First World War but being 55 years old, he was rejected by the British Army.", "Eager to serve in some capacity, he volunteered as an ambulance driver for the French Army.", "In 1926, Jerome published his autobiography, ''My Life and Times''.", "Shortly afterwards, the Borough of Walsall conferred on him the title Freeman of the Borough.", "During these last years, Jerome spent more time at his farmhouse Gould's Grove south-east of Ewelme near Wallingford.Jerome suffered a paralytic stroke and a cerebral haemorrhage in June 1927, on a motoring tour from Devon to London via Cheltenham and Northampton.", "He lay in Northampton General Hospital for two weeks before dying on 14 June.", "He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and his ashes buried at St Mary's Church, Ewelme, Oxfordshire.", "Elsie, Ettie and his sister Blandina are buried beside him.", "His gravestone reads \"For we are labourers together with God\".", "A small museum dedicated to his life and works was opened in 1984 at his birth home in Walsall, but it closed in 2008 and the contents were returned to Walsall Museum." ], [ "Legacy", "* ''Lazy Thoughts of a Lazy Girl'', a book by the pseudonymous \"Jenny Wren\", was published in 1891.The author is anonymous.", "The book has the same form as ''Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow'' but is from the point of view of a woman.", "* Science-fiction author Connie Willis credited Jerome as the source for the title of her novel ''To Say Nothing of the Dog'', this being the subtitle of ''Three Men in a Boat''.", "* There is a French graphic novel series named '''' after the author.", "* From 1984 to 2008, there was a museum honouring him in Walsall, his birthplace.", "* A sculpture of a boat and a mosaic of a dog commemorate his book ''Three Men in a Boat'' on the Millennium Green in New Southgate, London, where he lived as a child.", "* There is an English Heritage blue plaque which reads 'Jerome K. Jerome 1859–1927 Author Wrote 'Three Men in a Boat' while living here at flat 104' at 104 Chelsea Gardens, Chelsea Bridge Road, London, United Kingdom.", "It was erected in 1989.", "* There is a beer company named Cerveza Jerome in Mendoza, Argentina.", "Its founder was a fan of ''Three Men in a Boat''.", "* A building at Walsall Campus, University of Wolverhampton is named after him.", "* British Rail named one of its Class 31 diesel locomotives after him on 6 May 1990 at Bescot." ], [ "Bibliography", "; Novels* ''Three Men in a Boat (To Say Nothing of the Dog)'' (1889)* ''Diary of a Pilgrimage (and Six Essays)'' (1891) (full text)* ''Weeds: A Story in Seven Chapters'' (1892)* ''Novel Notes'' (1893)* ''Three Men on the Bummel'' (a.k.a.", "''Three Men on Wheels'') (1900)* ''Paul Kelver, a novel'' (1902)* ''Tea-table Talk'' (1903)* ''Tommy and Co'' (1904)* ''They and I'' (1909)* ''All Roads Lead to Calvary'' (1919)* ''Anthony John'' (1923); Collections* ''Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow'' (1886)* ''Told After Supper'' (1891)* ''John Ingerfield: And Other Stories'' (1894)* ''Sketches in Lavender, Blue, and Green'' (1895)* ''Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow'' (1898)* ''The Observations of Henry'' (1901)* ''The Angel and the Author – and Others'' (1904) (20 essays)* ''American Wives – and Others'' (1904) (25 essays, comprising 5 from ''The Angel and the Author'', and 20 from ''Idle Ideas in 1905'').", "* ''Idle Ideas in 1905'' (1905)* ''The Passing of the Third Floor Back: And Other Stories'' (1907)* ''Malvina of Brittany'' (1916)* ''A miscellany of sense and nonsense from the writings of Jerome K. Jerome.", "Selected by the author with many apologies, with forty-three illustrations by Will Owen.''", "1924* ''Three Men in a Boat and Three Men on the Bummel'' (1974)* ''After Supper Ghost Stories: And Other Tales'' (1985)* ''A Bicycle in Good Repair''; Autobiography*''On the Stage—and Off'' (1885)* '' My Life and Times'' (1926); Anthologies containing stories by Jerome K. Jerome* ''Great Short Stories of Detection, Mystery and Horror 1st Series'' (1928)* ''A Century of Humour'' (1934)* ''The Mammoth Book of Thrillers, Ghosts and Mysteries'' (1936)* ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' (1957)* ''Famous Monster Tales'' (1967)* ''The 5th Fontana Book of Great Ghost Stories'' (1969)* ''The Rivals of Frankenstein'' (1975)* ''The 17th Fontana Book of Great Ghost Stories'' (1981)* ''Stories in the Dark'' (1984)* ''Gaslit Nightmares'' (1988)* ''Horror Stories'' (1988)* ''100 Tiny Tales of Terror'' (1996)* ''Knights of Madness: Further Comic Tales of Fantasy'' (1998)* ''100 Hilarious Little Howlers'' (1999); Short stories* ''The Haunted Mill'' (1891)* '' The New Utopia'' (1891)* ''The Dancing Partner'' (1893)* ''Evergreens''* ''Christmas Eve in the Blue Chamber''* ''Silhouettes''* ''The Skeleton''* ''The Snake''* ''The Woman of the Saeter''* ''The Philosopher's Joke'' (1909)* ''The Love of Ulrich Nebendahl'' (1909); Plays* ''Pity is Akin to Love'' (1888)* ''New Lamps for Old'' (1890)* ''The Maister of Wood Barrow: play in three acts'' (1890)* ''What Women Will Do'' (1890)* ''Birth and Breeding'' (1890) – based on Die Ehre, produced in New York in 1895 as \"Honour\"* ''The Rise of Dick Halward'' (1895), produced in New York the previous year as \"The Way to Win a Woman\"* \"The Prude's Progress\" (1895) co-written with Eden Phillpotts* ''The MacHaggis'' (1897)* ''John Ingerfield'' (1899)* ''The Night of 14 Feb.. 1899: a play in nine scenes''* ''Miss Hobbs: a comedy in four acts'' (1902) – starring Evelyn Millard* ''Tommy'' (1906)* ''Sylvia of the Letters'' (1907)* ''Fanny and the Servant Problem, a quite possible play in four acts'' (1909)* ''The Master of Mrs. Chilvers: an improbable comedy, imagined by Jerome K. Jerome'' (1911)* ''Esther Castways'' (1913)* ''The Great Gamble'' (1914)* ''The Three Patriots'' (1915)* ''The Soul of Nicholas Snyders : A Mystery Play in Three Acts'' (1925)* ''The Celebrity: a play in three acts'' (1926)* ''Robina's Web (\"The Dovecote\", or \"The grey feather\"): a farce in four acts''* ''The Passing of the Third Floor Back'' (1908) (the basis of a 1918 film and a 1935 film)* ''The Night of Feb. 14th 1899'' – ''never produced''* ''A Russian Vagabond'' – ''never produced" ], [ "See also", "* List of ambulance drivers during World War I* List of people with reduplicated names* We (novel) – author Zamyatin inspired by Jerome's work" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * The Jerome K. Jerome Society* Jerome K. Jerome Short Stories* http://www.jeromekjerome.com/bibliography/unpublished-plays-by-jerome/* Jerome K. Jerome Quotes subject-wise* ''Below the Fairy City: A Life of Jerome K. Jerome'' by Carolyn W. de la L. Oulton* Jerome K. Jerome in 1881* * Philip de László's portrait of Jerome K. Jerome* Plays by Jerome K. Jerome on the Great War Theatre website* ''A Humorist's Plea for Serious Reading'' from ''The Literary Digest'', January 13, 1906" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Takamine Jōkichi" ], [ "Introduction", " was a Japanese chemist.", "He is known for being the first to isolate epinephrine in 1901." ], [ "Early life and education", "Takamine was born in Takaoka, Toyama Prefecture, in November 1854.His father was a doctor; his mother a member of a family of ''sake'' brewers.", "He spent his childhood in Kanazawa, capital of present-day Ishikawa Prefecture in central Honshū.", "He learned English as a child from a Dutch family in Nagasaki, and so always spoke English with a Dutch accent.", "He was educated in Osaka, Kyoto, and Tokyo, graduating from the Tokyo Imperial University in 1879.He did postgraduate work at University of Glasgow and Anderson College in Scotland until 1883." ], [ "Career", "===Japan===In 1883, Takamine returned to Japan and joined the division of chemistry at the newly established Department of Agriculture and Commerce until 1887.He then founded the Tokyo Artificial Fertilizer Company, where he later isolated the enzyme takadiastase, an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of starch.", "Takamine developed his diastase from ''koji,'' a fungus used in the manufacture of soy sauce and ''miso''.", "Its Latin name is ''Aspergillus oryzae'', and it is a \"designated national fungus\" (''kokkin'') in Japan.===United States===Taka-diastase advertisement in 1905In 1884, Takamine went as co-commissioner of the World Cotton Centennial Exposition to New Orleans, where he met Lafcadio Hearn and 18 year old Caroline Field Hitch, his future wife.", "In 1885, he became the temporary Chief of the Japanese Patent Office and helped to lay the foundations of patent administration.", "He founded he Tokyo Artificial Fertilizer Company, importing large amounts of phosphatefrom Charleston, South Carolina.", "In 1890, he emigrated with his wife and two sons to Chicago.", "He established his own research laboratory in New York City but licensed the exclusive production rights for takadiastase to one of the largest US pharmaceutical companies, Parke-Davis.", "This turned out to be a shrewd move as he became a millionaire in a relatively short time and by the early 20th century was estimated to be worth $30 million.In 1894, Takamine applied for, and was granted, a US patent titled \"Process of Making Diastatic Enzyme\" (), the first patent on a microbial enzyme in the United States.In 1901 he isolated and purified the hormone adrenaline, which became the first effective bronchodilator for asthma from animal glands, becoming the first to accomplish this for a glandular hormone.", "In 1904, the Emperor Meiji of Japan honored Takamine with an unusual gift.", "In the context of the St. Louis World Fair (Louisiana Purchase Exposition), the Japanese government had replicated a historical Japanese structure, the \"Pine and Maple Palace\" (''Shofu-den''), modelled after the Kyoto Imperial Coronation Palace of 1,300 years ago.", "This structure was given to Dr. Takamine in grateful recognition of his efforts to further friendly relations between Japan and the United States.", "He had the structure transported in sections from Missouri to his summer home in upstate New York, seventy-five miles north of New York City.", "In 1909, the structure served as a guest house for Prince Kuni Kuniyoshi and Princess Kuni of Japan, who were visiting the area.", "Although the property was sold in 1922, the reconstructed structure remained in its serene setting.", "In 2008, it still continues to be one of the undervalued tourist attractions of New York's Sullivan County.In 1905 Takamine founded the Nippon Club, which was for many years located at 161 West 93rd Street in Manhattan.Takamine devoted his life to maintaining goodwill between the US and Japan.In 1912, the mayor of Tokyo (Yukio Ozaki) and Jokichi Takamine gifted cherry blossom trees, which were planted in the West Potomac Park surrounding the Tidal Basin in Washington, DC .A 1915 photo presents Jōkichi Takamine as the host for a banquet honoring the visiting Japanese diplomat Baron Eiichi Shibusawa.", "This illustration is linked to Jōkichi Takamine's involvement in the gifting of the cherry blossom trees to Washington, DC in 1912, which has evolved into the National Cherry Blossom Festival which is celebrated yearly." ], [ "Personal life", "Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx, New York CityOn August 10, 1887, Takamine travelled to the US and married Caroline Field Hitch in New Orleans.", "They had two sons Jokichi Takamine, born 1888 in Tokyo, Japan, and Ebenezer Takashi Takamine born in 1889.The family emigrated to the US arriving in Chicago in December 1890.Due to her influence he converted to Catholicism.", "According to historical records, he would maintain this faith throughout his life." ], [ "Awards and honors", "*In 1899, Takamine was awarded an honorary Doctorate in Engineering by what is now the University of Tokyo.", "*On April 18, 1985, the Japan Patent Office selected him as one of Ten Japanese Great Inventors." ], [ "In popular culture", "As of 2011, two films about the life of Takamine have been made by .", "In the 2010 film '''' Takamine was portrayed by Masaya Kato.", "A sequel titled ''Takamine'', also directed by Ichikawa and starring Hatsunori Hasegawa, was released in 2011.As of 2009, the Takamine home in Kanazawa could still be seen.", "It was relocated to near the grounds of Kanazawa Castle in 2001." ], [ "See also", "*National Cherry Blossom Festival" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Final Report of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Commission: Japan's participation * * Biographical snapshots: Jokichi Takamine, ''Journal of Chemical Education'' * Hajime Hoshi.", "(1904).", "''Handbook of Japan and Japanese Exhibits at World's Fair, St. Louis, 1904.''", "St. Louis: Woodward and Tiernan Printing Co.. *   — Dr. Jokichi Takamine: Japanese father of American Biotechnology.", "*  — Production of Microbial Enzymes and Their Applications.", "* History of Industrial Property Right, Jokichi Takamine Taka-Disatase, Adrenaline , Japan patent Office.", "* Radio program about the ‘father of American biotechnology’ who was never allowed to become an American citizen." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jacob Neusner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacob Neusner''' (July 28, 1932 – October 8, 2016) was an American academic scholar of Judaism.", "He was named as one of the most published authors in history, having written or edited more than 900 books.Neusner's application of form criticism—a methodology derived from scholars of the New Testament—to Rabbinic texts was influential, but subject to criticism.", "Neusner's grasp of Rabbinic Hebrew and Aramaic has been challenged within academia." ], [ "Early life and study", "Neusner was born in Hartford, Connecticut, to Reform Jewish parents.", "He graduated from William H. Hall High School in West Hartford.", "He then attended Harvard University, where he met Harry Austryn Wolfson and first encountered Jewish religious texts.", "After graduating from Harvard in 1953, Neusner spent a year at the University of Oxford.Neusner then attended the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, where he was ordained as a Conservative Jewish rabbi.", "After spending a year at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, he returned to the Jewish Theological Seminary and studied the Talmud under Saul Lieberman, who would later write a famous, and highly negative, critique of Neusner's translation of the Jerusalem Talmud.", "He graduated in 1960 with a master's degree.", "Later that year, he received a doctorate in religion from Columbia University." ], [ "Career", "After his studies, Neusner briefly taught at Dartmouth College.", "Neusner also held positions at University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Brandeis University, Brown University, and the University of South Florida.In 1994, Neusner began teaching at Bard College, working there until 2014.While at Bard College, he founded the Institute for Advanced Theology with Bruce Chilton.He was a life member of Clare Hall, Cambridge University.", "He was the only scholar to have served on both the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts.Neusner died on October 8, 2016, at the age of 84." ], [ "Scholarship", "Neusner's research centered on rabbinic Judaism of the Mishnaic and Talmudic eras.", "His work focused on bringing the study of rabbinical text into nonreligious educational institutions and treating them as non-religious documents.Neusner's five-volume ''History of the Jews in Babylonia'', published between 1965 and 1969, is said to be the first to consider the Babylonian Talmud in its Iranian context.", "Neusner studied Persian and Middle Persian to do so.Neusner, with his contemporaries, translated into English nearly the entire Rabbinic canon.", "This work has opened up many Rabbinic documents to scholars of other fields unfamiliar with Hebrew and Aramaic, within the academic study of religion, as well as in ancient history, culture and Near and Middle Eastern Studies.In addition to his work on Rabbinic texts, Neusner was involved in Jewish Studies and Religious Studies.", "Neusner saw Judaism as \"not particular but exemplary, and Jews not as special but (merely) interesting.", "\"=== Interfaith work ===Neusner also wrote a number of works exploring the relationship of Judaism to other religions.", "His ''A Rabbi Talks with Jesus'' attempts to establish a religiously sound framework for Judaic-Christian interchange.", "It earned the praise of Pope Benedict XVI and the nickname \"The Pope's Favorite Rabbi\".", "In his book ''Jesus of Nazareth,'' Benedict referred to it as \"by far the most important book for the Jewish-Christian dialogue in the last decade.\"" ], [ "Political views", "Neusner called himself a Zionist, but also said \"Israel’s flag is not mine.", "My homeland is America.\"", "He was culturally conservative, and opposed feminism and affirmative action.Neusner was a signer of the conservative Christian Cornwall Declaration on Environmental Stewardship, which expresses concern over what it called \"unfounded or undue concerns\" of environmentalists such as \"fears of destructive manmade global warming, overpopulation, and rampant species loss\"." ], [ "Critical assessment of Neusner's work", "Neusner's original adoption of form criticism to the rabbinic texts proved highly influential both in North American and European studies of early Jewish and Christian texts.", "His later detailed studies of Mishnaic law lack the densely footnoted historical approach characteristic of his earlier work.", "As a result, these works, focusing on literary form, tend to ignore contemporary external sources and modern scholarship dealing with these issues.", "The irony was that his approach adopted the analytic methodology developed by Christian scholars for the New Testament, while denying there was any relationship between the Judeo-Christian corpus and rabbinic works, the latter being treated as isolates detached from their broader historical contexts.A number of scholars in his field of study were critical of this phase in his work .Some were critical of his methodology, and asserted that many of his arguments were circular or attempts to prove \"negative assumptions\" from a lack of evidence, while others concentrated on Neusner's reading and interpretations of Rabbinic texts, finding that his account was forced and inaccurate.Neusner's view that the Second Commonwealth Pharisees were a sectarian group centered on \"table fellowship\" and ritual food purity practices, and lacked interest in wider Jewish moral values or social issues, has been criticized by E. P. Sanders, Solomon Zeitlin and Hyam Maccoby.Some scholars questioned Neusner's grasp of Rabbinic Hebrew and Aramaic.", "The most famous and biting criticism came from one of Neusner's former teachers, Saul Lieberman, about Neusner's translation of the Jerusalem Talmud.", "Lieberman wrote, in an article circulated before his death and then published posthumously: \"...one begins to doubt the credibility of the translator Neusner.", "And indeed after a superficial perusal of the translation, the reader is stunned by the translator's ignorance of rabbinic Hebrew, of Aramaic grammar, and above all of the subject matter with which he deals.\"", "Ending his review, Lieberman states \"I conclude with a clear conscience: The right place for Neusner's English translation is the waste basket\" while at the same time qualifying that \"in fairness to the translator I must add that his various essays on Jewish topics are meritorious.", "They abound in brilliant insights and intelligent questions.\"", "Lieberman highlights his criticism as being of Neusner's \"ignorance of the original languages,\" which Lieberman claims even Neusner was originally \"well aware of\" inasmuch as he had previously relied on responsible English renderings of rabbinic sources, e.g., Soncino Press, before later choosing to create his own renderings of rabbinic texts.", "Lieberman's views were seconded by Morton Smith, another teacher who resented Neusner's criticism of his views that Jesus was a homosexual magician.Neusner thought Lieberman's approach reflected the closed mentality of a yeshiva-based education that lacked familiarity with modern formal textual-critical techniques, and he eventually got round to replying to Lieberman's charges by writing in turn an equally scathing monograph entitled: ''Why There Never Was a Talmud of Caesarea: Saul Lieberman’s Mistakes'' (1994).", "In it he attributed to Lieberman 'obvious errors of method, blunders in logic' and argued that Lieberman's work showed a systematic inability to accomplish critical research." ], [ "Publications" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Hughes, Aaron W. (2016).", "''Jacob Neusner: An American Jewish Iconoclast''.", "Albany, NY: NYU Press." ], [ "External links", "* \"Scholar of Judaism, Professional Provocateur,\" Dinitia Smith, ''The New York Times'', April 13, 2005* Sh'ma articles by Jacob Neusner* \"Jacob Neusner, Judaic Scholar Who Forged Interfaith Bonds, Dies at 84\", William Grimes, ''The New York Times'', October 10, 2016" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joachim I Nestor''' (21 February 1484 – 11 July 1535) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1499–1535), the fifth member of the House of Hohenzollern.", "His nickname was taken from King Nestor of Greek mythology." ], [ "Biography", "The eldest son of John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg, Joachim received an excellent education under the supervision of Dietrich von Bülow, Bishop of Lebus and Chancellor of Frankfurt University.", "He became Elector of Brandenburg upon his father's death in January 1499, and soon afterwards married Elizabeth of Denmark, daughter of King John of Denmark in 1502.They had five children:# Joachim II Hector (9 January 1505 – 3 January 1571)# Anna (1507 – 19 June 1567) married Albert VII, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow# Elisabeth (24 August 1510 – 25 May 1558) in 1525 married firstly Eric I of Brunswick-Kalenberg and in 1545 secondly Poppo XII, count of Henneberg# Margaret (29 September 1511 – 1577), married firstly on 23 January 1530 George I, Duke of Pomerania and after his death secondly in 1534 John V, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst.# John (3 August 1513 – 13 January 1571)Joachim took some part in the political complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the early years of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his electorate, where he succeeded in restoring some degree of order through stern measures.", "He also improved the administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, and was sympathetic to the needs to the towns.", "On the approach of the imperial election of 1519, Joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of King Francis I of France, and Charles of Burgundy.", "Having treated with both parties, and received lavish promises from them, he appears to have hoped to be Emperor himself; but when the election came, he turned to the winning side and voted for Charles.", "In spite of this, relations between the Emperor and the Elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim was frequently in communication with Charles' enemies.In the course of Hohenzollern power politics Joachim Nestor and his brother managed to get the latter, Albert of Mainz, first onto the sees of Magdeburg and then its suffragan of Halberstadt, both prince-bishoprics also comprising princely territories.", "Since prince-episcopal sees were so influential, competing candidates usually ran for them.", "A candidature could turn into a bribery competition, without ever knowing exactly how much competitors paid to obtain office.", "The expenditures involved, as far as they exceeded one's own potential, were usually advanced by creditors and had then to be recovered by levying dues from the subjects and parishioners in the prince-bishoprics and dioceses that were just acquired.", "The acquisition in 1514 of the very influential Prince-Archbishopric-Electorate of Mainz for Albert was a coup that provided the Hohenzollerns with control over two of the seven electoral votes in imperial elections and many suffragan dioceses to levy dues.According to canon law, Albert was too young to hold such a position and since he would not give up the archiepiscopal see of Magdeburg (in order to terminate the accumulation of archdioceses, which was also prohibited by canon law), the Hohenzollerns had to dispense ever greater briberies at the Holy See.", "This exhausted their means and caused them to incur vast debts with the Fuggers.To assist in the recovery of the enormous expenditures employed to assist Albert, mediators stipulated with the Holy See that the pope would allow Albert to sell indulgences to the believers in his archdioceses and their suffragans.", "The sales proceeds had to cover the amortisation and servicing of the debts; a share for the Holy See, for allowing this exploitation of the believers; the expenditure paid from the Hohenzollerns own pockets; and the charges involved with the sales.The neighbouring Electorate of Saxony also bid for the See of Mainz, but failed to secure it.", "The Saxon elector Frederick the Wise had debts of his own as a result, but no see to show for it and no privilege to sell indulgences to recover his expenditures.", "Frustrated, he forbade the sale of indulgences in his electorate and allowed Martin Luther to polemicize against them.Joachim Nestor, in contrast, became known as a pugnacious adherent of Roman Catholic orthodoxy.", "Joachim Nestor's brother, Archbishop Albert, was the initial object of Luther's attack.", "He urged on the Emperor the need to enforce the Edict of Worms, and at several diets was prominent among the enemies of the Reformers.A patron of learning, Joachim Nestor established the Viadrina university of Frankfurt (Oder) in 1506.He promoted Georg von Blumenthal, the \"Pillar of Catholicism\", as Chancellor of Frankfurt University, Bishop of Lebus and a Privy Counsellor.", "He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525 and was a member of the league established at Halle in November 1533.But against his will, his wife joined her brother Christian II of Denmark in converting to Lutheranism.", "In 1528 she fled for safety to Saxony.", "Joachim Nestor experienced the mortification of seeing Protestantism also favoured by other members of his family.", "He died at Stendal in 1535." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "References", "* T. von Buttlar, ''Der Kampf Joachims I. van Brandenburg gegen den Adel'' (1889)* J. G. Droysen, ''Geschichte ier Preussischen Politik'' (1855–1886)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Keats" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Keats''' (31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821) was an English poet of the second generation of Romantic poets, along with Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley.", "His poems had been in publication for less than four years when he died of tuberculosis at the age of 25.They were indifferently received in his lifetime, but his fame grew rapidly after his death.", "By the end of the century, he was placed in the canon of English literature, strongly influencing many writers of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood; the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' of 1888 called one ode \"one of the final masterpieces\".", "Jorge Luis Borges named his first time reading Keats an experience he felt all his life.", "Keats had a style \"heavily loaded with sensualities\", notably in the series of odes.", "Typically of the Romantics, he accentuated extreme emotion through natural imagery.", "Today his poems and letters remain among the most popular and analysed in English literature – in particular \"Ode to a Nightingale\", \"Ode on a Grecian Urn\", \"Sleep and Poetry\" and the sonnet \"On First Looking into Chapman's Homer\"." ], [ "Early life and education, 1795–1810", "John Keats was born in Moorgate, London, on 31 October 1795, to Thomas and Frances Keats (née Jennings).", "There is little evidence of his exact birthplace.", "Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October, baptism records give the date as the 31st.", "He was the eldest of four surviving children; his younger siblings were George (1797–1841), Thomas (1799–1818), and Frances Mary \"Fanny\" (1803–1889), who later married the Spanish author Valentín Llanos Gutiérrez.", "Another son was lost in infancy.", "His father first worked as an ostler at the stables attached to the ''Swan and Hoop Inn'' owned by his father-in-law, John Jennings, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years.", "Keats believed he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, but there is no evidence to support this.", "The Globe pub now occupies the site (2012), a few yards from modern Moorgate station.", "Keats was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate, and sent to a local dame school as a child.Life mask of Keats by Benjamin Haydon, 1816His parents wished to send their sons to Eton or Harrow, but the family decided they could not afford the fees.", "In the summer of 1803, John was sent to board at John Clarke's school in Enfield, close to his grandparents' house.", "The small school had a liberal outlook and a progressive curriculum more modern than the larger, more prestigious schools.", "In the family atmosphere at Clarke's, Keats developed an interest in classics and history, which would stay with him throughout his short life.", "The headmaster's son, Charles Cowden Clarke, also became an important mentor and friend, introducing Keats to Renaissance literature, including Tasso, Spenser, and Chapman's translations.", "The young Keats was described by his friend Edward Holmes as a volatile character, \"always in extremes\", given to indolence and fighting.", "However, at 13 he began focusing his energy on reading and study, winning his first academic prize in midsummer 1809.In April 1804, when Keats was eight, his father died from a skull fracture after falling from his horse while returning from a visit to Keats and his brother George at school.", "Thomas Keats died intestate.", "Frances remarried two months later, but left her new husband soon afterwards, and the four children went to live with a grandmother, Alice Jennings, in the village of Edmonton.In March 1810, when Keats was 14, his mother died of tuberculosis, leaving the children in their grandmother's custody.", "She appointed two guardians, Richard Abbey and John Sandell, for them.", "That autumn, Keats left Clarke's school to be an apprentice with Thomas Hammond, a surgeon and apothecary who was a neighbour and the doctor of the Jennings family.", "Keats lodged in the attic above the surgery, at 7 Church Street, until 1813.Cowden Clarke, who remained close to Keats, called this period \"the most placid time in Keats' life.", "\"From 1814 Keats had two bequests, held in trust for him until his 21st birthday.", "£800 was willed by his grandfather John Jennings.", "Also Keats's mother left a legacy of £8000 to be equally divided among her living children.", "It seems he was not told of the £800 and probably knew nothing of it as he never applied for it.", "Historically, blame has often been laid on Abbey as legal guardian, but he may also have been unaware of it.", "William Walton, solicitor for Keats's mother and grandmother, definitely knew and had a duty of care to relay the information to Keats.", "It seems he did not, though it would have made a critical difference to the poet's expectations.", "Money was always a great concern and difficulty, as he struggled to stay out of debt and make his way in the world independently." ], [ "Career", "===Medical training and writing poetry===In October 1815, having finished his five-year apprenticeship with Hammond, Keats registered as a medical student at Guy's Hospital (now part of King's College London) and began studying there.", "Within a month, he was accepted as a dresser at the hospital assisting surgeons during operations, the equivalent of a junior house surgeon today.", "It was a significant promotion, that marked a distinct aptitude for medicine; and it brought greater responsibility and a heavier workload.", "Keats's long and expensive medical training with Hammond and at Guy's Hospital led his family to assume he would pursue a lifelong career in medicine, assuring financial security, and it seems that, at this point, Keats had a genuine desire to become a doctor.", "He lodged near the hospital, at 28 St Thomas's Street in Southwark, with other medical students, including Henry Stephens who gained fame as an inventor and ink magnate.Keats's training took up increasing amounts of his writing time and he became increasingly ambivalent about it.", "He felt he was facing a stark choice.", "He had written his first extant poem, \"An Imitation of Spenser\", in 1814, when he was 19.Now, strongly drawn by ambition, inspired by fellow poets such as Leigh Hunt and Lord Byron, and beleaguered by family financial crises, he suffered periods of depression.", "His brother George wrote that John \"feared that he should never be a poet, & if he was not he would destroy himself.\"", "In 1816, Keats received his apothecary's licence, which made him eligible to practise as an apothecary, physician and surgeon, but before the end of the year he had informed his guardian that he resolved to be a poet, not a surgeon.===Publication and literary circles===Although he continued his work and training at Guy's, Keats devoted more and more time to the study of literature, experimenting with verse forms, particularly the sonnet.", "In May 1816, Leigh Hunt agreed to publish the sonnet \"O Solitude\" in his magazine ''The Examiner'', a leading liberal magazine of the day.", "This was the first appearance of Keats's poetry in print; Charles Cowden Clarke called it his friend's red letter day, first proof that Keats' ambitions were valid.", "Among his poems of 1816 was ''To My Brothers''.", "That summer, Keats went with Clarke to the seaside town of Margate to write.", "There he began \"Calidore\" and initiated an era of great letter writing.", "On returning to London, he took lodgings at 8 Dean Street, Southwark, and braced himself to study further for membership of the Royal College of Surgeons.In October 1816 Clarke introduced Keats to the influential Leigh Hunt, a close friend of Byron and Shelley.", "Five months later came the publication of ''Poems'', the first volume of Keats's verse, which included \"I stood tiptoe\" and \"Sleep and Poetry\", both strongly influenced by Hunt.", "The book was a critical failure, arousing little interest, although Reynolds reviewed it favourably in ''The Champion''.", "Clarke commented that the book \"might have emerged in Timbuctoo.\"", "Keats's publishers, Charles and James Ollier, felt ashamed of it.", "Keats immediately changed publishers to Taylor and Hessey in Fleet Street.", "Unlike the Olliers, Keats's new publishers were enthusiastic about his work.", "Within a month of the publication of ''Poems'' they were planning a new Keats volume and had paid him an advance.", "Hessey became a steady friend to Keats and made the company's rooms available for young writers to meet.", "Their publishing lists came to include Coleridge, Hazlitt, Clare, Hogg, Carlyle and Charles Lamb.Through Taylor and Hessey, Keats met their Eton-educated lawyer, Richard Woodhouse, who advised them on literary as well as legal matters and was deeply impressed by ''Poems''.", "Although he noted that Keats could be \"wayward, trembling, easily daunted,\" Woodhouse was convinced of Keats's genius, a poet to support as he became one of England's greatest writers.", "Soon after they met, the two became close friends, and Woodhouse started to collect Keatsiana, documenting as much as he could about the poetry.", "This archive survives as one of the main sources of information on Keats's work.", "Andrew Motion represents him as Boswell to Keats's Johnson, ceaselessly promoting his work, fighting his corner and spurring his poetry to greater heights.", "In later years, Woodhouse was one of the few to accompany Keats to Gravesend, Kent, to embark on his final trip to Rome.Despite the bad reviews of ''Poems'', Hunt published the essay \"Three Young Poets\" (Shelley, Keats, and Reynolds) and the sonnet \"On First Looking into Chapman's Homer\", foreseeing great things to come.", "He introduced Keats to many prominent men in his circle, including the editor of ''The Times'', Thomas Barnes; the writer Charles Lamb; the conductor Vincent Novello; and the poet John Hamilton Reynolds, who would become a close friend.", "Keats also met regularly with William Hazlitt, a powerful literary figure of the day.", "It was a turning point for Keats, establishing him in the public eye as a figure in what Hunt termed \"a new school of poetry\".", "At this time Keats wrote to his friend Bailey, \"I am certain of nothing but the holiness of the Heart's affections and the truth of the imagination.", "What imagination seizes as Beauty must be truth.\"", "This passage would eventually be transmuted into the concluding lines of \"Ode on a Grecian Urn\": Beauty is truth, truth beauty' – that is all / Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know\".", "In early December 1816, under the heady influence of his artistic friends, Keats told Abbey he had decided to give up medicine in favour of poetry, to Abbey's fury.", "Keats had spent a great deal on his medical training, and despite his state of financial hardship and indebtedness, made large loans to friends such as the painter Benjamin Haydon.", "Keats would go on to lend £700 to his brother George.", "By lending so much, Keats could no longer cover the interest of his own debts.===Travelling and ill health===Having left his training at the hospital, suffering from a succession of colds, and unhappy with living in damp rooms in London, Keats moved with his brothers into rooms at 1 Well Walk in the village of Hampstead in April 1817.There John and George nursed their tubercular brother Tom.", "The house was close to Hunt and others of his circle in Hampstead, and to Coleridge, respected elder of the first wave of Romantic poets, then living in Highgate.", "On 11 April 1818, Keats reported that he and Coleridge had taken a long walk on Hampstead Heath.", "In a letter to his brother George, he wrote that they had talked about \"a thousand things, ... nightingales, poetry, poetical sensation, metaphysics.\"", "Around this time he was introduced to Charles Wentworth Dilke and James Rice.In June 1818, Keats began a walking tour of Scotland, Ireland and the Lake District with Charles Armitage Brown.", "Keats's brother George and his wife Georgiana accompanied them to Lancaster and then continued to Liverpool, from where they migrated to America, living in Ohio and Louisville, Kentucky, until 1841, when George's investments failed.", "Like Keats's other brother, they both died penniless and racked by tuberculosis, for which there was no effective treatment until the next century.", "In July, while on the Isle of Mull, Keats caught a bad cold and \"was too thin and fevered to proceed on the journey.\"", "After returning south in August, Keats continued to nurse Tom, so exposing himself to infection.", "Some have suggested this was when tuberculosis, his \"family disease\", took hold.", "\"Consumption\" was not identified as a disease with a single infectious origin until 1820.There was considerable stigma attached to it, as it was often tied with weakness, repressed sexual passion or masturbation.", "Keats \"refuses to give it a name\" in his letters.", "Tom Keats died on 1 December 1818.===Wentworth Place: annus mirabilis===Wentworth Place, now the Keats House museum (left), Ten Keats Grove (right), Hampstead Heath, LondonJohn Keats moved to the newly built Wentworth Place, owned by his friend Charles Armitage Brown.", "It was on the edge of Hampstead Heath, ten minutes' walk south of his old home in Well Walk.", "The winter of 1818–19, though a difficult period for the poet, marked the beginning of his ''annus mirabilis'' in which he wrote his most mature work.", "He had been inspired by a series of recent lectures by Hazlitt on English poets and poetic identity and had also met Wordsworth.", "Keats may have seemed to his friends to be living on comfortable means, but in reality he was borrowing regularly from Abbey and his friends.He composed five of his six great odes at Wentworth Place in April and May and, although it is debated in which order they were written, \"Ode to Psyche\" opened the published series.", "According to Brown, \"Ode to a Nightingale\" was composed under a plum tree in the garden.", "Brown wrote, \"In the spring of 1819 a nightingale had built her nest near my house.", "Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast-table to the grass-plot under a plum-tree, where he sat for two or three hours.", "When he came into the house, I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand, and these he was quietly thrusting behind the books.", "On inquiry, I found those scraps, four or five in number, contained his poetic feelings on the song of our nightingale.\"", "Dilke, co-owner of the house, strenuously denied the story, printed in Richard Monckton Milnes' 1848 biography of Keats, dismissing it as 'pure delusion'.", "\"Ode on a Grecian Urn\" and \"Ode on Melancholy\" were inspired by sonnet forms and probably written after \"Ode to a Nightingale\".", "Keats's new and progressive publishers Taylor and Hessey issued ''Endymion'', which Keats dedicated to Thomas Chatterton, a work that he termed \"a trial of my Powers of Imagination\".", "It was damned by the critics, giving rise to Byron's quip that Keats was ultimately \"snuffed out by an article\", suggesting that he never truly got over it.", "A particularly harsh review by John Wilson Croker appeared in the April 1818 edition of the ''Quarterly Review''.", "John Gibson Lockhart writing in ''Blackwood's Magazine'', described ''Endymion'' as \"imperturbable drivelling idiocy\".", "With biting sarcasm, Lockhart advised, \"It is a better and a wiser thing to be a starved apothecary than a starved poet; so back to the shop Mr John, back to plasters, pills, and ointment boxes.\"", "It was Lockhart at ''Blackwoods'' who coined the defamatory term \"the Cockney School\" for Hunt and his circle, which included both Hazlitt and Keats.", "The dismissal was as much political as literary, aimed at upstart young writers deemed uncouth for their lack of education, non-formal rhyming and \"low diction\".", "They had not attended Eton, Harrow or Oxbridge and they were not from the upper classes.In 1819 Keats wrote \"The Eve of St. Agnes\", \"La Belle Dame sans Merci\", \"Hyperion\", \"Lamia\" and a play, ''Otho the Great'' (critically damned and not performed until 1950).", "The poems \"Fancy\" and \"Bards of passion and of mirth\" were inspired by the garden of Wentworth Place.", "In September, very short of money and in despair considering taking up journalism or a post as a ship's surgeon, he approached his publishers with a new book of poems.", "They were unimpressed with the collection, finding the presented versions of \"Lamia\" confusing, and describing \"St Agnes\" as having a \"sense of pettish disgust\" and \"a 'Don Juan' style of mingling up sentiment and sneering\" concluding it was \"a poem unfit for ladies\".", "The final volume Keats lived to see, ''Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems'', was eventually published in July 1820.It received greater acclaim than had ''Endymion'' or ''Poems'', finding favourable notices in both ''The Examiner'' and ''Edinburgh Review''.", "It would come to be recognised as one of the most important poetic works ever published.Wentworth Place now houses the Keats House museum.===Isabella Jones and Fanny Brawne, 1817–1820===Keats befriended Isabella Jones in May 1817, while on holiday in the village of Bo Peep, near Hastings.", "She is described as beautiful, talented and widely read, not of the top flight of society yet financially secure, an enigmatic figure who would become a part of Keats's circle.", "Throughout their friendship Keats never hesitated to own his sexual attraction to her, although they seemed to enjoy circling each other rather than offering commitment.", "He writes that he \"frequented her rooms\" in the winter of 1818–19, and in his letters to George says that he \"warmed with her\" and \"kissed her\".", "The trysts may have been a sexual initiation for Keats according to Bate and Robert Gittings.", "Jones inspired and was a steward of Keats's writing.", "The themes of \"The Eve of St. Agnes\" and \"The Eve of St Mark\" may well have been suggested by her, the lyric ''Hush, Hush!''", "\"o sweet Isabel\" was about her, and that the first version of \"Bright Star\" may have originally been for her.", "In 1821, Jones was one of the first in England to be notified of Keats's death.Letters and drafts of poems suggest that Keats first met Frances (Fanny) Brawne between September and November 1818.It is likely that the 18-year-old Brawne visited the Dilke family at Wentworth Place before she lived there.", "She was born in the hamlet of West End (now in the district of West Hampstead), on 9 August 1800.Like Keats's grandfather, her grandfather kept a London inn, and both lost several family members to tuberculosis.", "She shared her first name with both Keats's sister and mother, and had a talent for dress-making and languages as well as a natural theatrical bent.", "During November 1818 she developed an intimacy with Keats, but it was shadowed by the illness of Tom Keats, whom John was nursing through this period.Ambrotype of Fanny Brawne taken circa 1850 (photograph on glass)On 3 April 1819, Brawne and her widowed mother moved into the other half of Dilke's Wentworth Place, and Keats and Brawne were able to see each other every day.", "Keats began to lend Brawne books, such as Dante's ''Inferno'', and they would read together.", "He gave her the love sonnet \"Bright Star\" (perhaps revised for her) as a declaration.", "It was a work in progress which he continued until the last months of his life, and the poem came to be associated with their relationship.", "\"All his desires were concentrated on Fanny\".", "From this point there is no further documented mention of Isabella Jones.", "Sometime before the end of June, he arrived at some sort of understanding with Brawne, far from a formal engagement as he still had too little to offer, with no prospects and financial stricture.", "Keats endured great conflict knowing his expectations as a struggling poet in increasingly hard straits would preclude marriage to Brawne.", "Their love remained unconsummated; jealousy for his 'star' began to gnaw at him.", "Darkness, disease and depression surrounded him, reflected in poems such as \"The Eve of St. Agnes\" and \"La Belle Dame sans Merci\" where love and death both stalk.", "\"I have two luxuries to brood over in my walks;\" he wrote to her, \"your loveliness, and the hour of my death\".In one of his many hundreds of notes and letters, Keats wrote to Brawne on 13 October 1819: \"My love has made me selfish.", "I cannot exist without you – I am forgetful of every thing but seeing you again – my Life seems to stop there – I see no further.", "You have absorb'd me.", "I have a sensation at the present moment as though I was dissolving – I should be exquisitely miserable without the hope of soon seeing you ...", "I have been astonished that Men could die Martyrs for religion – I have shudder'd at it – I shudder no more – I could be martyr'd for my Religion – Love is my religion – I could die for that – I could die for you.", "\"Tuberculosis took hold and he was advised by his doctors to move to a warmer climate.", "In September 1820 Keats left for Rome knowing he would probably never see Brawne again.", "After leaving he felt unable to write to her or read her letters, although he did correspond with her mother.", "He died there five months later.", "None of Brawne's letters to Keats survive.It took a month for the news of his death to reach London, after which Brawne stayed in mourning for six years.", "In 1833, more than 12 years after his death, she married and went on to have three children; she outlived Keats by more than 40 years." ], [ "Last months: Rome, 1820", "During 1820 Keats displayed increasingly serious symptoms of tuberculosis, suffering two lung haemorrhages in the first few days of February.", "On first coughing up blood, on 3 February 1820, he said to Charles Armitage Brown, \"I know the colour of that blood!", "It is arterial blood.", "I cannot be deceived in that colour.", "That drop of blood is my death warrant.", "I must die.", "\"He lost large amounts of blood and was bled further by the attending physician.", "Hunt nursed him in London for much of the following summer.", "At the suggestion of his doctors, he agreed to move to Italy with his friend Joseph Severn.", "On 13 September, they left for Gravesend and four days later boarded the sailing brig ''Maria Crowther''.", "On 1 October the ship landed at Lulworth Bay or Holworth Bay, where the two went ashore; back on board ship he made the final revisions of \"Bright Star\".", "The journey was a minor catastrophe: storms broke out, followed by a dead calm that slowed the ship's progress.", "When they finally docked in Naples, the ship was held in quarantine for ten days due to a suspected outbreak of cholera in Britain.", "Keats reached Rome on 14 November, by which time any hope of the warmer climate he sought had disappeared.Keats's house in RomeKeats wrote his last letter on 30 November 1820 to Charles Armitage Brown; \"Tis the most difficult thing in the world to me to write a letter.", "My stomach continues so bad, that I feel it worse on opening any book – yet I am much better than I was in Quarantine.", "Then I am afraid to encounter the proing and conning of any thing interesting to me in England.", "I have an habitual feeling of my real life having past, and that I am leading a posthumous existence\".On arrival in Italy, he moved into a villa on the Spanish Steps in Rome, today the Keats–Shelley Memorial House museum.", "Despite care from Severn and Dr. James Clark, his health rapidly deteriorated.", "The medical attention Keats received may have hastened his death.", "In November 1820, Clark declared that the source of his illness was \"mental exertion\" and that the source was largely situated in his stomach.", "Clark eventually diagnosed consumption (tuberculosis) and placed Keats on a starvation diet of an anchovy and a piece of bread a day intended to reduce the blood flow to his stomach.", "He also bled the poet: a standard treatment of the day, but also likely a significant contributor to Keats's weakness.", "Severn's biographer Sue Brown writes: \"They could have used opium in small doses, and Keats had asked Severn to buy a bottle of opium when they were setting off on their voyage.", "What Severn didn't realise was that Keats saw it as a possible resource if he wanted to commit suicide.", "He tried to get the bottle from Severn on the voyage but Severn wouldn't let him have it.", "Then in Rome he tried again.... Severn was in such a quandary he didn't know what to do, so in the end he went to the doctor, who took it away.", "As a result Keats went through dreadful agonies with nothing to ease the pain at all.\"", "Keats was angry with both Severn and Clark when they would not give him laudanum (opium).", "He repeatedly demanded, \"How long is this posthumous existence of mine to go on?\"" ], [ "Death, 1821", "The first months of 1821 marked a slow and steady decline into the final stage of tuberculosis.", "His autopsy showed his lung almost disintegrated.", "Keats was coughing up blood and covered in sweat.", "Severn nursed him devotedly and observed in a letter how Keats would sometimes cry upon waking to find himself still alive.", "Severn writes,Keats's grave in RomeJohn Keats died in Rome on 23 February 1821.His body was buried in the city's Protestant Cemetery.", "His last request was to be placed under a tombstone bearing no name or date, only the words, \"Here lies One whose Name was writ in Water.\"", "Severn and Brown erected the stone, which under a relief of a lyre with broken strings, includes the epitaph: The text bears an echo from Catullus LXX:Francis Beaumont also used the expression in ''The Nice Valour'', Act 5, scene 5 (?", "1616):Severn and Brown added their lines to the stone in protest at the critical reception of Keats's work.", "Hunt blamed his death on the ''Quarterly Review''s scathing attack of \"Endymion\".", "As Byron quipped in his narrative poem ''Don Juan'';Seven weeks after the funeral, Shelley memorialised Keats in his poem ''Adonais''.", "Clark saw to a planting of daisies on the grave, saying Keats would have wished it.", "For public health reasons, the Italian health authorities burnt the furniture in Keats's room, scraped the walls and made new windows, doors and flooring.", "The ashes of Shelley, one of Keats's most fervent champions, are buried in the cemetery and Joseph Severn is buried next to Keats.", "On the site today, Marsh wrote, \"In the old part of the graveyard, barely a field when Keats was buried here, there are now umbrella pines, myrtle shrubs, roses, and carpets of wild violets\"." ], [ "Reception", "Relief on wall near his grave in RomeWhen Keats died at 25, he had been writing poetry seriously for only about six years, from 1814 until the summer of 1820, and publishing for only four.", "In his lifetime, sales of Keats's three volumes of poetry probably amounted to only 200 copies.", "His first poem, the sonnet ''O Solitude'', appeared in ''the Examiner'' in May 1816, while his collection ''Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes and other poems'' was published in July 1820 before his last visit to Rome.", "The compression of his poetic apprenticeship and maturity into so short a time is just one remarkable aspect of Keats's work.Although prolific during his short career, and now one of the most studied and admired British poets, his reputation rests on a small body of work, centred on the Odes, and only in the creative outpouring of the last years of his short life was he able to express the inner intensity for which he has been lauded since his death.", "Keats was convinced that he had made no mark in his lifetime.", "Aware that he was dying, he wrote to Fanny Brawne in February 1820, \"I have left no immortal work behind me – nothing to make my friends proud of my memory – but I have lov'd the principle of beauty in all things, and if I had had time I would have made myself remember'd.", "\"Keats's ability and talent was acknowledged by several influential contemporary allies such as Shelley and Hunt.", "His admirers praised him for thinking \"on his pulses\", for having developed a style which was more heavily loaded with sensualities, more gorgeous in its effects, more voluptuously alive than any poet who had come before him: \"loading every rift with ore\".", "Shelley often corresponded with Keats in Rome and loudly declared that Keats's death had been brought on by bad reviews in the ''Quarterly Review''.", "Seven weeks after the funeral he wrote ''Adonais'', a despairing elegy, stating that Keats's early death was a personal and public tragedy:Although Keats wrote that \"if poetry comes not as naturally as the Leaves to a tree it had better not come at all,\" poetry did not come easily to him; his work was the fruit of a deliberate and prolonged classical self-education.", "He may have possessed an innate poetic sensibility, but his early works were clearly those of a young man learning his craft.", "His first attempts at verse were often vague, languorously narcotic and lacking a clear eye.", "His poetic sense was based on the conventional tastes of his friend Charles Cowden Clarke, who first introduced him to the classics, and also came from the predilections of Hunt's ''Examiner'', which Keats read as a boy.", "Hunt scorned the Augustan or \"French\" school dominated by Pope and attacked earlier Romantic poets Wordsworth and Coleridge, now in their forties, as unsophisticated, obscure and crude writers.", "Indeed, during Keats's few years as a published poet, the reputation of the older Romantic school was at its lowest ebb.", "Keats came to echo these sentiments in his work, identifying himself with a \"new school\" for a time, somewhat alienating him from Wordsworth, Coleridge and Byron and providing a basis for scathing attacks from ''Blackwood's'' and the ''Quarterly Review''.By his death, Keats had therefore been associated with the taints of both old and new schools: the obscurity of first-wave Romantics and uneducated affectation of Hunt's \"Cockney School\".", "Keats's posthumous reputation mixed the reviewers' caricature of the simplistic bumbler with the image of a hyper-sensitive genius killed by high feeling, which Shelley later portrayed.The Victorian sense of poetry as the work of indulgence and luxuriant fancy offered a schema into which Keats was posthumously fitted.", "Marked as the standard-bearer of sensory writing, his reputation grew steadily and remarkably.", "His work had the full support of the influential Cambridge Apostles, whose members included the young Tennyson, later a popular Poet Laureate who came to regard Keats as the greatest poet of the 19th century.", "Constance Naden was a great admirer of his poems, arguing that his genius lay in his 'exquisite sensitiveness to all the elements of beauty'.", "In 1848, twenty-seven years after Keats's death, Richard Monckton Milnes published the first full biography, which helped place Keats within the canon of English literature.", "The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, including Millais and Rossetti, were inspired by Keats and painted scenes from his poems including \"The Eve of St. Agnes\", \"Isabella\" and \"La Belle Dame sans Merci\", lush, arresting and popular images which remain closely associated with Keats's work.In 1882, Swinburne wrote in the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' that \"the Ode to a Nightingale was one of the final masterpieces of human work in all time and for all ages\".", "In the 20th century Keats remained the muse of poets such as Wilfred Owen, who kept his death date as a day of mourning, Yeats and T. S. Eliot.", "Critic Helen Vendler stated the odes \"are a group of works in which the English language finds an ultimate embodiment.\"", "Bate said of ''To Autumn'': \"Each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English\" and M. R. Ridley said the ode \"is the most serenely flawless poem in our language.", "\"The largest collection of the letters, manuscripts, and other papers of Keats is in the Houghton Library at Harvard University.", "Other collections of material are archived at the British Library, Keats House, Hampstead, the Keats–Shelley Memorial House in Rome and the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York.", "Since 1998 the British Keats-Shelley Memorial Association have annually awarded a prize for romantic poetry.", "A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque was unveiled in 1896 to commemorate Keats at Keats House.Jorge Luis Borges named his first encounter with Keats an experience he felt all his life.===Biographers===None of Keats's biographies were written by people who had known him.", "Shortly after his death, his publishers announced they would speedily publish ''The memoirs and remains of John Keats'' but his friends refused to cooperate and argued with each other to such an extent that the project was abandoned.", "Leigh Hunt's ''Lord Byron and some of his Contemporaries'' (1828) gives the first biographical account, strongly emphasising Keats's supposedly humble origins, a misconception which still continues.", "Given that he was becoming a significant figure within artistic circles, a succession of other publications followed, including anthologies of his many notes, chapters and letters.", "However, early accounts often gave contradictory or biased versions of events and were subject to dispute.", "His friends Brown, Severn, Dilke, Shelley and his guardian Richard Abbey, his publisher Taylor, Fanny Brawne and many others issued posthumous commentary on Keats's life.", "These early writings coloured all subsequent biography and have become embedded in a body of Keats legend.Shelley promoted Keats as someone whose achievement could not be separated from agony, who was 'spiritualised' by his decline and too fine-tuned to endure the harshness of life; the consumptive, suffering image popularly held today.", "The first full biography was published in 1848 by Richard Monckton Milnes.", "Landmark Keats biographers since include Sidney Colvin, Robert Gittings, Walter Jackson Bate, Aileen Ward, and Andrew Motion.", "The idealised image of the heroic romantic poet who battled poverty and died young was inflated by the late arrival of an authoritative biography and the lack of an accurate likeness.", "Most of the surviving portraits of Keats were painted after his death, and those who knew him held that they did not succeed in capturing his unique quality and intensity.===Other portrayals===Guys and Saint Thomas' Hospital, London''John Keats: His Life and Death'', the first major motion picture about the life of Keats, was produced in 1973 by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.", "It was directed by John Barnes.", "John Stride played John Keats and Janina Faye played Fanny Brawne.", "The 2009 film ''Bright Star'', written and directed by Jane Campion, focuses on Keats's relationship with Fanny Brawne.", "Inspired by the 1997 Keats biography by Andrew Motion, Ben Whishaw played Keats and Abbie Cornish played Fanny.Poet Laureate Simon Armitage wrote \"'I speak as someone...'\" to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Keats's death.", "It was first published in ''The Times'' on 20 February 2021.In 2007 a sculpture of Keats seated on a bench, by sculptor Stuart Williamson, was unveiled at Guys and Saint Thomas' Hospital, London by the Poet Laureate, Andrew Motion." ], [ "Letters", "The poem ''On death'' on a wall at Breestraat 113 in Leiden, Netherlands.Keats's letters were first published in 1848 and 1878.Critics in the 19th century disregarded them as distractions from his poetic works, but in the 20th century they became almost as admired and studied as his poetry, and are highly regarded in the canon of English literary correspondence.", "T. S. Eliot called them \"certainly the most notable and most important ever written by any English poet.\"", "Keats spent much time considering poetry itself, its constructs and impacts, displaying a deep interest unusual in his milieu, who were more easily distracted by metaphysics or politics, fashions or science.", "Eliot wrote of Keats's conclusions; \"There is hardly one statement of Keats' about poetry which... will not be found to be true, and what is more, true for greater and more mature poetry than anything Keats ever wrote.", "\"Few of Keats's letters remain from the period before he joined his literary circle.", "From spring 1817, however, there is a rich record of his prolific and impressive letter-writing skills.", "He and his friends, poets, critics, novelists, and editors wrote to each other daily, and Keats's ideas are bound up in the ordinary, his day-to-day missives sharing news, parody and social commentary.", "They glitter with humour and critical intelligence.", "Born of an \"unself-conscious stream of consciousness,\" they are impulsive, full of awareness of his own nature and his weak spots.", "When his brother George went to America, Keats wrote to him in detail, the body of letters becoming \"the real diary\" and self-revelation of Keats's life, as well as an exposition of his philosophy, with the first drafts of poems containing some of Keats's finest writing and thought.", "Gittings sees them as akin to a \"spiritual journal\" not written for a specific other, so much as for synthesis.Keats also reflected on the background and composition of his poetry.", "Specific letters often coincide with or anticipate the poems they describe.", "In February to May 1819 he produced many of his finest letters.", "Writing to his brother George, Keats explored the idea of the world as \"the vale of Soul-making\", anticipating the great odes he wrote some months later.", "In the letters Keats coined ideas such as the Mansion of Many Apartments and the Chameleon Poet, which came to gain common currency and capture the public imagination, though only making single appearances as phrases in his correspondence.", "The poetical mind, Keats argued:has no self – it is every thing and nothing – It has no character – it enjoys light and shade;... What shocks the virtuous philosopher, delights the camelion chameleon Poet.", "It does no harm from its relish of the dark side of things any more than from its taste for the bright one; because they both end in speculation.", "A Poet is the most unpoetical of any thing in existence; because he has no Identity – he is continually in for – and filling some other Body – The Sun, the Moon, the Sea and Men and Women who are creatures of impulse are poetical and have about them an unchangeable attribute – the poet has none; no identity – he is certainly the most unpoetical of all God's Creatures.He used the term negative capability to discuss the state of being in which we are \"capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts without any irritable reaching after fact & reason....", "Being content with half knowledge\" where one trusts in the heart's perceptions.", "He wrote later he was \"certain of nothing but the holiness of the Heart's affections and the truth of Imagination – What the imagination seizes as Beauty must be truth – whether it existed before or not – for I have the same Idea of all our Passions as of Love they are all in their sublime, creative of essential Beauty\" constantly returning to what it means to be a poet.", "\"My Imagination is a Monastery and I am its Monk\", Keats notes to Shelley.", "In September 1819, Keats wrote to Reynolds \"How beautiful the season is now – How fine the air.", "A temperate sharpness about it....", "I never lik'd the stubbled fields as much as now – Aye, better than the chilly green of spring.", "Somehow the stubble plain looks warm – in the same way as some pictures look warm – this struck me so much in my Sunday's walk that I composed upon it\".", "The final stanza of his last great ode, \"To Autumn\", runs:Where are the songs of Spring?", "Ay, where are they?Think not of them, thou hast thy music too, –While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;\"To Autumn\" was to become one of the most highly regarded poems in the English language.There are areas of his life and daily routine that Keats omits.", "He mentions little of his childhood or his financial straits, being seemingly embarrassed to discuss them.", "There is no reference to his parents.", "In his last year, as his health deteriorated, his concerns often give way to despair and morbid obsessions.", "His letters to Fanny Brawne, published in 1870, focus on the period and emphasise its tragic aspect, giving rise to widespread criticism at the time." ], [ "Major works", "**Susan Wolfson, ed., ''John Keats'' (London and New York: Longman, 2007)*Miriam Allott, ed., ''The Complete Poems'' (London and New York: Longman, 1970)*Grant F. Scott, ed., ''Selected Letters of John Keats'' (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2002)*Jack Stillinger, ed., ''John Keats: Poetry Manuscripts at Harvard, a Facsimile Edition'' (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1990) *Jack Stillinger, ed., ''The Poems of John Keats'' (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1978)*Hyder Edward Rollins, ed., ''The Letters of John Keats 1814–1821,'' 2 vols.", "(Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1958)*H. Buxton Forman, ed., ''The Complete Poetical Works of John Keats'' (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1907)*Horace E. Scudder, ed., ''The Complete Poetical Works and Letters of John Keats'' (Boston: Riverside Press, 1899)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Bate, Walter Jackson (1964).", "''John Keats''.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press.", "*Bate, Walter Jackson (2009).", "''John Keats''.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press.", "*Bate, Walter Jackson (2012).", "''Negative Capability: The Intuitive Approach in Keats'' (1965), reprinted with a new intro by Maura Del Serra.", "New York: Contra Mundum Press, 2012.", "*Brown, Charles Armitage (1937).", "''The Life of John Keats'', ed.", "London: Oxford University Press.", "*Brown, Sue (2009).", "''Joseph Severn, A Life: The Rewards of Friendship''.", "Oxford University Press *Chapman, D. (2012).", "''What's in an Urn?", "'', Concept, *Colvin, Sidney (1917).", "''John Keats: His Life and Poetry, His Friends Critics and After-Fame''.", "London: Macmillan*Colvin, Sidney (1970).", "''John Keats: His Life and Poetry, His Friends, Critics, and After-Fame''.", "New York: Octagon Books*Coote, Stephen (1995).", "''John Keats.", "A Life''.", "London: Hodder & Stoughton*De Almeida, Hermione (1991).", "''Romantic Medicine and John Keats''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "*Gittings, Robert (1954).", "''John Keats: The Living Year.", "21 September 1818 to 21 September 1819''.", "London: Heinemann.", "*Gittings, Robert (1964).", "''The Keats Inheritance''.", "London: Heinemann*Gittings, Robert (1968).", "''John Keats''.", "London: Heinemann*Gittings, Robert (1987) ''Selected poems and letters of Keats'' London: Heinemann*Goslee, Nancy (1985).", "''Uriel's Eye: Miltonic Stationing and Statuary in Blake, Keats and Shelley''.", "University of Alabama Press *Hewlett, Dorothy (3rd rev.", "ed.", "1970).", "''A life of John Keats''.", "London: Hutchinson.", "*Hirsch, Edward (Ed.)", "(2001).", "''Complete Poems and Selected Letters of John Keats''.", "Random House Publishing.", "*Houghton, Richard (Ed.)", "(2008).", "''The Life and Letters of John Keats''.", "Read Books **Lachman, Lilach (1988).", "\"History and Temporalization of Space: Keats' Hyperion Poems\".", "''Proceedings of the XII Congress of the International Comparative Literature Association'', edited by Roger Bauer and Douwe Fokkema (Munich, Germany): 159–164*G. M. Matthews (Ed).", "(1995).", "\"John Keats: The Critical Heritage\".", "London: Routledge *Monckton Milnes, Richard, ed.", "(Lord Houghton) (1848).", "''Life, Letters and Literary Remains of John Keats''.", "2 vols.", "London: Edward Moxon*Motion, Andrew (1997).", "''Keats''.", "London: Faber*O'Neill, Michael & Mahoney Charles (Eds.)", "(2007).", "''Romantic Poetry: An Annotated Anthology''.", "Blackwell *Ridley, M. and R. Clarendon (1933).", "''Keats' craftsmanship: a study in poetic development'' (Out of Print in 2010)*Scott, Grant F. (1994).", "''The Sculpted Word: Keats, Ekphrasis, and the Visual Arts''.", "Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.", "*Stillinger, Jack (1982).", "''Complete Poems''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press *Strachan, John (Ed.)", "(2003).", "''A Routledge Literary Sourcebook on the Poems of John Keats''.", "New York: Routledge *Vendler, Helen (1983).", "''The Odes of John Keats''.", "Belknap Press *Walsh, John Evangelist (1999).", "''Darkling I Listen: The Last Days and Death of John Keats''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press*Walsh, William (1957).", "\"John Keats\", in ''From Blake to Byron''.", "Middlesex: Penguin*Ward, Aileen (1963).", "''John Keats: The Making of a Poet''.", "London: Secker & Warburg*Wolfson, Susan J.", "(1986).", "''The Questioning Presence''.", "Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press" ], [ "Further reading", "*Bate, Walter Jackson.", "''Negative Capability: The Intuitive Approach in Keats''.", "New York: Contra Mundum Press, 2012*Cox, Jeffrey N. ''Poetry and Politics in the Cockney School: Keats, Shelley, Hunt and Their Circle''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004 *Kirkland, John (2008).", "''Love Letters of Great Men, Vol.", "1''.", "CreateSpace Publishing*Kottoor, Gopikrishnan (1994).", "''The Mask of Death: The Final Days of John Keats, (A Radio Play)''.", "Writers WorkShop Kolkata, 1994*Lowell, Amy (1925).", "''John Keats''.", "2 vols.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin*Parson, Donald (1954).", "''Portraits of Keats''.", "Cleveland: World Publishing Co.*Plumly, Stanley (2008).", "''Posthumous Keats''.", "New York: W.W. Norton & Co.*Richardson, Joanna (1980).", "''Keats and His Circle.", "An Album of Portraits''.", "London: Cassell*Richardson, Joanna (1963).", "''The Everlasting Spell.", "A Study of Keats and His Friends''.", "London: Jonathan Cape*Richardson, Joanna (1981).", "''The Life and Letters of John Keats''.", "The Folio Society*Roe, Nicholas (2012).", "''John Keats.", "A New Life''.", "New Haven and London: Yale University Press *Rossetti, William Michael (1887).", "''The Life and Writings of John Keats''.", "London: Walter Scott*Turley, Richard Marggraf (2004).", "''Keats' Boyish Imagination''.", "London: Routledge," ], [ "External links", "***** John Keats on the British Library's Discovering Literature website* John Keats at the Poetry Foundation* Biography of Keats at poets.org* The Harvard Keats Collection at the Houghton Library, Harvard University* Keats House, Hampstead: official website* The Keats-Shelley House museum in Rome* John Keats at the National Portrait Gallery* Keats, John (1795–1821) Poet at the National Archives" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Nash" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Nash''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "*John Nash (architect) (1752–1835), Anglo-Welsh architect*John Nash Round, English architect active in the mid-19th-century Kent*Jolly John Nash (1828–1901), English music hall entertainer*John Nash (artist) (1893–1977), English painter and engraver*Johnny Nash (1940–2020), American singer-songwriter" ], [ "Politics", "*John Nash (MP) (1590–1661), English merchant and politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1640 and 1648*John Nash (Australian politician) (1857–1925), New South Wales politician*John Nash, Baron Nash (born 1949), British peer, government minister and businessman*John Henry Nash (politician) (born 1933), South African politician*John J. Nash (died 1989), Irish Fianna Fáil politician" ], [ "Sports", "*John Nash (footballer) (1867–1939), English footballer*John Nash (cricket administrator) (1906–1977), English secretary of Yorkshire County Cricket Club, 1931–1971*John Nash (basketball), American basketball executive*John Victor Nash (1891–19??", "), Argentine Olympic bobsledder" ], [ "Other", "*John Forbes Nash Jr. (1928–2015), American mathematician and Nobel laureate*John Henry Nash (printer) (1871–1947), Canadian-American fine printer and founder of the Twentieth Century Press*John Nash (priest) (1879–?", "), Archdeacon of Tuam*John Francis Nash (1909–2004), American railroad executive" ], [ "See also", "*Jack Nash (disambiguation)*John Naish (1841–1890), lawyer and lord chancellor of Ireland" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jewish Defense League" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Jewish Defense League''' ('''JDL''') is a far-right religious and political organization in the United States and Canada.", "Its stated goal is to \"protect Jews from antisemitism by whatever means necessary\"; it has been classified as \"right-wing terrorist group\" by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) since 2001, and is also designated as hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center.", "According to the FBI, the JDL has been involved in plotting and executing acts of terrorism within the United States.", "Most terrorist watch groups classify the group as inactive as of 2015.Founded by Meir Kahane in New York City in 1968, the JDL's self-described purpose was to protect Jews from local manifestations of antisemitism.", "Its criticism of the Soviet Union increased local support for the group, transforming it from a \"vigilante club\" into an organization with a stated membership numbering over 15,000 at one point.", "The group took to bombing Arab and Soviet properties in the United States while assassinating a variety of alleged \"enemies of the Jewish people\" ranging from Arab-American political activists to neo-Nazis.", "A number of JDL members have been linked to violent, and sometimes deadly, attacks in the United States and in other countries, including the murder of the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee regional director Alex Odeh in 1985, the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre in 1994, and a plot to assassinate Darrell Issa in 2001.In 1990, Kahane was assassinated by an Egyptian-American gunman at a hotel in New York City.According to the Anti-Defamation League, the JDL consists only of \"thugs and hooligans\" and Kahane \"preached a radical form of Jewish nationalism which reflected racism, violence, and political extremism,\" attitudes that were replicated by his successor Irv Rubin." ], [ "Origins", "In 1968, while Kahane served as the associate editor for ''The Jewish Press'', the paper's office began receiving numerous calls and letters about crimes being committed against Jews and Jewish institutions.", "Violence in the New York City area was on the rise, with Jews comprising a disproportionately large percentage of the victims.", "Elderly Jews were being harassed and mugged, storeowners were held up and Jewish teachers were assaulted while Jewish synagogues were defaced and Jewish cemeteries desecrated.After discussing the matter with a few congregants, Kahane put out an ad in ''The Jewish Press'' on May 24, 1968, which read: \"We are talking of JEWISH SURVIVAL!", "Are you willing to stand up for democracy and Jewish survival?", "Join and support the Jewish Defense Corps.\"", "Shortly after, Kahane renamed the group the \"Jewish Defense League,\" fearing that \"Corps\" would be construed as too militant.", "The group's declared purpose was: \"to combat anti-Semitism in the public and private sectors of life in the United States of America.\"", "Kahane stated that the League was formed to \"do the job that the Anti-Defamation League should do but doesn't.", "\"Shortly afterwards, the Jewish Defense League put out a four-page manifesto which stated: \"America has been good to the Jew and the Jew has been good to America.", "A land founded on the principles of democracy and freedom has given unprecedented opportunities to a people devoted to those ideals\" yet now finds itself threatened by \"political extremism\" and \"racist militancy.\"", "Furthermore, the manifesto stated that the organization rejects all hate and illegality, believes firmly in law and order, backs police forces and will work actively in the courts to strike down all discrimination.", "When asked about Jewish Defense League members breaking the law, Kahane responded: \"We respect the right and the obligation of the American government to prosecute us and send us to jail.", "No one gripes about that.", "\"The group adopted the slogan \"Never Again!\"", "which was originally used by the Jewish resistance fighters in the Warsaw ghetto.", "While the phrase is usually interpreted to mean that the Nazi Holocaust of six million Jews will never be permitted to recur, Kahane claimed that his intention was to declare that Jews should never again be caught by surprise or lulled into a foolish trust in others.The first Jewish Defense League demonstration took place on August 5, 1968, at New York University with some 15 members chanting: \"No Nazis at NYU, Jewish rights are precious too.\"" ], [ "History", "===1969===On August 7, the JDL sent members to Passaic, New Jersey, to protect Jewish merchants from anti-Jewish rioting which had swept the area for days.On November 25, the JDL was invited to the Boston area by Jewish residents in response to a mounting wave of crime directed primarily against Jews.On December 3, JDL members attacked the Syrian Mission in New York.On December 31, 13 JDL members were arrested after a series of coordinated actions against Soviet property in Manhattan and at Kennedy Airport intended to protest the treatment of Jews in the Soviet Union.", "Several youths painted slogans on a Soviet airliner, two of them handcuffed themselves to the airliner, while others daubed the words \"Am Yisroel Chai\" (the Nation of Israel Lives) on the plane's doors.", "A similar slogan was painted on the walls of the office of Tass, the Soviet news agency, in Rockefeller Plaza, which was invaded by Rabbi Kahane and four other JDL members.", "The rest of the demonstrators were taken into custody after invading the midtown offices of the Soviet tourist bureau.", "===1970===Initially, the League was connected to a series of violent attacks against the Soviet Union's interests in the United States, protesting the former country's repression of Soviet Jews, who were often jailed and refused exit visas.", "The JDL decided that violence was necessary to draw attention to their plight, reasoning that Moscow would respond to the strain on Soviet–US relations by allowing more emigration to Israel.In 1970, according to Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, agents of the Soviet KGB forged and sent threatening letters to Arab missions claiming to be from the JDL to discredit it.", "They also were ordered to bomb a target in the \"Negro section of New York\" and blame it on the JDL.On January 25, JDL members staged anti-Soviet demonstrations at a concert of the Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra in Brooklyn College's auditorium.", "JDL members \"danced, sang and yelled\" while trying to prevent people from entering the auditorium.On March 23, JDL members staged a sit-in in the office of the president of the Federation of Jewish Philanthropies of New York to demand that the Federation allocate more funds for Jewish education and Jewish defense, assist institutions threatened by violence, and arrange for \"popular\" election of Federation officials.", "As a result, the Federation agreed to form a special committee to consider the request for additional funds for Jewish education, while other groups continued to demonstrate.On April 7, the JDL held memorial services on behalf of civilian victims of \"Arab terrorism during the past half century\" in front of the United Arab Republic Mission to the United Nations.On April 9, nine JDL members occupied the principal's office of Leeds Junior High School in Philadelphia after school authorities had allegedly failed to crack down on school violence.", "The JDL hoped to present six \"suggestions\" for protecting students from assault and theft by \"troublemakers,\" including committing them to disciplinary schools, stationing policemen in the public schools and replacing \"weak administrators.", "\"On April 20, fifteen JDL members were arrested after chaining themselves to the fence in front of the Soviet Mission to the UN to protest against the treatment of Jews in the Soviet Union.On May 8, about fifty JDL members demonstrated outside the Black Panther Party headquarters in Harlem due to an alleged \"outrageous explosion of anti-Semitic hatred\" by the Panthers.On May 19, the JDL issued a statement attacking American Jewish organizations which opposed the Vietnam War, accusing them of doing more to destroy the State of Israel \"than all the Arab armies.", "\"On May 20, thirty-five JDL members took over the Park East Synagogue, opposite the Soviet Mission, and barricaded the entrances in order to hold a \"liberation seder\" for Soviet Jewry.On June 23, about forty JDL members seized two floors of an office building in New York housing Amtorg, the official Soviet Union trade office, and evicted the personnel in what the JDL deemed retaliation for the arrests of Jews and raids on Jewish homes in the Soviet Union.On June 28, 150 JDL members demonstrated over attacks against the Jews of Williamsburg in reprisal for the accidental killing of a black girl by a Jewish driver.", "Clashes broke out with other minority groups and arrests were made.On August 16, 400 JDL members began a week-long march from Philadelphia to Washington on behalf of Soviet Jewry, concluding with a rally at Lafayette Park urging President Nixon to \"stand tall and firm in the Middle East as you have done elsewhere.\"", "In response, Thomas Hale Boggs Jr., a congressional candidate from Montgomery County (Md.", "), said he would sponsor a House resolution on Soviet Jewry.On September 27, two JDL members were arrested at Kennedy Airport while attempting to board a London-bound plane armed with four loaded guns and a live hand grenade.", "The two intended to hijack a United Arab Airlines plane and divert it to Israel.On October 6, the JDL is suspected of bombing the New York office of the Palestine Liberation Organization after the PLO hijacked four airliners the previous month.", "United Press International reported that an anonymous caller phoned in about a half hour before the explosion and proclaimed the JDL slogan, \"Never again.", "\"On December 20, during a march to protest the treatment of Soviet Jewry, JDL members attempted to take over the Soviet Mission headquarters.", "The members were arrested after inciting demonstrators to break through police lines.On December 27, the JDL launched a 100-hour vigil for Soviet Jewry.", "Demonstrators tried to break through police barricades to reach the Soviet Mission to the UN to protest the sentencing of Jews in Leningrad.", "Several arrests were made.On December 29, an estimated 100 JDL members demonstrated in front of the offices of the New York Board of Rabbis, challenging them to get arrested \"for Jews, as well as for blacks.\"", "Later that day, several JDL members scuffled with police outside the office of Aeroflot-In tourist, the official Soviet tourist agency, while JDL leader Meir Kahane demanded the right to purchase two tickets to Israel for two Russian Jews who were sentenced to death.", "About 75 JDL members marched near the office, chanting slogans such as \"Freedom Now\" and \"Let My People Go.", "\"On December 30, several hundred JDL members participated in a rally for Soviet Jewry in Foley square, chanting \"Let My People Go,\" \"Open Up the Iron Door\" and \"Never Again!", "\"===1971===On January 8, 1971, a bombing outside of the Soviet cultural center in Washington, D.C. was followed by a phone call including the JDL slogan \"Never again.\"", "A JDL spokesperson denied the group's involvement in the bombing, but refused to condemn it.On January 17, in response to JDL tactics against Soviet personnel being condemned by the Israeli Cabinet and American Jewish leaders, eight former Soviet Jews living in Israel sent cables to American Jewish leaders denouncing their condemnation of the JDL and denying that the JDL's acts endangered Soviet Jews.", "The cables said they were convinced that the JDL's \"policy and activities are most effective.\"", "The group also attacked Israeli authorities for alleged softness in fighting the Soviet Union on the issue of Jewish rights.", "One of the signatories, Dov Sperling, claimed that the recent cancellation of the Bolshoi Ballet's scheduled American tour was forced by the JDL and hailed it as the first public surrender by Soviet authorities to Jewish pressure.", "Herut leader Menachem Begin also declared support of acts of harassment against Soviet diplomatic establishments abroad.On January 19, twenty JDL members had conducted a half-hour sit-in at the offices of Columbia Artists Inc. in Manhattan, leaving only after they were assured a meeting would be set up with the company's president in the near future.On January 20, JDL national chairman Rabbi Meir Kahane announced that JDL will conduct \"non-violent actions\" against organizations engaged in cultural exchange programs with the Soviet Union and that there had been \"unofficial contacts\" between his group and \"some Jewish establishment organizations\" which were welcomed.=== 1972-1979 ===In 1972, two JDL members were arrested and convicted of bomb possession and burglary in an attempt to blow up the Long Island residence of the Soviet Mission to the United Nations.In 1972, a smoke bomb was planted in the Manhattan office of music impresario Sol Hurok, who organized Soviet performers' U.S. tours.", "Iris Kones, a Jewish secretary from Long Island, died of smoke inhalation, and Hurok and 12 others were injured and hospitalized.", "Jerome Zeller of the JDL was indicted for the bombing and Kahane later admitted his part in the attack.", "JDL activities were condemned by Moscow refuseniks who felt that the group's actions were making it less likely that the Soviet Union would relax restrictions on Jewish emigration.In 1973, threatening phone calls made to the home of Ralph Riskin, one of the producers of ''Bridget Loves Bernie'', resulted in the arrest of Robert S. Manning, described as a member of the JDL.", "Manning was later indicted on separate murder charges, and fought extradition to the United States from Israel, where he had moved.In 1975, JDL leader Meir Kahane was accused of conspiracy to kidnap a Soviet diplomat, bomb the Iraqi embassy in Washington, and ship arms abroad from Israel.", "A hearing was held to revoke Kahane's probation for a 1971 incendiary device-making incident.", "He was found guilty of violating probation and served a one-year prison sentence.", "On December 31, 1975, 15 members of the League seized the office of the Permanent Observer of the Holy See to the United Nations in protest for Pope Paul VI's policy of support of Palestinian rights.", "The incident was over after one hour, as the activists left the location after being ordered to do so by the local police, and no arrests were made.On April 6, 1976, six prominent refuseniks – including Alexander Lerner, Anatoly Shcharansky, and Iosif Begun – condemned the JDL's anti-Soviet activities as terrorist acts, stating that their \"actions constitute a danger for Soviet Jews ... as they might be used by the Soviet authorities as a pretext for new repressions and for instigating anti-Semitic hostilities.", "\"On March 16, 1978, Irv Rubin, chairman of the JDL, said about the planned American Nazi Party march in Skokie, Illinois: \"We are offering $500, that I have in my hand, to any member of the community ... who kills, maims or seriously injures a member of the American Nazi Party.\"", "Rubin was charged with solicitation of murder but was acquitted in 1981.===1980–1989===During the 1980s, past-JDL member Victor Vancier (who later founded the Jewish Task Force), and two other former JDL members were arrested in connection with six incidents: 1984 firebombing of an automobile at a Soviet diplomatic residence, the 1985 and 1986 pipe bombings of rival JDL members' cars, the 1986 firebombing at a hall where the Soviet State Symphony Orchestra was performing, and two 1986 detonations of tear gas grenades to protest performances by Soviet dance troupes.", "In a 1984 interview, the JDL leader Meir Kahane admitted that the JDL \"bombed the Russian mission in New York, the Russian cultural mission here Washington in 1971, the Soviet trade offices.\"", "The attacks, which caused minor diplomatic crisis in relations between the U.S. and the USSR, prompted the New York City Police Department (NYPD) to infiltrate the group and one undercover officer discovered a chain of weapon caches across Brooklyn, containing \"enough shotguns and rifles to arm a small militia.", "\"On October 26, 1981, after two firebombs damaged the Egyptian tourist office at Rockefeller Center, JDL Chairman Meir Kahane said at a press conference: \"I'm not going to say that the JDL bombed that office.", "There are laws against that in this country.", "But I'm not going to say I mourn for it either.\"", "The next day, after an anonymous caller claimed responsibility on behalf of the JDL, the group's spokesman later denied his group's involvement, but said, \"we support the act.\"", "JDL members had often been suspected of involvement in attacks against neo-Nazis, Holocaust deniers and antisemites.On October 11, 1985, Alex Odeh, regional director of the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC), was killed in a mail bombing at his office in Santa Ana, California.", "Shortly before his killing, Odeh had appeared on the television show ''Nightline'', where he engaged in a tense dialogue with a representative from the JDL.", "Irv Rubin immediately made several controversial public statements in reaction to the incident: \"I have no tears for Mr. Odeh.", "He got exactly what he deserved.", "... My tears were used up crying for Leon Klinghoffer.\"", "The Anti-Defamation League and the American Jewish Committee both condemned the murder.", "Four weeks after Odeh's death, FBI spokesperson Lane Bonner stated the FBI attributed the bombing and two others to the JDL.", "In February 1986, the FBI classified the bombing that killed Alex Odeh as a terrorist act.", "Rubin denied JDL involvement: \"What the FBI is doing is simple.", "...", "Some character calls up a news agency or whatever and uses the phrase ''Never Again'' ... and on that assumption they can go and slander a whole group.", "That's tragic.\"", "In 1987, Floyd Clarke, then assistant director of the FBI, wrote in an internal memo that key suspects had fled to Israel and were living in the West Bank urban settlement of Kiryat Arba.", "In 1988, the FBI arrested Rochelle Manning as a suspect in the bombing, and also charged her husband, Robert Steven Manning, whom they considered a prime suspect in the attack; both were members of the JDL.", "Rochelle's jury deadlocked, and after the mistrial, she left for Israel to join her husband.", "Robert Manning was extradited from Israel to the U.S. in 1993.He was subsequently found guilty of involvement in the killing of the secretary of computer firm ProWest, Patricia Wilkerson, in another, unrelated mail bomb blast.", "In addition, he and other JDL members were also suspected in a string of other violent attacks through 1985, including the bombing of Boston ADC office that seriously injured two police officers, the bomb killing of suspected Nazi war criminal Tscherim Soobzokov in Paterson, New Jersey, and a bombing in Long Island, which was targeted at suspected Nazi war criminal Elmars Sprogis, that maimed a bystander.", "William Ross, another JDL member, was also found guilty for his participation in the bombing that killed Wilkerson.", "Rochelle Manning was re-indicted for her alleged involvement, and was detained in Israel, pending extradition, when she died of a heart attack in 1994.===1990–1999===When Ruthless Records recording artist and former N.W.A member Dr. Dre sought to work instead with Death Row Records, Ruthless Records executives, Mike Klein and Jerry Heller were fearful of possible physical intimidation from Death Row Entertainment executives including chief executive officer Suge Knight and requested security assistance from the violent JDL.", "The FBI launched a money laundering investigation, on the presumption that the JDL was extorting money from Ruthless Records and several rap artists, including Tupac Shakur and Eazy-E. Heller has speculated that the FBI did not investigate these threats because of the song \"Fuck Tha Police\".", "Heller said, \"It was no secret that in the aftermath of the Suge Knight shake down incident where Eazy was forced to sign over Dr. Dre, Michel'le and The D.O.C., that Ruthless was protected by Israeli trained/connected security forces.\"", "The FBI documents refer to the JDL death threats and extortion scheme but do not make a direct connection between the group and the 1996 murder of Tupac Shakur.In 1995, when the Toronto residence of the Holocaust denier Ernst Zündel was the target of an arson attack, a group calling itself the \"Jewish Armed Resistance Movement\" claimed responsibility; according to the ''Toronto Sun'', the group had ties to the JDL and to Kahane Chai.", "The leader of the Toronto wing of the Jewish Defense League, Meir Halevi, denied involvement in the attack, although, just five days later, Halevi was caught trying to break into Zündel's property, where he was apprehended by police.", "Later the same month Zündel was the recipient of a parcel bomb that was detonated by the Toronto police bomb squad.", "In 2011, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police had launched an investigation against at least nine members of the JDL in regards to an anonymous tip that the JDL was plotting to bomb the Palestine House in Mississauga.===2000–present===On December 12, 2001, JDL leader Irv Rubin and JDL member Earl Krugel were charged with planning a series of bomb attacks against the Muslim Public Affairs Council in Los Angeles, the King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California, and the San Clemente office of Arab-American Congressman Darrell Issa, in the wake of the September 11 attacks.", "Rubin, who also was charged with unlawful possession of an automatic firearm, claimed that he was innocent.", "On November 4, 2002, at the federal Metropolitan Detention Center in Los Angeles, Rubin slit his throat with a safety razor and jumped out of a third story window.", "Rubin's suicide would be contested by his widow and the JDL, particularly after his co-defendant pleaded guilty to the charges and implicated Rubin in the plot.", "On February 4, 2003, Krugel pleaded guilty to conspiracy and weapons charges stemming from the plot, and was expected to serve up to 20 years in prison.", "The core of the evidence against Krugel and Rubin was in a number of conversations taped by an informant, Danny Gillis, who was hired by the men to plant the bombs but who turned to the FBI instead.", "According to one tape, Krugel thought the attacks would serve as \"a wakeup call\" to Arabs.", "Krugel was subsequently murdered in prison by a fellow inmate in 2005.Marais neighbourhood in Paris.", "Picture taken on 14 July 2006, a little after the start of the 2006 Lebanon war.In 2002, in France, attackers from Betar and Ligue de Défense Juive (LDJ) violently assaulted Jewish demonstrators from Peace Now, journalists, police officers (one of whom was stabbed), and Arab bystanders.", "At least two of the suspects in the 2010 murder of a French Muslim Saïd Bourarach appeared to have ties to the French chapter of the JDL.", "In 2011, Israeli daily ''Haaretz'' reported members of the \"French branch of Jewish terror group coming to Israel 'to defend settlements'.\"", "In 2013, a French Arab man was critically injured in a \"revenge attack\" by LDJ, sparking calls for further attacks against the Jews and a condemnation of the militant group by the French Jewish umbrella group CRIF; as of 2013, there have been least 115 violent incidents were attributed to LDJ \"soldiers\" since the group's registration in France in 2001, including many vigilante reprisals to antisemitic attacks.", "Earlier that year, two LDJ members were sentenced for an attack at a pro-Palestinian bookstore that injured two people and a LDJ propaganda video called for \"five cops for every Jew, 10 Arabs for each rabbi.", "\"In June 2014, two LDJ supporters were sentenced to prison in France for targeting the car of Jonathan Moadab, the Jewish co-founder of the blog \"Cercle des Volontaires (Circle of Volunteers)\", with a home-made bomb in September 2012.In October 2015, around 100 people brandishing JDL flags, and Israeli flags and letting off flares attacked the Agence France Presse building in Paris.", "Around 12 of them, armed with batons, assaulted David Perrotin, a leading French journalist.", "All were linked to the Jewish Defense League (JDL)." ], [ "Israel", "Kahane immigrated to Israel from the United States in September 1971, where he initiated protests advocating the expulsion of Arabs from Israel and the Palestinian territories.", "In 1972, JDL leaflets were distributed around Hebron, calling for the mayor to stand trial for the 1929 Hebron massacre.Kach and later Kahane Chai.Kahane nominally lead the JDL until April 1974.In 1971, he founded a new political party in Israel, which ran in the 1973 elections under the name \"The League List\".", "The party won 12,811 votes (0.82%), just 2,857 (0.18%) short of the electoral threshold at the time (1%) for winning a seat.", "Following the elections, the party's name was changed to Kach, taken from the Irgun motto \"''Rak Kach''\" (\"Only thus\").", "Kach failed to gain any Knesset seats in the 1977 and 1980 elections as well.", "In the 1984 elections, the party won 25,907 votes (1.2%), passing the electoral threshold for the first time, and winning one seat, which was duly taken by Kahane.Kahane's popularity grew, with polls showing that Kach would have likely received three to four seats in the coming November 1988 elections, and some forecasting as many as twelve seats, possibly making Kach the third largest party.", "However, after the Knesset passed an amendment to the Elections Law, Kach was disqualified from running in the 1988 elections by the Central Elections Committee, on the grounds of incitement to racism and negation of the democratic character of the State.On 5 November 1990, Kahane was assassinated after making a speech in New York.", "The prime suspect, El Sayyid Nosair, an Egyptian-born American citizen, was subsequently acquitted of murder, but convicted on gun possession charges.", "The Kach party subsequently split in two, with Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane (Meir Kahane's son) leading a breakaway faction, Kahane Chai.", "Both parties were banned from participating in the 1992 elections on the basis that they were followers of the original Kach.", "Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane and his wife Talya were shot and killed by Palestinian terrorists on December 31, 2000.On February 25, 1994, Baruch Goldstein, an American-born Israeli member of Kach, who in his youth was a JDL activist, opened fire on Muslims kneeling in prayer at the revered Cave of the Patriarchs mosque in the West Bank city of Hebron, killing 29 worshippers and injuring 125 before he ran out of ammunition and was himself killed.", "The attack set off riots and protests throughout the West Bank and 19 Palestinians were killed by the Israeli Defense Forces within 48 hours of the massacre.", "On its website, the JDL described the massacre as a \"preventative measure against yet another Arab attack on Jews\" and noted that they \"do not consider his assault to qualify under the label of terrorism\".", "Furthermore, they noted that \"we teach that violence is never a good solution but is unfortunately sometimes necessary as a last resort when innocent lives are threatened; we therefore view Dr. Goldstein as a martyr in Judaism's protracted struggle against Arab terrorism.", "And we are not ashamed to say that Goldstein was a charter member of the Jewish Defense League.\"", "In a similar attack nearly twelve years earlier, on April 11, 1982, an American-born JDL member and immigrant to Israel, Alan Harry Goodman, opened fire with his military-issue rifle at the Dome of the Rock on the sacred Temple Mount in Jerusalem, killing one Palestinian Arab and injuring four others.", "The 1982 shooting sparked an Arab riot in which another Palestinian was shot dead by the police.", "In 1983, Goodman was sentenced by an Israeli court to life in prison (which usually means 25 years in Israel); he was released after serving 15 1/2 years on the condition of returning to the United States." ], [ "Terrorism and other illegal activities", "In a 2004 congressional testimony, John S. Pistole, executive assistant director for counterterrorism and counterintelligence for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) described the JDL as \"a known violent extremist Jewish organization.\"", "FBI statistics show that, from 1980 through 1985, there were 18 officially classified terrorist attacks in the U.S. committed by Jews; 15 of those by members of the JDL.In its report, ''Terrorism 2000/2001'', the FBI referred to the JDL as a \"violent extremist Jewish organization\" and stated that the FBI was responsible for thwarting at least one of its terrorist acts.", "The National Consortium for the Study of Terror and Responses to Terrorism states that, during the JDL's first two decades of activity, it was an \"active terrorist organization.\"", "The JDL was specifically referenced by the FBI's Executive Assistant Director Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence, John S. Pistole, in his formal report before the 9/11 Commission.JDL is suspected of being behind the 1972 bombing of the Manhattan offices of theater impresario Sol Hurok in which 2 employees were killed." ], [ "Violent deaths", "A number of senior JDL personnel and associates have died violently.", "Meir Kahane, the JDL's founding chairman, was assassinated in 1990 as was his son, Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane, in 2000.Long-time JDL chairman Irv Rubin died in 2002 in a Los Angeles federal detention center \"after allegedly cutting his throat with a jail-issued razor and then jumping or falling over a railing and plummeting to his death.\"", "Rubin's deputy, Earl Krugel, was murdered by a fellow prison inmate and white supremacist in 2005.Rubin's son and JDL vice-chairman Ari Rubin committed suicide in 2012." ], [ "Organization", "===Chapters======Chairs===According to the organization's official list of Chairmen or Highest Ranking Directors:* 1968–1971 – Rabbi Meir Kahane, International Chairman.", "Assassinated in 1990 by Islamic militant El Sayyid Nosair, who was later convicted in Terrorism Conspiracy.", "* 1971–1973 – David Fisch, a religious Columbia University student, who later wrote articles for Jewish magazines and the book ''Jews for Nothing''.", "* 1974–1976 – Russel Kelner, originally from Philadelphia.", "Formerly a U.S. Army lieutenant trained in counter-guerrilla warfare, he moved to New York City to direct the JDL's paramilitary summer camp JeDeL located in Wawarsing, New York, and later to run the national office as chairman.", "* 1976–1978 – Bonnie Pechter.", "* 1979–1981 – Brett Becker, originally from South Florida, came to New York City to become chairman.", "* 1981–1983 – Meir Jolovitz, originally from Arizona, also came to New York City.", "* 1983–1984 – Fern Sidman, Administrative Director.", "* 1985–2002 – Irv Rubin, International Chairman.", "Arrested on terrorism charges; died in jail awaiting trial.", "* 2002–present – Shelley Rubin, Administrative Director (2002–2006); Chairman/CEO (2006–present).", "* 2017–present – Meir Weinstein, North American co-ordinator (2017–present); Canadian Chairman (1979–present)===Schism===After Rubin's death in prison in November 2002, Bill Maniaci was appointed interim chairman by Shelley Rubin.", "Two years later, the Jewish Defense League became mired in a state of upheaval over legal control of the organization.", "In October 2004, Maniaci rejected Shelley Rubin's call for him to resign; as a result, Maniaci was stripped of his title and membership.", "At that point, the JDL split into two separate factions, each vying for legal control of the associated \"intellectual property.\"", "The two operated as separate organizations with the same name while a lengthy legal battle ensued.", "In April 2005, the original domain name of the organization, ''jdl.org'', was suspended by Network Solutions due to allegations of infringement; the organization went back online soon thereafter at domain name ''jewishdefenseleague.org''.", "In April 2006, news of a settlement was announced in which signatories agreed to not object to \"Shelley Rubin's titles of permanent chairman and CEO of JDL.\"", "The agreement also confirmed that \"the name 'Jewish Defense League,' the acronym 'JDL,' and the 'Fist and Star' logo are the exclusive intellectual property of JDL.\"", "(Opponents of both groups claim that these are Kahanist symbols and not the exclusive property of JDL.", "At this time, however, the logo is no longer in general use by the Kahanist groups.)", "The agreement also states: \"Domain names registered on behalf of JDL, including but not limited to jdl.org and jewishdefenseleague.org, are owned and operated by JDL.\"", "Meanwhile, the opposing group formed '''B'nai Elim''', which is the latest of many JDL splinter groups to have formed over the years (previous splinter groups included the '''Jewish Direct Action''' and the '''United Jewish Underground''' that have been active during the 1980s).===Principles===The JDL upholds five fundamental principles* \"LOVE OF JEWRY, one Jewish people, indivisible and united, from which flows the love for and the feeling of pain of all Jews.", "\"* \"DIGNITY AND PRIDE, pride in and knowledge of Jewish tradition, faith, culture, land, history, strength, pain and peoplehood.", "\"* \"IRON, the need to both move to help Jews everywhere and to change the Jewish image through sacrifice and all necessary means—even strength, force and violence.", "\"* \"DISCIPLINE AND UNITY, the knowledge that he (or she) can and will do whatever must be done, and the unity and strength of willpower to bring this into reality.", "\"* \"FAITH IN THE INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE, faith in the greatness and indestructibility of the Jewish people, our religion and our Land of Israel.", "\"The JDL encourages, per its principle of the \"Love of Jewry,\" that \"... in the end ... the Jew can look to no one but another Jew for help and that the true solution to the Jewish problem is the liquidation of the Exile and the return of all Jews to Eretz Yisroel – the land of Israel.\"", "The JDL elaborates on this fundamental principle by insisting upon an \"immediate need to place Judaism over any other 'ism' and ideology and ... use of the yardstick: 'Is it good for Jews?'\"", "The JDL argues that, outside of Jews, there are historically no people corresponding to the Palestinian ethnicity.", "Writing on its official website, the JDL claims: \"The first mention of a 'Palestinian people' dates from the aftermath of the 1967 war, when the local Arabic-speaking communities ... were retrospectively endowed with a contrived 'nationhood' ... taken from Jewish history ...\" and that \"clearly, since Roman times 'Palestinian' had meant Jews until the Arab's recent adoption of this identity in order to claim it as their land.\"", "On this basis, the JDL argues that \"Zionism should be under no obligation to accommodate a separate 'Palestinian' claim, there being no historical evidence or witness for any such Arab category,\" and it considers Palestinian claims to be \"Arab usurpation\" of proper Jewish title." ], [ "Relations with other groups", "In 1971, Kahane aligned the JDL with the Italian-American Civil Rights League, created the previous year by the Italian American mob boss Joseph Colombo, head of the Colombo crime family.", "In 2011, the Canadian JDL organized a \"support rally\" for the English Defence League (EDL) featuring a live speech, via Skype, by EDL leader Tommy Robinson.", "The event was denounced and condemned by the Canadian Jewish Congress (CJC) leader Bernie Farber and general counsel Benjamin Shinewald.", "The rally, held at the Toronto Zionist Centre, attracted a counter-protest organized by Anti-Racist Action (ARA) resulting in four ARA members being arrested.", "The JDL Canada has also organized rallies in support of right-wing Israeli politician Moshe Feiglin and Dutch politician and well-known Islam critic Geert Wilders of the Party for Freedom, and announced its support for the increasingly anti-Islamic Freedom Party of Austria." ], [ "See also", "* Golus nationalism* Jewish Defense Organization* Kach and Kahane Chai* Kahanism* Political violence in the United States during the Cold War" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Jewish Defence League Canada * Jewish Defense League Germany* List of 80 terrorist incidents between 1970 and 1986 attributed to the Jewish Defense League on the Global Terrorism Database*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "JMS" ], [ "Introduction", "'''JMS''' may refer to:" ], [ "Buildings", "* EverBank Field, formerly known as Jacksonville Municipal Stadium, a sports stadium in Jacksonville, Florida* Johannesburg Muslim School, a private school in Johannesburg, South Africa* John Mason School, a secondary school in Abingdon, Oxfordshire" ], [ "Computing", "* Japanese MapleStory, a version of the Korean game, Maplestory* Java Message Service, a Java message-oriented middleware application programming interface for sending messages between two or more clients* Java Module System, a Java specification for collections of Java code and related resources" ], [ "People", "* J. Michael Straczynski (born 1954), contemporary fiction and television writer* Jamie McLeod-Skinner (born 1967), American politician* John Maynard Smith (1920–2004), geneticist and evolutionary theorist* John Michael Stipe, known as Michael Stipe (born 1960), lead singer of the band R.E.M.", "* Jung Myung Seok (born 1945), leader of Providence religious movement" ], [ "Publications", "* ''Journal of Management Studies'', Management studies journal* ''Journal of Mass Spectrometry'', a scientific journal dedicated to mass spectrometry* ''Journal of Materials Science'', materials science journal* ''The Journal of Men's Studies'', social studies journal" ], [ "Others", "* Jesus Morning Star, also known as Providence, a religious movement founded by Jung Myung Seok* Jamestown Regional Airport, North Dakota, U.S." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jet Propulsion Laboratory" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Jet Propulsion Laboratory''' ('''JPL''') is a federally funded research and development center in Pasadena, California, United States.", "Founded in 1936 by Caltech researchers, the laboratory is now owned and sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and administered and managed by the California Institute of Technology.The laboratory's primary function is the construction and operation of planetary robotic spacecraft, though it also conducts Earth-orbit and astronomy missions.", "It is also responsible for operating the NASA Deep Space Network.Among the laboratory's major active projects are the Mars 2020 mission, which includes the ''Perseverance'' rover; the Mars Science Laboratory mission, including the ''Curiosity'' rover; the ''Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter''; the ''Juno'' spacecraft orbiting Jupiter; the ''SMAP'' satellite for earth surface soil moisture monitoring; the NuSTAR X-ray telescope; and the ''Psyche'' asteroid orbiter.", "It is also responsible for managing the JPL Small-Body Database, and provides physical data and lists of publications for all known small Solar System bodies.JPL's Space Flight Operations Facility and Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator are designated National Historic Landmarks." ], [ "History", "Apollo Milton Olin Smith, Frank Malina, Ed Forman and Jack Parsons testing their first liquid-fueled rocket engine.JPL traces its beginnings to 1936 in the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology (GALCIT) when the first set of rocket experiments were carried out in the Arroyo Seco.", "This initial venture involved Caltech graduate students Frank Malina, Qian Xuesen, Weld Arnold and Apollo M. O. Smith, along with Jack Parsons and Edward S. Forman, often referred to as the \"Suicide Squad\" due to the dangerous nature of their experiments.", "Together, they tested a small, alcohol-fueled motor to gather data for Malina's graduate thesis.", "Malina's thesis advisor was engineer/aerodynamicist Theodore von Kármán, who eventually secured U.S. Army financial support for this \"GALCIT Rocket Project\" in 1939.=== Rocketry beginnings ===In the early years of the project, work was primarily focused on the development of rocket technology.", "In 1941, Malina, Parsons, Forman, Martin Summerfield, and pilot Homer Bushey demonstrated the first jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) rockets to the Army.", "In 1943, von Kármán, Malina, Parsons, and Forman established the Aerojet Corporation to manufacture JATO rockets.", "The project took on the name Jet Propulsion Laboratory in November 1943, formally becoming an Army facility operated under contract by the university.", "Theodore von Kármán sketching out a plan on the wing of an airplane.", "From left to right: Clark B. Millikan, Martin Summerfield, von Kármán, Frank J. Malina and pilot, Capt.", "Homer Boushey.In a NASA conference on the history of early rocketry, Malina wrote that the work of the JPL was \"considered to include\" the research carried out by the GALCIT Rocket Research Group from 1936 on.", "In 1944, Parsons was expelled due to his \"unorthodox and unsafe working methods\" following one of several FBI investigations into his involvement with the occult, drugs and sexual promiscuity.During JPL's Army years, the laboratory developed two significant deployed weapon systems, the MGM-5 Corporal and MGM-29 Sergeant intermediate-range ballistic missiles, marking the first US ballistic missiles developed at JPL.", "It also developed several other weapons system prototypes, such as the Loki anti-aircraft missile system, and the forerunner of the Aerobee sounding rocket.", "At various times, it carried out rocket testing at the White Sands Proving Ground, Edwards Air Force Base, and Goldstone, California.=== Transition to NASA ===In 1954, JPL teamed up with Wernher von Braun's engineers at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency's Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, to propose orbiting a satellite during the International Geophysical Year.", "The team lost that proposal to Project Vanguard, and instead embarked on a classified project to demonstrate ablative re-entry technology using a Jupiter-C rocket.", "They carried out three successful sub-orbital flights in 1956 and 1957.Using a spare Juno I (a modified Jupiter-C with a fourth stage), the two organizations then launched the United States' first satellite, Explorer 1, on January 31, 1958.This significant achievement marked a new era for JPL and the US in the space race.Less than a year later in December 1958, JPL was transferred to the newly formed National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).", "As a result of this transition, JPL became the agency's primary planetary spacecraft center, leading the design and operation of various lunar and interplanetary missions.", "The transfer to NASA marked the beginning of a \"Golden Age\" of planetary exploration for JPL in the 1960s and 1970s.", "JPL engineers designed and operated Ranger and Surveyor missions to the Moon that paved the way for the Apollo program.", "JPL proved itself a leader in interplanetary exploration with the Mariner missions to Venus, Mars, and Mercury, returning valuable data about our neighboring planets.Additionally, JPL was early to employ female mathematicians.", "In the 1940s and 1950s, using mechanical calculators, women in an all-female computations group performed trajectory calculations.", "In 1961, JPL hired Dana Ulery as the first female engineer to work alongside male engineers as part of the Ranger and Mariner mission tracking teams.=== Deep space exploration ===Building on the momentum from the successes of the 1960s and early 1970s, JPL initiated an era of deep space exploration in the late 1970s and 1980s.", "The highlight of this period was the launch of the twin Voyager spacecraft in 1977.JPL Mission ControlInitially set on a trajectory to explore Jupiter and its moon Io, Voyager 1's mission parameters were adjusted to also provide a close flyby of Saturn's moon Titan.", "The spacecraft sent back detailed images and data from both gas giants, revolutionizing our understanding of these distant worlds.", "The Voyager 2 spacecraft followed a more extensive trajectory, conducting flybys of not just Jupiter and Saturn, but also Uranus and Neptune.", "These encounters provided firsthand data from all four gas giants, offering insights into the nature and dynamics of the outer planets.", "Both Voyager spacecraft, after fulfilling their primary mission objectives, were directed towards interstellar space, carrying with them the Golden Records – phonograph discs containing sounds and images selected to portray the diversity of life on Earth.The 1980s also saw the inception of the Galileo mission which launched in the late 1980s.", "The Galileo spacecraft was designed to study Jupiter and its major moons in detail.", "Although the probe only entered the gas giant's orbit in the 1990s, its inception and planning during the 1980s signified JPL's continued commitment to deep space exploration.=== Mars exploration ===The 1990s and 2000s saw a resurgence in Mars exploration, driven by JPL's Mars Pathfinder and Mars Exploration Rover missions.", "In 1997, the Mars Pathfinder mission deployed the first successful Mars rover, Sojourner, demonstrating the feasibility of mobile exploration on the Martian surface.", "In 2004, the Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, landed on Mars.", "Opportunity outlived its expected lifespan by 14 years, providing a wealth of scientific data and setting the stage for future Mars missions.=== Earth science and robotic exploration ===MSL mockup compared with the Mars Exploration Rover and ''Sojourner'' rover by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on May 12, 2008|250x250pxIn the 2000s and 2010s, JPL broadened its exploration scope, including the launch of missions to study the outer planets, like the Juno mission to Jupiter and the Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn.", "Concurrently, JPL also began to focus on Earth science missions, developing satellite technology to study climate change, weather patterns, and natural phenomena on Earth.", "JPL also opened the Near-Earth Object Program Office for NASA in 1998, which had found 95% of asteroids a kilometer or more in diameter that cross Earth's orbit by 2013.Entering the 2010s and 2020s, JPL continued its Mars exploration with the Curiosity rover and the Mars 2020 mission, which included the Perseverance rover and the retired Ingenuity helicopter.", "Perseverance's core objective was to collect samples for a future Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission.", "In addition, JPL ventured into asteroid exploration with the OSIRIS-REx mission aiming to return a sample from asteroid Bennu.=== 2020s and beyond ===As JPL moves forward, its focus remains on diverse interplanetary and even interstellar missions.", "Future Mars missions will aim to return the samples collected by the Perseverance rover back to Earth.", "Additionally, JPL's planned Europa Clipper mission is set to launch in the 2020s to study Jupiter's moon Europa, believed to harbor a subsurface ocean.", "Building on the Voyager program's success, JPL continues to push the boundaries of deep-space exploration.", "The Interstellar Probe concept, though not yet formalized, proposes to send a spacecraft ten times the distance from the Sun as Pluto, to explore the interstellar medium and the outermost reaches of our solar system.JPL has been recognized four times by the Space Foundation: with the Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award, which is given annually to an individual or organization that has made significant contributions to public awareness of space programs, in 1998; and with the John L. \"Jack\" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration on three occasions – in 2009 (as part of NASA's Phoenix Mars Lander Team), 2006 and 2005." ], [ "Location", "JPL-developed Sergeant (left) and Corporal (right) missiles on display at JPL in April 2006When it was founded, JPL's site was immediately west of a rocky flood-plain – the Arroyo Seco riverbed – above the Devil's Gate dam in the northwestern panhandle of the city of Pasadena in Southern California, near Los Angeles.", "While the first few buildings were constructed in land bought from the city of Pasadena, subsequent buildings were constructed in neighboring unincorporated land that later became part of La Cañada Flintridge.", "Nowadays, most of the of the U.S. federal government-owned NASA property that makes up the JPL campus is located in La Cañada Flintridge.", "Despite this, JPL still uses a Pasadena address (4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109) as its official mailing address.", "There has been occasional rivalry between the two cities over the issue of which one should be mentioned in the media as the home of the laboratory." ], [ "Employees", "There are approximately 6,000 full-time Caltech employees, and typically a few thousand additional contractors working on any given day.", "NASA also has a resident office at the facility staffed by federal managers who oversee JPL's activities and work for NASA.", "There are also some Caltech graduate students, college student interns and co-op students." ], [ "Education", "A 1960s advert reads: \"When you were a kid, science fiction gave you a sense of wonder.", "Now you feel the same just by going to work.", "\"The JPL Education Office serves educators and students by providing them with activities, resources, materials and opportunities tied to NASA missions and science.", "The mission of its programs is to introduce and further students' interest in pursuing STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) careers.===Internships and fellowships===JPL offers research, internship and fellowship opportunities in the summer and throughout the year to high school through postdoctoral and faculty students.", "(In most cases, students must be U.S. citizens or legal permanent residents to apply, although foreign nationals studying at U.S. universities are eligible for limited programs.)", "Interns are sponsored through NASA programs, university partnerships and JPL mentors for research opportunities at the laboratory in areas including technology, robotics, planetary science, aerospace engineering, and astrophysics.In August 2013, JPL was named one of \"The 10 Most Awesome College Labs of 2013\" by Popular Science, which noted that about 100 students who intern at the laboratory are considered for permanent jobs at JPL after they graduate.The JPL Education Office also hosts the Planetary Science Summer School (PSSS), an annual week-long workshop for graduate and postdoctoral students.", "The program involves a one-week team design exercise developing an early mission concept study, working with JPL's Advanced Projects Design Team (\"Team X\") and other concurrent engineering teams.===Museum Alliance===JPL created the NASA Museum Alliance in 2003 out of a desire to provide museums, planetariums, visitor centers and other kinds of informal educators with exhibit materials, professional development and information related to the then-upcoming landings of the Mars rovers ''Spirit'' and ''Opportunity''.", "The Alliance now has more than 500 members, who get access to NASA displays, models, educational workshops and networking opportunities through the program.", "Staff at educational organizations that meet the Museum Alliance requirements can register to participate online.The Museum Alliance is a subset of the JPL Education Office's Informal Education group, which also serves after-school and summer programs, parents and other kinds of informal educators.===Educator Resource Center===The NASA/JPL Educator Resource Center, which is moving from its location at the Indian Hill Mall in Pomona, California, at the end of 2013, offers resources, materials and free workshops for formal and informal educators covering science, technology, engineering and science topics related to NASA missions and science." ], [ "Open house", "A display at the May 19, 2007 Open HouseThe lab had an open house once a year on a Saturday and Sunday in May or June, when the public was invited to tour the facilities and see live demonstrations of JPL science and technology.", "More limited private tours are also available throughout the year if scheduled well in advance.", "Thousands of schoolchildren from Southern California and elsewhere visit the lab every year.", "Due to federal spending cuts mandated by budget sequestration, the open house has been previously cancelled.", "JPL open house for 2014 was October 11 and 12 and 2015 was October 10 and 11.Starting from 2016, JPL replaced the annual Open House with \"Ticket to Explore JPL\", which features the same exhibits but requires tickets and advance reservation.", "Roboticist and Mars rover driver Vandi Verma frequently acts as science communicator at open house type events to encourage children (and particularly girls) into STEM careers." ], [ "Other works", "In addition to its government work, JPL has also assisted the nearby motion picture and television industries, by advising them about scientific accuracy in their productions.", "Science fiction shows advised by JPL include ''Babylon 5'' and its sequel series, ''Crusade''.JPL also works with the Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate (DHS-S&T).", "JPL and DHS-S&T developed a search and rescue tool for first responders called FINDER.", "First responders can use FINDER to locate people still alive who are buried in rubble after a disaster or terrorist attack.", "FINDER uses microwave radar to detect breathing and pulses.Additionally, JPL is home to the JPL-RPIF (Jet Propulsion Laboratory – Regional Planetary Image Facility) which is chartered as a repository for all robotic spacecraft hard-copy data and thus provides a valuable resource to NASA funded science investigators, and an important conduit for the distribution of NASA generated materials to local educators in the Los Angeles/southern California area." ], [ "Funding", "The predominant source of JPL's financial support is NASA.", "As a field center of NASA, JPL's primary activities and projects are generally aligned with NASA's mission objectives in space exploration, Earth sciences, and astrophysics.", "The funding allocated to JPL comes as a portion of NASA's annual budget, which is itself part of the United States federal budget approved by Congress.", "The scale of the budget is contingent on the projects that JPL undertakes as missions can range from flagship interplanetary missions costing billions of U.S. dollars to smaller Earth observation systems with budgets in the hundreds of millions.Aside from NASA, JPL secures funding for specialized projects from other federal agencies, including but not limited to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) the United States Geological Survey (USGS), and the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).", "Occasionally, JPL engages in joint missions or research endeavors with international space agencies or research institutions.", "While these partnerships contribute a relatively small portion of JPL's overall budget, they serve to enhance the scope and impact of its scientific research and technological development.The total budget for JPL is subject to annual fluctuations based on both the federal allocation to NASA and the life cycle of ongoing projects.", "High-profile missions may receive significant long-term funding commitments, whereas smaller or shorter-term projects may have more modest financial support.", "These agencies often commission projects that leverage JPL's unique expertise in areas like remote sensing, robotics, and systems engineering.", "Although these projects form a smaller part of JPL's overall budget, they are integral to fulfilling the diverse set of objectives that these federal agencies oversee.In fiscal year 2022, the laboratory's budget was approximately $2.4 billion, with the largest share going to Planetary Science development." ], [ "Peanuts tradition", "There is a tradition at JPL to eat \"good luck peanuts\" before critical mission events, such as orbital insertions or landings.", "As the story goes, after the Ranger program had experienced failure after failure during the 1960s, the first successful Ranger mission to impact the Moon occurred after a JPL staff member had decided to pass out peanuts to relieve tension.", "The staff jokingly decided that the peanuts must have been a good luck charm, and the tradition persisted." ], [ "Missions", "These are some of the missions partially sponsored by JPL:*ASTERIA (spacecraft)*''Cassini–Huygens''*CloudSat*Deep Space 1 and 2*Europa Clipper*Explorer program*''Galileo'' probe*Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)*InSight*''Juno''*''Magellan'' probe*Mariner program*Mars 2020*Mars Climate Orbiter*Mars Cube One*Mars Exploration Rover Mission*''Mars Global Surveyor''*''Mars Odyssey''*''Mars Pathfinder''*''Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter''*Mars Science Laboratory*Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM/Jason-2)*Orbiting Carbon Observatory*''Phoenix'' spacecraft*Pioneer 3 and 4*Psyche: Journey to a Metal World*Ranger program*Shuttle Radar Topography Mission*Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP)*Spitzer Space Telescope*''Stardust''*Surveyor program*Viking program*Voyager program (''Voyager 1'' and ''Voyager 2'')*Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2*Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer" ], [ "List of directors", "*Theodore von Kármán, 1938 – 1944*Frank Malina, 1944 – 1946*Louis Dunn, 1946 – October 1, 1954*William Hayward Pickering, October 1, 1954 – March 31, 1976*Bruce C. Murray, April 1, 1976 – June 30, 1982*Lew Allen, Jr., July 22, 1982 – December 31, 1990*Edward C. Stone, January 1, 1991 – April 30, 2001*Charles Elachi, May 1, 2001 – June 30, 2016*Michael M. Watkins, July 1, 2016 – August 20, 2021*Larry D. James (interim), August 21, 2021 – May 15, 2022*Laurie Leshin, May 16, 2022 – present" ], [ "Team X", "The JPL Advanced Projects Design Team, also known as Team X, is an interdisciplinary team of engineers that utilizes \"concurrent engineering methodologies to complete rapid design, analysis and evaluation of mission concept designs\"." ], [ "Controversies", "===Employee background check lawsuit===On February 25, 2005, Homeland Security Presidential Directive 12 was approved by the Secretary of Commerce.", "This was followed by Federal Information Processing Standards 201 (FIPS 201), which specified how the federal government should implement personal identity verification.", "These specifications led to a need for rebadging to meet the updated requirements.On August 30, 2007, a group of JPL employees filed suit in federal court against NASA, Caltech, and the Department of Commerce, claiming their constitutional rights were being violated by the new, overly invasive background investigations.", "97% of JPL employees were classified at the low-risk level and would be subjected to the same clearance procedures as those obtaining moderate/high risk clearance.", "Under HSPD 12 and FIPS 201, investigators have the right to obtain any information on employees, which includes questioning acquaintances on the status of the employee's mental, emotional, and financial stability.", "Additionally, if employees depart JPL before the end of the two-year validity of the background check, no investigation ability is terminated; former employees can still be legally monitored.Employees were told that if they did not sign an unlimited waiver of privacy, they would be deemed to have \"voluntarily resigned\".", "The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit found the process violated the employees' privacy rights and issued a preliminary injunction.", "NASA appealed and the US Supreme Court granted certiorari on March 8, 2010.On January 19, 2011, the Supreme Court overturned the Ninth Circuit decision, ruling that the background checks did not violate any constitutional privacy right that the employees may have had.===''Coppedge v Jet Propulsion Laboratory''===On March 12, 2012, the Los Angeles Superior Court took opening statements on the case in which former JPL employee David Coppedge brought suit against the lab due to workplace discrimination and wrongful termination.", "In the suit, Coppedge alleges that he first lost his \"team lead\" status on JPL's ''Cassini-Huygens'' mission in 2009 and then was fired in 2011 because of his evangelical Christian beliefs and specifically his belief in intelligent design.", "Conversely, JPL, through the Caltech lawyers representing the laboratory, allege that Coppedge's termination was simply due to budget cuts and his demotion from team lead was because of harassment complaints and from on-going conflicts with his co-workers.", "Superior Court Judge Ernest Hiroshige issued a final ruling in favor of JPL on January 16, 2013." ], [ "Gallery", "Image:Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena CA (21030091981).jpg|A 2015 photo of JPL from aboveImage:Human computers - a computer in the control room at JPL tracks Mariner 2 - reached Venus in 1962.jpg|Human computers in the control room at JPL tracking Mariner 2Image:Galileo in JPL's High Bay 1 (PIA23616).jpg|''Galileo'' spacecraft in JPL's High BayImage:Spacecraft Assembly Room @ JPL (19322114182).jpg|Spacecraft assembly room at JPLImage:JPL aerodynamic noise facility 383-5765ac.jpg|Aerodynamic noise facility at JPL ()Image:JPL Pneumatic cannon used in impact testing 355-1387bc.jpg|Pneumatic cannon in JPL's impact testing facilityImage:NASA Perseverance Rover Lands on Mars (NHQ202102180066).jpg|JPL employees celebrate the landing of the Perseverance rover in JPL's mission controlImage:PIA23923-MarsPerseveranceRover-TeamMembers-20190717.jpg|Mars Perseverance rover team in front of JPL's administration building" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Conway, Erik M. ''Exploration and Engineering: The Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the Quest for Mars'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016) 405 pp." ], [ "External links", "****" ] ]
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[ [ "John Rutsey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Howard Rutsey''' (July 23, 1952 – May 11, 2008) was a Canadian musician best known as a founding member and original drummer of Rush.", "He performed on the band's 1974 debut album, but left shortly after its release due to health problems which limited his ability to tour with the band.", "He was subsequently replaced by Neil Peart, who would remain the drummer of Rush on the band's future recordings and for the rest of its active history." ], [ "Biography", "===Personal life===Rutsey was the son of ''Toronto Telegram'' crime reporter Howard Rutsey.", "He had an older brother named Bill, and a younger brother named Mike who became a baseball writer.", "Following the death of their father by heart attack, the brothers were raised by their mother, Eva.Rutsey was a student at St. Patrick’s School, and it was there that he met Gary Weinrib and Alex Zivojinovich (who would later change their names to Geddy Lee and Alex Lifeson respectively).", "Whereas Lee and Lifeson were listening to progressive rock bands such as Yes, Pink Floyd and Genesis at that time, Rutsey drew more inspiration from the harder styles of bands such as Bad Company.===Formation of Rush===Rutsey and Lifeson became close friends while attending St. Paschals School, and the pair would play street hockey together in their neighborhood.", "Both were interested in rock music, and talked often about forming a band.", "Together, they initially were members of the bands The Projection with Bill Fitzgerald and \"Doc\" Cooper.", "Eventually another school friend, Lee, joined them and the earliest version of Rush was formed.Rutsey's commitment has been credited with providing the band's early direction, as it was he who took the band most seriously and he who would insist on regular practice sessions.", "According to Ian Grandy, a member of the band's early road crew, \"I've said it before and I'll say it again: There would have been no 'Rush' without John.\"", "At Rutsey's suggestion, Rush was initially a glam rock band.", "\"John led the guys as far as being 'glam rockers', with really flashy jackets and pants, and eight-inch high boots\", according to Grandy.", "\"One time, he was speaking to me at the Gasworks and I said, 'Didn't we used to be the same height (5'8\")?'", "He laughed and said 'Well, maybe a long time ago!It was Rutsey's brother, Bill, who came up with the name Rush for the band during a rehearsal in the Rutsey family basement in mid 1968.===Career===The band formed with Rutsey on drums, Lifeson on guitars, and Jeff Jones on vocals and bass, but after their first concert Jones left and was succeeded by Lee.", "During these early years, Rutsey played on the \"Not Fade Away\"/\"You Can't Fight It\" single as well as the debut album.Lee and Lifeson have each acknowledged that during the writing and recording sessions for the band's debut album, Rutsey was given the role of chief lyricist.", "When the time came to start recording, however, he did not deliver any lyrics.", "In interviews, Lee and Lifeson have both said that Rutsey was dissatisfied with what he had written and had torn up the lyric sheets.", "Lee hastily wrote the lyrics to all the songs before recording the vocal tracks.Soon after Rush released its debut album, Rutsey left the band, due to musical differences, health concerns related to diabetes, and his general distaste for touring.", "Rutsey's final performance with the group was on July 25, 1974, at Centennial Hall in London, Ontario.", "He was replaced by Neil Peart.===Later life===Lifeson stated in a 1989 interview that he still often had seen Rutsey, and after leaving the band Rutsey went into bodybuilding.", "Lifeson remarked, \"He competed on an amateur level for a while, doing that for a few years, and has sort of been in and out of that, but he still works out, and I work out with him a few times a week at a local gym – at a Gold's, here in Toronto.\"", "In 2005, Lifeson said that he had not seen Rutsey since around 1990.===Death===On May 11, 2008, Rutsey died in his sleep of an apparent heart attack, related to complications from diabetes.", "Rutsey's family wished to keep the funeral a private affair, although donations would be sent to the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation in Markham, Ontario." ], [ "Aftermath", "After Rutsey's death, Lee and Lifeson released this statement: \"Our memories of the early years of Rush when John was in the band are very fond to us.", "Those years spent in our teens dreaming of one day doing what we continue to do decades later are special.", "Although our paths diverged many years ago, we smile today, thinking back on those exciting times and remembering John's wonderful sense of humour and impeccable timing.", "He will be deeply missed by all he touched.", "\"Rutsey's part in the band's early history is acknowledged in the 2010 documentary ''Rush: Beyond the Lighted Stage''.", "Tape-recorded comments from him are heard during the film, and the DVD release includes two performances with him on drums in its bonus features.", "A third performance is included as a bonus feature on the ''Time Machine 2011: Live in Cleveland'' home video release.Rutsey is buried in the Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto." ], [ "Discography", "Single:*1973: \"Not Fade Away\" / \"You Can't Fight It\" (with Rush)Studio album:*1974: ''Rush'' (with Rush)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "John von Neumann Theory Prize" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''John von Neumann Theory Prize''' of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS)is awarded annually to an individual (or sometimes a group) who has made fundamental and sustained contributions to theory in operations research and the management sciences.The Prize named after mathematician John von Neumann is awarded for a body of work, rather than a single piece.", "The Prize was intended to reflect contributions that have stood the test of time.", "The criteria include significance, innovation, depth, and scientific excellence.The award is $5,000, a medallion and a citation.The Prize has been awarded since 1975.The first recipient was George B. Dantzig for his work on linear programming." ], [ "List of recipients", "* 2022 Vijay Vazirani* 2021 Alexander Shapiro* 2020 Adrian Lewis* 2019 Dimitris Bertsimas and Jong-Shi Pang* 2018 Dimitri Bertsekas and John Tsitsiklis** ''for contributions to Parallel and Distributed Computation as well as Neurodynamic Programming.", "''* 2017 Donald Goldfarb and Jorge Nocedal** ''for seminal contributions to the theory and applications of nonlinear optimization over the past several decades.", "''* 2016 Martin I. Reiman and Ruth J. Williams** ''for seminal research contributions over the past several decades, to the theory and applications of “stochastic networks/systems” and their “heavy traffic approximations.”'' * 2015 Vašek Chvátal and Jean Bernard Lasserre** ''for seminal and profound contributions to the theoretical foundations of optimization.", "''* 2014 Nimrod Megiddo** ''for fundamental contributions across a broad range of areas of operations research and management science, most notably in linear programming, combinatorial optimization, and algorithmic game theory.", "''* 2013 Michel Balinski* 2012 George Nemhauser and Laurence Wolsey* 2011 Gérard Cornuéjols, IBM University Professor of Operations Research at Carnegie Mellon University's Tepper School of Business** ''for his fundamental and broad contributions to discrete optimization including his deep research on balanced and ideal matrices, perfect graphs and cutting planes for mixed-integer optimization.", "''* 2010 Søren Asmussen and Peter W. Glynn* 2009 Yurii Nesterov and Yinyu Ye* 2008 Frank Kelly* 2007 Arthur F. Veinott, Jr.** ''for his profound contributions to three major areas of operations research and management science: inventory theory, dynamic programming and lattice programming.", "''* 2006 Martin Grötschel, László Lovász and Alexander Schrijver** ''for their fundamental path-breaking work in combinatorial optimization.", "''* 2005 Robert J. Aumann** ''in recognition of his fundamental contributions to game theory and related areas''* 2004 J. Michael Harrison** ''for his profound contributions to two major areas of operations research and management science: stochastic networks and mathematical finance.", "''* 2003 Arkadi Nemirovski and Michael J. Todd** ''for their seminal and profound contributions in continuous optimization''.", "* 2002 Donald L. Iglehart and Cyrus Derman** ''for their fundamental contributions to performance analysis and optimization of stochastic systems''* 2001 Ward Whitt** ''for his contributions to queueing theory, applied probability and stochastic modelling''* 2000 Ellis L. Johnson and Manfred W. Padberg* 1999 R. Tyrrell Rockafellar* 1998 Fred W. Glover* 1997 Peter Whittle* 1996 Peter C. Fishburn* 1995 Egon Balas* 1994 Lajos Takacs* 1993 Robert Herman* 1992 Alan J. Hoffman and Philip Wolfe* 1991 Richard E. Barlow and Frank Proschan* 1990 Richard Karp* 1989 Harry M. Markowitz* 1988 Herbert A. Simon* 1987 Samuel Karlin* 1986 Kenneth J. Arrow* 1985 Jack Edmonds* 1984 Ralph Gomory* 1983 Herbert Scarf* 1982 Abraham Charnes, William W. Cooper, and Richard J. Duffin* 1981 Lloyd Shapley* 1980 David Gale, Harold W. Kuhn, and Albert W. Tucker* 1979 David Blackwell* 1978 John F. Nash and Carlton E. Lemke* 1977 Felix Pollaczek* 1976 Richard Bellman* 1975 George B. Dantzig ''for his work on linear programming''There is also an IEEE John von Neumann Medal awarded by the IEEE annually \"for outstanding achievements in computer-related science and technology\"." ], [ "See also", "* IEEE John von Neumann Medal* List of engineering awards* List of mathematics awards* Prizes named after people" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Jean Richard (actor)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean Richard''' (18 April 1921 – 12 December 2001) was a French actor, comedian, and circus entrepreneur.", "He is best remembered for his role as Georges Simenon's ''Maigret'' in the eponymous French television series, which he played for more than twenty years, and for his circus activities.", "Richard was born in Bessines, Deux-Sevres.", "In the 1970s–1980s, he owned and managed three major circuses, two theme parks near Paris, La Mer de Sable and La Vallée des Peaux-Rouges, and a private zoo in his property of Ermenonville, Oise.", "He died on 12 December 2001 in Senlis, aged 80." ], [ "Filmography", "*1947: ''Six heures à perdre'' (directed by Alex Joffé Jean Lévitte) – Le sergent de ville*1949: ''Mission à Tanger'' (directed by André Hunebelle) – Le président*1949: ''I Like Only You'' – Un passager de l'avion*1950: ''Le Roi Pandore'' (directed by André Berthomieu) – Quichenette*1950: ''Adémaï au poteau-frontière'' (directed by Paul Colline)*1951: ''The King of the Bla Bla Bla'' – Jacques*1951: ''Bernard and the Lion'' (directed by Robert Dhéry) – Le brigadier*1951: ''Le passage de Vénus''*1952: ''Le Costaud des Batignolles'' (directed by Guy Lacourt) – L'inspecteur de police*1952: ''Les Sept Péchés capitaux'' – Le paysan (segment \"Gourmandise, La / Gluttony\")*1952: ''La Demoiselle et son revenant'' (directed by Marc Allégret) – Ricard*1952: ''Drôle de noce'' (directed by Léo Joannon) – Joseph Bonhomme*1953: ''Deux de l'escadrille'' (directed by Maurice Labro) – Pierre Dourdan – dit 'Saucisse'*1953: ''Wonderful Mentality'' (directed by André Berthomieu) – Honoré Bonvalet*1953: ''Week-end à Paris'' (directed by Gordon Parry)*1953: ''Le Portrait de son père'' (directed by André Berthomieu) – Paul*1953: ''Cinema d'altri tempi'' – Pasquale*1954: ''Si Versailles m'était conté'' (directed by Sacha Guitry) – Du Croisy / Tartuffe*1954: ''Service Entrance'' (directed by Carlo Rim) – Jules Béchard*1954: ''Scènes de ménage'' – Des Rillettes*1954: ''The Cheerful Squadron'' – Il soldato Laperrine*1954: ''Les Deux font la paire'' (directed by André Berthomieu) – Achille Baluchet*1954: ''Casta Diva'' (directed by Carmine Gallone) – Domenico Fiorillo*1955: ''Chéri-Bibi'' (directed by Marcello Pagliero) – Chéri-bibi / Maxime du Touchais*1955: ''Madelon'' (directed by Jean Boyer) – Antoine Pichot*1955: ''Eléna et les hommes'' (directed by Jean Renoir) – Hector*1956: ''La vie est belle'' – L'employé*1956: ''Short Head'' (directed by Norbert Carbonnaux) – Ferdinan Galiveau, éleveur de volailles à Parthenay*1957: ''Nous autres à Champignol'' (directed by Jean Bastia) – Claudius Binoche*1957: ''La Peau de l'ours'' (directed by Claude Boissol) – Commissaire Étienne Ledru*1957: ''C'est arrivé à 36 chandelles'' – Jean Richard (uncredited)*1957: ''Les Truands'' (directed by Carlo Rim) – Alexandre Benoit*1958: ''En bordée'' (directed by Pierre Chevalier) – Prosper Cartahu*1958: ''Life Together'' (directed by Clément Duhour) – André Le Lorrain*1959: ''Cigarettes, Whiskey and Wild Women'' – Le client assommé qui demande du wisky (uncredited)*1959: ''The Gendarme of Champignol'' (directed by Jean Bastia) – Claudius Binoche*1959: ''Messieurs les ronds de cuir'' (directed by Henri Diamant-Berger) – Boudin*1959: ''Vous n'avez rien à déclarer?''", "(directed by Clément Duhour) – Frontignac*1959: ''Arrêtez le massacre'' (directed by André Hunebelle) – Antoine Martin*1959: ''Mon pote le gitan'' (directed by François Gir) – Pittuiti*1959: ''The Goose of Sedan'' (directed by Helmut Käutner) – Leon Riffard*1959: ''Certains l'aiment froide'' (directed by Jean Bastia and Guy Lionel) – Jérôme Valmorin*1960: ''Tête folle'' (directed by Robert Vernay)*1960: ''Candide ou l'optimisme au XXe siècle'' – Le trafiquant du marché noir / Black Marketeer*1960: ''Les Tortillards'' (directed by Jean Bastia) – César Beauminet*1960: ''Les Fortiches'' (directed by Georges Combret) – Dédé*1961: ''The Fenouillard Family'' (directed by Yves Robert) – Agénor Fenouillard*1961: ''Ma femme est une panthère'' (directed by Raymond Bailly) – Roger*1961: ''La Belle Américaine'' (directed by Robert Dhéry) – le serrurier*1961: '''' (directed by Géza von Radványi) – Siméon*1961: '''' (directed by Géza von Radványi) – Siméon*1962: ''La Guerre des boutons'' (directed by Yves Robert) – Lebrac's father*1962: ''Tartarin of Tarascon'' (directed by Francis Blanche) – Le directeur du cirque 'Mitaine'*1962: ''Un clair de lune à Maubeuge'' (directed by Jean Chérasse) – Philibert*1962: ''Nous irons à Deauville'' (directed by Francis Rigaud) – Le plombier – M. Simeon*1962: ''Du mouron pour les petits oiseaux'' (directed by Marcel Carné) – Louis – le boucher*1963: ''The Bamboo Stroke'' (directed by Jean Boyer) – Albert*1963: ''Dragées au poivre'' (directed by Jacques Baratier) – Lepetit (le nounou 2)*1963: ''Bebert and the Train'' (directed by Yves Robert) – M. Martin*1964: ''Clémentine chérie'' (directed by Pierre Chevalier) – Auguste*1964: ''Jealous as a Tiger'' (directed by Darry Cowl) – Le monsieur à la voiture accidentée*1964: ''Allez France'' (directed by Robert Dhéry and Pierre Tchernia) – Un français dans le bus*1964: ''Comment épouser un premier ministre'' (directed by Michel Boisrond) – Le promoteur*1964: ''Le Dernier tiercé'' (directed by Richard Pottier) – Laredon*1965: ''La Bonne occase'' (directed by Michel Drach)*1965: ''Black Humor'' – Polyte – segment 1 'La Bestiole'*1965: ''Les Mordus de Paris'' – M. Durand*1965: ''La Corde au cou'' (directed by Joseph Lisbona) – Arthur*1965: ''The Double Bed'' – Father*1965: ''La tête du client'' (directed by Jacques Poitrenaud) – Docteur Tannait*1965: ''L'Or du duc'' (directed by Jacques Baratier)*1965: ''Les Bons Vivants'' (directed by Gilles Grangier and Georges Lautner) – Paul Arnaud (segment \"Bons vivants, Les\")*1965: ''The Lace Wars'' (directed by René Clair) – Le Prince de Beaulieu*1966: ''Le Caïd de Champignol'' (directed by Jean Bastia) – Claudius Binoche*1966: ''San Antonio - Sale temps pour les mouches'' (directed by Guy Lefranc) – L'inspecteur principal Bérurier*1967: ''Le Plus Vieux Métier du monde'' (directed by Claude Autant-Lara and Mauro Bolognini) – Le commissaire du peuple (segment \"Mademoiselle Mimi\")*1967: ''Bang Bang'' (directed by Serge Piolet) – Paulo*1967: ''Demeure chaste et pure''*1967: ''Cecile est morte'' (directed by Claude Barma)*1968: ''Béru et ces dames'' (directed by Guy Lefranc) – L'inspecteur principal Bérurier*1969: ''L'Auvergnat et l'Autobus'' – Jean Richard*1969: ''La Maison de campagne'' (directed by Jean Girault) – Bertrand Boiselier*1969: ''Du blé en liasses'' – Bauchard*1972: ''Le Viager'' (directed by Pierre Tchernia) – Jo (un voyou) (cameo)*1981: ''Signé Furax'' (directed by Marc Simenon) – Maigret" ], [ "References", "* The complete guide to Asterix by Peter Kessler" ], [ "External links", "* * Circopedia.org: Jean Richard" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Walker" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Walker''' may refer to:" ], [ "Politicians", "===American politicians===*John Walker (Arkansas politician) (1937–2019), member of the Arkansas House of Representatives*John Walker (Missouri politician) (1770–1838), State Treasurer of Missouri*John Walker (Virginia politician) (1744–1809), U.S.", "Senator, public official, and soldier**SS John Walker, a Liberty ship *John A. Walker (Iowa politician) (1912–2012), American politician*John M. Walker Jr. (born 1940), former chief judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit*John M. Walker (Pennsylvania politician) (1905–1976), Pennsylvania State Senator and lieutenant-gubernatorial nominee*John R. Walker (1874–1942), U.S. Representative from Georgia*John Williams Walker (1783–1823), U.S.", "Senator from Alabama===Other politicians===*John Walker (Australian politician) (1799–1874), member of the Tasmanian Legislative Council*John Walker (Canadian politician) (1832–1889), industrialist & Canadian House of Commons member*John Archibald Walker (1890–1977), lawyer and political figure in Nova Scotia, Canada*John Smith Walker (1826–1893), Minister of Finance of the Kingdom of Hawaii" ], [ "Sportsmen", "===Association football===*John Walker (footballer, born 1873) (1873–1937), Scottish international footballer (Hearts, Liverpool, Rangers)*John Walker (footballer, born 1878) (1878–1900), Scottish footballer (Leith Athletic, Hearts, Lincoln City)*John Walker (footballer, born 1899) (1899–1971), English footballer (Walsall, Stoke)*John Walker (footballer, born 1902), Scottish footballer (Hibernian, Swindon Town)*John Walker (footballer, born 1866) (1866–1921), Scottish footballer (Burnley)*John Walker (Grimsby Town footballer), Scottish football centre-half (Grimsby Town)*Jock Walker (1882–1968), Scottish footballer (Raith Rovers, Beith, Rangers, Swindon Town, Middlesbrough, Reading, Scotland)===Cricket===*John Walker (cricketer, born 1768) (1768–1835), cricketer (brother of Tom and Harry Walker)*John Walker (cricketer, born 1826) (1826–1885), cricketer and the eldest brother of the Walkers of Southgate*John Walker (cricketer, born 1854) (1854–?", "), English cricketer*John Walker (Scottish cricketer) (1879–1953), Scottish cricketer===Other sports===*John Walker (American football) (born 1983), former defensive back for the USC football team*John Walker (archer) (born 1974), British archer*John Walker (Australian footballer) (born 1951), Australian rules footballer for Collingwood*John Walker (cyclist) (1888–1954), British Olympic cyclist*John Walker (gymnast) (1883-1966), British Olympic gymnast*John Walker (rowing) (1891–1952), British coxswain and Olympic medalist*John Walker or Mr. Wrestling II (1934–2020), masked professional wrestler*John Walker (rugby league), rugby league footballer of the 1960s*Sir John Walker (runner) (born 1952), New Zealand runner, Olympic Gold medalist in 1500 metres run in 1976*John R. Walker (horse trainer), Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame horse trainer*John Reid Walker (1855–1934), British polo player and racehorse breeder" ], [ "Entertainers and artists", "*John Walker (animator), television animator and director*John Walker (Australian actor) (fl.", "1990s), Australian comedic actor*John Walker (curator) (1906–1995), director of the National Gallery of Art*John Walker (film producer) (born 1956), animated film producer*John Walker (filmmaker) (born 1952), Canadian filmmaker and cinematographer*John Walker (musician) (1943–2011), born John Maus, member of the 1960s singing group The Walker Brothers*John Walker (organist) (born 1941), recording artist*John Walker (painter) (born 1939), nominee for the Turner Prize in 1985*John Augustus Walker (1901–1967), Alabama Gulf Coast artist*John Edward Walker, British-born, American painter and educator*John Henry Walker (1831–1899), Canadian engraver and illustrator" ], [ "Military personnel and spies", "*John Walker (RAF officer) (born 1936), former Chief of Defence Intelligence*John Walker (Medal of Honor) (1845–?", "), American Indian Wars soldier and Medal of Honor recipient*John Walker (officer of arms) (1913–1984), English officer of arms*John Anthony Walker (1937–2014), American communications specialist convicted in 1985 of spying for the Soviet Union*John C. Walker, Indiana physician and officer during the American Civil War*John George Walker (1821–1893), general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War*John Grimes Walker (1835–1907), United States Navy admiral*John T. Walker (USMC) (1893–1955), United States Marine Corp general" ], [ "Inventors and scientists", "*John Walker (inventor) (1781–1859), English chemist and inventor of the friction match in 1827*John Walker (natural historian) (1731–1803), Scottish naturalist*John Walker (programmer) (born c. 1950-2024), one of the designers of AutoCAD*John Charles Walker (1893–1994), American agricultural scientist*John E. Walker (born 1941), British chemist, winner of the 1997 Nobel Prize*John Francis Walker (1839–1907), British geologist*John James Walker (1825–1900), British mathematician*John M. Walker (1907–1990), American physician and investment banker*John Walker (horticulturist) (1893–1991), Canadian plant breeder" ], [ "Businessmen", "*John Walker (grocer) (1805–1857), Scottish founder of ''John Walker & Sons'' and namesake of the ''Johnnie Walker'' whisky brand*John Walker (Scottish cricketer) (1879–1953), Scottish businessman and director of ''John Walker & Sons''*John Brisben Walker (1847–1931), American entrepreneur and magazine publisher*John Hardeman Walker (1794–1860), southeast Missouri landowner" ], [ "Clergymen", "*John Walker (archdeacon of Essex) (died 1588), Anglican archdeacon*John Walker (archdeacon of Dorset) (1694–1780)*John Walker (biographer) (1674–1747), English clergyman and ecclesiastical historian*John Walker (scholar) (1692–1741), English classical scholar and Anglican archdeacon of Hereford*John Walker (1769–1833), Church of Ireland cleric and academic who seceded as founder of a sect*John M. Walker (bishop) (1888–1951), Episcopal bishop of Atlanta*John Russell Walker (1837–1887), Anglican priest*John T. Walker (bishop) (1925–1989), American Episcopal bishop of Washington*John Walker (abolitionist) (1786–1845), Presbyterian minister in Ohio and Pennsylvania" ], [ "Others", "*John Walker (industrialist) (1884–1932), Pittsburgh industrialist*John Walker (journalist) (born 1977), British video game journalist*John Walker (lexicographer) (1732–1807), English lexicographer, actor and philologist*John Walker (philatelist) (1855–1927), British philatelist*John Walker (numismatist) (1900–1964), Scottish numismatist*John Walker (vaccinator) (1759–1830), English educational writer, physician, and advocate of vaccination*John Brian Walker, British general practitioner*John Walker, one of the Birmingham Six accused of bombings in England in 1974*John A. Walker (art critic) (1938–2023), British art critic and historian*John Clay Walker (1948–1985), American journalist*John H. Walker (1872–1955), Scottish-born American labor unionist and politician*John Walker (Protector of Aborigines), South Australian Protector of Aborigines, 1861–1868*John Walker of Beanston (1670-1728), Scottish agricultural improver - introduced the fallow system to Scotland in 1690." ], [ "Fictional characters", "*John Walker, in Arthur Ransome's ''Swallows and Amazons'' series of novels*John Walker, alter ego of U.S.", "Agent, a comic book superhero" ], [ "See also", "**John Walker Lindh (born 1981), American captured as an enemy combatant in 2001, in Afghanistan, usually referred to by the press as John Walker*Johnnie Walker (disambiguation)*Jack Walker (disambiguation)*Jon Walker (born 1985), American musician*Jonathan Walker (disambiguation)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Walker Lindh" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Philip Walker Lindh''' (born February 9, 1981) is an American Taliban member who was captured by United States forces as an enemy combatant during the United States' invasion of Afghanistan in November 2001.He was detained at Qala-i-Jangi fortress, used as a prison.", "He denied participating in the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi, a violent uprising of the Taliban prisoners, stating that he was wounded in the leg and hid in the cellar of the Pink House, in the southern half of the fort.", "He was one of the 86 prisoners who survived the uprising, from an estimated 400 prisoners in total.", "CIA officer Johnny \"Mike\" Spann was killed during that uprising.", "Brought to trial in United States federal court in February 2002, Lindh accepted a plea bargain; he pleaded guilty to two charges and was sentenced to 20 years in prison.", "He was released on supervision on May 23, 2019, for a three-year period of supervised release.A convert to Sunni Islam in California at age 16, Lindh traveled to Yemen in 1998 to study Arabic and stayed there for 10 months.", "He later returned in 2000, then went to Afghanistan to aid the Taliban in fighting against the Afghan Northern Alliance.", "He received training at Al-Farouq, a training camp associated with al-Qaeda, designated a terrorist organization by the United States and other countries.", "While at the camp, he attended a lecture by Osama bin Laden.", "After the 9/11 attacks, he remained with the Taliban military forces despite learning that the U.S. had become allied with the Northern Alliance.", "Lindh had previously received training with Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, an internationally designated terrorist organization based in Pakistan.Lindh went by the name '''Sulayman al-Faris''' during his time in Afghanistan, but prefers the name '''Abu Sulayman al-Irlandi''' today.", "In early reports following his capture, when the press learned that he was a US citizen, he was usually referred to by the news media as just \"John Walker\"." ], [ "Youth, conversion, and travels", "Lindh was born in Washington, D.C., to Marilyn Walker and Frank R. Lindh, as the middle of three children in the family.", "He was named \"John\" after John Lennon, who was murdered two months before Lindh's birth.", "He was baptized a Catholic, and grew up in Silver Spring, Maryland.", "When he was 10 years old, his family moved to San Anselmo, California.", "Lindh suffered from an intestinal disorder as a child.", "At age 14, his health improved.", "He enrolled at Redwood High School as a freshman.", "He then transferred to Tamiscal High School in the Tamalpais Union High School District, an alternative school offering self-directed, individualized study programs.", "While there, he studied world culture, including Sunni Islam and the Middle East.", "Lindh dropped out of the school and eventually earned an equivalent of a high school diploma by passing the California High School Proficiency Exam at age 16.As an adolescent, Lindh participated in IRC chatrooms with the IRC nickname Mujahid.", "He became a devoted fan of hip-hop music and engaged in extensive discussions on Usenet newsgroups, sometimes pretending to be an African American rapper who would criticize others for \"acting black.\"", "Spike Lee's film ''Malcolm X'' impressed him deeply and sparked his interest in Islam.Although his parents did not divorce until 1999, their marriage was in serious trouble throughout Lindh's adolescence.", "His father often left their Marin residence for extended periods to live in San Francisco with a male lover.", "Frank Lindh said he and Marilyn had been separated since 1997.In 1997, at the age of 16, Lindh converted to Islam.", "He began regularly attending mosques in Mill Valley and later in nearby San Francisco.", "In 1998, Lindh traveled to Yemen and stayed for about 10 months to learn Arabic so that he could read the Qur'an in its original language.", "He returned to the United States in 1999, living with his family for about eight months.Lindh returned to Yemen in February 2000 and left for Pakistan to study at a ''madrasa''.", "While abroad, Lindh exchanged numerous emails with his family.", "In one, his father told him about the USS ''Cole'' bombing, to which Lindh replied that the American naval destroyers being in the Yemen harbor had been an act of war, and that the bombing was justified.", "\"This raised my concerns,\" his father told ''Newsweek'', \"but my days of molding him were over.", "\"At the age of 20, Lindh decided to travel to Afghanistan to fight for the Afghan Taliban government forces against Northern Alliance fighters.", "His parents said that he was moved by stories of atrocities allegedly perpetrated by the Northern Alliance army against civilians.", "He traveled to Afghanistan in May 2001.Tony West, his lawyer, explained it as follows: \"One of the first things he told Army interrogators when they questioned him on December 3, 2001, was that after 9/11 happened, he wanted to leave the front lines but couldn't for fear of his life.", "John never wanted to be in a position where he was opposing the United States (and never thought he would be), and in fact he never opposed any American military.\"" ], [ "Capture and interrogation", "Lindh surrendered on November 24, 2001, to Afghan Northern Alliance forces after his Al Qaeda foreign fighters unit surrendered at Kunduz after retreating from Takar.", "He and other fighters were to be questioned by the CIA officers Johnny \"Mike\" Spann and David Tyson at General Dostum's military garrison, Qala-i-Jangi, near Mazār-e Sharīf.", "During the initial questioning, Lindh was not advised of his rights and his request for a lawyer was denied.Lindh, who had a grandmother from County Donegal, had told other prisoners he was Irish.", "While being interviewed by the CIA, he did not speak or reveal that he was American.", "Spann asked Lindh, \"Are you a member of the IRA?\"", "He was asked this question because, when questioned by Spann, an Iraqi in the group identified Lindh as an English speaker.", "Lindh had been told to say he was \"Irish\" to avoid problems.", "Moments later, around 11 am, the makeshift prison was the scene of a violent uprising, which became known as the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi.", "Spann and hundreds of foreign fighters were killed; only 86 prisoners survived.", "According to other detainees interviewed by journalist Robert Young Pelton for CNN, Lindh was fully aware of the planned uprising, yet remained silent and did not cooperate with the Americans.Sometime during the initial uprising, Lindh was shot or hit by shrapnel in the right upper thigh and found refuge in a basement, hiding with the rest of the detainees.", "On the second day, the Red Cross sent in workers to collect the dead.", "As soon as they entered, the workers were shot by the prisoners, who killed one.", "The Northern Alliance repeatedly bombarded the area with RPGs and grenade attacks, and burning fuel poured in.", "Finally, on December 2, 2001, Northern Alliance forces diverted an irrigation stream into the middle of the camp to flush the remaining prisoners out of their underground shelters, drowning many in the process.", "Lindh and about 85 survivors from the original 300–500 were forced out of hiding.", "Northern Alliance soldiers bound Lindh's elbows behind his back.Shortly after his recapture, Lindh was noticed and interviewed by Pelton, who was working as a stringer for CNN.", "Lindh initially gave his name as \"Abd-al-Hamid\" but later gave his birth name.", "Pelton brought a medic and food for Lindh and interviewed him about how he got there.", "During the interview, Lindh said that he was a member of al-Ansar, a group of Arabic-speaking fighters financed by Osama bin Laden.", "Lindh said that the prison uprising was sparked by some of the prisoners smuggling grenades into the basement: \"This is against what we had agreed upon with the Northern Alliance, and this is against Islam.", "It is a major sin to break a contract, especially in military situations\".", "A U.S. Army Special Forces operator, fresh from three weeks of combat, gave up his bed so that the wounded Lindh could sleep there.", "Pelton repeatedly asked Lindh if he wanted to call his parents or have the journalist do so, but Lindh declined.", "An FBI source later told author Toby Harnden that dark stains on the right side of Lindh's face indicated he had fired a weapon at Qala-i Jangi.", "Lindh, however, was not tested for explosives or firearms residue before he was washed.Lindh photographed after being transported to Camp RhinoAfter capture, Lindh was given basic first aid and questioned for a week at Mazār-e Sharīf.", "He was taken to Camp Rhino on December 7, 2001, the bullet or piece of shrapnel still within his thigh.", "When Lindh arrived at Camp Rhino, he was stripped and restrained on a stretcher, blindfolded and placed in a metal shipping container, which was procedure for dealing with a potentially dangerous detainee associated with a terrorist organization.", "On the day he left the Turkish School, he was photographed with the words \"Shit Head\" written onto duct tape on his blindfold by Green Berets posing for a \"team photo\" with their captive.", "The Green Berets, from 592, were later investigated.", "While bound to the stretcher at Camp Rhino, Lindh was photographed by some American military personnel.", "At Camp Rhino, he was given oxycodone/paracetamol for pain and diazepam.On December 8 and 9, he was interviewed by the FBI and was mirandized on December 9 or 10.He was held at Camp Rhino until he was transferred to the on December 14, 2001, with other wounded detainees, where his wound was operated on and he received further care.", "He was interrogated before the operation on December 14.While on the ''Peleliu'', he signed confession documents while he was held by the United States Marine Corps.", "On December 31, 2001, Lindh was transferred to the USS ''Bataan'', where he was held until January 22, 2002.He was flown back to the United States to face criminal charges.", "On January 16, 2002, Attorney General John Ashcroft announced that Lindh would be tried in the United States.In 2002, former President George H. W. Bush referred to Lindh as \"some misguided Marin County hot-tubber\".", "The comment, in which Bush also mispronounced the county's name, provoked a minor furor and prompted a retraction of the statement by Bush.", "Lindh's attorneys told the press that his client had asked for a lawyer repeatedly before being interviewed by the FBI, but did not get one, and that \"highly coercive\" prison conditions forced Lindh to waive his right to remain silent.", "Although the FBI asked Jesselyn Radack, a Justice Department ethics adviser, whether Lindh could be questioned without a lawyer present, they did not follow her advice to avoid that scenario." ], [ "Trial and sentencing", "On February 5, 2002, Lindh was indicted by a federal grand jury on ten charges:* Conspiracy to murder US citizens or nationals* Two counts of providing material support and resources to terrorist organizations* One count of supplying services to the Taliban* Conspiracy to contribute services to Al Qaeda* Contributing services to Al Qaeda* Conspiracy to supply services to the Taliban* Using and carrying firearms and destructive devices during crimes of violenceIf convicted of these charges, Lindh could have received up to three life sentences and 90 additional years in prison.", "On February 13, 2002, he pleaded not guilty to all 10 charges.", "The court scheduled an evidence suppression hearing, at which Lindh would have been able to testify about the details of the torture to which he claimed he was subjected.", "The government faced the problem that a key piece of evidence – Lindh's confession – might be excluded from evidence as having been coerced.Michael Chertoff, then-head of the Criminal Division of the U.S. Department of Justice, then directed the prosecutors to offer Lindh a plea bargain.", "Lindh could plead guilty to two charges: supplying services to the Taliban (, , 31 CFR 545.204, and 31 CFR 545.206) and carrying an explosive during the commission of a felony ().", "He would have to consent to a gag order that would prevent him from making any public statements on the matter for the duration of his 20-year sentence, and he would have to drop any claims that he had been mistreated or tortured by U.S. military personnel in Afghanistan and aboard two military ships during December 2001 and January 2002.In return, all other charges would be dropped.", "The gag order was said to be at the request of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld.Lindh accepted this offer.", "On July 15, 2002, he entered his plea of guilty to the two remaining charges.", "The judge asked Lindh to say, in his own words, what he was admitting to: \"I plead guilty.", "I provided my services as a soldier to the Taliban last year from about August to December.", "In the course of doing so, I carried a rifle and two grenades.", "I did so knowingly and willingly knowing that it was illegal.\"", "Lindh said that he \"went to Afghanistan with the intention of fighting against terrorism and oppression\", fighting for the suffering of ordinary people at the hands of the Northern Alliance.", "On October 4, 2002, Judge T.S.", "Ellis III imposed a sentence of 20 years in federal prison.Some activists and academics called for Lindh to tell his story.", "The government invoked the Son of Sam law and informed Lindh that any and all profits made from book deals or any movies about Lindh's experience would be automatically transferred to the federal government.", "Lindh, his family, his relatives, his associates and his friends will be unable to profit financially from his crimes and/or experiences.", "Lindh's attorney, James Brosnahan, said Lindh would be eligible for release in 17 years, with good behavior.", "Lindh agreed to cooperate \"fully, truthfully and completely\" with both military intelligence and law enforcement agencies in the terrorism investigation." ], [ "Imprisonment", "In January 2003, Lindh was sent to the U.S. Penitentiary, Victorville, a high-security facility northeast of Los Angeles.", "On March 3, 2003, Lindh was tackled by inmate Richard Dale Morrison.", "He assaulted Lindh at prayer, causing bruises on his forehead.", "On July 2, 2003, Morrison was charged with a misdemeanor count of assault.Lindh was held in Federal Supermax ADX Florence in Florence, Colorado for a short time.", "He served his sentence as prisoner 45426-083, at the Federal Correctional Institution at Terre Haute, Indiana in the Communication Management Unit.In April 2007, citing the reduced sentence for the Australian prisoner David Matthew Hicks, Lindh's attorneys made a public plea for a Presidential commutation to lessen his 20-year sentence.", "In January 2009, the Lindh family's petition for clemency was denied by President George W. Bush in one of his final acts in office.", "According to the U.S. Department of Justice, all \"special administrative measures\" in place against Lindh expired on March 20, 2009, as part of a gradual easing of restrictions on him.In 2010, Lindh and the Syrian-American prisoner Enaam Arnaout sued to lift restrictions on group prayer by Muslim inmates in the Communication Management Unit.", "On January 11, 2013, a federal judge ruled in their favor, saying that the government had shown no compelling interest in restricting the religious speech of the inmates by prohibiting them from praying together.In February 2015, Lindh wrote to a California television producer, expressing support for ISIS or the Islamic State, the militant group that had recently beheaded five Westerners in televised executions.", "Asked if he supported the Islamic State, Lindh, now calling himself \"Yahya\", Arabic for John, replied in a handwritten letter: \"Yes, and they are doing a spectacular job.", "The Islamic State is clearly very sincere and serious about fulfilling the long-neglected religious obligation of establishing a caliphate through armed struggle, which is the only correct method\".In 2017 ''Foreign Policy magazine'' reported an internal report by the National Counterterrorism Center asserted Lindh told a visiting television news producer that he had not renounced extremist violence.", "Lindh was interviewed for the 2016 book ''The Way of the Strangers: Encounters With the Islamic State'' by Graeme Wood, on the condition that Wood provide Lindh with \"books, treatises, articles, or other writings produced by leaders of the Islamic State and/or scholars affiliated with it (preferably in the original Arabic).\"", "Upon sending the package of literature was blocked from delivery by the prison as it was deemed contraband, however Lindh decided to continue corresponding with Wood, though Lindh later ended the correspondence by saying he was personally a \"layman\" whose opinions had \"no consequence\", referring to his knowledge of the Islamic State.Lindh secured Irish citizenship in 2013 through his paternal grandmother, Kathleen Maguire, who was born in Donegal." ], [ "Release", "On May 23, 2019, Lindh was released early for good behavior from the Terre Haute, Indiana federal prison prior to the end of his twenty-year sentence, although he accepted several probation requirements due to his continued support of Islamist ideology.", "These requirements included a ban from internet use and contact with fellow extremists.", "The probation lasted for the remaining three years of his sentence." ], [ "In popular culture", "* In a ''National Geographic'' documentary, ''Taliban Uprising'', the only video of Lindh speaking since his capture is shown.", "* The documentary ''Good Morning, Afghanistan'' by Damien Degueldre features the Battle of Mazar-i-Sharif, where John Walker was being held and later transferred by the Northern Alliance to US Special Forces Operatives.", "* DJ Krush and Anticon recorded the song \"Song for John Walker\" for the 2002 album ''The Message at the Depth''.", "* The 2003 book \"My Heart Became Attached\" by Mark Kukis was a biography of John Walker Lindh, tracing his life from childhood to radicalization to prison* A musical interpretation of John Walker Lindh's story was staged in 2004 by Jean Strong and John McCloskey at the New York International Fringe Festival * Steve Earle recorded a song about Lindh titled \"John Walker's Blues\".", "It was released on his 2002 album ''Jerusalem''.", "* The progressive bluegrass band Hot Buttered Rum wrote and recorded ''The Trial Of John Walker Lindh'' for their 2002 album ''Live at the Freight and Salvage.", "''* The 13th-season premiere of the police procedural and legal drama television series ''Law & Order'' is based on the Lindh case.", "* A novel by Pearl Abraham entitled ''American Taliban'' (2010) is based on Lindh.", "* In episode seven of the first season of the television series ''Entourage'' Vince is offered a role in a fictitious movie based on \"the John Walker Lindh story\".", "* In author Doug Stanton's book ''Horse Soldiers'' Lindh is mentioned as one of the Al-Qaeda combatants, then as a prisoner.", "* In the popular philosophy collection ''Dune and Philosophy'', American philosophy expert Shane Ralston defends Lindh's character as \"quintessentially American\" given the idealism, bravery and religious fervor with which he served the Taliban forces in Afghanistan.", "* The Spanish writer Enrique Falcón included a poem titled John Walker Lindh on the book ''Taberna Roja'' (2008).", "* The podcast ''You're Wrong About'' featured Lindh in an episode titled \"The American Taliban\".", "* Lindh is initially referred to as \"the Irishman\" in the 2021 book \"First Casualty: The Untold Story of the CIA Mission to Avenge 9/11\" by Toby Harnden.", "* Showtime Networks released a documentary, ''Detainee 001'', about Lindh's capture and interrogations, in September 2021." ], [ "See also", "* Detention of five Americans in Pakistan (Dec. 2009)* Adam Yahiye Gadahn* Yasser Esam Hamdi* Bryant Neal Vinas" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Lindh indictment* Case History: ''U.S.", "v. Lindh'', on FindLaw* Free John Walker Lindh – Advocacy website.", "* \"The Real Story of John Walker Lindh\" by Frank Lindh, ''AlterNet'', January 24, 2006.– An address to the Commonwealth Club of California by John Walker Lindh's father.", "** Audio file of above speech (in RealAudio format)* \"False and misleading statements by Mr. Frank Lindh omits many known facts: Article of appeal\" by Johnny Spann, ''HonorMikeSpann.com'', February 1, 2006.", "(PDF file) – Response by Mike Spann's father.", "* \"The Real Story of John Walker Lindh\" – 2013 Frank Lindh interview on The Peter B. Collins Show.", "* \"America's 'detainee 001' – the persecution of John Walker Lindh\" by Frank Lindh, in ''The Guardian'', July 10, 2011" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jet stream" ], [ "Introduction", "The polar jet stream can travel at speeds greater than .", "Here, the fastest winds are coloured red; slower winds are blue.Clouds along a jet stream over Canada.", "'''Jet streams''' are fast flowing, narrow, meandering air currents in the atmospheres of the Earth, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.", "On Earth, the main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause and are westerly winds (flowing west to east).", "Jet streams may start, stop, split into two or more parts, combine into one stream, or flow in various directions including opposite to the direction of the remainder of the jet." ], [ "Overview", "The strongest jet streams are the '''polar jets''' around the polar vortices, at above sea level, and the higher altitude and somewhat weaker '''subtropical jets''' at .", "The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a subtropical jet.", "The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes of North America, Europe, and Asia and their intervening oceans, while the southern hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica, both all year round.Jet streams are the product of two factors: the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that produces the large-scale polar, Ferrel, and Hadley circulation cells, and the action of the Coriolis force acting on those moving masses.", "The Coriolis force is caused by the planet's rotation on its axis.", "On other planets, internal heat rather than solar heating drives their jet streams.", "The polar jet stream forms near the interface of the polar and Ferrel circulation cells; the subtropical jet forms near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells.Other jet streams also exist.", "During the Northern Hemisphere summer, easterly jets can form in tropical regions, typically where dry air encounters more humid air at high altitudes.", "Low-level jets also are typical of various regions such as the central United States.", "There are also jet streams in the thermosphere.Meteorologists use the location of some of the jet streams as an aid in weather forecasting.", "The main commercial relevance of the jet streams is in air travel, as flight time can be dramatically affected by either flying with the flow or against.", "Often, airlines work to fly 'with' the jet stream to obtain significant fuel cost and time savings.", "Dynamic North Atlantic Tracks are one example of how airlines and air traffic control work together to accommodate the jet stream and winds aloft that results in the maximum benefit for airlines and other users.", "Clear-air turbulence, a potential hazard to aircraft passenger safety, is often found in a jet stream's vicinity, but it does not create a substantial alteration of flight times." ], [ "Discovery", "The first indications of this phenomenon came from American professor Elias Loomis (1811-1889) in the 1800s, when he proposed a powerful air current in the upper air blowing west to east across the United States as an explanation for the behaviour of major storms.", "After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano, weather watchers tracked and mapped the effects on the sky over several years.", "They labelled the phenomenon the \"equatorial smoke stream\".", "In the 1920s Japanese meteorologist Wasaburo Oishi detected the jet stream from a site near Mount Fuji.", "He tracked pilot balloons (\"pibals\"), used to measure wind speed and direction, as they rose in the air.", "Oishi's work largely went unnoticed outside Japan because it was published in Esperanto.", "American pilot Wiley Post (1898-1935), the first man to fly around the world solo in 1933, is often given some credit for discovery of jet streams.", "Post invented a pressurized suit that let him fly above .", "In the year before his death, Post made several attempts at a high-altitude transcontinental flight, and noticed that at times his ground speed greatly exceeded his air speed.German meteorologist Heinrich Seilkopf is credited with coining a special term, ''Strahlströmung'' (literally \"jet current\"), for the phenomenon in 1939.Many sources credit real understanding of the nature of jet streams to regular and repeated flight-path traversals during World War II.", "Flyers consistently noticed westerly tailwinds in excess of in flights, for example, from the US to the UK.", "Similarly in 1944 a team of American meteorologists in Guam, including Reid Bryson, had enough observations to forecast very high west winds that would slow bombers raiding Japan." ], [ "Description", "General configuration of the polar and subtropical jet streamsCross section of the subtropical and polar jet streams by latitudePolar jet streams are typically located near the 250 hPa (about 1/4 atmosphere) pressure level, or above sea level, while the weaker subtropical jet streams are much higher, between .", "Jet streams wander laterally dramatically, and change in altitude.", "The jet streams form near breaks in the tropopause, at the transitions between the polar, Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells, and whose circulation, with the Coriolis force acting on those masses, drives the jet streams.", "The polar jets, at lower altitude, and often intruding into mid-latitudes, strongly affect weather and aviation.", "The polar jet stream is most commonly found between latitudes 30° and 60° (closer to 60°), while the subtropical jet streams are located close to latitude 30°.", "These two jets merge at some locations and times, while at other times they are well separated.", "The northern polar jet stream is said to \"follow the sun\" as it slowly migrates northward as that hemisphere warms, and southward again as it cools.The width of a jet stream is typically a few hundred kilometres or miles and its vertical thickness often less than .Jet streams are typically continuous over long distances, but discontinuities are also common.", "The path of the jet typically has a meandering shape, and these meanders themselves propagate eastward, at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow.", "Each large meander, or wave, within the jet stream is known as a Rossby wave (planetary wave).", "Rossby waves are caused by changes in the Coriolis effect with latitude.", "Shortwave troughs, are smaller scale waves superimposed on the Rossby waves, with a scale of long, that move along through the flow pattern around large scale, or longwave, \"ridges\" and \"troughs\" within Rossby waves.", "Jet streams can split into two when they encounter an upper-level low, that diverts a portion of the jet stream under its base, while the remainder of the jet moves by to its north.The wind speeds are greatest where temperature differences between air masses are greatest, and often exceed .", "Speeds of have been measured.The jet stream moves from West to East bringing changes of weather.", "Meteorologists now understand that the path of jet streams affects cyclonic storm systems at lower levels in the atmosphere, and so knowledge of their course has become an important part of weather forecasting.", "For example, in 2007 and 2012, Britain experienced severe flooding as a result of the polar jet staying south for the summer." ], [ "Cause", "Highly idealised depiction of the global circulation.", "The upper-level jets tend to flow latitudinally along the cell boundaries.In general, winds are strongest immediately under the tropopause (except locally, during tornadoes, tropical cyclones or other anomalous situations).", "If two air masses of different temperatures or densities meet, the resulting pressure difference caused by the density difference (which ultimately causes wind) is highest within the transition zone.", "The wind does not flow directly from the hot to the cold area, but is deflected by the Coriolis effect and flows along the boundary of the two air masses.All these facts are consequences of the thermal wind relation.", "The balance of forces acting on an atmospheric air parcel in the vertical direction is primarily between the gravitational force acting on the mass of the parcel and the buoyancy force, or the difference in pressure between the top and bottom surfaces of the parcel.", "Any imbalance between these forces results in the acceleration of the parcel in the imbalance direction: upward if the buoyant force exceeds the weight, and downward if the weight exceeds the buoyancy force.", "The balance in the vertical direction is referred to as hydrostatic.", "Beyond the tropics, the dominant forces act in the horizontal direction, and the primary struggle is between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force.", "Balance between these two forces is referred to as geostrophic.", "Given both hydrostatic and geostrophic balance, one can derive the thermal wind relation: the vertical gradient of the horizontal wind is proportional to the horizontal temperature gradient.", "If two air masses in the northern hemisphere, one cold and dense to the north and the other hot and less dense to the south, are separated by a vertical boundary and that boundary should be removed, the difference in densities will result in the cold air mass slipping under the hotter and less dense air mass.", "The Coriolis effect will then cause poleward-moving mass to deviate to the East, while equatorward-moving mass will deviate toward the west.", "The general trend in the atmosphere is for temperatures to decrease in the poleward direction.", "As a result, winds develop an eastward component and that component grows with altitude.", "Therefore, the strong eastward moving jet streams are in part a simple consequence of the fact that the Equator is warmer than the north and south poles.===Polar jet stream===The thermal wind relation does not explain why the winds are organized into tight jets, rather than distributed more broadly over the hemisphere.", "One factor that contributes to the creation of a concentrated polar jet is the undercutting of sub-tropical air masses by the more dense polar air masses at the polar front.", "This causes a sharp north-south pressure (south-north potential vorticity) gradient in the horizontal plane, an effect which is most significant during double Rossby wave breaking events.", "At high altitudes, lack of friction allows air to respond freely to the steep pressure gradient with low pressure at high altitude over the pole.", "This results in the formation of planetary wind circulations that experience a strong Coriolis deflection and thus can be considered 'quasi-geostrophic'.", "The polar front jet stream is closely linked to the frontogenesis process in midlatitudes, as the acceleration/deceleration of the air flow induces areas of low/high pressure respectively, which link to the formation of cyclones and anticyclones along the polar front in a relatively narrow region.===Subtropical jet===A second factor which contributes to a concentrated jet is more applicable to the subtropical jet which forms at the poleward limit of the tropical Hadley cell, and to first order this circulation is symmetric with respect to longitude.", "Tropical air rises to the tropopause, and moves poleward before sinking; this is the Hadley cell circulation.", "As it does so it tends to conserve angular momentum, since friction with the ground is slight.", "Air masses that begin moving poleward are deflected eastward by the Coriolis force (true for either hemisphere), which for poleward moving air implies an increased westerly component of the winds (note that deflection is leftward in the southern hemisphere).===Other planets===Jupiter's distinctive cloud bandsJupiter's atmosphere has multiple jet streams, caused by the convection cells that form the familiar banded color structure; on Jupiter, these convection cells are driven by internal heating.", "The factors that control the number of jet streams in a planetary atmosphere is an active area of research in dynamical meteorology.", "In models, as one increases the planetary radius, holding all other parameters fixed, the number of jet streams decreases." ], [ "Effects", "===Hurricane protection===Hurricane Flossie over Hawaii in 2007.Note the large band of moisture that developed East of Hawaii Island that came from the hurricane.The subtropical jet stream rounding the base of the mid-oceanic upper trough is thought to be one of the causes most of the Hawaiian Islands have been resistant to the long list of Hawaii hurricanes that have approached.", "For example, when Hurricane Flossie (2007) approached and dissipated just before reaching landfall, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) cited vertical wind shear as evidenced in the photo." ], [ "Uses", "On Earth, the northern polar jet stream is the most important one for aviation and weather forecasting, as it is much stronger and at a much lower altitude than the subtropical jet streams and also covers many countries in the Northern Hemisphere, while the southern polar jet stream mostly circles Antarctica and sometimes the southern tip of South America.", "Thus, the term ''jet stream'' in these contexts usually implies the northern polar jet stream.===Aviation===Flights between Tokyo and Los Angeles using the jet stream eastbound and a great circle route westbound.The location of the jet stream is extremely important for aviation.", "Commercial use of the jet stream began on 18 November 1952, when Pan Am flew from Tokyo to Honolulu at an altitude of .", "It cut the trip time by over one-third, from 18 to 11.5 hours.", "Not only does it cut time off the flight, it also nets fuel savings for the airline industry.", "Within North America, the time needed to fly east across the continent can be decreased by about 30 minutes if an airplane can fly with the jet stream, or increased by more than that amount if it must fly west against it.Associated with jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear-air turbulence (CAT), caused by vertical and horizontal wind shear caused by jet streams.", "The CAT is strongest on the cold air side of the jet, next to and just under the axis of the jet.", "Clear-air turbulence can cause aircraft to plunge and so present a passenger safety hazard that has caused fatal accidents, such as the death of one passenger on United Airlines Flight 826.===Possible future power generation===Scientists are investigating ways to harness the wind energy within the jet stream.", "According to one estimate of the potential wind energy in the jet stream, only one percent would be needed to meet the world's current energy needs.", "In the late 2000s it was estimated that the required technology would reportedly take 10–20 years to develop.There are two major but divergent scientific articles about jet stream power.", "Archer & Caldeira claim that the Earth's jet streams could generate a total power of 1700 terawatts (TW) and that the climatic impact of harnessing this amount would be negligible.", "However, Miller, Gans, & Kleidon claim that the jet streams could generate a total power of only 7.5 TW and that the climatic impact would be catastrophic.===Unpowered aerial attack===Near the end of World War II, from late 1944 until early 1945, the Japanese Fu-Go balloon bomb, a type of fire balloon, was designed as a cheap weapon intended to make use of the jet stream over the Pacific Ocean to reach the west coast of Canada and the United States.", "Relatively ineffective as weapons, they were used in one of the few attacks on North America during World War II, causing six deaths and a small amount of damage.", "American scientists studying the balloons thought the Japanese might be preparing a biological attack." ], [ "Changes due to climate cycles", "===Effects of ENSO===Impact of El Niño and La Niña on North AmericaEl Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) influences the average location of upper-level jet streams, and leads to cyclical variations in precipitation and temperature across North America, as well as affecting tropical cyclone development across the eastern Pacific and Atlantic basins.", "Combined with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, ENSO can also impact cold season rainfall in Europe.", "Changes in ENSO also change the location of the jet stream over South America, which partially affects precipitation distribution over the continent.====El Niño====During El Niño events, increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly, zonal, storm track.", "During the Niño portion of ENSO, increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal, and more southerly, polar jet stream.", "Snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range, and is well below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states.", "The northern tier of the lower 48 exhibits above normal temperatures during the fall and winter, while the Gulf coast experiences below normal temperatures during the winter season.", "The subtropical jet stream across the deep tropics of the Northern Hemisphere is enhanced due to increased convection in the equatorial Pacific, which decreases tropical cyclogenesis within the Atlantic tropics below what is normal, and increases tropical cyclone activity across the eastern Pacific.", "In the Southern Hemisphere, the subtropical jet stream is displaced equatorward, or north, of its normal position, which diverts frontal systems and thunderstorm complexes from reaching central portions of the continent.====La Niña====Across North America during La Niña, increased precipitation is diverted into the Pacific Northwest due to a more northerly storm track and jet stream.", "The storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal conditions (in the form of increased snowfall) to the Midwestern states, as well as hot and dry summers.", "Snowfall is above normal across the Pacific Northwest and western Great Lakes.", "Across the North Atlantic, the jet stream is stronger than normal, which directs stronger systems with increased precipitation towards Europe.===Dust Bowl===Evidence suggests the jet stream was at least partly responsible for the widespread drought conditions during the 1930s Dust Bowl in the Midwest United States.", "Normally, the jet stream flows east over the Gulf of Mexico and turns northward pulling up moisture and dumping rain onto the Great Plains.", "During the Dust Bowl, the jet stream weakened and changed course traveling farther south than normal.", "This starved the Great Plains and other areas of the Midwest of rainfall, causing extraordinary drought conditions." ], [ "Longer-term climatic changes", "Meanders (Rossby Waves) of the Northern Hemisphere's polar jet stream developing (a), (b); then finally detaching a \"drop\" of cold air (c).", "Orange: warmer masses of air; pink: jet stream.Since the early 2000s, climate models have consistently identified that global warming will gradually push jet streams poleward.", "In 2008, this was confirmed by observational evidence, which proved that from 1979 to 2001, the northern jet stream moved northward at an average rate of per year, with a similar trend in the Southern Hemisphere jet stream.", "Climate scientists have hypothesized that the jet stream will also gradually weaken as a result of global warming.", "Trends such as Arctic sea ice decline, reduced snow cover, evapotranspiration patterns, and other weather anomalies have caused the Arctic to heat up faster than other parts of the globe, in what is known as the Arctic amplification.", "In 2021-2022, it was found that since 1979, the warming within the Arctic Circle has been nearly four times faster than the global average, and some hotspots in the Barents Sea area warmed up to seven times faster than the global average.", "While the Arctic remains one of the coldest places on Earth today, the temperature gradient between it and the warmer parts of the globe will continue to diminish with every decade of global warming as the result of this amplification.", "If this gradient has a strong influence on the jet stream, then it will eventually become weaker and more variable in its course, which would allow more cold air from the polar vortex to leak mid-latitudes and slow the progression of Rossby Waves, leading to more persistent and more extreme weather.The hypothesis above is closely associated with Jennifer Francis, who had first proposed it in a 2012 paper co-authored by Stephen J. Vavrus.", "While some paleoclimate reconstructions have suggested that the polar vortex becomes more variable and causes more unstable weather during periods of warming back in 1997, this was contradicted by climate modelling, with PMIP2 simulations finding in 2010 that the Arctic oscillation was much weaker and more negative during the Last Glacial Maximum, and suggesting that warmer periods have stronger positive phase AO, and thus less frequent leaks of the polar vortex air.", "However, a 2012 review in the ''Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences'' noted that \"there has been a significant change in the vortex mean state over the twenty-first century, resulting in a weaker, more disturbed vortex.", "\", which contradicted the modelling results but fit the Francis-Vavrus hypothesis.", "Additionally, a 2013 study noted that the then-current CMIP5 tended to strongly underestimate winter blocking trends, and other 2012 research had suggested a connection between declining Arctic sea ice and heavy snowfall during midlatitude winters.In 2013, further research from Francis connected reductions in the Arctic sea ice to extreme summer weather in the northern mid-latitudes, while other research from that year identified potential linkages between Arctic sea ice trends and more extreme rainfall in the European summer.", "At the time, it was also suggested that this connection between Arctic amplification and jet stream patterns was involved in the formation of Hurricane Sandy and played a role in the Early 2014 North American cold wave.", "In 2015, Francis' next study concluded that highly amplified jet-stream patterns are occurring more frequently in the past two decades.", "Hence, continued heat-trapping emissions favour increased formation of extreme events caused by prolonged weather conditions.Studies published in 2017 and 2018 identified stalling patterns of Rossby waves in the northern hemisphere jet stream as the culprit behind other almost stationary extreme weather events, such as the 2018 European heatwave, the 2003 European heat wave, 2010 Russian heat wave or the 2010 Pakistan floods, and suggested that these patterns were all connected to Arctic amplification.", "Further work from Francis and Vavrus that year suggested that amplified Arctic warming is observed as stronger in lower atmospheric areas because the expanding process of warmer air increases pressure levels which decreases poleward geopotential height gradients.", "As these gradients are the reason that cause west to east winds through the thermal wind relationship, declining speeds are usually found south of the areas with geopotential increases.", "In 2017, Francis explained her findings to the ''Scientific American'': \"A lot more water vapor is being transported northward by big swings in the jet stream.", "That's important because water vapor is a greenhouse gas just like carbon dioxide and methane.", "It traps heat in the atmosphere.", "That vapor also condenses as droplets we know as clouds, which themselves trap more heat.", "The vapor is a big part of the amplification story—a big reason the Arctic is warming faster than anywhere else.", "\"In a 2017 study conducted by climatologist Dr. Judah Cohen and several of his research associates, Cohen wrote that \"the shift in polar vortex states can account for ''most'' of the recent winter cooling trends over Eurasian midlatitudes\".", "A 2018 paper from Vavrus and others linked Arctic amplification to more persistent hot-dry extremes during the midlatitude summers, as well as the midlatitude winter continental cooling.", "Another 2017 paper estimated that when the Arctic experiences anomalous warming, primary production in North America goes down by between 1% and 4% on average, with some states suffering up to 20% losses.", "A 2021 study found that a stratospheric polar vortex disruption is linked with extreme cold winter weather across parts of Asia and North America, including the February 2021 North American cold wave.", "Another 2021 study identified a connection between the Arctic sea ice loss and the increased size of wildfires in the Western United States.However, because the specific observations are considered short-term observations, there is considerable uncertainty in the conclusions.", "Climatology observations require several decades to definitively distinguish various forms of natural variability from climate trends.", "This point was stressed by reviews in 2013 and in 2017.A study in 2014 concluded that Arctic amplification significantly decreased cold-season temperature variability over the Northern Hemisphere in recent decades.", "Cold Arctic air intrudes into the warmer lower latitudes more rapidly today during autumn and winter, a trend projected to continue in the future except during summer, thus calling into question whether winters will bring more cold extremes.", "A 2019 analysis of a data set collected from 35 182 weather stations worldwide, including 9116 whose records go beyond 50 years, found a sharp decrease in northern midlatitude cold waves since the 1980s.Moreover, a range of long-term observational data collected during 2010s and published in 2020s now suggests that the intensification of Arctic amplification since the early 2010s was not linked to significant changes on midlatitude atmospheric patterns.", "State-of-the-art modelling research of PAMIP (Polar Amplification Model Intercomparison Project) improved upon the 2010 findings of PMIP2 - it did find that sea ice decline would weaken the jet stream and increase the probability of atmospheric blocking, but the connection was very minor, and typically insignificant next to interannual variability.", "In 2022, a follow-up study found that while the PAMIP average had likely underestimated the weakening caused by sea ice decline by 1.2 to 3 times, even the corrected connection still amounts to only 10% of the jet stream's natural variability.Additionally, a 2021 study found that while jet streams had indeed slowly moved polewards since 1960 as was predicted by models, they did not weaken, in spite of a small increase in waviness.", "A 2022 re-analysis of the aircraft observational data collected over 2002–2020 suggested that the North Atlantic jet stream had actually strengthened.", "Finally, a 2021 study was able to reconstruct jet stream patterns over the past 1,250 years based on Greenland ice cores, and found that all of the recently observed changes remain within range of natural variability: the earliest likely time of divergence is in 2060, under the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 which implies continually accelerating greenhouse gas emissions." ], [ "Other upper-level jets", "===Polar night jet===The polar-night jet stream forms mainly during the winter months when the nights are much longer, hence polar nights, in their respective hemispheres at around 60° latitude.", "The polar night jet moves at a greater height (about ) than it does during the summer.", "During these dark months the air high over the poles becomes much colder than the air over the Equator.", "This difference in temperature gives rise to extreme air pressure differences in the stratosphere, which, when combined with the Coriolis effect, create the polar night jets, that race eastward at an altitude of about .", "The polar vortex is circled by the polar night jet.", "The warmer air can only move along the edge of the polar vortex, but not enter it.", "Within the vortex, the cold polar air becomes increasingly cold with neither warmer air from lower latitudes nor energy from the Sun entering during the polar night." ], [ "Low-level jets", "There are wind maxima at lower levels of the atmosphere that are also referred to as jets.===Barrier jet===A barrier jet in the low levels forms just upstream of mountain chains, with the mountains forcing the jet to be oriented parallel to the mountains.", "The mountain barrier increases the strength of the low level wind by 45 percent.", "In the North American Great Plains a southerly low-level jet helps fuel overnight thunderstorm activity during the warm season, normally in the form of mesoscale convective systems which form during the overnight hours.", "A similar phenomenon develops across Australia, which pulls moisture poleward from the Coral Sea towards cut-off lows which form mainly across southwestern portions of the continent.===Coastal jet===Coastal low-level jets are related to a sharp contrast between high temperatures over land and lower temperatures over the sea and play an important role in coastal weather, giving rise to strong coast parallel winds.", "Most coastal jets are associated with the oceanic high-pressure systems and thermal low over land.", "These jets are mainly located along cold eastern boundary marine currents, in upwelling regions offshore California, Peru-Chile, Benguela, Portugal, Canary and West Australia, and offshore Yemen—Oman.===Valley exit jet===A valley exit jet is a strong, down-valley, elevated air current that emerges above the intersection of the valley and its adjacent plain.", "These winds frequently reach speeds of up to at heights of above the ground.", "Surface winds below the jet tend to be substantially weaker, even when they are strong enough to sway vegetation.Valley exit jets are likely to be found in valley regions that exhibit diurnal mountain wind systems, such as those of the dry mountain ranges of the US.", "Deep valleys that terminate abruptly at a plain are more impacted by these factors than are those that gradually become shallower as downvalley distance increases.===Africa===There are several important low-level jets in Africa.", "Numerous low-level jets form in the Sahara, and are important for the raising of dust off the desert surface.", "This includes a low-level jet in Chad, which is responsible for dust emission from the Bodélé Depression, the world's most important single source of dust emission.", "The Somali Jet, which forms off the East African coast is an important component of the global Hadley circulation, and supplies water vapour to the Asian Monsoon.", "Easterly low-level jets forming in valleys within the East African Rift System help account for the low rainfall in East Africa and support high rainfall in the Congo Basin rainforest.", "The formation of the thermal low over northern Africa leads to a low-level westerly jet stream from June into October, which provides the moist inflow to the West African monsoon.While not technically a low-level jet, the mid-level African easterly jet (at 3000–4000 m above the surface) is also an important climate feature in Africa.", "It occurs during the Northern Hemisphere summer between 10°N and 20°N above in the Sahel region of West Africa.", "The mid-level easterly African jet stream is considered to play a crucial role in the West African monsoon, and helps form the tropical waves which move across the tropical Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans during the warm season." ], [ "See also", "*Atmospheric river*Block (meteorology)*Polar vortex*Surface weather analysis*Sting jet*Tornado*Tropical Easterly Jet*Wind shear*Weather" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Current map of winds at the 250 hPa level*Tim Woolings, Jet Stream - A Journey Through our Changing Climate, 2020, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882851-8" ] ]
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[ [ "Joint Interoperability of Tactical Command and Control Systems" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joint Interoperability of Tactical Command and Control Systems''' or '''JINTACCS''' is a program of the United States Department of Defense for the development and maintenance of tactical information exchange configuration items (CIs) and operational procedures.", "It was originated in 1977 to ensure that the command and control (C2 and C3) and weapons systems of all US military services and NATO forces would be compatible.It is made up of standard Message Text Formats (MTF) for man-readable and machine-processable information, a core set of common warfighting symbols, and data link standards called Tactical Data Links (TDLs).JINTACCS was initiated by the US Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1977 as a successor to the Joint Interoperability of Tactical Command and Control Systems in Support of Ground and Amphibious Military Operations (1971-1977).", "As of 1982 the command was hosted at Fort Monmouth in Monmouth County, New Jersey, and employed 39 military people and 23 civilians." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jamming" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jamming''' (or variants) may refer to:" ], [ "General", "* Jamming (knot), the tendency of knots to become difficult to untie* Interfering with communications or surveillance:** Radio jamming** Radar jamming and deception** Mobile phone jammer** Echolocation jamming** Radio-controlled improvised explosive device jamming, a counter-IED technique * Jamming (physics), an apparent change of physical state* Jamming (climbing), a climbing technique*Jamming (weapon), a firearm malfunction" ], [ "TV and radio", "* Culture jamming, criticizing mass media through its own methods* ''Jammin''' (radio programme), BBC Radio 2 musical comedy show that aired since 2001* Jammin, original version of TV series Kickin' It with Byron Allen 1992* ''Jammin'' (2006 TV series), Sí TV reality television series that aired from 2006 to 2008" ], [ "Music and dance", "* Jammin, an alias of DJ Zinc* Jam session, a semi-improvised rock or jazz performance* Jamming (dance), cheered show-offs during social dancing* ''Jamming!", "'', a UK music fanzine of the 1970s–80s created by Tony Fletcher*''Jamming'', dancehall reggae album by Frankie Paul, 1991* \"Jammin'\" (Andrews Sisters song), debut hit song of the Andrews Sisters, 1937* \"Jamming\" (song), by Bob Marley, 1977* \"Master Blaster (Jammin')\", a song by Stevie Wonder, 1980" ], [ "See also", "* Jam (disambiguation)* Jammer (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "John Ashcroft" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John David Ashcroft''' (born May 9, 1942) is an American lawyer, lobbyist, and former politician who served as the United States Attorney General in the George W. Bush administration from 2001 to 2005.He previously held various positions in Missouri politics; as Auditor of Missouri (1973–1975), Attorney General of Missouri (1976–1985), Governor of Missouri (1985–1993), and as a United States Senator representing Missouri (1995–2001).", "He later founded The Ashcroft Group, a Washington D.C. lobbying firm.Ashcroft graduated from Hillcrest High School in 1960 before receiving a J.D.", "from the University of Chicago Law School.", "After unsuccessfully running for the U.S. House of Representatives, he was elected Missouri State Auditor in 1974.He then served two consecutive terms as Missouri Attorney General and as Missouri Governor (a historical first for a Republican candidate in the state).", "He is only Republican to serve two full consecutive terms as governor to date.", "He also served one term as a U.S.", "Senator from Missouri until losing a race for a second term in 2000.Ashcroft had early appointments in Missouri state government and was mentored by John Danforth.", "He has written several books about politics and ethics.", "After George W. Bush was elected president in 2000, he selected Ashcroft to serve as U.S. Attorney General.", "As Attorney General, Ashcroft was a key supporter of the USA Patriot Act following the September 11 attacks and the use of torture to suspected terrorists.", "Ashcroft stepped down as Attorney General in February 2005 and was replaced by Alberto Gonzales.", "Since 2011, Ashcroft sits on the board of directors for the private military company Academi (formerly Blackwater) and is a professor at the Regent University School of Law, a conservative Christian institution affiliated with the late televangelist Pat Robertson; he has also been a member of the Federalist Society.", "His son, Jay Ashcroft, is also a politician, serving as Secretary of State of Missouri since January 2017." ], [ "Early life and education", "Ashcroft was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Grace P. (née Larsen) and James Robert Ashcroft.", "The family later lived in Willard, Missouri, where his father was a minister in an Assemblies of God congregation in nearby Springfield, served as president of Evangel University (1958–1974), and jointly as President of Central Bible College (1958–1963).", "His mother was a homemaker, whose parents had emigrated from Norway.", "His paternal grandfather was an Irish immigrant.Ashcroft graduated from Hillcrest High School in 1960.He attended Yale University, where he was a member of the St. Elmo Society, graduating in 1964.He received a Juris Doctor from the University of Chicago Law School (1967).After law school, Ashcroft briefly taught Business Law and worked as an administrator at Southwest Missouri State University.", "During the Vietnam War, he was not drafted because he received six student draft deferments and one occupational deferment because of his teaching work." ], [ "Missouri political career", "===State Auditor (1973–1975)===In 1972, Ashcroft ran for a congressional seat in southwest Missouri in the Republican primary election, narrowly losing to Gene Taylor.", "After the primary, Missouri Governor Kit Bond appointed Ashcroft to the office of State Auditor, which Bond had vacated when he became governor.In 1974, Ashcroft was narrowly defeated for election to that post by Jackson County Executive George W. Lehr.", "Lehr had argued that Ashcroft, who is not an accountant, was not qualified to be the State Auditor.===Attorney General of Missouri (1976–1985)===President Ronald Reagan in 1984Missouri Attorney General John Danforth, who was then in his second term, hired Ashcroft as an assistant state attorney general.", "During his service, Ashcroft shared an office with future U.S. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas (and, in 2001, Justice Thomas administered Ashcroft's oath of office as U.S. attorney general).In 1976, Danforth retired from the state attorney general post to run for the U.S. Senate, and Ashcroft ran replace him.", "He was unopposed in the Republican primary and defeated Democrat James Baker in the general election.", "He was scheduled to be sworn in on January 10, 1977, but Danforth resigned from his post early ahead of his swearing in to the U.S. Senate, so Ashcroft was appointed attorney general on December 27, 1976.In 1980, Ashcroft was re-elected with 64.5 percent of the vote, winning 96 of Missouri's 114 counties.In 1983, Ashcroft wrote the leading ''amicus curiae'' brief in the U.S. Supreme Court Case ''Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.'', supporting the use of video cassette recorders for time shifting of television programs.===Governor of Missouri (1985–1993)===Ashcroft's official portrait as governorAshcroft was elected governor in 1984 and re-elected in 1988, becoming the first (and to date only) Republican in Missouri history elected to two consecutive terms.Missouri Governor John Ashcroft and First Lady Barbara Bush with a \"Parents as Teachers\" group at the Greater St. Louis Ferguson-Florissant School District in October 1991.Mrs.", "Bush (in rocking chair) is reading ''Brown Bear, Brown Bear'' to the children.In 1984, his opponent was the Democratic Lieutenant Governor Ken Rothman.", "The campaign was so negative on both sides that a reporter described the contest as \"two alley cats scrapping over truth in advertising\".", "In his campaign ads, Ashcroft showed the contrast between his rural-base and the supporters of his urban-based opponent from St. Louis.", "Democrats did not close ranks on primary night.", "The defeated candidate Mel Carnahan endorsed Rothman.", "In the end, Ashcroft won 57 percent of the vote and carried 106 counties—then the largest Republican gubernatorial victory in Missouri history.In 1988, Ashcroft won by a larger margin over his Democratic opponent, Betty Cooper Hearnes, the wife of the former governor Warren Hearnes.", "Ashcroft received 64 percent of the vote in the general election—the largest landslide for governor in Missouri history since the U.S. Civil War.During his second term, Ashcroft served as chairman of the National Governors Association (1991–92).===U.S.", "Senator from Missouri (1995–2001)===Ashcroft's official portrait as SenatorIn 1994 Ashcroft was elected to the U.S. Senate from Missouri, again succeeding John Danforth, who retired from the position.", "Ashcroft won 59.8% of the vote against Democratic Congressman Alan Wheat.", "As Senator:* He opposed the Clinton Administration's Clipper encryption restrictions, arguing in favor of the individual's right to encrypt messages and export encryption software.", "* In 1999, as chair of the Senate's subcommittee on patents, he helped extend patents for several drugs, notably the allergy medication Claritin, to prevent the marketing of less-expensive generics.", "* On March 30, 2000, with Senator Russ Feingold, Ashcroft convened the only Senate hearing on racial profiling.", "He said the practice was unconstitutional and that he supported legislation requiring police to keep statistics on their actions.In 1998, Ashcroft briefly considered running for U.S. president, but, on January 5, 1999, he decided that he would seek re-election to his Senate seat in the 2000 election and not run for president.Methamphetamine, 2000In the Republican primary, Ashcroft defeated Marc Perkel.", "In the general election, Ashcroft faced a challenge from Governor Mel Carnahan.In the midst of a tight race, Carnahan died in an airplane crash three weeks prior to the election.", "Ashcroft suspended all campaigning after the plane crash.", "Because of Missouri state election laws and the short time to election, Carnahan's name remained on the ballot.", "Lieutenant Governor Roger B. Wilson became governor upon Carnahan's death.", "Wilson said that should Carnahan be elected, he would appoint his widow, Jean Carnahan, to serve in her husband's place.", "Mrs. Carnahan stated that, in accordance with her late husband's goal, she would serve in the Senate if voters elected his name.", "Following these developments, Ashcroft resumed campaigning.Carnahan won the election 51% to 49%.", "No one had ever posthumously won election to the Senate, though voters had on at least three occasions chosen deceased candidates for the House of Representatives.", "Ashcroft remains the only U.S.", "Senator defeated for re-election by a dead person." ], [ "United States Attorney General", "President George W. Bush meets with Attorney General John Ashcroft in the Oval Office on March 11, 2003Ashcroft in 2005In December 2000, following his Senatorial defeat, Ashcroft was chosen for the position of U.S. attorney general by president-elect George W. Bush.", "He was confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 58 to 42, with most Democratic senators voting against him, citing his prior opposition to using busing to achieve school desegregation, and their opposition to Ashcroft's opposition to abortion.", "At the time of his appointment he was known to be a member of the Federalist Society.In May 2001, the FBI revealed that they had misplaced thousands of documents related to the investigation of the Oklahoma City bombing.", "Ashcroft granted a 30-day stay of execution for Timothy McVeigh, the man sentenced to death for the bombing.In July 2001, Ashcroft began flying exclusively by private jet.", "When questioned about this decision, the Justice Department explained that this course of action had been recommended based on a “threat assessment” made by the FBI.", "Neither the Bureau, nor the Justice Department would identify the specific nature of the threat, who made it, or when it happened.", "The CIA were unaware of any specific threats against Cabinet members.", "At the time, Ashcroft was the only Cabinet appointee who traveled on a private jet, excluding the special cases of Interior and Energy who have responsibilities which require chartered jets.After the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, Ashcroft was a key administration supporter of passage of the USA Patriot Act.", "One of its provisions, Section 215, allows the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to apply for an order from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court to require production of \"any tangible thing\" for an investigation.", "This provision was criticized by citizen and professional groups concerned about violations of privacy.", "Ashcroft referred to the American Library Association's opposition to Section 215 as \"hysteria\" in two separate speeches given in September 2003.While Attorney General, Ashcroft consistently denied that the FBI or any other law enforcement agency had used the Patriot Act to obtain library circulation records or those of retail sales.", "According to the sworn testimony of two FBI agents interviewed by the 9/11 Commission, Ashcroft ignored warnings of an imminent al-Qaida attack.In January 2002, the partially nude female statue of the ''Spirit of Justice'' in the Robert F. Kennedy Department of Justice Building, where Ashcroft held press conferences, was covered with blue curtains.", "Department officials long insisted that the curtains were put up to improve the room's use as a television backdrop and that Ashcroft had nothing to do with it.", "Ashcroft's successor, Alberto Gonzales, removed the curtains in June 2005.Ashcroft also held daily prayer meetings.In July 2002, Ashcroft proposed the creation of Operation TIPS, a domestic program in which workers and government employees would inform law enforcement agencies about suspicious behavior they encounter while performing their duties.", "The program was widely criticized from the beginning, with critics deriding the program as essentially a Domestic Informant Network along the lines of the East German Stasi or the Soviet KGB, and an encroachment upon the First and Fourth amendments.", "The United States Postal Service refused to be a party to it.", "Ashcroft defended the program as a necessary component of the ongoing War on Terrorism, but the proposal was eventually abandoned.Ashcroft proposed a draft of the Domestic Security Enhancement Act of 2003, legislation to expand the powers of the U.S. government to fight crime and terrorism, while simultaneously eliminating or curtailing judicial review of these powers for incidents related to domestic terrorism.", "The bill was leaked and posted to the Internet on February 7, 2003.On May 26, 2004, Ashcroft held a news conference at which he said that intelligence from multiple sources indicated that the terrorist organization, al Qaeda, intended to attack the United States in the coming months.", "Critics suggested he was trying to distract attention from a drop in the approval ratings of President Bush, who was campaigning for re-election.Groups supporting individual gun ownership praised Ashcroft's support through DOJ for the Second Amendment.", "He said specifically, \"the Second Amendment protects an individual's right to keep and bear arms,\" expressing the position that the second amendment protects an individual right, unrelated to militia service.United States Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge and John Ashcroft in 2004 in Washington, D.C.In March 2004, the Justice Department under Ashcroft ruled President Bush's domestic intelligence program illegal.", "Shortly afterward, he was hospitalized with acute gallstone pancreatitis.", "White House Counsel Alberto Gonzales and Chief of Staff Andrew Card Jr. went to Ashcroft's bedside in the hospital intensive-care unit, to persuade the incapacitated Attorney General to sign a document to reauthorize the program.", "Acting Attorney General James Comey alerted FBI Director Robert Mueller III of this plan, and rushed to the hospital, arriving ahead of Gonzales and Card, Jr. Ashcroft, \"summoning the strength to lift his head and speak\", refused to sign.", "Attempts to reauthorize the program were ended by President Bush when Ashcroft, Comey and Mueller threatened to resign.Following accounts of the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal in Iraq, one of the Torture memos was leaked to the press in June 2004.Jack Goldsmith, then head of the Office of Legal Counsel, had already withdrawn the Yoo memos and advised agencies not to rely on them.", "After Goldsmith was forced to resign because of his objections, Attorney General Ashcroft issued a one paragraph opinion re-authorizing the use of torture.Ashcroft pushed his U.S. attorneys to pursue voter fraud cases.", "However, the U.S. attorneys struggled to find any deliberate voter fraud schemes, only finding individuals who made mistakes on forms or misunderstood whether they were eligible to vote.Following George W. Bush's re-election, Ashcroft resigned, which took effect on February 3, 2005, after the Senate confirmed White House Counsel Alberto Gonzales as the next attorney general.", "Ashcroft said in his hand-written resignation letter, dated November 2, \"The objective of securing the safety of Americans from crime and terror has been achieved.\"" ], [ "Consultant and lobbyist", "In May 2005, Ashcroft laid the groundwork for a strategic consulting firm, The Ashcroft Group, LLC.", "He started operation in the fall of 2005 and as of March 2006 had twenty-one clients, turning down two for every one accepted.", "In 2005 year-end filings, Ashcroft's firm reported collecting $269,000, including $220,000 from Oracle Corporation, which won Department of Justice approval of a multibillion-dollar acquisition less than a month after hiring Ashcroft.", "The year-end filing represented, in some cases, only initial payments.According to government filings, Oracle is one of five Ashcroft Group clients that seek help in selling data or software with security applications.", "Another client, Israel Aircraft Industries International, is competing with Seattle's Boeing Company to sell the government of South Korea a billion dollar airborne radar system.In March 2006, Ashcroft positioned himself as an \"anti-Abramoff\".", "In an hour-long interview, Ashcroft used the word ''integrity'' scores of times.", "In May 2006, based on conversations with members of Congress, key aides and lobbyists, ''The Hill'' magazine listed Ashcroft as one of the top 50 \"hired guns\" (lobbyists) that K Street had to offer.By August 2006, Ashcroft's firm reportedly had 30 clients, many of which made products or technology aimed at homeland security.", "About a third of its client list were not disclosed on grounds of confidentiality.", "The firm also had equity stakes in eight client companies.", "It reportedly received $1.4 million in lobbying fees in the six months preceding August 2006, a small fraction of its total earnings.After the proposed merger of Sirius Satellite Radio Inc. and XM Satellite Radio Holdings Inc., Ashcroft offered the firm his consulting services, according to a spokesman for XM.", "The spokesman said XM declined Ashcroft's offer.", "Ashcroft was subsequently hired by the National Association of Broadcasters, which is strongly opposed to the merger.In 2011, Ashcroft became an “independent director” on the board of Xe Services (now Academi), the controversial private military company formerly known as Blackwater (Nisour Square massacre), which faced scores of charges related to weapons trafficking, unlawful force, and corruption, and had named Ted Wright as CEO in May 2011.Wright hired a new governance chief to oversee ethical and legal compliance and established a new board composed of former government officials, including former White House counsel Jack Quinn and Ashcroft.", "In December 2011, Xe Services rebranded to Academi to convey a more \"boring\" image.The firm also has a law firm under its umbrella, called the Ashcroft Law Firm.", "In December 2014, the law firm was hired by convicted Russian arms trafficker Viktor Bout to overturn his 2011 conviction.In June 2017, Ashcroft was hired by the government of Qatar to carry out a compliance and regulatory review of Qatar's anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing framework, to help challenge accusations of supporting terrorism by its neighbors, following a regional blockade, as well as claims by U.S. President Donald Trump.In June 2018, Ashcroft was reportedly hired by Najib Razak among other top U.S lawyers to defend him in the 1MDB scandal, back in 2016.According to the document, the firm was hired to provide legal advice and counsel to Najib regarding \"improper actions by third parties to attempt to destabilise the government of Malaysia\".", "Although it is unsure whether Najib will retain the services of Ashcroft on the issue due to the United States Department of Justice's probe into 1MDB." ], [ "Political issues", "Ashcroft delivers the key note speech at the Eagles Summit Ranch dedication ceremony in 2007CPAC in February 2010Ashcroft in 2018In 2009 in ''Ashcroft v. al-Kidd'', the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco found that Ashcroft could be sued and held personally responsible for the wrongful detention of Abdullah al-Kidd.", "The American citizen was arrested at Dulles International Airport in March 2003 on his way to Saudi Arabia for study.", "He was held for 15 days in maximum security in three states, and 13 months in supervised release, to be used as a material witness in the trial of Sami Omar Al-Hussayen.", "(The latter was acquitted of all charges of supporting terrorism.)", "Al-Kidd was never charged and was not called as a witness in the Al-Hussayen case.The panels court described the government's assertions under the USA Patriot Act (2001) as \"repugnant of the Constitution\".", "In a detailed and at times passionate opinion, Judge Milan Smith likened allegations against al-Kidd as similar to the repressive practices of the British Crown that sparked the American Revolution.", "He wrote that the government asserts it can detain American citizens \"not because there is evidence that they have committed a crime, but merely because the government wishes to investigate them for possible wrongdoing\".", "He called it \"a painful reminder of some of the most ignominious chapters of our national history\".Abdullah Al-Kidd was held in a maximum security prison for 16 days, and in supervised release for 13 months.", "Al-Kidd was born Lavoni T. Kidd in 1973 in Wichita, Kansas.", "When he converted to Islam as a student at the University of Idaho, where he was a prominent football player, he changed his name.", "He asserts that Ashcroft violated his civil liberties as an American citizen, as he was treated like a terrorist and not allowed to consult an attorney.", "Al-Kidd's lawyers say Ashcroft, as US attorney general, encouraged authorities after 9/11 to arrest potential suspects as material witnesses when they lacked probable cause to believe the suspects had committed a crime.The US Supreme Court agreed on October 18, 2010, to hear the case.", "On May 31, 2011, the US Supreme Court unanimously overturned the lower court's decision, saying that al-Kidd could not personally sue Ashcroft, as he was protected by limited immunity as a government official.", "A majority of the justices held that al-Kidd could not have won his case on the merits, because Ashcroft did not violate his Fourth Amendment rights.Ashcroft has been a proponent of the War on Drugs.", "In a 2001 interview on ''Larry King Live,'' Ashcroft stated his intention to increase efforts in this area.", "In 2003, two nationwide investigations code-named Operation Pipe Dream and Operation Headhunter, which targeted businesses selling drug paraphernalia, mostly for cannabis use, resulted in a series of indictments.Tommy Chong, a counterculture icon, was one of those charged, for his part in financing and promoting Chong Glass/Nice Dreams, a company started by his son Paris.", "Of the 55 individuals charged as a result of the operations, only Chong was given a prison sentence after conviction (nine months in a federal prison, plus forfeiting $103,000 and a year of probation).", "The other 54 individuals were given fines and home detentions.", "While the DOJ denied that Chong was treated any differently from the other defendants, critics thought the government was trying to make an example of him.", "Chong's experience as a target of Ashcroft's sting operation is the subject of Josh Gilbert's feature-length documentary ''a/k/a Tommy Chong'', which premiered at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival.", "In a pre-sentencing brief, the Department of Justice specifically cited Chong's entertainment career as a consideration against leniency.When Karl Rove was being questioned in 2005 by the FBI over the leak of a covert CIA agent's identity in the press (the Valerie Plame affair), Ashcroft was allegedly briefed about the investigation.", "The Democratic U.S. Representative John Conyers described this as a \"stunning ethical breach that cries out for an immediate investigation.\"", "Conyers, the ranking Democrat on the House Judiciary Committee, asked, in a statement, for a formal investigation of the time between the start of Rove's investigation and John Ashcroft's recusal.Since his service in government, Ashcroft has continued to oppose proposals for physician-assisted suicide, which some states have passed by referendums.", "When interviewed about it in 2012, when a case had reached the US Supreme Court after California voters had approved a law to permit it under regulated conditions, he said,I certainly believe that people who are in pain should be helped and assisted in every way possible, that the drugs should be used to mitigate their pain but I believe the law of the United States of America which requires that drugs not be used except for legitimate health purposes.In 2015, Human Rights Watch called for the investigation of Ashcroft \"for conspiracy to torture as well as other crimes.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "Ashcroft in 1986Ashcroft is a member of the Assemblies of God church.", "He is married to Janet E. Ashcroft and has three children with her.", "His son, Jay, is the Missouri Secretary of State.Ashcroft had long enjoyed inspirational music and singing.", "In the 1970s, he recorded a gospel record entitled ''Truth: Volume One, Edition One'', with Democratic Missouri legislator Max Bacon.With fellow U.S. senators Trent Lott, Larry Craig, and Jim Jeffords, Ashcroft formed a barbershop quartet called The Singing Senators.", "The men performed at social events with other senators.", "Ashcroft performed the Star Spangled Banner before the National Hockey League all-star game in St. Louis in 1988.Ashcroft composed a paean titled \"Let the Eagle Soar,\" which he sang at the Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary in February 2002.Ashcroft has written and sung a number of other songs.", "He has collected these on compilation tapes, including ''In the Spirit of Life and Liberty'' and ''Gospel (Music) According to John''.", "In 1998, he wrote a book with author Gary Thomas titled ''Lessons from a Father to His Son''.Ashcroft was given an honorary doctorate before delivering the commencement address at Toccoa Falls College in 2018." ], [ "Books", "* Co-author with Jane E. Ashcroft, ''College Law for Business,'' textbook (10th edition, 1987)* ''On My Honor: The Beliefs that Shape My Life'' (1998)* ''Lessons From a Father to His Son'' (2002)* ''Never Again: Securing America and Restoring Justice'' (2006)" ], [ "Representation in other media", "* His song, \"Let the Eagle Soar\", was satirically featured in Michael Moore's 2004 movie ''Fahrenheit 9/11'' and has been frequently mocked by comedians such as David Letterman, Stephen Colbert and David Cross, to name a few.", "* The song was performed at Bush's 2005 inauguration by Guy Hovis, a former cast member of ''The Lawrence Welk Show''.", "*\"Let the Eagle Soar\" is heard in the background in the 2015 film ''The Big Short'', as an ironic juxtaposition of schmaltzy music and new-age capitalist sensibility when a phone call is placed to pastoral Boulder, Colorado, where anti-authoritarian ex-banking trader Ben Rickert (played by Brad Pitt) lives.", "* The song \"Caped Crusader\" off of Jello Biafra and the Melvins' 2004 album ''Never Breathe What You Can't See'' lifts several lines from Ashcroft and 9/11 hijacker Mohamed Atta in a satirical attack on religious fundamentalism." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC News' John Ashcroft profile* CNN video of John Ashcroft singing \"Let the Eagle Soar\"* Excerpts from an album Ashcroft recorded in the 1970s* Ashcroft's Senate voting record* Transcript of James Comey's testimony before the Senate Judiciary Committee, May 15, 2007*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Japheth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Japheth''' ( ''Yép̄eṯ'', in pausa ''Yā́p̄eṯ''; ''''; ) is one of the three sons of Noah in the Book of Genesis, in which he plays a role in the story of Noah's drunkenness and the curse of Ham, and subsequently in the Table of Nations as the ancestor of the peoples of the Aegean Sea, Anatolia, and elsewhere.", "In medieval and early modern European tradition he was considered to be the progenitor of the European peoples, while Islamic traditions also include the Chinese people among his descendants." ], [ "Etymology", "The meaning of the name ''Japheth'' ( ''y-p-t'') is disputable.", "There are two possible sources to the meaning of the name:* From Aramaic root (''p-t-h''), meaning ''to extend''.", "In this case, the name would mean ''may He extend'' (Rashi).", "* From Hebrew root (''y-p-h''), meaning ''beauty,'' in which case the name would mean ''beautiful''." ], [ "Japheth in the Book of Genesis", "''Noah's Drunkenness'', painting by James Tissot (between 1896 and 1902), Jewish Museum (Manhattan, New York).", "The painting depicts Noah lying in his tent; Shem and Japheth are holding up the cloak with their back to Noah; Ham is standing to the side.Japheth first appears in the Hebrew Bible as one of the three sons of Noah, saved from the Flood through the Ark.", "In the Book of Genesis, they are always in the order \"Shem, Ham, and Japheth\" when all three are listed.", "However Genesis 9:24 calls Ham the youngest, and Genesis 10:21 refers ambiguously to Shem as \"brother of Japheth the elder,\" which could mean that either is the eldest.", "Most modern writers accept Shem-Ham-Japheth as reflecting birth order, but this is not always the case: Moses and Rachel also appear at the head of such lists despite explicit descriptions of them as younger siblings.Following the Flood, Japheth is featured in the story of Noah's drunkenness.", "Ham sees Noah drunk and naked in his tent and tells his brothers, who then cover their father with a cloak while avoiding the sight; when Noah awakes he curses Canaan, the son of Ham, and blesses Shem and Japheth: \"Blessed be the Lord God of Shem and may Canaan be his slave; and may God enlarge Japheth and may he dwell in the tents of Shem, and may Canaan be his slave!", "\"A map showing the distribution of the descendants of Noah according to the Table of Nations.", "The descendants of Japheth are shown in red.Chapter 10 of Genesis, the Table of Nations, describes how earth was populated by the sons of Noah following the Flood, beginning with the descendants of Japheth:" ], [ "Interpretation", "Japheth (in Hebrew, Yafet or Yefet) may be a transliteration of the Greek Iapetos, the ancestor of the Hellenic peoples.", "His sons and grandsons associate him with the geographic area of the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor — Ionia/Javan, Rhodes/Rodanim, Cyprus/Kittim, and other points in the region of Greece and Asia Minor.", "The point of the \"blessing of Japheth\" seems to be that Japheth (a Greek-descended people) and Shem (the Israelites) would rule jointly over Canaan (Palestine).", "From the 19th century until the late 20th century it was usual to see Japheth as a reference to the Philistines, who shared dominion over Canaan during the pre-monarchic and early monarchic period of Israel's history.", "This view accorded with the understanding of the origin of the Book of Genesis, which was seen as having been composed in stages beginning with the time of King Solomon, when the Philistines still existed (they vanished from history after the Assyrian conquest of Canaan).", "However, Genesis 10:14 identifies their ancestor as Ham rather than Japheth." ], [ "Descendants", "Geographic identifications for the Sons of Noah (Flavius Josephus, ); Japheth's sons shown in red.In the Bible, Japheth is ascribed seven sons: Gomer, Magog, Tiras, Javan, Meshech, Tubal, and Madai.", "According to Josephus (''Antiquities of the Jews'' I.6):Josephus subsequently detailed the nations supposed to have descended from the seven sons of Japheth.The \"Book of Jasher\", published by Talmudic rabbis in the 17th century, provides some new names for Japheth's grandchildren not found in the Bible, and provided a much more detailed genealogy (see Japhetic).In Jewish tradition, Abraham's wife Keturah is sometimes considered a descendant of Japheth.===Europeans===''Shem, Ham and Japheth'', painting by James Tissot (between 1896 and 1902), Jewish Museum (Manhattan, New York)This T and O map, from the first printed version of Isidore's ''Etymologiae'' (Augsburg 1472), identifies the three known continents (Asia, Europe and Africa) as respectively populated by descendants of ''Sem'' (Shem), ''Iafeth'' (Japheth) and ''Cham'' (Ham).In the seventh century, archbishop Isidore of Seville wrote his noted encyclopedic-historical work, in which he traces the origins of most of the nations of Europe back to Japheth.", "Scholars in almost every European nation continued to repeat and develop Isidore of Seville's assertion of descent from Noah through Japheth into the nineteenth century.William Shakespeare's play ''Henry IV, Part II'' contains a wry comment about people who claim to be related to royal families.", "Prince Hal notes of such people,The Georgian historian and linguist Ivane Javakhishvili associated Japheth's sons with certain ancient tribes, called Tubals (Tabals, Greek: ''Tibarenoi'') and Meshechs (Meshekhs/Mosokhs, Greek: ''Moschoi''), who they claim represent non-Indo-European and non-Semitic, possibly \"Proto-Iberian\" tribes of Asia Minor of the 3rd-1st millennia BC.In the Polish tradition of Sarmatism, the Sarmatians, an Iranic people, were said to be descended from Japheth, son of Noah, enabling the Polish nobility to imagine that their ancestry could be traced directly to Noah.In Scotland, histories tracing the Scottish people to Japheth were published as late as George Chalmers's well-received ''Caledonia'', published in 3 volumes from 1807 to 1824." ], [ "In Islamic tradition", "Japheth is not mentioned by name in the Quran but is referred to indirectly in the narrative of Noah (, , , , ).", "Muslim exegesis of the Quran, however, names all of Noah's sons, and these include Japheth.", "In identifying Japheth's descendants, Muslim exegesis mostly agrees with the Biblical tradition.", "In Islamic tradition, he is usually regarded as the ancestor of the Gog and Magog tribes.", "Islamic tradition also tends to identify the descendants of Japheth as including the Turks, Khazars, Chinese, Mongols, and Slavs.", "According to Abū'l-Ghāzī who wrote the 17th century text, ''Shajara-i Tarākima'' (Genealogy of the Turkmen), the descendants of Ham went to Africa, Sam to Iran, and Yafes (Japheth) went to the banks of the Itil and Yaik rivers and had eight sons named Turk, Khazar, Saqlab, Rus, Ming, Chin, Kemeri, and Tarikh.", "As Japheth was dying he established Turk, his firstborn son, as his successor.", "According to Hui Muslim writer, Liu Chih, after Noah's flood, Japheth inherited China as the eastern part of the Earth, while Shem inherited Arabia as the middle part, and Ham inherited Europe as the western part of the world.Some Muslim traditions narrated that 36 languages of the world could be traced back to Japheth." ], [ "In popular culture", "Japheth is a major character in the second act of Stephen Schwartz's musical, ''Children of Eden''.", "In this rendition, Japheth has fallen in love with the family servant, Yonah (created entirely for the show).", "He wants to bring her onto the ark to allow her to survive the flood, but Noah forbids this as Father (God) is trying to wipe the world free of those descended from Cain.", "Yonah is descended from Cain, despite her good heart and love from the family.", "Japheth secretly brings her aboard, and she is eventually discovered by Ham and Shem.", "Japheth defends her from Noah and is about to kill Shem in his rage.", "Yonah stops and calms him, and Noah decides to let her stay.", "The flood passes and the brothers all depart for different regions to populate the world, but Japheth and Yonah decide they want to search for Eden.", "Noah blesses their journey by passing the staff of Adam to Japheth.", "Smaller casts of the show usually have the actor who portrays Cain to also portray Japheth." ], [ "See also", "* Caucasian race* Japhetic theory (linguistics)* Sons of Noah* Wives aboard the Ark* Japhetites" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * ** * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "** Easton Bible dictionary about Japheth* Smith's Bible Dictionary about Japheth* International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: Japheth* Japheth in the Jewish Encyclopedia* Japheth's family tree at complete-bible-genealogy.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jason Alexander" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jay Scott Greenspan''' (born September 23, 1959), known professionally as '''Jason Alexander''', is an American actor and comedian.", "He played George Costanza in the television series ''Seinfeld'' from 1989 to 1998, for which he was nominated for seven consecutive Primetime Emmy Awards and four Golden Globe Awards.Alexander made his Broadway debut originating the role of Joe in Stephen Sondheim's ''Merrily We Roll Along'' in 1981.He remained active on Broadway acting in the musicals ''The Rink'' in 1984, ''Personals'' in 1985, and the Neil Simon play ''Broadway Bound'' in 1986.He then starred in ''Jerome Robbins' Broadway'' in 1989, for which he won the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical.", "He appeared in the Los Angeles production of Mel Brooks' ''The Producers''.", "He was the artistic director of \"Reprise!", "Broadway's Best in Los Angeles\", where he has directed musicals.His film roles include ''Pretty Woman'' (1990), ''Coneheads'' (1993), ''North'' (1994), ''Denial'' (1998), ''Shallow Hal'' (2001), and ''Wild Card'' (2015).", "He also voiced the gargoyle Hugo in the Disney film ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'' (1996) and the 2002 sequel.", "For his role in ''Dream On'' (1994) he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series.", "He also acted in ''Curb Your Enthusiasm'' (2001, 2009), and ''The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel'' (2019).", "He also voiced the titular character in ''Duckman'' (1994–1997)." ], [ "Early life and education", "Livingston High School in 1977.Greenspan was born in Newark, New Jersey to a Jewish family, the son of Ruth Minnie (née Simon), a nurse and health care administrator, and Alexander B. Greenspan, an accounting manager.", "Greenspan later borrowed his father's first name to create his stage name, Jason Alexander.Alexander grew up in Maplewood and Livingston, New Jersey, and is a 1977 graduate of Livingston High School.", "Interested in magic from an early age, he initially hoped to be a magician, but while attending a magic camp was told that his hands were too small for card magic.", "He became interested in theater, eventually realizing, \"Wait a minute—the whole thing's an illusion.", "Nothing up there is real\" and that theater itself was \"a magic trick\".", "He then decided to pursue a theater career.After high school, he studied theatre at Boston University.", "He wanted to pursue classical acting, but a professor redirected him toward comedy after noticing his physique, remarking, \"I know your heart and soul are Hamlet, but you will never play Hamlet.\"", "Alexander left Boston University without a degree after his third year to take a full-time acting job in New York City.", "The university awarded him an honorary degree in 1995." ], [ "Career", "Alexander began his acting career on the New York stage and is an accomplished singer and dancer.", "On Broadway he appeared in Stephen Sondheim's ''Merrily We Roll Along'' in 1981, Kander & Ebb's ''The Rink'' in 1984, Neil Simon's ''Broadway Bound'' in 1986, ''Accomplice'' in 1990, and ''Jerome Robbins' Broadway'' in 1989, for which he garnered the 1989 Tony Award for Best Leading Actor in a Musical.Alexander made his film debut in 1981 in the summer camp slasher film ''The Burning''.", "In addition to his roles as an insensitive, money-hungry lawyer in ''Pretty Woman'' in 1990 and as inept womanizer Mauricio in ''Shallow Hal'' in 2001, Alexander has appeared in ''Jacob's Ladder'' in 1990, ''The Last Supper'' in 1995, ''Dunston Checks In'' in 1996, ''Love!", "Valour!", "Compassion!''", "in 1997, and ''Love and Action in Chicago'' in 1999.Alexander starred in several commercials during the 1980s.", "Among them were commercials for Hershey's Kiss; Delta Gold potato chips; Miller Lite beer; McDonald's McDLT hamburger; Pabst Blue Ribbon beer; Levi's 501 jeans; Sony Watchman TV; and Western Union wire transfer.", "Before ''Seinfeld'', Alexander appeared in commercials for John Deere and McDonald's and in the short-lived CBS sitcom ''Everything's Relative'' (1987).Alexander is best known as one of the key cast members of the award-winning television sitcom ''Seinfeld'', where he played the bumbling George Costanza (Jerry Seinfeld's character's best friend since childhood).", "He was nominated for seven Primetime Emmy Awards and four Golden Globe Awards for the role, but did not win any, mainly due to his co-star Michael Richards winning for his role as Cosmo Kramer.", "He did, however, win the 1995 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series.Concurrently with his ''Seinfeld'' role, he had a part in the ABC sitcom ''Dinosaurs'' as Al \"Sexual\" Harris (who frequently engaged in sexual harassment) as well as other characters from 1991-1994.Alexander voiced the lead character in the animated series ''Duckman'' (1994–1997) and voiced Catbert, the evil director of human resources, in the short-lived animated series ''Dilbert'' from 1999-2000, based on the then-popular comic strip.", "In January 1995, he did a commercial for Rold Gold pretzels to be broadcast during the Super Bowl.", "The commercial depicts him with ''Frasier'' dog Eddie jumping out of an airplane with a parachute over the stadium.", "After the commercial, the audience is brought back to a supposedly live feed of the playing field hearing startled sports commentators as Alexander and the dog land in the field to wild applause.Alexander appeared in the 1995 TV version of the Broadway musical ''Bye Bye Birdie'', as Conrad Birdie's agent, Albert Peterson.", "He guest-starred in episode 8 of the 1996 variety show ''Muppets Tonight''.", "He voiced the gargoyle Hugo in Disney's 1996 animated film ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'' and its direct-to-video sequel, ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame II''.", "Alexander voiced the character Abis Mal in the 1994 film ''The Return of Jafar'' and the 1994-1995 TV series based on the 1992 film ''Aladdin''.In 1997, he played in the remake of ''Rodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella,'' alongside Whitney Houston, Brandi, and Whoopi Goldberg.", "His other Disney voice work includes ''House of Mouse'' in 2001 and the 2012 video game ''Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance''.He has dabbled in directing, starting with 1996's ''For Better or Worse'' and 1999's ''Just Looking''.In 1999, Alexander presided over the ''New York Friars Club Roast'' event honoring Jerry Stiller, who played his father on ''Seinfeld''; it featured appearances by Kevin James and Patton Oswalt, both Stiller's costars on ''The King of Queens''.", "Alexander appeared in the 1999 ''Star Trek: Voyager'' episode \"Think Tank\" as Kurros, a genius alien trying to get Seven of Nine to serve on his ship.Despite a successful career in film and stage, Alexander did not repeat his ''Seinfeld''-level of success in television.", "The year 2001 marked his first post-''Seinfeld'' return to prime-time television: the heavily promoted but short-lived ABC sitcom ''Bob Patterson'', which was canceled after five episodes.", "Alexander partially blames the show's failure on the country's mood after 9/11.Alexander made cameo appearances as himself in 2001 in the second season of ''Curb Your Enthusiasm'', and he appeared in the show's seventh season with his three principal ''Seinfeld'' co-stars.", "He was featured in the ''Friends'' 2001 episode \"The One Where Rosita Dies\" as Earl, a suicidal supply manager.", "Phoebe calls him trying to sell him toner, learns about his problem, and tries to persuade him not to commit suicide.", "This is referenced in an episode of ''Malcolm in the Middle'' where Alexander appears as Leonard, a neurotic and critical loner.", "He describes himself as \"free\" and says he makes money \"selling toner over the phone\".", "Later in the episode, he is repeatedly harassed by a man named George.He appeared in \"One Night at Mercy\", the first episode of the short-lived 2002 revival of ''The Twilight Zone'', playing Death.", "He played the toymaker A.C. Gilbert in the 2002 film ''The Man Who Saved Christmas''.", "He appeared in Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) commercials in 2002, including one with Barry Bonds of the San Francisco Giants and another with Trista Rehn of ''The Bachelorette''.", "It was rumored that he quit doing these commercials due to KFC suppliers and slaughterhouses' alleged cruelty to animals, but he denied that in the August 2, 2006, issue of ''Adweek'', saying, \"That's PETA bullcrap.", "I loved working for KFC.", "I was targeted by PETA to broker something between them.", "I think KFC really stepped up to the plate; unfortunately PETA did not.\"", "In 2007, Alexander appeared in a commercial for the ASPCA that aired on cable TV stations.", "In 2018, Alexander became one of several celebrities to play Colonel Sanders in commercials for KFC, reprising his role from the 2002 campaign.In 2003, he was cast opposite Martin Short in the Los Angeles production of Mel Brooks's ''The Producers''.", "He appeared with Kelsey Grammer in the 2004 musical adaptation of Charles Dickens's ''A Christmas Carol'', as Jacob Marley.", "Alexander's second chance as a TV series lead, the CBS sitcom ''Listen Up'' (2004–05), also fell short of a second season.", "Alexander was the principal executive producer of the series, based very loosely on the life of the popular sports-media personality Tony Kornheiser.", "Alexander appeared on the ''Family Guy: Live in Vegas'' 2005 album and sang a verse in a song.Alexander continued to appear in live stage shows, including Barbra Streisand's memorable birthday party in 2005 for Sondheim at the Hollywood Bowl, where he performed selections from ''Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street'' with Angela Lansbury.", "He featured in the 2005 ''Monk'' episode \"Mr. Monk and the Other Detective\" as Monk's rival, Marty Eels.Alexander in 2006On the June 26, 2006, episode of ''Jimmy Kimmel Live!", "'', Alexander demonstrated several self-defense techniques.", "He hosted the July 4, 2006, PBS \"A Capitol Fourth\" celebrations in Washington, D.C., singing, dancing, and playing tuned drums.", "In 2006, Alexander signed on to feature as a regular cast member in the second season of ''Everybody Hates Chris''.", "He hosted the Comedy Central Roast of William Shatner on August 13, 2006 (first airdate: August 20, 2006).He was the artistic director of Reprise Theatre Company in Los Angeles from 2007 until it went defunct in 2013, where he previously directed ''Sunday in the Park with George'', and directed its 2007 revival of ''Damn Yankees''.", "In 2007, Alexander was a guest star in the third episode of the improv comedy series ''Thank God You're Here''.He has been a frequent guest and panelist on Bill Maher's ''Politically Incorrect'' in 1995, 1997 and 2000 and ''Real Time'' in 2006, 2009 and 2012; ''Hollywood Squares'' in 1999, 2002 and 2004; the ''Late Late Show'' in 2003, 2012, 2014 and 2015, with both Craig Kilborn, Craig Ferguson, and James Corden; ''Late Show with David Letterman'' in 1989, 2000, and 2002; The Late Show with Stephen Colbert in 2015; and The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon in 2015.In 2008, Alexander guest-starred in the season four episode \"Masterpiece\" of the CBS show ''Criminal Minds'' as Professor Rothschild, a well-educated serial killer obsessed with the Fibonacci sequence who sends the team into a race against time to save his last victims.", "He returned in the same season to direct the episode \"Conflicted\", featuring the actor Jackson Rathbone.Alexander hosted the LOL Sudbury opening night gala in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada on May 29, 2008, which was simulcast throughout Canada at 60 Cineplex theaters, a first for any comedy festival.", "He has lent his voice to several episodes of the ''Twilight Zone Radio Dramas''.In 2008 and again in 2009, Alexander fronted ''Jason Alexander's Comedy Spectacular'', a routine exclusive to Australia.", "The show consists of stand-up and improvisation and incorporates Alexander's musical talent.", "He is backed up by several well-known Australian comedians.", "His first time performing a similar show of this nature was in 2006's ''Jason Alexander's Comedy Christmas''.", "In February/March 2010, Alexander starred in his show, ''The Donny Clay Experience'', at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas, Nevada.", "Donny Clay, whom he has portrayed in a tour of the United States and Orillia, Ontario, is a self-help guru in a similar mold to his ''Bob Patterson'' character.In 2009, he played Joseph in the Thomas Nelson audio Bible production ''The Word of Promise''.", "The project featured a large ensemble of actors, including Jim Caviezel, Lou Gossett Jr., John Rhys-Davies, Jon Voight, Gary Sinise, Christopher McDonald, Marisa Tomei, and John Schneider.In 2009, Alexander had a small role in the film ''Hachi: A Dog's Tale'' as a train station manager.", "He starred as Cosmo in the 2011 live action film ''A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!''.", "In 2011, Alexander was the guest star in an episode of ''Harry's Law'', playing a high school teacher bringing a wrongful dismissal suit.Alexander with Alan F. Horn in May 2010In 2015, he replaced Larry David as the lead in David's Broadway play ''Fish in the Dark.''", "He co-starred opposite Sherie Rene Scott in the September 2017 world premiere of John Patrick Shanley's ''The Portuguese Kid'' at the Manhattan Theatre Club.In 2018, Alexander played Olix the bartender in ''The Orville''.", "The same year, he portrayed Gene Lundy, a drama teacher, on two episodes of ''Young Sheldon''.", "In 2020, 2021 and 2022, he reprised the role of Gene Lundy on one episode.In 2019, Alexander appeared on ''The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel'' as Asher Friedman, a blacklisted Broadway playwright who is an old friend of Midge Maisel's father Abe Weissman.", "He won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Song for \"The Bad Guys?\"", "on ''Brainwashed By Toons'' (2020).", "In 2020, Alexander hosted the ''Saturday Night Seder'', an online Passover Seder that featured many celebrities and benefited the CDC Foundation.Alexander performs at the December 2023 CBS tribute to Dick Van Dyke.From February 2023 he co-presented ''Really?", "No, Really?", "'', a weekly podcast in which he, co-host Peter Tilden, and their guests will attempt to find answers \"to life’s most baffling, intriguing, confusing and annoying questions\".", "In July 2023, he made his Broadway directing debut with Sandy Rustin's comedy ''The Cottage''.", "The cast includes Eric McCormack, Laura Bell Bundy and Lilli Cooper.In 2023, on the December 21 primetime CBS special ''Dick Van Dyke: 98 Years of Magic'', Alexander performed two songs in conjunction with dance-performers and closed the show with a spoken tribute to Van Dyke." ], [ "Personal life", "Alexander has been married to Daena E. Title, cousin of director Stacy Title, since May 31, 1982.They have two sons, Gabriel and Noah.Alexander performed a mentalism and magic act at The Magic Castle in Hollywood, California, from April 24 to 30, 2006, and he was later named The Academy of Magical Arts Parlor Magician of the Year for this act.", "He won the academy's Junior Achievement Award in 1989.In March 2023, Alexander announced he would be leaving Twitter in response to Elon Musk announcing that people with \"legacy\" blue checks would have the check marks removed if they refused to pay for them.", "Alexander later joined the social media platform Spoutible.=== Charity ===Alexander was the national spokesman for the Scleroderma Foundation, a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.", "In summer 2005, he appeared with Lee Iacocca in ads for DaimlerChrysler.", "Iacocca did the ads as part of a way to raise money for Denise Faustman's research on autoimmunity.", "Iacocca and Alexander both have loved ones whose lives have been adversely affected by autoimmunity.More recently, Alexander has competed on televised poker shows and in various tournaments.", "He appeared twice on Bravo's ''Celebrity Poker Showdown'', winning the final table of the 8th season.", "Alexander won the $500,000 prize for the charity of his choice, The United Way of America, to help benefit the New Orleans area.", "Alexander played in the 2007 World Series of Poker main event, but he was eliminated on the second day.", "He returned in 2009, making it to day 3 of the event and finishing in the top 30% of the field.", "Alexander has appeared on NBC's ''Poker After Dark'' in the \"Celebrities and Mentors\" episode, finishing in 6th place after being eliminated by professional poker player Gavin Smith.", "He signed with PokerStars, where he plays under the screen name \"J. Alexander\".", "In 2021, Alexander competed in a virtual National Poker Tournament, hosted by the Children's Tumor Foundation, to raise money for Neurofibromatosis research.===Political views===Alexander has been a prominent public supporter of the OneVoice initiative, which seeks out opinions from moderate Israelis and Palestinians who want to achieve a mutual peace agreement.", "On ''Real Time with Bill Maher'', he said he had visited Israel many times and spoke about progress toward peace he had observed.Alexander is a supporter of the Democratic Party.", "Alexander supports same-sex marriage and an assault weapons ban.", "In 2020, he campaigned for the Texas Democrats with former ''Seinfeld'' colleagues Julia Louis-Dreyfus and Larry David.", "He endorsed Barack Obama in 2012 and Joe Biden in 2020.Alexander has been an outspoken critic of the Trump administration and he has ridiculed Donald Trump over his dancing.", "He has called Republican Party senator Ted Cruz a jerk from the \"jerk store\" in reference to a joke from ''Seinfeld''." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1981 ''The Burning'' Dave 1986 ''The Mosquito Coast'' Clerk ''Brighton Beach Memoirs'' Pool Player 1990 ''Pretty Woman'' Philip Stuckey ''White Palace'' Neil ''Jacob's Ladder'' Mr. Geary 1992 ''I Don't Buy Kisses Anymore'' Bernie Fishbine 1993 ''Sexual Healing'' Frank Short film ''Coneheads'' Larry Farber ''For Goodness Sake'' VCR Customer Short film 1994 ''The Paper'' Marion Sandusky ''North'' North's Father ''The Return of Jafar'' Abis Mal Voice, direct-to-video ''Blankman'' Mr. Stone 1995 ''For Better or Worse'' Michael Makeshift Also director ''The Last Supper'' The Anti-Environmentalist 1996 ''Dunston Checks In'' Robert Grant ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'' HugoVoice 1997 ''Love!", "Valour!", "Compassion!''", "Buzz Hauser 1998 ''Denial'' Art Witz 1999 ''Madeline: Lost in Paris'' Henri / Uncle Horst Voice, direct-to-video ''Love and Action in Chicago'' Frank Bonner ''Just Looking''Radio Announcer Voice, uncredited; also director 2000 ''The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle'' Boris Badenov ''Let's Rap Fire Safety'' Smoke Detector Voice, short film 2001 ''The Trumpet of the Swan'' FatherVoice ''On Edge'' Zamboni Phil ''Shallow Hal'' Mauricio Wilson 2002 ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame II'' Hugo Voice, direct-to-video 2003 ''101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure'' Lil' Lightning Voice, direct-to-video 2006 ''Ira and Abby'' Dr. Morris Saperstein ''Hood of Horror'' British Record Mogul ''How to Go Out on a Date in Queens'' Johnny ''Farce of the Penguins'' Penguin on Belly Voice, direct-to-video 2007 ''The Grand'' Dr. Yakov Achmed 2009 ''Rock Slyde'' Mailman Stan ''Hachi: A Dog's Tale'' Carl 2010 ''Quantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey'' Major MoronVoice 2011 ''The Voyages of Young Doctor Dolittle'' Eugene Voice, direct-to-video 2012 ''Stars in Shorts'' Sid Rosenthal2012''Delhi Safari''Male Flamingo, Hyena CookVoice, English dub 2014 ''Lucky Stiff'' Vinnie DiRuzzio 2015 ''Wild Card'' Pinky ''Larry Gaye: Renegade Male Flight Attendant'' Larry's Dad 2016 ''Tom and Jerry: Back to Oz'' Mr. Bibb / The Nome King Voice, direct-to-video 2020 ''My Boyfriend's Meds'' Dr. Sternbach ''Faith Based'' Nicky Steele 2023 ''Leo'' Jayda's dad Voice 2024 ''The Electric State'' Post-production TBA ''The Gettysburg Address'' Noah Brooks Voice, documentary===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1981 ''Senior Trip'' Pete Television film 1984–1985 ''E/R'' Harold Stickley 15 episodes 1986 ''Rockabye'' Lt. Ernest Foy Television film 1987 ''Everything's Relative'' Julian Beeby 10 episodes 1988 ''Newhart'' Ramming Episode: \"Courtin' Disaster\" 1989–1998 ''Seinfeld'' George Costanza Main role 1992–1993 ''Dinosaurs'' Various voices Recurring role 1993 ''Dream On'' Randall Townsend Episode: \"Oral Sex, Lies and Videotape\" 1994–1997 ''Duckman'' Eric Duckman Voice, main role 1994, 1998 ''The Larry Sanders Show'' Himself 2 episodes 1994 ''Aladdin'' Abis Mal Voice, recurring role 1995 ''Bye Bye Birdie'' Albert Peterson Television film 1996 ''Muppets Tonight'' Himself Episode: \"Jason Alexander\" ''The Nanny'' Jack Episode: \"The Tart with Heart\" ''Sesame Street'' Himself Episode 3557 1997 ''Remember WENN'' Alan Ballinger Episode: \"Nothing Up My Sleeve\" ''Cinderella'' Lionel Television film 1998–1999 ''Hercules'' Poseidon Voice, recurring role 1998 ''Saturday Night Live'' Titey Voice, episode: \"Steve Buscemi/Third Eye Blind\" 1999 ''Jingle Bells'' Elf Voice, television film ''Ultimate Trek: Star Trek's Greatest Moments'' Captain James T. Kirk ''Star Trek: Voyager'' Kurros Episode: \"Think Tank\" 1999–2000 ''Dilbert'' Catbert Voice, main role 2001, 2009 ''Curb Your Enthusiasm'' Himself Recurring role 2001 ''Friends'' Earl Episode: \"The One Where Rosita Dies\" ''Bob Patterson'' Bob Patterson Main role; also executive producer ''The Legend of Tarzan'' Zutho Voice, episode: \"Tarzan and the Face from the Past\" 2002 ''Son of the Beach'' Tex Finklestein Episode: \"Penetration Island\" ''House of Mouse'' Hugo Voice, episode: \"Donald Wants to Fly\" ''The Twilight Zone'' Death Episode: \"One Night at Mercy\" ''The Man Who Saved Christmas'' A.C. Gilbert Television film 2003 ''Malcolm in the Middle'' Leonard Episode: \"Future Malcolm\" 2004–2005 ''Listen Up'' Tony Kleinman Main role; also producer 2004 ''A Christmas Carol'' Jacob Marley Television film 2005 ''Monk'' Marty Eels Episode: \"Mr. Monk and the Other Detective\" 2006 ''Odd Job Jack'' Don Voice, episode: \"Twenty-One You're Dead\" 2006–2007 ''Everybody Hates Chris'' Principal Edwards 2 episodes 2006 ''Campus Ladies'' Professor Episode: \"A Very Special Episode\" 2008 ''The New Adventures of Old Christine'' Dr. Palmer Episode: \"One and a Half Men\" ''Criminal Minds'' Prof. Rothchild Episode: \"Masterpiece\" 2009 ''Meteor'' Dr. Chetwyn 2 episodes 2010–2013 ''Fish Hooks'' Mr. Nibbles Voice, 3 episodes ''The Cleveland Show'' Saul Friedman Voice, 2 episodes 2010, 2023 ''American Dad!''", "Sal / Mr. Orlando Voice, 2 episodes 2011 ''Glenn Martin, DDS'' Brandon Voice, episode: \"GlenHog Day\" ''Franklin & Bash'' Carter Lang Episode: \"Big Fish\" ''Harry's Law'' Richard Cross Episode: \"Bad to Worse\" ''China, IL'' Harold Voice, 2 episodes ''A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!''", "Human Cosmo Television film 2011-2012 ''Dora the Explorer'' Owl Voice, 3 episodes 2012 ''Two and a Half Men'' Dr. Goodman Episode: \"The Straw in My Donut Hole\" ''Clipaholics'' Narrator Voice, main role 2013 ''Community'' Mountain Man Episode: \"Intro to Felt Surrogacy\" 2014 ''Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee'' George Costanza Episode: \"George Costanza: The Over-Cheer\" ''Kirstie'' Stanford Temple Episode: \"Maddie's Agent\" ''Comedy Bang!", "Bang!''", "Inspector Gantlet Episode: \"Jenna Fischer Wears a Floral Blouse & Black Heels\" ''How Murray Saved Christmas'' Doc Holiday Voice, television film 2014-2017 ''The Tom and Jerry Show'' Rick Voice, recurring role (season 1–2) 2015 ''Big Time in Hollywood, FL'' Himself Episode: \"The Hand That Feeds\" ''Penn Zero: Part-Time Hero'' Coach Wallace Voice, episode: \"Ultrahyperball\" ''Drunk History'' William \"Boss\" Tweed Episode: \"Journalism\" ''League of Legends with Videogamedunkey'' Himself Episode: \"Brucer Zin Zow\" 2015–2016 ''The Grinder'' Cliff Bemis 4 episodes ''TripTank''Various voices6 episodes 2016 ''The Mark Lembeck Technique'' Mark Lembeck Pilot ''Best Worst Thing That Ever Could Have Happened'' Himself Documentary 2017 ''Animals.''", "Algae Voice, episode: \"Rats\" ''The Simpsons'' Bourbon Verlander Voice, episode: \"The Caper Chase\" ''Hit the Road'' Ken Swallow Main role; also co-creator, writer and executive producer 2017–2018 ''Kody Kapow'' Goji Voice, recurring role 2017, 2019 ''Robot Chicken'' Krampus Voice, 2 episodes 2018–present ''Young Sheldon'' Gene Lundy 5 episodes 2018 ''Broadway: Beyond the Golden Age'' Himself Documentary 2018–2019 ''The Orville'' Olix 2 episodes 2019 ''The Bug Diaries'' Cicada Voice, episode: \"Worm's New Digs\" ''Richard Lovely'' Mr.", "Mouse Voice, pilot ''Pinky Malinky'' Mayor Hop Voice, recurring role 2019–present ''Harley Quinn'' Sy Borgman Voice, 13 episodes 2019–2022 ''The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel'' Asher Friedman 4 episodes 2019 ''Mad About You'' Himself Episode: \"Real Estate for Beginners\" 2021 ''The Conners'' Pastor Phil 2 episodes 2022 ''Out of Office'' Television film ''Star Trek: Prodigy'' Doctor NoumVoice, 7 episodes 2023 ''History of the World, Part II'' Maurice Cheeks Episode: \"VI\"===Music videos=== Year Title Role 2007 \"Celebrity\" Performer 2007 \"Online\" Director 2012 \"Trying Not to Love You\" Bud the Coffee Foam Artist===Video games=== Year Title Voice role 1996 ''Disney's Animated Storybook: The Hunchback of Notre Dame'' Hugo ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame: Topsy Turvy Games'' Hugo 2012 ''Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance'' Hugo===Theme parks=== Year Title Role Notes 1998 ''It's Tough to be a Bug'' Weevil Kneevil===Director=== Year Title Notes 1992 ''Seinfeld'' Episode: \"The Good Samaritan\" 2006 ''Campus Ladies'' Episode: \"A Very Special Episode\" 2007–2008 ''Everybody Hates Chris'' 2 episodes 2009 ''Criminal Minds'' Episode: \"Conflicted\" 2010 '''Til Death'' Episode: \"Snore Loser\" 2012 ''Franklin & Bash'' Episode: \"Last Dance\" ''Mike & Molly'' Episode: \"Vince Takes a Bath\" 2023 ''Young Sheldon'' Episode: \"A Frat Party, a Sleepover and the Mother of All Blisters\"" ], [ "Stage", " Year Title Role Venue 1981 ''Merrily We Roll Along'' Joe Neil Simon Theatre 1982 ''Forbidden Broadway'' Performer Stage 72 1984 ''The Rink'' Lino/Lenny/Punk/Uncle Fausto Al Hirschfeld Theatre 1985–1986 ''Personals'' Louis/Others Minetta Lane Theatre 1986–1988 ''Broadway Bound'' Stanley Broadhurst Theatre 1989–1990 ''Jerome Robbins' Broadway'' Narrator Imperial Theatre 1990 ''Accomplice'' Performer Richard Rodgers Theater ''Light Up the Sky'' Sidney Black Union Square Theatre 2000 ''Defiled'' Harry Mendelssohn Geffen Playhouse 2003–2004 ''The Producers'' Max Bialystock National Tour 2006 ''The God of Hell''DirectorGeffen Playhouse2008 ''The Odd Couple'' Oscar Madison Stage Reading2013 ''Finding Neverland''Charles FrohmanWorkshop ''Broadway Bound''DirectorOdyssey Theatre 2015 ''Fish in the Dark'' Norman Drexel Cort Theatre2017''The Portuguese Kid''Barry DragonettiManhattan Theatre Club 2019 ''The Last Five Years''Director Syracuse Stage2023''The Cottage''DirectorHelen Hayes Theater, Broadway" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "=== Tony Awards === Year Category Performance Result 1989 Best Actor in a Musical ''Jerome Robbins' Broadway'' === Primetime Emmy Awards === Year Category Project Episode Result 1992 Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series ''Seinfeld'' \"The Note\" + \"The Tape\" 1993 \"The Contest\" + \"The Outing\" 1994 \"The Hamptons\" + \"The Opposite\" Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series ''Dream On'' \"Oral Sex, Lies, and Videotape\" 1995 Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series ''Seinfeld'' \"The Gymnast\" + \"The Race\" 1996 \"The Pool Guy\" + \"The Invitations\" 1997 \"The Comeback\" 1998 \"The Strike\" === Daytime Emmy Awards === Year Category Project Result 2020 Outstanding Original Song''Brainwashed By Toons'' Outstanding Writing for a Special Class Program === Golden Globe Awards === Year Award Performance Result 1993 Best Supporting Actor – Television ''Seinfeld'' 1994 1995 1998 === Screen Actors Guild Award === Year Award Performance Result 1995 Ensemble in a Comedy Series ''Seinfeld'' 1995 Male Actor in a Comedy Series 1996 Ensemble in a Comedy Series 1996 Male Actor in a Comedy Series 1997 Ensemble in a Comedy Series 1997 Male Actor in a Comedy Series 1998 Ensemble in a Comedy Series 1998 Male Actor in a Comedy Series 1999" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * A 1999 Interview about his 1981 Broadway role in ''Merrily We Roll Along''*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Wycliffe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Wycliffe''' (; also spelled '''Wyclif''', '''Wickliffe''', and other variants; 1328 – 31 December 1384) was an English scholastic philosopher, theologian, biblical translator, reformer, Catholic priest, and a seminary professor at the University of Oxford.", "He became an influential dissident within the Catholic priesthood during the 14th century and is considered an important predecessor to Protestantism.", "Wycliffe questioned the privileged status of the clergy, who had bolstered their powerful role in England, and advocated radical poverty of the clergy.Wycliffe has been characterised as the \"evening star\" of scholasticism and as the morning star or of the English Reformation.Wycliffe's later followers, derogatorily called Lollards by their orthodox contemporaries in the 15th and 16th centuries, adopted many of the beliefs attributed to Wycliffe such as theological virtues, predestination, iconoclasm, and the notion of caesaropapism, while questioning the veneration of saints, the sacraments, requiem masses, transubstantiation, monasticism, and the legitimacy or role of the Papacy.", "Like the Waldensians, Hussites and Friends of God, the Lollard movement in some ways anticipated the Protestant Reformation.", "Wycliffe's writings in Latin greatly influenced the philosophy and teaching of the Czech reformer Jan Hus ( 1369–1415), whose execution in 1415 sparked a revolt that led to the Hussite Wars of 1419–1434.Wycliffe advocated translation of the Bible into the common vernacular.", "According to tradition, Wycliffe is said to have completed a translation direct from the Vulgate into Middle English – a version now known as Wycliffe's Bible.", "While it is probable that he personally translated the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, it is possible he translated the entire New Testament.", "At any rate, it is assumed that his associates translated the Old Testament.", "Wycliffe's Bible appears to have been completed prior to 1384 with additional updated versions being done by Wycliffe's assistant John Purvey, and others, in 1388 and 1395.More recently, historians of the Wycliffite movement have suggested that Wycliffe had at most a minor role in the actual translations." ], [ "Life and career", "=== Early life ===Wycliffe was born in the village of Hipswell near Richmond in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, around the 1320s.", "He has conventionally been given a birth date of 1324 but Hudson and Kenny state only records \"suggest he was born in the mid-1320s\".", "Conti states that he was born \"before 1331\".Wycliffe received his early education close to his home.", "It is unknown when he first came to Oxford, with which he was so closely connected until the end of his life, but he is known to have been at Oxford around 1345.Thomas Bradwardine was the Archbishop of Canterbury, and his book ''On the Cause of God against the Pelagians'', a bold recovery of the Pauline-Augustinian doctrine of grace, would greatly shape young Wycliffe's views, as did the Black Death which reached England in the summer of 1348.From his frequent references to it in later life, it appears to have made a deep and abiding impression upon him.", "According to Robert Vaughn, the effect was to give Wycliffe \"Very gloomy views in regard to the condition and prospects of the human race\".", "In September of 1351, Wycliffe became a priest.", "Wycliffe would have been at Oxford during the St Scholastica Day riot in which sixty-three students and a number of townspeople were killed.=== Career in education ===Wycliffe completed his arts degree at Merton College as a junior fellow in 1356.That same year he produced a small treatise, ''The Last Age of the Church''.", "In the light of the virulence of the plague that had subsided seven years previously, Wycliffe's studies led him to the opinion that the close of the 14th century would mark the end of the world.", "While other writers viewed the plague as God's judgment on sinful people, Wycliffe saw it as an indictment of an unworthy clergy.", "The mortality rate among the clergy had been particularly high, and those who replaced them were, in his opinion, uneducated or generally disreputable.He was Master of Balliol College in 1361.In this same year, he was presented by the college to the parish of Fillingham in Lincolnshire, which he visited rarely during long vacations from Oxford.", "For this he had to give up the headship of Balliol College, though he could continue to live at Oxford.", "He is said to have had rooms in the buildings of The Queen's College.", "In 1362 he was granted a prebend at Aust in Westbury-on-Trym, which he held in addition to the post at Fillingham.His performance led Simon Islip, Archbishop of Canterbury, to place him in 1365 at the head of Canterbury Hall, where twelve young men were preparing for the priesthood.", "In December 1365 Islip appointed Wycliffe as warden but when Islip died the following year his successor, Simon Langham, a man of monastic training, turned the leadership of the college over to a monk.", "In 1367 Wycliffe appealed to Rome.", "In 1371 Wycliffe's appeal was decided and the outcome was unfavourable to him.", "The incident was typical of the ongoing rivalry between monks and secular clergy at Oxford at this time.In 1368, he gave up his living at Fillingham and took over the rectory of Ludgershall, Buckinghamshire, not far from Oxford, which enabled him to retain his connection with the university.", "Tradition has it that he commenced his translation of the Bible into English whilst sitting in a room above what is now the porch in Ludgershall Church.", "In 1369 Wycliffe obtained a bachelor's degree in theology, and his doctorate in 1372.In 1374, he received the crown living of St Mary's Church, Lutterworth in Leicestershire, which he retained until his death.=== Politics ===The Poor Priests' His Translation of the Bible'' by William Frederick Yeames, published before 1923.In 1374 his name appears second, after a bishop, on a commission which the English Government sent to Bruges to discuss with the representatives of Gregory XI a number of points in dispute between the king and the pope.", "He was no longer satisfied with his chair as the means of propagating his ideas, and soon after his return from Bruges he began to express them in tracts and longer works.", "In a book concerned with the government of God and the Ten Commandments, he attacked the temporal rule of the clergy, the collection of annates, indulgences, and simony.====''De civili dominio''====He entered the politics of the day with his great work ''De civili dominio'' (\"On Civil Dominion\"), which drew arguments from the works of Richard FitzRalph's.", "This called for the royal divestment of all church property.=====Conflicts with Church, State and University=====His ideas on lordship and church wealth caused his first official condemnation in 1377 by Pope Gregory XI, who censured 19 articles.", "Wycliffe argued that the Church had fallen into sin and that it ought therefore to give up all its property and that the clergy should live in complete poverty.", "The tendency of the high offices of state to be held by clerics was resented by many of the nobles, such as the backroom power broker John of Gaunt, who would have had his own reasons for opposing the wealth and power of the clergy, since it challenged the foundation of his power.Wycliffe was summoned before William Courtenay, Bishop of London, on 19 February 1377.The exact charges are not known, as the matter did not get as far as a definite examination.", "Lechler suggests that Wycliffe was targeted by John of Gaunt's opponents among the nobles and church hierarchy.", "Gaunt, the Earl Marshal Henry Percy, and a number of other supporters accompanied Wycliffe.", "A crowd gathered at the church, and at the entrance, party animosities began to show, especially in an angry exchange between the bishop and Wycliffe's protectors.", "Gaunt declared that he would humble the pride of the English clergy and their partisans, hinting at the intent to secularise the possessions of the Church.", "The assembly broke up and Gaunt and his partisans departed with their protégé.", "Most of the English clergy were irritated by this encounter, and attacks upon Wycliffe began.The second and third books of his work dealing with civil government carry a sharp polemic.On 22 May 1377 Pope Gregory XI sent five copies of a bull against Wycliffe, dispatching one to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the others to the Bishop of London, King Edward III, the Chancellor, and the university; among the enclosures were 18 theses of his, which were denounced as erroneous and dangerous to Church and State.", "Stephen Lahey suggests that Gregory's action against Wycliffe was an attempt to put pressure on King Edward to make peace with France.", "Edward III died on 21 June 1377, and the bull against Wycliffe did not reach England before December.", "Wycliffe was asked to give the king's council his opinion on whether it was lawful to withhold traditional payments to Rome, and he responded that it was.Back at Oxford the Vice-Chancellor confined Wycliffe for some time in Black Hall, but his friends soon obtained his release.In March 1378, he was summoned to appear at Lambeth Palace to defend himself.", "However, Sir Lewis Clifford entered the chapel and in the name of the queen mother (Joan of Kent), forbade the bishops to proceed to a definite sentence concerning Wycliffe's conduct or opinions.", "Wycliff wrote a letter expressing and defending his less \"obnoxious doctrines\".", "The bishops, who were divided, satisfied themselves with forbidding him to speak further on the controversy.==== ''De incarcerandis fedelibus'' ====Wycliffe then wrote his ''De incarcerandis fedelibus'', with 33 conclusions in Latin and English; in this writing he laid open the entire case, in such a way that it was understood by the laity.", "In it he demanded that it should be legal for the excommunicated to appeal to the king and his council against the excommunication.", "The masses, some of the nobility, and his former protector, John of Gaunt, rallied to him.", "Before any further steps could be taken at Rome, Gregory XI died in 1378.====''De officio regis''====The attacks on Pope Gregory XI grew ever more extreme.", "Wycliffe's stand concerning the ideal of poverty became continually firmer, as well as his position with regard to the temporal rule of the clergy.", "Closely related to this attitude was his book ''De officio regis'', the content of which was foreshadowed in his 33 conclusions.", "This book, like those that preceded and followed, was concerned with the reform of the Church, in which the temporal arm was to have an influential part.From 1380 onwards, Wycliffe devoted himself to writings that argued his rejection of transubstantiation, and strongly criticised the friars who supported it.=== Anti-Wycliffe synod ===In the summer of 1381 Wycliffe formulated his doctrine of the Lord's Supper in twelve short sentences, and made it a duty to advocate it everywhere.", "Then the English hierarchy proceeded against him.", "The chancellor of the University of Oxford had some of the declarations pronounced heretical.", "When this was announced to Wycliffe, he declared that no one could change his convictions.", "He then appealed – not to the pope nor to the ecclesiastical authorities of the land, but to the king.", "He published his great confession upon the subject and also a second writing in English intended for the common people.As long as Wycliffe limited his attacks to abuses and the wealth of the Church, he could rely on the support of part of the clergy and aristocracy, but once he dismissed the traditional doctrine of transubstantiation, his theses could not be defended any more.", "This view cost him the support of John of Gaunt and many others.In the midst of this came the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.The revolt was sparked in part by Wycliffe's preaching carried throughout the realm by \"poor priests\" appointed by Wycliffe (mostly laymen).", "The preachers didn't limit their criticism of the accumulation of wealth and property to that of the monasteries, but rather included secular properties belonging to the nobility as well.", "Although Wycliffe disapproved of the revolt, some of his disciples justified the killing of Simon Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury.", "In 1382 Wycliffe's old enemy William Courtenay, now Archbishop of Canterbury, called an ecclesiastical assembly of notables at London.", "During the consultations on 21 May an earthquake occurred; the participants were terrified and wished to break up the assembly, but Courtenay declared the earthquake a favourable sign which meant the purification of the earth from erroneous doctrine, and the result of the \"Earthquake Synod\" was assured.Of the 24 propositions attributed to Wycliffe without mentioning his name, ten were declared heretical and fourteen erroneous.", "The former had reference to the transformation in the sacrament, the latter to matters of church order and institutions.", "It was forbidden from that time to hold these opinions or to advance them in sermons or in academic discussions.", "All persons disregarding this order were to be subject to prosecution.", "To accomplish this the help of the State was necessary; but the Commons rejected the bill.", "The king, however, had a decree issued which permitted the arrest of those in error.The citadel of the reformatory movement was Oxford, where Wycliffe's most active helpers were; these were laid under the ban and summoned to recant, and Nicholas of Hereford went to Rome to appeal.On 17 November 1382, Wycliffe was summoned before a synod at Oxford.", "He still commanded the favour of the court and of Parliament, to which he addressed a memorial.", "He was neither excommunicated then, nor deprived of his living.Wycliffe aimed to do away with the existing hierarchy and replace it with the \"poor priests\" who lived in poverty, were bound by no vows, had received no formal consecration, and preached the Gospel to the people.", "Itinerant preachers spread the teachings of Wycliffe.", "The bull of Gregory XI impressed upon them the name of Lollards, intended as an opprobrious epithet, but it became, to them, a name of honour.", "Even in Wycliffe's time the \"Lollards\" had reached wide circles in England and preached \"God's law, without which no one could be justified.", "\"=== Death and posthumous declaration of heresy ===Portrait of John Wycliffe by Bernard Picart, showing the burning of his works (1714)In the years before his death in 1384 he increasingly argued for Scriptures as the authoritative centre of Christianity, that the claims of the papacy were unhistorical, that monasticism was irredeemably corrupt, and that the moral unworthiness of priests invalidated their office and sacraments.Wycliffe returned to Lutterworth.", "From there he sent out tracts against the monks and Pope Urban VI.", "Urban VI, contrary to Wycliffe's hopes, had not turned out to be a reforming pope.", "The literary achievements of Wycliffe's last days, such as the ''Trialogus'', stand at the peak of the knowledge of his day.", "His last work, the ''Opus evangelicum'', the last part of which he named in characteristic fashion \"Of Antichrist\", remained uncompleted.", "While he was saying Mass in the parish church on Holy Innocents' Day, 28 December 1384, he suffered a stroke, and died a few days later.The Anti-Wycliffite Statute of 1401 extended persecution to Wycliffe's remaining followers.", "The \"Constitutions of Oxford\" of 1408 aimed to reclaim authority in all ecclesiastical matters, and specifically named John Wycliffe as it banned certain writings, and decreed that new translation efforts of Scripture into English needed to be authorized.Burning Wycliffe's bones, from ''Foxe's Book of Martyrs'' (1563)The Council of Constance declared Wycliffe a heretic on 4 May 1415, and banned his writings.", "The Council decreed that Wycliffe's works should be burned and his bodily remains removed from consecrated ground.", "This order, confirmed by Pope Martin V, was eventually carried out in 1428.Wycliffe's corpse, or a neighbour's, was exhumed; on the orders of the bishop the remains were burned and the ashes drowned in the River Swift, which flows through Lutterworth.None of Wycliffe's contemporaries left a complete picture of his person, his life, and his activities.", "Paintings representing Wycliffe are from a later period.", "In ''The Testimony of William Thorpe'' (1407) (possibly apocryphal), Wycliffe appears wasted and physically weak.", "Thorpe says Wycliffe was of unblemished walk in life, and regarded affectionately by people of rank, who often consorted with him, took down his sayings, and clung to him.", "\"I indeed clove to none closer than to him, the wisest and most blessed of all men whom I have ever found.\"" ], [ "Works", "Bale's ''Scriptor Majoris Britanniæ'' (1548)Wycliffe's theological and political works include numerous books and tracts:* ''The Last Age of the Church'' (1356) ''attrib.", "''* ''De Logica'' (\"On Logic\") 1360* ''De Universalibus'' (\"On Universals\") 1368* ''De Dominio Divino'' (1373)* ''De Mandatis Divinis'' (1375)* ''De Statu Innocencie'' (1376)* ''De Civili Dominio'' (1377)* ''Responsio'' (1377)* ''De Ecclesia'' (\"On the Church\") 1379* ''De veritate sacrae scripturae'' (On the Truthfulness of Holy Scripture) 1378* ''On the Pastoral Office'' 1378* ''De apostasia'' (\"On Apostasy\") 1379* ''De Eucharistia'' (On the Eucharist\") 1379* ''Objections to Friars'' (1380)=== Middle English Bibles ===In keeping with Wycliffe's belief that scripture was the only authoritative reliable guide to the truth about God, he became involved in efforts to translate the Bible into English.", "While Wycliffe is credited, it is not possible exactly to define his part in the translations, which were based on the Vulgate.In common belief, it was his initiative, and the success of the project was due to his leadership.", "For the initial Early Version (EV), the rendering of the Old Testament is attributed to his friend Nicholas of Hereford; the rendering of some of the New Testament has been traditionally attributed to Wycliffe.", "The whole was revised perhaps by Wycliffe's younger contemporary John Purvey in 1388, known as the Late Version (LV).There still exist about 150 manuscripts, complete or partial, mainly containing the translation in its LV form.", "From this, it is possible infer that texts were widely diffused in the 15th century.", "For this reason the Wycliffites in England were often designated by their opponents as \"Bible men\"." ], [ "Doctrines", "John Wycliffe at work in his studyWycliffe had come to regard the scriptures as the only reliable guide to the truth about God, and maintained that all Christians should rely on the Bible rather than on the teachings of popes and clerics.", "He said that there was no scriptural justification for the papacy.Theologically, his preaching expressed a strong belief in predestination that enabled him to declare an \"invisible church of the elect\", made up of those predestined to be saved, rather than in the \"visible\" Catholic Church.To Wycliffe, the Church was the totality of those who are predestined to blessedness.", "No one who is eternally lost has part in it.", "There is one universal Church, and outside of it there is no salvation.His first tracts and greater works of ecclesiastical-political content defended the privileges of the State.", "By 1379 in his ''De ecclesia'' (\"On the Church\"), Wycliffe clearly claimed the supremacy of the king over the priesthood.", "He also rejected the selling of indulgences.So far as his polemics accord with those of earlier antagonists of the papacy, it is fair to assume that he was not ignorant of them and was influenced by them.", "It was Wycliffe who recognised and formulated one of the two major formal principles of the Reformation – the unique authority of the Bible for the belief and life of the Christian.=== Attack on monasticism ===The battle against what he saw as an imperialised papacy and its supporters, the \"sects\", as he called the monastic orders, takes up a large space not only in his later works, such as the ''Trialogus'', ''Dialogus'', ''Opus evangelicum'', and in his sermons, but also in a series of sharp tracts and polemical productions in Latin and English (of which those issued in his later years have been collected as \"Polemical Writings\").In the 1380 ''Objections to Friars'', he calls monks the pests of society, enemies of religion, and patrons and promoters of every crime.", "He directed his strongest criticism against the friars, whose preaching he considered neither scriptural nor sincere, but motivated by \"temporal gain\".", "While others were content to seek the reform of particular errors and abuses, Wycliffe sought nothing less than the extinction of the institution itself, as being repugnant to scripture and his theology of apostolic poverty, and inconsistent with the order and prosperity of the Church.", "He advocated the dissolution of the monasteries.=== Views on the papacy ===Rudolph Buddensieg finds two distinct aspects in Wycliffe's work.", "The first, from 1366 to 1378, reflects a political struggle with Rome, while 1378 to 1384 is more a religious struggle.", "In each Wycliffe has two approaches: he attacks both the Papacy and its institutions, and also Roman Catholic doctrine.Wycliffe's influence was never greater than at the moment when pope and antipope sent their ambassadors to England to gain recognition for themselves.", "In 1378, in the ambassadors' presence, he delivered an opinion before Parliament that showed, in an important ecclesiastical political question (the matter of the right of asylum in Westminster Abbey), a position that was to the liking of the State.", "He argued that criminals who had taken sanctuary in churches might lawfully be dragged out of sanctuary.The books and tracts of Wycliffe's last six years include continual attacks upon the papacy and the entire hierarchy of his times.", "Each year they focus more and more, and at the last, the pope and the Antichrist seem to him practically equivalent concepts.", "Yet there are passages which are moderate in tone: G. V. Lechler identifies three stages in Wycliffe's relations with the papacy.", "The first step, which carried him to the outbreak of the schism, involves moderate recognition of the papal primacy; the second, which carried him to 1381, is marked by an estrangement from the papacy; and the third shows him in sharp contest.=== Basic positions in philosophy ===Wycliffe was a prominent English theologian and scholastic philosopher of the second half of the 14th century.", "He earned his great repute as a philosopher at an early date.", "Henry Knighton says that in philosophy he was second to none, and in scholastic discipline incomparable.", "There was a period in his life when he devoted himself exclusively to scholastic philosophy.", "His first book, '''' (1360), explores the fundamentals of Scholastic Theology.", "He believed that \"one should study Logic in order to better understand the human mind because ...human thoughts, feelings and actions bear God's image and likeness\".The centre of Wycliffe's philosophical system is formed by the doctrine of the prior existence in the thought of God of all things and events.", "While Platonic realism would view \"beauty' as a property that exists in an ideal form independently of any mind or thing, \"for Wycliffe every universal, as part of creation, derived its existence from God, the Creator\".", "Wycliffe was a close follower of Augustine, and always upheld the primacy of the Creator over the created reality.In some of his teachings, as in '''', the influence of Thomas Aquinas can be detected.He said that Democritus, Plato, Augustine, and Grosseteste far outranked Aristotle.", "So far as his relations to the philosophers of the Middle Ages are concerned, he held to realism as opposed to the nominalism advanced by William of Ockham.A number of Wycliffe's ideas have been carried forward in the twentieth century by philosopher and Reformed theologian Cornelius Van Til.====''Dominium''====A second key point of Wycliffe's is his emphasis on the notion of divine Lordship ('''').''''", "(c. 1373) examines the relationship between God and his creatures.", "The practical application of this for Wycliffe was seen in the rebellious attitude of individuals (particulars) towards rightful authority (universals).", "\"Beyond all doubt, intellectual and emotional error about universals is the cause of all sin that reigns in the world.", "\"In '''' (\"On Civil Dominion\", c. 1377) he discusses the appropriate circumstance under which an entity may be seen as possessing authority over lesser subjects. ''''", "is always conferred by God: injuries inflicted on someone personally by a king should be born by them submissively, a conventional idea, but injuries by a king against God should be patiently resisted even to death.", "Gravely sinful kings and popes forfeited their divine right to obedience.", "Versions of this were taken up by Lollards and Hussites.=== Attitude toward speculation ===Wycliffe's fundamental principle of the preexistence in thought of all reality involves the most serious obstacle to freedom of the will; the philosopher could assist himself only by the formula that the free will of man was something predetermined of God.", "He demanded strict dialectical training as the means of distinguishing the true from the false, and asserted that logic (or the syllogism) furthered the knowledge of catholic verities; ignorance of logic was the reason why men misunderstood Scripture, since men overlooked the connection, the distinction between idea and appearance.Wycliffe was not merely conscious of the distinction between theology and philosophy, but his sense of reality led him to pass by scholastic questions.", "He left aside philosophical discussions that seemed to have no significance for the religious consciousness and those that pertained purely to scholasticism: \"We concern ourselves with the verities that are, and leave aside the errors which arise from speculation on matters which are not.", "\"=== Sacraments ===John Wycliffe rejected transubstantiation along with the sacrament of confession, saying they were against scripture.", "Wycliffe was attacked as being a Donatist, however the claim was a misconception, perhaps used to discredit his views on the Eucharist.The consecrated Host we priests make and bless is not the body of the Lord but an effectual sign of it.", "It is not to be understood that the body of Christ comes down from heaven to the Host consecrated in every church.", ":— John Wycliffe=== Soteriology ===Wycliffe appears to have had similar ideas of justification as the later reformers would.", "According to Wycliffe faith was sufficient for salvation:Trust wholly in Christ; rely altogether on his sufferings; beware of seeking to be justified in any other way than by his righteousness.", "Faith in our Lord Jesus Christ is sufficient for salvation.", ":— John Wycliffe=== Scripture ===Wycliffe expressed his theories in the book '''' (On the Truthfulness of Holy Scripture, c.1378).Wycliffe's dictum says that all truths necessary to faith arefound expressly in the Bible, and the more necessary, the more expressly.The whole of scripture is one word of God (''''): being a monologue by the same author meant that sentences from different books could be combined without much regard for context, supporting strained and mystical interpretations.The scriptures were literally true ('''') unless obviously figurative, to the extent that when Jesus spoke in parables, he was reporting events that had actually occurred.", "Psalm 22 v6 (\"I am a worm and no man\"), which Pseudo-Dionysius had memorably used to give 'worm' as a name of God, became in Wycliffe's extreme literalism a statement that Jesus had been begotten without sexual contact (as was then believed of worms) and was formally God not a simply man.", "The literal sense of scripture is that sense which the Holy Ghost first imparted so that the faithful soul might ascend to God ()==== Vernacular Scripture====Wycliffe is popularly connected with the view that scriptures should be translated into the vernacular and made available to laymen, and that this was a critical issue in the censures against him.However scholars have noted the availability of scriptures to laypeople in the vernacular was not a notable theme of Wycliffe's theological works.", "(It is mentioned in his ''De XXXIII erroribus curitatum'', Chapter 26 against those who would stop secular men from \"intermeddling with the Gospel\".)", "Nor were there any church-wide bans on vernacular scriptures in place, that Wycliffe might be regarded as protesting against.", "It was not part of Wycliffe's 1377 papal censure, nor the declaration of heresy by the Council of Constance (1415).", "Vernacular scriptures were not mentioned in the two key early Lollard documents, regarded as channelling his doctrine: the Twelve Conclusions (c. 1396) and the Thirty Seven Conclusions (c. 1396) (or Remonstrances)." ], [ "Legacy", "A stained glass window in Wycliffe College Chapel, TorontoWycliffe was instrumental in the development of a translation of the Bible in English, thus making it accessible to English-speakers with poor Latin.His theology also had a strong influence on Jan Hus.", "Hus' ''De Ecclesia'' summarised Wycliffe's work of the same name, with additional material from Wycliffe's ''De potentate papae''.", "See also Writings of Hus and Wycliffe.Several institutions are named after him:* Wycliffe Global Alliance, an alliance of organisations with the common objective of translating the Bible for every language group that needs it.", "* Wycliffe Hall, Oxford, one of the Church of England's designated Evangelical theological colleges.", "* Wycliffe College, Toronto, a graduate theological school federated with the University of Toronto.", "* Wycliffe College, Gloucestershire, an English independent, private day and boarding school.Wycliffe is honoured with a commemoration in the Church of England on 31 December, and in the Anglican Church of Canada.Wycliffe and its variants are popular given names, presumably starting in some Protestant communities.", "For example, Haitian rapper and musician Wyclef Jean." ], [ "See also", "* John Bankin* Ecclesiae Regimen* Lollardy* William Tyndale" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Boreczky, Elemér.", "''John Wyclif's Discourse on Dominion in Community'' (Leiden, Brill, 2007) (Studies in the History of Christian Traditions 139).", "* Fountain, David.", "''John Wycliffe – The Dawn Of The Reformation'' (Mayflower Christian Publications, 1984) .", "* Hudson, Anne, and Anthony Kenny.", "\"Wyclif, John (d. 1384)\", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press, 2004; online ed., September 2010 accessed 13 October 2014 ; a short biography * Ghosh, Kantik.", "''The Wycliffite Heresy.", "Authority and the Interpretation of Texts'' (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001) (Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, 45) ().", "* Lahey, Stephen E. ''John Wyclif'' (Oxford University Press, 2009) (Great Medieval Thinkers).", "* Lahey, Stephen E. \"John Wyclif.\"", "in ''Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy'' (Springer Netherlands, 2011) pp. 653–58.", "* G. W. H. Lampe, ed.", "''The Cambridge History of the Bible.", "The West from the Fathers to the Reformation'', Vol 2 * Leff, Gordon.", "''John Wyclif: The Path the Dissent'' (Oxford University Press, 1966)* Levy, Ian C., ed.", "''A Companion to John Wyclif, Late Medieval Theologian''.", "Brill's Companions to the Christian Tradition 4).", "Leiden: Brill, 2006.", "(hardcover, .", ")* McFarlane, K. B.", "''The origins of religious dissent in England'' (New York, Collier Books, 1966) (Originally published under the title \"John Wycliffe and the beginnings of English nonconformity\", 1952).", "* Michael, Emily (2003).", "\"John Wyclif on body and mind\".", "''Journal of the History of Ideas''.", "64#3 pp. 343–60.", "* Robson, John Adam.", "''Wyclif and the Oxford Schools: The Relation of the \"Summa de Ente\" to Scholastic Debates at Oxford in the Later Fourteenth Century'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1961).", "* Thakkar, Mark. ''", "Duces caecorum: On Two Recent Translations of Wyclif'' (Vivarium, 2020)" ], [ "External links", "* * BBC radio 4 discussion from ''In Our Time''.", "\"John Wyclif and the Lollards\".", "(45 mins)* * * * Wycliffe Bible Translators" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joe Orton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Kingsley Orton''' (1 January 1933 – 9 August 1967), known by the pen name of '''Joe Orton''', was an English playwright, author, and diarist.", "His public career, from 1964 until his murder in 1967, was short but highly influential.", "During this brief period he shocked, outraged, and amused audiences with his scandalous black comedies.", "The adjective ''Ortonesque'' refers to work characterised by a similarly dark yet farcical cynicism." ], [ "Early life", "Joe Orton was born on 1 January 1933 at Causeway Lane Maternity Hospital, Leicester, to William Arthur Orton and Elsie Mary Orton (née Bentley).", "William worked for Leicester County Borough Council as a gardener and Elsie worked in the local footwear industry until tuberculosis cost her a lung.", "At the time of Joe's birth, William and Mary were living with William's family at 261 Avenue Road Extension in Clarendon Park, Leicester.", "Joe's younger brother, Douglas, was born in 1935.That year, the Ortons moved to 9 Fayrhurst Road on the Saffron Lane Estate, a council estate.", "Orton's younger sisters, Marilyn and Leonie, were born in 1939 and 1944, respectively.Orton attended Marriot Road Primary School but failed the eleven-plus exam after extended bouts of asthma, and so took a secretarial course at Clark's College in Leicester from 1945 to 1947.He began working as a junior clerk for £3 a week.Orton became interested in performing in theatre around 1949 and joined a number of dramatic societies, including the Leicester Dramatic Society.", "While working on amateur productions he was determined to improve his appearance and physique, buying bodybuilding courses, taking elocution lessons.", "He was accepted for a scholarship at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in November 1950, and he left the East Midlands for London.", "His entrance into RADA was delayed until May 1951 by appendicitis.Orton met Kenneth Halliwell at RADA in 1951 and moved into a West Hampstead flat with him and two other students that June.", "Halliwell was seven years older than Orton; they quickly formed a strong relationship and became lovers.After graduating, both Orton and Halliwell went into regional repertory work: Orton spent four months in Ipswich as an assistant stage manager; Halliwell in Llandudno, Wales.", "Both returned to London and began to write together.", "They collaborated on a number of unpublished novels (often imitating Ronald Firbank) with no success at gaining publication.", "The rejection of their great hope, ''The Last Days of Sodom,'' in 1957 led them to solo works.", "Orton wrote his last novel, ''The Vision of Gombold Proval'' (posthumously published as ''Head to Toe''), in 1959.He later drew on these manuscripts for ideas; many show glimpses of his stage-play style.Confident of their \"specialness,\" Orton and Halliwell refused to work for long periods.", "They subsisted on Halliwell's money (and unemployment benefits) and were forced to follow an ascetic life to restrict their spending to £5 a week.", "From 1957 to 1959, they worked in six-month stretches at Cadbury's to raise money for a new flat; they moved into a small, austere flat at 25 Noel Road in Islington in 1959." ], [ "Crimes and punishment", "A lack of serious work led them to amuse themselves with pranks and hoaxes.", "Orton created the second self \"Edna Welthorpe\", an elderly theatre snob, whom he later revived to stir controversy over his plays.", "Orton chose the name as an allusion to Terence Rattigan's archetypal playgoer \"Aunt Edna\".From January 1959, Orton and Halliwell began surreptitiously to remove books from several local public libraries and modify the cover art or the blurbs before returning them.", "A volume of poems by Sir John Betjeman was returned to the library with a new dust jacket featuring a photograph of a nearly naked, heavily tattooed middle-aged man.", "The couple decorated their flat with many of the prints.", "They were discovered and prosecuted.", "On 30 April 1962 they pleaded guilty to two joint charges of theft, the first relating to 36 books taken from Islington Public Library in Essex Road, and the second to 36 books taken from a branch of the same library in Holloway Road.", "At a further hearing in May 1962 they pleaded guilty to further joint charges of theft and criminal damage, and were sentenced to prison for six months, with fines of £2 each.", "The incident was reported in the ''Daily Mirror'' as \"Gorilla in the Roses\", illustrated with the altered ''Collins Guide to Roses'' by Bertram Park.Orton and Halliwell felt that the sentence was unduly harsh \"because we were queers\".", "Prison was a crucial formative experience; the isolation from Halliwell allowed Orton to break free of him creatively; and he saw what he considered the corruption, priggishness, and double standards of a purportedly liberal country.", "As Orton put it: \"It affected my attitude towards society.", "Before I had been vaguely conscious of something rotten somewhere, prison crystallised this.", "The old whore society really lifted up her skirts and the stench was pretty foul....", "Being in the nick brought detachment to my writing.", "I wasn't involved any more.", "And suddenly it worked.\"", "The book covers Orton and Halliwell vandalised have since become a valued part of the Islington Local History Centre collection.", "Some are exhibited in the Islington Museum.A collection of the book covers is available online." ], [ "Playwright", "===Breakthrough===Orton began writing plays in 1959 with ''Fred and Madge''; ''The Visitors'' followed two years later.", "In 1963, the BBC paid £65 for the radio play ''The Ruffian on the Stair'', broadcast on 31 August 1964.It was substantially rewritten for the stage in 1966.He had completed ''Entertaining Mr Sloane'' by the time ''Ruffian'' was broadcast.", "He sent a copy to theatre agent Peggy Ramsay in December 1963.It premiered at the New Arts Theatre in Westminster 6 May 1964, produced by Michael Codron.", "Reviews ranged from praise to outrage.", "''The Times'' described it as making \"the blood boil more than any other British play in the last 10 years\".", "''Entertaining Mr Sloane'' lost money in its three-week run, but critical praise from playwright Terence Rattigan, who invested £3,000 in it, ensured its survival.", "The play was transferred to Wyndham's Theatre in the West End at the end of June and to the Queen's Theatre in October.", "''Sloane'' tied for first in the ''Variety'' Critics' Poll for Best New Play and Orton came second for Most Promising Playwright.", "Within a year, ''Sloane'' was performed in New York, Spain, Israel, and Australia as well as made into a film (after Orton's death) and a television play.===''Loot''===Orton's next performed work was ''Loot''.", "The first draft was written from June to October 1964 and was called ''Funeral Games'', a title Orton dropped at Halliwell's suggestion but later reused.", "The play is a wild parody of detective fiction, adding the blackest farce and jabs at established ideas on death, the police, religion, and justice.", "Orton offered the play to Codron in October 1964 and it underwent sweeping rewrites before it was judged fit for the West End.Codron had manoeuvred Orton into meeting his colleague Kenneth Williams in August 1964.Orton reworked ''Loot'' with Williams in mind for Truscott.", "His other inspiration for the role was DS Harold Challenor.", "With the success of ''Sloane'', ''Loot'' was hurried into pre-production despite its flaws.", "Rehearsals began in January 1965, with plans for a six-week tour culminating in a West End debut.", "The play opened in Cambridge on 1 February to scathing reviews.Orton, disagreeing with director Peter Wood over the plot, produced 133 pages of new material to replace, or add to, the original 90.But the play received poor reviews in Brighton, Oxford, Bournemouth, Manchester, and finally Wimbledon in mid-March.", "Discouraged, Orton and Halliwell went on an 80-day holiday in Tangiers.In January 1966, ''Loot'' was revived, with Oscar Lewenstein taking up an option.", "Before his production, it had a short run (11–23 April) at the University Theatre, Manchester.", "Orton's growing experience led him to cut over 600 lines, raising the tempo and improving the characters' interactions.", "Directed by Braham Murray, the play garnered more favourable reviews.", "Lewenstein put the London production in a \"sort of Off-West End theatre,\" the Jeannetta Cochrane Theatre in Bloomsbury, under the direction of Charles Marowitz.Orton clashed with Marowitz, although the additional cuts further improved the play.", "This production was first staged in London on 27 September 1966, to rave reviews.", "Ronald Bryden in ''The Observer'' asserted that it had \"established Orton's niche in English drama\".", "''Loot'' moved to the Criterion Theatre in November where it ran for 342 performances.", "This time it won several awards, and Orton sold the film rights for £25,000.", "''Loot'', when performed on Broadway in 1968, repeated the failure of ''Sloane'', and the film version of the play was not a success when it surfaced in 1970.===Later works===Over the next ten months, he revised ''The Ruffian on the Stair'' and ''The Erpingham Camp'' for the stage as a double called ''Crimes of Passion'', wrote ''Funeral Games'', the screenplay ''Up Against It'' for the Beatles, and his final full-length play, ''What the Butler Saw''.", "''The Erpingham Camp'', Orton's take on ''The Bacchae'', written through mid-1965 and offered to Associated-Rediffusion in October of that year, was broadcast on 27 June 1966 as the \"pride\" segment in their series ''Seven Deadly Sins''.", "''The Good and Faithful Servant'' was a transitional work for Orton.", "A one-act television play, it was completed by June 1964 but first broadcast by Associated-Rediffusion on 6 April 1967, representing \"faith\" in the series ''Seven Deadly Virtues''.Orton rewrote ''Funeral Games'' four times from July to November 1966.Also intended for ''The Seven Deadly Virtues'', it dealt with charity – Christian charity – in a confusion of adultery and murder.", "Rediffusion did not use the play; instead, it was made as one of the first productions of the new ITV company Yorkshire Television, and broadcast posthumously in the ''Playhouse'' series on 26 August 1968, five weeks after an adaptation of ''Mr Sloane''.In March 1967, Orton and Halliwell had intended another extended holiday in Libya, but they returned home after one day because the only hotel accommodation they could find was a boat that had been converted into a hotel/nightclub.Orton's once controversial farce ''What The Butler Saw'' was staged in the West End in 1969, more than 18 months after his death.", "It opened in March at the Queen's Theatre with Sir Ralph Richardson, Coral Browne, Stanley Baxter and Hayward Morse." ], [ "Murder", "On 9 August 1967, Halliwell bludgeoned to death the 34-year-old Orton at their home in Noel Road with nine hammer blows to the head.", "Halliwell then killed himself with an overdose of Nembutal.In 1970, ''The Sunday Times'' reported that four days before the murder, Orton had told a friend that he wanted to end his relationship with Halliwell, but did not know how to go about it.Halliwell's doctor spoke to him by telephone three times on the day of the murder, and had arranged for him to see a psychiatrist the following morning.", "The last call was at 10 o'clock, during which Halliwell told the doctor, \"Don't worry, I'm feeling better now.", "I'll go and see the doctor tomorrow morning.", "\"Halliwell had felt increasingly threatened and isolated by Orton's success, and had come to rely on antidepressants and barbiturates.", "The bodies were discovered the following morning when a chauffeur arrived to take Orton to a meeting with director Richard Lester to discuss filming options on ''Up Against It''.", "Halliwell left a suicide note: \"If you read his diary, all will be explained.", "KH PS: Especially the latter part.\"", "This is presumed to be a reference to Orton's description of his promiscuity; the diary contains numerous incidents of cottaging in public lavatories and other casual sexual encounters with teenagers, including with rent boys on holiday in North Africa.", "The diaries have since been published.", "The last diary entry is dated 1 August 1967 and ends abruptly in midsentence at the end of the page, suggesting that some pages may be missing.Orton was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium, his maroon cloth-draped coffin being brought into the west chapel to a recording of The Beatles song \"A Day in the Life\".", "Harold Pinter read the eulogy, concluding with \"He was a bloody marvellous writer.\"", "Orton's agent Peggy Ramsay described Orton's relatives as \"the little people in Leicester\", leaving a cold, nondescript note and bouquet at the funeral on their behalf.At the suggestion of Halliwell's family, Peggy Ramsay asked Orton's brother Douglas if Orton and Halliwell's ashes could be mixed.", "Douglas agreed, \"As long as nobody hears about it in Leicester.\"", "The mixed ashes were scattered in section 3-C of the Garden of Remembrance at Golders Green.", "There is no memorial." ], [ "Biography and film, radio, TV", "John Lahr's biography of Orton, entitled ''Prick Up Your Ears'' (a title Orton himself had considered using), was published in 1978 by Bloomsbury.", "A 1987 film adaptation of the same name was released based on Orton's diaries and on Lahr's research.", "Directed by Stephen Frears, it stars Gary Oldman as Orton, Alfred Molina as Halliwell, and Vanessa Redgrave as Peggy Ramsay.", "Alan Bennett wrote the screenplay.", "Katrina Sheldon was the sound editor.Carlos Be wrote a play about Orton and Halliwell's last days, ''Noel Road 25: A Genius Like Us'', first performed in 2001.It received its New York premiere in 2012, produced by Repertorio Español.Joe Orton was played by the actor Kenny Doughty in the 2006 BBC film ''Kenneth Williams: Fantabulosa!", "'', starring Michael Sheen as Kenneth Williams.Leonie Orton Barnett's memoir ''I Had It in Me'' was published in 2016 containing new information about her brother's life growing up in Leicester.In 2017, film-maker Chris Shepherd made an animated short inspired by Orton's Edna Welthorpe letters, 'Yours Faithfully, Edna Welthorpe (Mrs)', starring Alison Steadman as Edna.Two archive recordings of Orton are known to survive: a short BBC radio interview first transmitted in August 1967 and a video recording, held by the British Film Institute, of his appearance on Eamonn Andrews' ITV chat show transmitted 23 April 1967." ], [ "Legacy", "A pedestrian concourse in front of the Curve theatre in Leicester has been renamed Orton Square.In July 2019 Dr Emma Parker, professor at the University of Leicester and an Orton expert, began a campaign to honour him with a statue in his native city, Leicester.", "The campaign enjoyed prominent support from the acting community, including from Sheila Hancock, Kenneth Cranham, Ian McKellen and Alec Baldwin.", "Although the fundraising target was met, the project was cancelled in 2022, with the organisers citing pandemic challenges and changing attitudes to statues in Britain.", "Orton's sister Leonie stated that Orton's history of sexual encounters with underage boys was a major factor in the failure of the project." ], [ "Plays", "*''Fred and Madge'' (written 1959, published 2001)*''The Visitors'' (written 1961, published 2001)*''The Ruffian on the Stair'' (first performance 1964) Radio play*''Entertaining Mr Sloane'' (first performance 1964)*''Loot'' (first performance 1965)*''The Erpingham Camp'' (first performance 1966)*''The Good and Faithful Servant'' (first performance 1967)*''Funeral Games'' (first performance 1968)*''What the Butler Saw'' (first performance 1969)*''Up Against It'' (screenplay)" ], [ "Novels", "*''Head to Toe'' (published 1971)*''Between Us Girls'' (published 2001)*''Lord Cucumber'' and ''The Boy Hairdresser'' (co-written with Halliwell) (published 1999)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "*Banham, Martin (ed.", "), 1998.", "''The Cambridge Guide to Theatre'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "*Bigsby, C. W. E., 1982.", "''Joe Orton.''", "Contemporary Writers series.", "London: Routledge.", "*Burke, Arthur, 2001.", "''Laughter in the Dark – The Plays of Joe Orton'', Billericay, Essex: Greenwich Exchange.", "*Charney, Maurice.", "1984.", "''Joe Orton.''", "Grove Press Modern Dramatists series.", "NY: Grove Press.", "*Coppa, Francesca (ed.", "), 2002.", "''Joe Orton: A Casebook.''", "Casebooks on Modern Dramatists series.", "London: Routledge.", "*Dent, Alan, 2018.", "''Entertaining Hypocrites: The Playwriting of Joe Orton'', Penniless Press Publications.", "*DiGaetani, John Louis, 2008.", "''Stages of Struggle: Modern Playwrights and Their Psychological Inspirations'', Jefferson: McFarland.", "*Fox, James, 1970.", "\"The Life and Death of Joe Orton\", ''The Sunday Times Magazine'', 22 November.", "*Lahr, John, 1978.", "''Prick Up Your Ears: The Biography of Joe Orton'', London: Bloomsbury.", ".", "*--- 1976: ''Joe Orton: The Complete Plays'', London: Methuen.", "*--- (ed.", "), 1986.", "''The Orton Diaries'', by Joe Orton.", "London: Methuen.", ".", "*---.", "1989.", "''Diary of a Somebody'', London: Methuen.", ".", "*Orton, Leonie, 2016.", "''I Had It in Me'', Leicester: Quirky Press *Ruskino, Susan, 1995.", "''Joe Orton.''", "Twayne's English Authors series.", "Boston: Twayne.", ".", "*Shepherd, Simon, 1989.", "''Because We're Queers: The Life and Crimes of Joe Orton and Kenneth Haliwell'', London: Gay Men's Press: 1989:" ], [ "External links", "** Joe Orton Online: A website dedicated to the writer.", "**** Archive catalogue for Joe Orton collection held at the University of Leicester" ] ]
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[ [ "Julian Jaynes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Julian Jaynes''' (February 27, 1920 – November 21, 1997) was an American researcher in psychology at Yale and Princeton for nearly 25 years, best known for his 1976 book ''The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind''.", "His career was dedicated to the problem of consciousness: \"the difference between what others see of us and our sense of our inner selves and the deep feelings that sustain it.", "... Men have been conscious of the problem of consciousness almost since consciousness began.\"", "Jaynes's solution touches on many disciplines, including neuroscience, linguistics, psychology, archeology, history, religion and analysis of ancient texts." ], [ "Early life", "Jaynes was born and lived in West Newton, Massachusetts, son of Julian Clifford Jaynes (1854–1922), a Unitarian minister, and Clara Bullard Jaynes (1884–1980).", "He had an older sister, Helen, and a younger brother, Robert.", "The family had a summer home in Keppoch, Prince Edward Island, which was a place Jaynes loved, and which gave him a Canadian connection for his entire life.In the summer of 1939 he registered to attend Harvard University but took a scholarship from McGill University, where he graduated in 1941 with a bachelor's degree in psychology, and then began graduate studies at the University of Toronto to learn more about the brain.", "His studies were interrupted during the Second World War: because of his Unitarian principles, he applied for and received official recognition as a conscientious objector, but refused to comply with the U.S. government's law for pacifists; Jaynes spent three years in the penitentiary at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, working in the prison hospital.", "On his release in 1946 he enrolled at Yale University hoping that in animal behavior he would find clues to the beginnings of consciousness.", "Jaynes received his master's degree in 1948, and then refused to accept his doctorate, again on a dispute of \"principle\" regarding educational credentials.", "After Yale, Jaynes spent several years in England working as an actor and playwright." ], [ "Career", "He returned to Yale in 1954, working as an Instructor and Lecturer until 1960, making significant contributions in the fields of experimental psychology, learning, and ethology, and co-publishing some papers with Frank A.", "Beach.", "Jaynes had begun to turn his focus to comparative psychology and the history of psychology, and in 1964 he became a research associate at Princeton University.", "There he befriended Edwin G. Boring, and with plenty of time to pursue the problem of consciousness, Princeton became his academic home until 1995.After publishing , Jaynes was frequently invited to speak at conferences and as a guest lecturer at other universities.", "In 1984, he was invited to give the plenary lecture at the Wittgenstein Symposium in Kirchberg, Austria.", "He gave six major lectures in 1985 and nine in 1986.He was awarded an honorary PhD by Rhode Island College in 1979 and another from Elizabethtown College in 1985.===Research and motivations===Jaynes had dedicated years of research in psychology to the problem of consciousness and he had sought the roots of consciousness in the processes of learning and cognition that animals and humans shared in common, in accord with prevailing evolutionary assumptions that dominated mid-20th century thinking.", "He had established his reputation in the study of animal learning and natural animal behaviour, and in 1968 he lectured on the history of comparative psychology at the National Science Foundation Summer Institute.", "In September 1969 he gave his first public address on his \"new theory of consciousness\" at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association." ], [ "Death", "Jaynes died at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, on November 21, 1997.In 2006, his biographers Woodward and Tower reported that Jaynes \"felt he had not truly succeeded\" in his lifelong work because, in their words, \"He was right\" about his feeling that \"there were people who disagreed with him who had not really read his book or understood it.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "The '''Julian Jaynes Society''' was founded by Marcel Kuijsten in 1997, shortly after Jaynes's death.", "The society has published a number of books on Julian Jaynes's theory including foreign-language editions of Julian Jaynes's theory in French, German, and Spanish.", "The society also maintains a member area, with articles, lectures, and interviews on Jaynes's theory." ], [ "Publications", ";Articles** ;Books* * A collection of articles, interviews, and discussion with Julian Jaynes." ], [ "Notes", "===Works cited===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Julian Jaynes Society" ] ]
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[ [ "Julia Kristeva" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Julia Kristeva''' (; born '''Yuliya Stoyanova Krasteva''', ; on 24 June 1941) is a Bulgarian-French philosopher, literary critic, semiotician, psychoanalyst, feminist, and novelist who has lived in France since the mid-1960s.", "She has taught at Columbia University, and is now a professor emerita at Université Paris Cité.", "The author of more than 30 books, including ''Powers of Horror'', ''Tales of Love'', ''Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia'', ''Proust and the Sense of Time'', and the trilogy ''Female Genius'', she has been awarded Commander of the Legion of Honor, Commander of the Order of Merit, the Holberg International Memorial Prize, the Hannah Arendt Prize, and the Vision 97 Foundation Prize, awarded by the Havel Foundation.Kristeva became influential in international critical analysis, cultural studies and feminism after publishing her first book, ''Semeiotikè'', in 1969.Her sizeable body of work includes books and essays which address intertextuality, the semiotic, and abjection, in the fields of linguistics, literary theory and criticism, psychoanalysis, biography and autobiography, political and cultural analysis, art and art history.", "She is prominent in structuralist and poststructuralist thought.Kristeva is also the founder of the Simone de Beauvoir Prize committee." ], [ "Life", "Born in Sliven, Bulgaria to Christian parents, Kristeva is the daughter of a church accountant.", "Kristeva and her sister attended a Francophone school run by Dominican nuns.", "Kristeva became acquainted with the work of Mikhail Bakhtin at this time in Bulgaria.", "Kristeva went on to study at the University of Sofia, and while a postgraduate there obtained a research fellowship that enabled her to move to France in December 1965, when she was 24.She continued her education at several French universities, studying under Lucien Goldmann and Roland Barthes, among other scholars.", "On August 2, 1967, Kristeva married the novelist Philippe Sollers, born Philippe Joyaux.Kristeva taught at Columbia University in the early 1970s, and remains a Visiting Professor.", "She has also published under the married name Julia Joyaux." ], [ "Work", "After joining the 'Tel Quel group' founded by Sollers, Kristeva focused on the politics of language and became an active member of the group.", "She trained in psychoanalysis, and earned her degree in 1979.In some ways, her work can be seen as trying to adapt a psychoanalytic approach to the poststructuralist criticism.", "For example, her view of the subject, and its construction, shares similarities with Sigmund Freud and Lacan.", "However, Kristeva rejects any understanding of the subject in a structuralist sense; instead, she favors a subject always \"in process\" or \"on trial\".", "In this way, she contributes to the poststructuralist critique of essentialized structures, whilst preserving the teachings of psychoanalysis.", "She travelled to China in the 1970s and later wrote ''About Chinese Women'' (1977).===The \"semiotic\" and the \"symbolic\"===One of Kristeva's most important contributions is that signification is composed of two elements, the symbolic and the ''semiotic'', the latter being distinct from the discipline of semiotics founded by Ferdinand de Saussure.", "As explained by Augustine Perumalil, Kristeva's \"semiotic is closely related to the infantile pre-Oedipal referred to in the works of Freud, Otto Rank, Melanie Klein, British Object Relation psychoanalysis, and Lacan's pre-mirror stage.", "It is an emotional field, tied to the instincts, which dwells in the fissures and prosody of language rather than in the denotative meanings of words.\"", "Furthermore, according to Birgit Schippers, the semiotic is a realm associated with the musical, the poetic, the rhythmic, and that which lacks structure and meaning.", "It is closely tied to the \"feminine\", and represents the undifferentiated state of the pre-Mirror Stage infant.Upon entering the Mirror Stage, the child learns to distinguish between self and other, and enters the realm of shared cultural meaning, known as the symbolic.", "In ''Desire in Language'' (1980), Kristeva describes the symbolic as the space in which the development of language allows the child to become a \"speaking subject,\" and to develop a sense of identity separate from the mother.", "This process of separation is known as abjection, whereby the child must reject and move away from the mother in order to enter into the world of language, culture, meaning, and the social.", "This realm of language is called the symbolic and is contrasted with the semiotic in that it is associated with the masculine, the law, and structure.", "Kristeva departs from Lacan in the idea that even after entering the symbolic, the subject continues to oscillate between the semiotic and the symbolic.", "Therefore, rather than arriving at a fixed identity, the subject is permanently \"in process\".", "Because female children continue to identify to some degree with the mother figure, they are especially likely to retain a close connection to the semiotic.", "This continued identification with the mother may result in what Kristeva refers to in ''Black Sun'' (1989) as melancholia (depression), given that female children simultaneously reject and identify with the mother figure.It has also been suggested (e.g., Creed, 1993) that the degradation of women and women's bodies in popular culture (and particularly, for example, in slasher films) emerges because of the threat to identity that the mother's body poses: it is a reminder of time spent in the undifferentiated state of the semiotic, where one has no concept of self or identity.", "After abjecting the mother, subjects retain an unconscious fascination with the semiotic, desiring to reunite with the mother, while at the same time fearing the loss of identity that accompanies it.", "Slasher films thus provide a way for audience members to safely reenact the process of abjection by vicariously expelling and destroying the mother figure.Kristeva is also known for her adoption of Plato’s idea of the ''chora'', meaning \"a nourishing maternal space\" (Schippers, 2011).", "Kristeva's idea of the ''chora'' has been interpreted in several ways: as a reference to the uterus, as a metaphor for the relationship between the mother and child, and as the temporal period preceding the Mirror Stage.", "In her essay ''Motherhood According to Giovanni Bellini'' from ''Desire in Language'' (1980), Kristeva refers to the ''chora'' as a \"non-expressive totality formed by drives and their stases in a motility that is as full of movement as it is regulated.\"", "She goes on to suggest that it is the mother's body that mediates between the ''chora'' and the symbolic realm: the mother has access to culture and meaning, yet also forms a totalizing bond with the child.Kristeva is also noted for her work on the concept of intertextuality.===Anthropology and psychology===Kristeva argues that anthropology and psychology, or the connection between the social and the subject, do not represent each other, but rather follow the same logic: the survival of the group and the subject.", "Furthermore, in her analysis of Oedipus, she claims that the speaking subject cannot exist on his/her own, but that he/she \"stands on the fragile threshold as if stranded on account of an impossible demarcation\" (''Powers of Horror'', p. 85).Julia Kristeva in 2005In her comparison between the two disciplines, Kristeva claims that the way in which an individual excludes the abject mother as a means of forming an identity, is the same way in which societies are constructed.", "On a broader scale, cultures exclude the maternal and the feminine, and by this come into being." ], [ "Feminism", "Kristeva has been regarded as a key proponent of French feminism together with Simone de Beauvoir, Hélène Cixous, and Luce Irigaray.", "Kristeva has had a remarkable influence on feminism and feminist literary studies in the US and the UK, as well as on readings into contemporary art although her relation to feminist circles and movements in France has been quite controversial.", "Kristeva made a famous disambiguation of three types of feminism in \"Women's Time\" in ''New Maladies of the Soul'' (1993); while rejecting the first two types, including that of Beauvoir, her stands are sometimes considered rejecting feminism altogether.", "Kristeva proposed the idea of multiple sexual identities against the joined code of \"unified feminine language\".===Denunciation of identity politics===Kristeva argues her writings have been misunderstood by American feminist academics.", "In Kristeva's view, it was not enough simply to dissect the structure of language in order to find its hidden meaning.", "Language should also be viewed through the prisms of history and of individual psychic and sexual experiences.", "This post-structuralist approach enabled specific social groups to trace the source of their oppression to the very language they used.", "However, Kristeva believes that it is harmful to posit collective identity above individual identity, and that this political assertion of sexual, ethnic, and religious identities is ultimately totalitarian." ], [ "Novelist", "Kristeva wrote a number of novels that resemble detective stories.", "While the books maintain narrative suspense and develop a stylized surface, her readers also encounter ideas intrinsic to her theoretical projects.", "Her characters reveal themselves mainly through psychological devices, making her type of fiction mostly resemble the later work of Dostoevsky.", "Her fictional oeuvre, which includes ''The Old Man and the Wolves'', ''Murder in Byzantium'', and ''Possessions'', while often allegorical, also approaches the autobiographical in some passages, especially with one of the protagonists of ''Possessions'', Stephanie Delacour—a French journalist—who can be seen as Kristeva's alter ego.", "''Murder in Byzantium'' deals with themes from orthodox Christianity and politics; she referred to it as \"a kind of anti-Da Vinci Code\"." ], [ "Honors", "For her \"innovative explorations of questions on the intersection of language, culture and literature\", Kristeva was awarded the Holberg International Memorial Prize in 2004.She won the 2006 Hannah Arendt Prize for Political Thought.", "She has also been awarded Commander of the Legion of Honor, Commander of the Order of Merit, and the Vaclav Havel Prize.", "On October 10, 2019, she received an ''honoris causa'' doctorate from Universidade Católica Portuguesa." ], [ "Scholarly reception", "Roman Jakobson said that \"Both readers and listeners, whether agreeing or in stubborn disagreement with Julia Kristeva, feel indeed attracted to her contagious voice and to her genuine gift of questioning generally adopted 'axioms,' and her contrary gift of releasing various 'damned questions' from their traditional question marks.", "\"Roland Barthes comments that \"Julia Kristeva changes the place of things: she always destroys the last prejudice, the one you thought you could be reassured by, could be take sic pride in; what she displaces is the already-said, the déja-dit, i.e., the instance of the signified, i.e., stupidity; what she subverts is authority -the authority of monologic science, of filiation.\"", "Ian Almond criticizes Kristeva's ethnocentrism.", "He cites Gayatri Spivak's conclusion that Kristeva's book ''About Chinese Women'' \"belongs to that very eighteenth century that Kristeva scorns\" after pinpointing \"the brief, expansive, often completely ungrounded way in which she writes about two thousand years of a culture she is unfamiliar with\".", "Almond notes the absence of sophistication in Kristeva's remarks concerning the Muslim world and the dismissive terminology she uses to describe its culture and believers.", "He criticizes Kristeva's opposition which juxtaposes \"Islamic societies\" against \"democracies where life is still fairly pleasant\" by pointing out that Kristeva displays no awareness of the complex and nuanced debate ongoing among women theorists in the Muslim world, and that she does not refer to anything other than the Rushdie fatwa in dismissing the entire Muslim faith as \"reactionary and persecutory\".In ''Impostures intellectuelles'' (1997), physics professors Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont devote a chapter to Kristeva's use of mathematics in her writings.", "They argue that Kristeva fails to show the relevance of the mathematical concepts she discusses to linguistics and the other fields she studies, and that no such relevance exists." ], [ "Alleged collaboration with the Communist Regime in Bulgaria", "In 2018, Bulgaria's state Dossier Commission announced that Kristeva had been an agent for the Committee for State Security under the code name \"Sabina\".", "She was supposedly recruited in June 1971.Five years earlier she left Bulgaria to study in France.", "Under the People's Republic of Bulgaria, any Bulgarian who wanted to travel abroad had to apply for an exit visa and get an approval from the Ministry of Interior.", "The process was long and difficult because anyone who made it to the west could declare political asylum.", "Kristeva has called the allegations \"grotesque and false\".", "On 30 March, the state Dossier Commission began publishing online the entire set of documents reflecting Kristeva's activity as an informant of the former Committee for State Security.", "She vigorously denies the charges.Neal Ascherson wrote: \"...the recent fuss about Julia Kristeva boils down to nothing much, although it has suited some to inflate it into a fearful scandal...", "But the reality shown in her files is trivial.", "After settling in Paris in 1965, she was cornered by Bulgarian spooks who pointed out to her that she still had a vulnerable family in the home country.", "So she agreed to regular meetings over many years, in the course of which she seems to have told her handlers nothing more than gossip about Aragon, Bataille & Co. from the Left Bank cafés – stuff they could have read in ''Le Canard enchaîné''... the combined intelligence value of its product and her reports was almost zero.", "The Bulgarian security men seem to have known they were being played.", "But never mind: they could impress their boss by showing him a real international celeb on their books...\"" ], [ "Selected writings", "=== Linguistic and literature ===*''Séméiôtiké: recherches pour une sémanalyse,'' Paris, Seuil, 1969 (trans.", "in ''Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art,'' New York, Columbia University Press, Blackwell, London, 1980)*''Le langage, cet inconnu: Une initiation à la linguistique,'' S.G.P.P., 1969; new ed., coll.", "Points, Seuil, 1981 (trans.", "in 1981 as ''Language.", "The Unknown: an Initiation into Linguistics'', Columbia University Press, Harvester Wheatsheaf, London, 1989)*''La révolution du langage poétique: L'avant-garde à la fin du 19e siècle: Lautréamont et Mallarmé,'' Seuil, Paris, 1974 (abridged trans.", "containing only the first third of the original French edition, ''Revolution in Poetic Language,'' Columbia University Press, New York, 1984)*''Polylogue'', Seuil, Paris, 1977 (trans.", "in ''Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art,'' New York, Columbia University Press, Blackwell, London, 1980)*''Histoires d’amour'', Denoël, Paris, 1983 (trans.", "''Tales of Love,'' Columbia University Press, New York, 1987)*''Le temps sensible.", "Proust et l’expérience littéraire,'' Gallimard, Paris, 1994 (trans.", "''Time and Sense: Proust and the experience of literature'', Columbia University Press, New York, 1996)*''Dostoïevski'', Buchet-Chastel, Paris, 2020=== Psychoanalysis and philosophy ===*''Pouvoirs de l’horreur.", "Essai sur l’abjection'' (trans.''", "Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection'', Columbia University Press, New York, 1982)*''Au commencement était l’amour.", "Psychanalyse et foi'', Hachette, Paris, 1985 (trans.", "''In the Beginning Was Love.", "Psychoanalysis and Faith'', Columbia University Press, New York, 1987)*''Soleil Noir.", "Dépression et mélancolie'', Gallimard, Paris, 1987 (trans.", "''The Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia,'' Columbia University Press, New York, 1989)*''Etrangers à nous-mêmes'', Fayard, Paris, 1988 (''Strangers to Ourselves'', Columbia University Press, New York, 1991)*''Lettre ouverte à Harlem Désir'', Rivages, Paris, 1990, (trans.", "''Nations without Nationalism''.", "Columbia University Press, New York, 1993*''Les Nouvelles maladies de l’âme'', Fayard, Paris, 1993 (trans.", "''New Maladies of the Soul.''", "Columbia University Press, New York, 1995)*''Sens et non sens de la révolte'', Fayard, Paris, 1996 (trans.", "''The Sense of Revolt'', Columbia University Press, 2000)* ''La Révolte intime'', Fayard, 1997 (trans.", "''Intimate Revolt'', Columbia University Press, 2002)*''Le Génie féminin: la vie, la folie, les mots'', Fayard, Paris, 1999- (trans.", "''Female Genius'': ''Life, Madness, Words'', Columbia University Press, New York, 2001–2004):**1.", "''Hannah Arendt ou l’action comme naissance et comme étrangeté'', vol.", "1, Fayard, Paris, 1999**''2.Melanie Klein ou le matricide comme douleur et comme créativité: la folie'', vol.", "2, Fayard, Paris, 2000**''3.Colette ou la chair du monde'', vol.", "3, Fayard, Paris, 2002*''Vision capitales'', Réunion des musées nationaux, 1998 (trans.", "''The Severed Head: capital visions,'' Columbia University Press, New York, 2012)=== Autobiographical essays ===*''Des Chinoises'', édition des Femmes, Paris, 1974 (''About Chinese Women,'' Marion Boyars, London, 1977*''Du mariage considéré comme un des Beaux-Arts'', Fayard, Paris, 2015 (''Marriage as a Fine Art'' (with Philippe Sollers) Columbia University Press, New York 2016*''Je me voyage.", "Mémoires.", "Entretien avec Samuel Dock'', Fayard, Paris, 2016 (''A Journey Across Borders and Through Identities.", "Conversations with Samuel Dock'', in ''The Philosophy of Julia Kristeva'', ed.", "Sara Beardsworth, The Library of Living Philosophers, vo.", "36, Open Cort, Chicago, 2020)=== Collection of essays ===*''The Kristeva Reader'', ed.", "Toril Moi, Columbia University Press, New York, 1986*''The Portable Kristeva'', ed.", "Kelly Oliver, Columbia University Press, New York, 1997*''Crisis of the European Subject'', Other Press, New York, 2000*''La Haine et le pardon'', ed.", "with a foreword by Pierre-Louis Fort, Fayard, Paris, 2005 (trans.", "''Hatred and forgiveness'', Columbia University Press, New York, 2010)*''Pulsions du temps'', foreword, edition and notes by David Uhrig, Fayard, Paris, 2013 (trans.", "''Passions of Our Time'', ed.", "with a foreword by Lawrence D. Kritzman, Columbia University Press, New York, 2019)===Novels===*''Les Samouraïs'', Fayard, Paris, 1990 (trans.", "''The Samurai: A Novel'', Columbia University Press, New York, 1992)*''Le Vieil homme et les loups'', Fayard, Paris, 1991(trans.", "''The Old Man and the Wolves'', Columbia University Press, New York, 1994)*''Possessions'', Fayard, Paris, 1996 (trans.", "''Possessions: A Novel'', Columbia University Press, New York, 1998)*''Meurtre à Byzance'', Fayard, Paris, 2004 (trans.", "''Murder in Byzantium'', Columbia University Press, New York, 2006)*''Thérèse mon amour : récit.", "Sainte Thérèse d’Avila'', Fayard, 2008 (trans.", "''Teresa, my love.", "An Imagined Life of the Saint of Avila'', Columbia University Press, New York, 2015)*''L’Horloge enchantée'', Fayard, Paris, 2015 (trans.", "''The Enchanted Clock,'' Columbia University Press, 2017)" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Books about Julia Kristeva ===* Beardsworth, Sara, ''The Philosophy of Julia Kristeva'', The Library of Living Philosophers, vol.", "36, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Open Court, Chicago, 2020*Jardine, Alice, ''At the Risk of Thinking.", "An Intellectual Biography of Julia Kristeva'', Bloomsbury, New York, 2020*Ivantcheva-Merjanska, Irene, ''Ecrire dans la langue de l'autre.", "Assia Djebar et Julia Kristeva,'' L'Harmattan, Paris, 2015.", "* Kelly Ives, ''Julia Kristeva: art, love, melancholy, philosophy, semiotics and psychoanalysis'', Crescent Moon, Maidstone, 2013*Becker-Leckrone, Megan, ''Julia Kristeva And Literary Theory'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2005* Beardsworth, Sara, ''Psychoanalysis and Modernity'', Suny Press, Albany, 2004*Radden, Jennifer, ''The Nature of Melancholy: From Aristotle to Kristeva'', Oxford University Press, 2000* Lechte, John, and Margaroni, Maria, ''Julia Kristeva: Live Theory'', Continuum, 2004* McAfee, Noëlle, ''Julia Kristeva'', Routledge, London, 2004* Smith, Anna, ''Julia Kristeva: Readings of Exile and Estrangement'', St. Martin's Press, New york, 1996.", "*Oliver, Kelly, ''Ethics, Politics, and Difference in Julia Kristeva's Writing'', Routledge Édition, New York, 1993*Crownfield, David, ''Body/Text in Julia Kristeva: Religion, Women, and Psychoanalysis'', State University of New York Press, 1992*Oliver, Kelly, ''Reading Kristeva.", "Unraveling the Double-bind'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1983" ], [ "External links", "* * Holberg Prize* Interview with Julia Kristeva in Exberliner Magazine * Julia Kristeva: A Bibliography by Hélène Volat* Goodnow, Katherine J.(2015). ''", "Kristeva in Focus: From Theory to Film Analysis'' Berghahn Books." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Just intonation" ], [ "Introduction", "Harmonic series, partials 1–5 numberedFile:Harmonic series klang.midIn music, '''just intonation''' or '''pure intonation''' is the tuning of musical intervals as whole number ratios (such as 3:2 or 4:3) of frequencies.", "An interval tuned in this way is said to be pure, and is called a '''just interval'''.", "Just intervals (and chords created by combining them) consist of tones from a single harmonic series of an implied fundamental.", "For example, in the diagram, if the notes G3 and C4 (labelled 3 and 4) are tuned as members of the harmonic series of the lowest C, their frequencies will be 3 and 4 times the fundamental frequency.", "The interval ratio between C4 and G3 is therefore 4:3, a just fourth.In Western musical practice, bowed instruments such as violins, violas, cellos, and double basses are tuned using pure fifths or fourths.", "In contrast, keyboard instruments are rarely tuned using only pure intervals—the desire for different keys to have identical intervals in Western music makes this impractical.", "Some instruments of fixed pitch, such as electric pianos, are commonly tuned using equal temperament, in which all intervals other than octaves consist of irrational-number frequency ratios.", "Acoustic pianos are usually tuned with the octaves slightly widened, and thus with no pure intervals at all.The phrase \"just intonation\" is used both to refer to one specific version of a 5-limit diatonic intonation, that is, Ptolemy's intense diatonic, as well to a whole class of tunings which use whole number intervals derived from the harmonic series.", "In this sense, \"just intonation\" is differentiated from equal temperaments and the \"tempered\" tunings of the early renaissance and baroque, such as Well temperament, or Meantone temperament.", "Since 5-limit has been the most prevalent just intonation used in western music, western musicians have subsequently tended to consider this scale to be the only version of just intonation.", "In principle, there are an infinite number of possible \"just intonations,\" since the harmonic series is infinite." ], [ "Terminology", "Just intonations are categorized by the notion of limits.", "The limit refers to the highest prime number fraction included in the intervals of a scale.", "All the intervals of any 3 limit just intonation will be multiples of 3.So is included in 5 limit, because it has 5 in the denominator.", "If a scale uses an interval of 21:20, it is a 7 limit just intonation, since 21 is a multiple of 7.The interval is a 3 limit interval because both numerator and denominator are multiples of 3 and 2.It is possible to have a scale that uses 5 limit intervals but not 2 limit intervals, i.e no octaves, such as Wendy Carlos's alpha and beta scales.", "It is also possible to make diatonic scales that do not use fourths or fifths (3 limit), but use 5 and 7 limit intervals only.", "Thus, the notion of limit is a helpful distinction, but certainly does not tell us everything there is to know about a particular scale.Pythagorean tuning, or 3 limit tuning, allows ratios including the numbers 2 and 3 and their powers, such as 3:2, a perfect fifth, and 9:4, a major ninth.", "Although the interval from C to G is called a perfect fifth for purposes of music analysis regardless of its tuning method, for purposes of discussing tuning systems musicologists may distinguish between a ''perfect fifth'' created using the 3:2 ratio and a ''tempered fifth'' using some other system, such as meantone or equal temperament.5-limit tuning encompasses ratios additionally using the number 5 and its powers, such as 5:4, a major third, and 15:8, a major seventh.", "The specialized term ''perfect third'' is occasionally used to distinguish the 5:4 ratio from major thirds created using other tuning methods.", "7 limit and higher systems use higher prime number partials in the overtone series (e.g.", "11, 13, 17, etc.", ")Commas are very small intervals that result from minute differences between pairs of just intervals.", "For example, the (5 limit) 5:4 ratio is different from the Pythagorean (3 limit) major third (81:64) by a difference of 81:80, called the syntonic comma.", "The septimal comma, the ratio of 64:63, is a 7 limit interval which is the distance between the Pythagorean semi-ditone, , and the septimal minor third, 7:6 , since A cent is a measure of interval size.", "It is logarithmic in the musical frequency ratios.", "The octave is divided into 1200 steps, 100 cents for each semitone.", "Cents are often used to describe how much a just interval deviates from For example, the major third is 400 cents in 12 TET, but the 5th harmonic, 5:4 is 386.314 cents.", "Thus, the just major third deviates by −13.686 cents." ], [ "History", "Just (black) major and parallel minor triad, compared to its equal temperament (gray) approximations, within the chromatic circlePythagorean tuning has been attributed to both Pythagoras and Eratosthenes by later writers, but may have been analyzed by other early Greeks or other early cultures as well.", "The oldest known description of the Pythagorean tuning system appears in Babylonian artifacts.During the second century AD, Claudius Ptolemy described a 5-limit diatonic scale in his influential text on music theory ''Harmonics'', which he called \"intense diatonic\".", "Given ratios of string lengths 120, , 100, 90, 80, 75, , and 60, Ptolemy quantified the tuning of what would later be called the Phrygian scale (equivalent to the major scale beginning and ending on the third note) – 16:15, 9:8, 10:9, 9:8, 16:15, 9:8, and 10:9.Ptolemy describes a variety of other just intonations derived from history (Pythagoras, Philolaus, Archytas, Aristoxenus, Eratosthenes, and Didymus) and several of his own discovery / invention, including many interval patterns in 3-limit, 5-limit, 7-limit, and even an 11-limit diatonic.Non-Western music, particularly that built on pentatonic scales, is largely tuned using just intonation.", "In China, the guqin has a musical scale based on harmonic overtone positions.", "The dots on its soundboard indicate the harmonic positions: , , , , , , , , , , , , .", "Indian music has an extensive theoretical framework for tuning in just intonation." ], [ "Diatonic scale", "Primary triads in CFile:Primary triads in C just.midJust tuned diatonic scale derivation.The prominent notes of a given scale may be tuned so that their frequencies form (relatively) small whole number ratios.The 5-limit diatonic major scale is tuned in such a way that major triads on the tonic, subdominant, and dominant are tuned in the proportion 4:5:6, and minor triads on the mediant and submediant are tuned in the proportion 10:12:15.Because of the two sizes of wholetone – 9:8 (major wholetone) and 10:9 (minor wholetone) – the supertonic must be microtonally lowered by a syntonic comma to form a pure minor triad.The 5-limit diatonic major scale (Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale) on C is shown in the table below: Note Name C D E F G A B C Ratio from C 1:1 9:8 5:4 4:3 3:2 5:3 15:8 2:1 Harmonic of Fundamental F 24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48Cents 0 204 386 498 702 884 1088 1200 Step Name  T t s T t T s  Ratio 9:8 10:9 16:15 9:8 10:9 9:8 16:15 Cents 204 182 112 204 182 204 112Intervals of the C major scale in just intonation compared with equal temperament (blue)In this example the interval from D up to A would be a wolf fifth with the ratio , about 680 cents, noticeably smaller than the 702 cents of the pure ratio.", "This is mentioned by Schenker in reference to the teaching of Bruckner.For a justly tuned diatonic minor scale, the mediant is tuned 6:5 and the submediant is tuned 8:5.It would include a tuning of 9:5 for the subtonic.", "For example on A: Note Name A B C D E F G A Ratio from A 1:1 9:8 6:5 4:3 3:2 8:5 9:5 2:1 Harmonic of Fundamental B 120 135 144 160 180 192 216 240Cents 0 204 316 498 702 814 1018 1200 Step Name  T s t T s T t  Ratio 9:8 16:15 10:9 9:8 16:15 9:8 10:9 Cents 204 112 182 204 112 204 182" ], [ "Twelve-tone scale", "There are several ways to create a just tuning of the twelve-tone scale.===Pythagorean tuning===Pythagorean tuning can produce a twelve-tone scale, but it does so by involving ratios of very large numbers, corresponding to natural harmonics very high in the harmonic series that do not occur widely in physical phenomena.", "This tuning uses ratios involving only powers of 3 and 2, creating a sequence of just fifths or fourths, as follows: Note G D A E B F C G D A E B F Ratio 1024:729 256:243 128:81 32:27 16:9 4:3 1:1 3:2 9:8 27:16 81:64 243:128 729:512 Cents5889079229499649807022049064081110612The ratios are computed with respect to C (the ''base note'').", "Starting from C, they are obtained by moving six steps (around the circle of fifths) to the left and six to the right.", "Each step consists of a multiplication of the previous pitch by (descending fifth), (ascending fifth), or their inversions ( or ).Between the enharmonic notes at both ends of this sequence is a pitch ratio of , or about 23 cents, known as the Pythagorean comma.", "To produce a twelve-tone scale, one of them is arbitrarily discarded.", "The twelve remaining notes are repeated by increasing or decreasing their frequencies by a power of 2 (the size of one or more octaves) to build scales with multiple octaves (such as the keyboard of a piano).", "A drawback of Pythagorean tuning is that one of the twelve fifths in this scale is badly tuned and hence unusable (the wolf fifth, either F–D if G is discarded, or B–G if F is discarded).", "This twelve-tone scale is fairly close to equal temperament, but it does not offer much advantage for tonal harmony because only the perfect intervals (fourth, fifth, and octave) are simple enough to sound pure.", "Major thirds, for instance, receive the rather unstable interval of 81:64, sharp of the preferred 5:4 by an 81:80 ratio.", "The primary reason for its use is that it is extremely easy to tune, as its building block, the perfect fifth, is the simplest and consequently the most consonant interval after the octave and unison.Pythagorean tuning may be regarded as a \"three-limit\" tuning system, because the ratios can be expressed as a product of integer powers of only whole numbers less than or equal to 3.===Five-limit tuning===A twelve-tone scale can also be created by compounding harmonics up to the fifth: namely, by multiplying the frequency of a given reference note (the base note) by powers of 2, 3, or 5, or a combination of them.", "This method is called five-limit tuning.To build such a twelve-tone scale (using C as the base note), we may start by constructing a table containing fifteen pitches:: Factor 1 3 9 5 '''D''' '''A''' '''E''' '''B''' '''F''' note 10:9 5:3 5:4 15:8 45:32 ratio 182 ¢ 884 ¢ 386 ¢ 1088 ¢ 590 ¢ cents 1 '''B''' '''F''' '''G''' '''D''' note 16:9 4:3 1:1 3:2 9:8 ratio 996 ¢ 498 ¢ 0 ¢ 702 ¢ 204 ¢ cents '''G''' '''D''' '''A''' '''E''' '''B''' note 64:45 16:15 8:5 6:5 9:5 ratio 610 ¢ 112 ¢ 814 ¢ 316 ¢ 1018 ¢ centsThe factors listed in the first row and column are powers of 3 and 5, respectively (e.g., Colors indicate couples of enharmonic notes with almost identical pitch.", "The ratios are all expressed relative to C in the centre of this diagram (the base note for this scale).", "They are computed in two steps:# For each cell of the table, a ''base ratio'' is obtained by multiplying the corresponding factors.", "For instance, the base ratio for the lower-left cell is # The base ratio is then multiplied by a negative or positive power of 2, as large as needed to bring it within the range of the octave starting from C (from 1:1 to 2:1).", "For instance, the base ratio for the lower left cell () is multiplied by 2, and the resulting ratio is 64:45, which is a number between 1:1 and 2:1.Note that the powers of 2 used in the second step may be interpreted as ascending or descending octaves.", "For instance, multiplying the frequency of a note by 2 means increasing it by 6 octaves.", "Moreover, each row of the table may be considered to be a sequence of fifths (ascending to the right), and each column a sequence of major thirds (ascending upward).", "For instance, in the first row of the table, there is an ascending fifth from D and A, and another one (followed by a descending octave) from A to E. This suggests an alternative but equivalent method for computing the same ratios.", "For instance, one can obtain A, starting from C, by moving one cell to the left and one upward in the table, which means descending by a fifth and ascending by a major third:: × = .Since this is below C, one needs to move up by an octave to end up within the desired range of ratios (from 1:1 to 2:1):: × .A 12 tone scale is obtained by removing one note for each couple of enharmonic notes.", "This can be done in four ways that have in common the removal of G, according to a convention which was valid even for C-based Pythagorean and quarter-comma meantone scales.", "Note that it is a diminished fifth, close to half an octave, above the tonic C, which is a discordant interval; also its ratio has the largest values in its numerator and denominator of all tones in the scale, which make it least harmonious: All are reasons to avoid it.The following chart shows one way to obtain a 12 tone scale by removing one note for each pair of enharmonic notes.", "In this method one discards the first column of the table (labeled \"\").", ": Asymmetric scale Factor 1 3 9 5 '''A''' '''E''' '''B''' '''F''' 5:3 5:4 15:8 45:32 1 '''F''' '''G''' '''D''' 4:3 1:1 3:2 9:8 '''D''' '''A''' '''E''' '''B''' 16:15 8:5 6:5 9:5This scale is \"asymmetric\" in the sense that going up from the tonic two semitones we multiply the frequency by , while going down from the tonic two semitones we do not divide the frequency by .", "For two methods that give \"symmetric\" scales, see Five-limit tuning: twelve-tone scale.===Extension of the twelve-tone scale===The table above uses only low powers of 3 and 5 to build the base ratios.", "However, it can be easily extended by using higher positive and negative powers of the same numbers, such as 5 = 25, 5 = , 3 = 27, or 3 = .", "A scale with 25, 35 or even more pitches can be obtained by combining these base ratios." ], [ "Indian scales", "In Indian music, the just diatonic scale described above is used, though there are different possibilities, for instance for the sixth pitch (''dha''), and further modifications may be made to all pitches excepting ''sa'' and ''pa''.", ": Note ''sa'' ''re'' ''ga'' ''ma'' ''pa'' ''dha'' ''ni'' ''sa'' Ratio 1:1 9:8 5:4 4:3 3:2 5:3 or 27:16 15:8 2:1 Cents 0 204 386 498 702 884 or 906 1088 1200Some accounts of Indian intonation system cite a given 12 swaras being divided into 22 shrutis.According to some musicians, one has a scale of a given 12 pitches and ten in addition (the tonic, shadja (''sa''), and the pure fifth, pancham (''pa''), are inviolate (known as achalain Indian music theory): Note C D D D D E E E E F F F F G A A A A B B B B C Ratio 1:1 256:243 16:15 10:9 9:8 32:27 6:5 5:4 81:64 4:3 27:20 45:32 729:512 3:2 128:81 8:5 5:3 27:16 16:9 9:5 15:8 243:128 2:1 Cents 0 90 112 182 204 294 316 386 408 498 520 590 612 702 792 814 884 906 996 1018 1088 1110 1200Where we have ''two'' ratios for a given letter name or swara, we have a difference of 81:80 (22 cents), which is the syntonic comma or the praman in Indian music theory.", "These notes are known as ''chala''.", "The distance between two letter names comes in to sizes, ''poorna'' (256:243) and ''nyuna'' (25:24).", "One can see the symmetry, looking at it from the tonic, then the octave.", "(This is just one example of explaining a 22 Śhruti scale of tones.", "There are many different explanations.)" ], [ "Practical difficulties", "Some fixed just intonation scales and systems, such as the diatonic scale above, produce wolf intervals when the approximately equivalent flat note is substituted for a sharp note not available in the scale, or vice versa.", "The above scale allows a minor tone to occur next to a semitone which produces the awkward ratio 32:27 for D→F, and still worse, a minor tone next to a fourth giving 40:27 for D→A.", "Flattening D by a comma to 10:9 alleviates these difficulties but creates new ones: D→G becomes 27:20, and D→B becomes 27:16.This fundamental problem arises in any system of tuning using a limited number of notes.One can have more frets on a guitar (or keys on a piano) to handle both As, 9:8 with respect to G and 10:9 with respect to G so that A→C can be played as 6:5 while A→D can still be played as 3:2.9:8 and 10:9 are less than of an octave apart, so mechanical and performance considerations have made this approach extremely rare.", "And the problem of how to tune complex chords such as C in typical 5 limit just intonation, is left unresolved (for instance, A could be 4:3 below D (making it 9:8, if G is 1) or 4:3 above E (making it 10:9, if G is 1) but not both at the same time, so one of the fourths in the chord will have to be an out-of-tune wolf interval).", "Most complex (added-tone and extended) chords usually require intervals beyond common 5 limit ratios in order to sound harmonious (for instance, the previous chord could be tuned to 8:10:12:13:18, using the A note from the 13th harmonic), which implies even more keys or frets.", "However the frets may be removed entirely—this, unfortunately, makes in-tune fingering of many chords exceedingly difficult, due to the construction and mechanics of the human hand—and the tuning of most complex chords in just intonation is generally ambiguous.Some composers deliberately use these wolf intervals and other dissonant intervals as a way to expand the tone color palette of a piece of music.", "For example, the extended piano pieces ''The Well-Tuned Piano'' by La Monte Young and ''The Harp of New Albion'' by Terry Riley use a combination of very consonant and dissonant intervals for musical effect.", "In \"Revelation\", Michael Harrison goes even further, and uses the tempo of beat patterns produced by some dissonant intervals as an integral part of several movements.When tuned in just intonation, many fixed-pitch instruments cannot be played in a new key without retuning the instrument.", "For instance, if a piano is tuned in just intonation intervals and a minimum of wolf intervals for the key of G, then only one other key (typically E) can have the same intervals, and many of the keys have a very dissonant and unpleasant sound.", "This makes modulation within a piece, or playing a repertoire of pieces in different keys, impractical to impossible.Synthesizers have proven a valuable tool for composers wanting to experiment with just intonation.", "They can be easily retuned with a microtuner.", "Many commercial synthesizers provide the ability to use built-in just intonation scales or to create them manually.", "Wendy Carlos used a system on her 1986 album ''Beauty in the Beast'', where one electronic keyboard was used to play the notes, and another used to instantly set the root note to which all intervals were tuned, which allowed for modulation.", "On her 1987 lecture album ''Secrets of Synthesis'' there are audible examples of the difference in sound between equal temperament and just intonation." ], [ "Singing and scale-free instruments", "The human voice is among the most pitch-flexible instruments in common use.", "Pitch can be varied with no restraints and adjusted in the midst of performance, without needing to retune.", "Although the explicit use of just intonation fell out of favour concurrently with the increasing use of instrumental accompaniment (with its attendant constraints on pitch), most a cappella ensembles naturally tend toward just intonation because of the comfort of its stability.", "Barbershop quartets are a good example of this.The unfretted stringed instruments such as those from the violin family (the violin, the viola, and the cello), and the double bass are quite flexible in the way pitches can be adjusted.", "Stringed instruments that are not playing with fixed pitch instruments tend to adjust the pitch of key notes such as thirds and leading tones so that the pitches differ from equal temperament.Trombones have a slide that allows arbitrary tuning during performance.", "French horns can be tuned by shortening or lengthening the main tuning slide on the back of the instrument, with each individual rotary or piston slide for each rotary or piston valve, and by using the right hand inside the bell to adjust the pitch by pushing the hand in deeper to sharpen the note, or pulling it out to flatten the note while playing.", "Some natural horns also may adjust the tuning with the hand in the bell, and valved cornets, trumpets, Flugelhorns, Saxhorns, Wagner tubas, and tubas have overall and valve-by-valve tuning slides, like valved horns.Wind instruments with valves are biased towards natural tuning and must be micro-tuned if equal temperament is required.Other wind instruments, although built to a certain scale, can be micro-tuned to a certain extent by using the embouchure or adjustments to fingering." ], [ "Western composers", "Composers often impose a limit on how complex the ratios may become.", "For example, a composer who chooses to write in 7-limit just intonation will not employ ratios that use powers of prime numbers larger than 7.Under this scheme, ratios like 11:7 and 13:6 would not be permitted, because 11 and 13 cannot be expressed as powers of those prime numbers ≤ 7 (''i.e.''", "2, 3, 5, and 7)." ], [ "Staff notation", "Fig.", "1: Legend of the Helmholtz-Ellis accidentals within the 23-limitOriginally a system of notation to describe scales was devised by Hauptmann and modified by Helmholtz (1877); the starting note is presumed Pythagorean; a “+” is placed between if the next note is a just major third up, a “−” if it is a just minor third, among others; finally, subscript numbers are placed on the second note to indicate how many syntonic commas (81:80) to lower by.", "For example, the Pythagorean major third on C is C+E () while the just major third is C+E1 ().", "A similar system was devised by Carl Eitz and used in Barbour (1951) in which Pythagorean notes are started with and positive or negative superscript numbers are added indicating how many commas (81:80, syntonic comma) to adjust by.who cites For example, the Pythagorean major third on C is C−E0 while the just major third is C−E−1.An extension of this Pythagorean-based notation to higher primes is the ''Helmholtz / Ellis / Wolf / Monzo system'' of ASCII symbols and prime-factor-power vectors described in Monzo's ''Tonalsoft Encyclopaedia''.While these systems allow precise indication of intervals and pitches in print, more recently some composers have been developing notation methods for Just Intonation using the conventional five-line staff.", "James Tenney, amongst others, preferred to combine JI ratios with cents deviations from the equal tempered pitches, indicated in a legend or directly in the score, allowing performers to readily use electronic tuning devices if desired.Beginning in the 1960s, Ben Johnston had proposed an alternative approach, redefining the understanding of conventional symbols (the seven \"white\" notes, the sharps and flats) and adding further accidentals, each designed to extend the notation into higher prime limits.", "His notation \"begins with the 16th-century Italian definitions of intervals and continues from there.\"", "Johnston notation is based on a diatonic C Major scale tuned in JI (Fig.", "4), in which the interval between D (9:8 above C) and A (5:3 above C) is one syntonic comma less than a Pythagorean perfect fifth 3:2.To write a perfect fifth, Johnston introduces a pair of symbols, + and − again, to represent this comma.", "Thus, a series of perfect fifths beginning with F would proceed C G D A+ E+ B+.", "The three conventional white notes A E B are tuned as Ptolemaic major thirds (5:4) above F C G respectively.", "Johnston introduces new symbols for the septimal ( & ), undecimal ( & ), tridecimal ( & ), and further prime-number extensions to create an accidental based exact JI notation for what he has named \"Extended Just Intonation\" (Fig.", "2 & Fig. 3).", "For example, the Pythagorean major third on C is C-E+ while the just major third is C-E (Fig. 4).Fig.", "2: Staff notation of partials 1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and 19 on C using Johnston notationFile:Notation of partials 1-19 for 1-1.mid48.77 cents lower than B tuned 9:5 above C.File:Harmonic seventh chord just on C.midIn 2000–2004, Marc Sabat and Wolfgang von Schweinitz worked in Berlin to develop a different accidental-based method, the Extended Helmholtz-Ellis JI Pitch Notation.", "Following the method of notation suggested by Helmholtz in his classic ''On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music'', incorporating Ellis' invention of cents, and continuing Johnston's step into \"Extended JI\", Sabat and Schweinitz propose unique symbols (accidentals) for each prime dimension of harmonic space.", "In particular, the conventional flats, naturals and sharps define a Pythagorean series of perfect fifths.", "The Pythagorean pitches are then paired with new symbols that commatically alter them to represent various other partials of the harmonic series (Fig. 1).", "To facilitate quick estimation of pitches, cents indications may be added (e.g.", "downward deviations below and upward deviations above the respective accidental).", "A typically used convention is that cent deviations refer to the ''tempered pitch'' implied by the flat, natural, or sharp.", "A complete legend and fonts for the notation (see samples) are open source and available from the Plainsound Music Edition website.", "For example, the Pythagorean major third on C is C-E while the just major third is C-E↓ (see Fig.", "4 for \"combined\" symbol)Fig.", "4: Comparison of Helmholtz-Ellis JI Pitch Notation and Johnston Notation.", "Unaltered naturals in Helmholtz-Ellis may be omitted if desired.Fig.", "5: Just harmonic thirteenth chord (4:5:6:7:9:11:13) on G in Sagittal notation (with mnemonics)Sagittal notation (from Latin ''sagitta'', \"arrow\") is a system of arrow-like accidentals that indicate prime-number comma alterations to tones in a Pythagorean series.", "It is used to notate both just intonation and equal temperaments.", "The size of the symbol indicates the size of the alteration.The great advantage of such notation systems is that they allow the natural harmonic series to be precisely notated.", "At the same time, they provide some degree of practicality through their extension of staff notation, as traditionally trained performers may draw on their intuition for roughly estimating pitch height.", "This may be contrasted with the more abstract use of ratios for representing pitches in which the amount by which two pitches differ and the \"direction\" of change may not be immediately obvious to most musicians.", "One caveat is the requirement for performers to learn and internalize a (large) number of new graphical symbols.", "However, the use of unique symbols reduces harmonic ambiguity and the potential confusion arising from indicating only cent deviations." ], [ "Audio examples", "* An A-major scale, followed by three major triads, and then a progression of fifths in just intonation.", "* An A-major scale, followed by three major triads, and then a progression of fifths in equal temperament.", "The beating in this file may be more noticeable after listening to the above file.", "* A pair of major thirds, followed by a pair of full major chords.", "The first in each pair is in equal temperament; the second is in just intonation.", "Piano sound.", "* A pair of major chords.", "The first is in equal temperament; the second is in just intonation.", "The pair of chords is repeated with a transition from equal temperament to just intonation between the two chords.", "In the equal temperament chords a roughness or beating can be heard at about 4 Hz and about 0.8 Hz.", "In the just intonation triad, this roughness is absent.", "The square waveform makes the difference between equal temperament and just intonation more obvious." ], [ "See also", "; Lists:* List of compositions in just intonation* List of intervals in 5-limit just intonation* List of meantone intervals* List of pitch intervals; Article topics:* Dynamic tonality* Electronic tuner* Hexany* Microtonal music* Microtuner* Music and mathematics* Musical interval* Pythagorean interval* Regular number* Superparticular ratio* Whole-tone scale" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Art of the States: microtonal/just intonation works using just intonation by American composers* The Chrysalis Foundation – Just Intonation: Two Definitions* Dante Rosati's 21 Tone Just Intonation guitar* Just Intonation by Mark Nowitzky* Just intonation compared with meantone and 12-equal temperaments; a video featuring Pachelbel's canon.", "* Just Intonation Explained by Kyle Gann* A selection of Just Intonation works edited by the Just Intonation Network web published on the Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine project archive at UbuWeb* Medieval Music and Arts Foundation* Music Novatory – Just Intonation* Why does Just Intonation sound so good?", "* The Wilson Archives* Barbieri, Patrizio.", "Enharmonic instruments and music, 1470–1900.", "(2008) Latina, Il Levante* 22 Note Just Intonation Keyboard Software with 12 Indian Instrument Sounds Libreria Editrice* Plainsound Music Edition – JI music and research, information about the Helmholtz-Ellis JI Pitch Notation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Josephus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flavius Josephus''' (; , ; AD 37 – 100) was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader.", "Best known for writing ''The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of priestly descent and a mother who claimed royal ancestry.He initially fought against the Roman Empire during the First Jewish–Roman War as general of the Jewish forces in Galilee, until surrendering in AD 67 to the Roman army led by military commander Vespasian after the six-week siege of Yodfat.", "Josephus claimed the Jewish messianic prophecies that initiated the First Jewish–Roman War made reference to Vespasian becoming Roman emperor.", "In response, Vespasian decided to keep Josephus as a slave and presumably interpreter.", "After Vespasian became emperor in AD 69, he granted Josephus his freedom, at which time Josephus assumed the Emperor's family name of ''Flavius''.Flavius Josephus fully defected to the Roman side and was granted Roman citizenship.", "He became an advisor and friend of Vespasian's son Titus, serving as his translator when Titus led the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD.", "Since the siege proved ineffective at stopping the Jewish revolt, the city's pillaging and the looting and destruction of Herod's Temple (the Second Temple) soon followed.Josephus recorded the Great Jewish Revolt (AD 66–70), including the siege of Masada.", "His most important works were ''The Jewish War'' () and ''Antiquities of the Jews'' ( 94).", "''The Jewish War'' recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation.", "''Antiquities of the Jews'' recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective for an ostensibly Greek and Roman audience.", "These works provide valuable insight into first-century Judaism and the background of Early Christianity.", "Josephus's works are the chief source next to the Bible for the history and antiquity of ancient Israel, and provide a significant and independent extra-Biblical account of such figures as Pontius Pilate, Herod the Great, John the Baptist, James, brother of Jesus, and possibly Jesus of Nazareth." ], [ "Biography", "Galilee, site of Josephus's governorship, before the First Jewish–Roman WarJosephus was born into one of Jerusalem's elite families.", "He was the second-born son of Matthias, a Jewish priest.", "His older full-blooded brother was also, like his father, called Matthias.", "Their mother was an aristocratic woman who was descended from the royal and formerly ruling Hasmonean dynasty.", "Josephus's paternal grandparents were a man also named Josephus and his wife—an unnamed Hebrew noblewoman—distant relatives of each other.", "Josephus's family was wealthy.", "He descended through his father from the priestly order of the Jehoiarib, which was the first of the 24 orders of priests in the Temple in Jerusalem.", "Josephus was a descendant of the High Priest of Israel Jonathan Apphus.", "He was raised in Jerusalem and educated alongside his brother.In his mid twenties, he traveled to negotiate with Emperor Nero for the release of some Jewish priests.", "Upon his return to Jerusalem, at the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War, Josephus was appointed the military governor of Galilee.", "His arrival in Galilee, however, was fraught with internal division: the inhabitants of Sepphoris and Tiberias opting to maintain peace with the Romans; the people of Sepphoris enlisting the help of the Roman army to protect their city, while the people of Tiberias appealing to King Agrippa's forces to protect them from the insurgents.Josephus also contended with John of Gischala who had also set his sight over the control of Galilee.", "Like Josephus, John had amassed to himself a large band of supporters from Gischala (Gush Halab) and Gabara, including the support of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem.", "Meanwhile, Josephus fortified several towns and villages in Lower Galilee, among which were Tiberias, Bersabe, Selamin, Japha, and Tarichaea, in anticipation of a Roman onslaught.", "In Upper Galilee, he fortified the towns of Jamnith, Seph, Mero, and Achabare, among other places.", "Josephus, with the Galileans under his command, managed to bring both Sepphoris and Tiberias into subjection, but was eventually forced to relinquish his hold on Sepphoris by the arrival of Roman forces under Placidus the tribune and later by Vespasian himself.", "Josephus first engaged the Roman army at a village called Garis, where he launched an attack against Sepphoris a second time, before being repulsed.", "At length, he resisted the Roman army in its siege of Yodfat (Jotapata) until it fell to the Roman army in the lunar month of Tammuz, in the thirteenth year of Nero's reign.After the Jewish garrison of Yodfat fell under siege, the Romans invaded, killing thousands; the survivors committed suicide.", "According to Josephus, he was trapped in a cave with 40 of his companions in July 67 AD.", "The Romans (commanded by Flavius Vespasian and his son Titus, both subsequently Roman emperors) asked the group to surrender, but they refused.", "According to Josephus's account, he suggested a method of collective suicide; they drew lots and killed each other, one by one, and Josephus happened to be one of two men that were left who surrendered to the Roman forces and became prisoners.", "In 69 AD, Josephus was released.", "According to his account, he acted as a negotiator with the defenders during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD, during which time his parents were held as hostages by Simon bar Giora.While being confined at Yodfat (Jotapata), Josephus claimed to have experienced a divine revelation that later led to his speech predicting Vespasian would become emperor.", "After the prediction came true, he was released by Vespasian, who considered his gift of prophecy to be divine.", "Josephus wrote that his revelation had taught him three things: that God, the creator of the Jewish people, had decided to \"punish\" them; that \"fortune\" had been given to the Romans; and that God had chosen him \"to announce the things that are to come\".", "To many Jews, such claims were simply self-serving.In 71 AD, he went to Rome in the entourage of Titus, becoming a Roman citizen and client of the ruling Flavian dynasty.", "In addition to Roman citizenship, he was granted accommodation in conquered Judaea and a pension.", "While in Rome and under Flavian patronage, Josephus wrote all of his known works.", "Although he only ever calls himself \"Josephus\" in his writings, later historians refer to him as \"Flavius Josephus\", confirming that he adopted the ''nomen'' Flavius from his patrons, as was the custom amongst freedmen.Vespasian arranged for Josephus to marry a captured Jewish woman, whom he later divorced.", "About 71, Josephus married an Alexandrian Jewish woman as his third wife.", "They had three sons, of whom only Flavius Hyrcanus survived childhood.", "Josephus later divorced his third wife.", "Around 75, he married his fourth wife, a Greek Jewish woman from Crete, who was a member of a distinguished family.", "They had two sons, Flavius Justus and Flavius Simonides Agrippa.Josephus's life story remains ambiguous.", "He was described by Harris in 1985 as a law-observant Jew who believed in the compatibility of Judaism and Graeco-Roman thought, commonly referred to as Hellenistic Judaism.", "Before the 19th century, the scholar Nitsa Ben-Ari notes that his works were banned as those of a traitor, whose work was not to be studied or translated into Hebrew.", "His critics were never satisfied as to why he failed to commit suicide in Galilee, and after his capture, accepted the patronage of Romans." ], [ "Scholarship and impact on history", "The works of Josephus provide crucial information about the First Jewish–Roman War and also represent important literary source material for understanding the context of the Dead Sea Scrolls and late Temple Judaism.Josephan scholarship in the 19th and early 20th centuries took an interest in Josephus's relationship to the sect of the Pharisees.", "It consistently portrayed him as a member of the sect and as a traitor to the Jewish nation—a view which became known as the classical concept of Josephus.", "In the mid-20th century a new generation of scholars challenged this view and formulated the modern concept of Josephus.", "They consider him a Pharisee but restore his reputation in part as patriot and a historian of some standing.", "In his 1991 book, Steve Mason argued that Josephus was not a Pharisee but an orthodox Aristocrat-Priest who became associated with the philosophical school of the Pharisees as a matter of deference, and not by willing association.=== Impact on history and archaeology ===The works of Josephus include useful material for historians about individuals, groups, customs, and geographical places.", "However, modern historians have been cautious of taking his writings at face value.", "For example, Carl Ritter, in his highly influential ''Erdkunde'' in the 1840s, wrote in a review of authorities on the ancient geography of the region:Outside of the Scriptures, Josephus holds the first and the only place among the native authors of Judaea; for Philo of Alexandria, the later Talmud, and other authorities, are of little service in understanding the geography of the country.", "Josephus is, however, to be used with great care.", "As a Jewish scholar, as an officer of Galilee, as a military man, and a person of great experience in everything belonging to his own nation, he attained to that remarkable familiarity with his country in every part, which his antiquarian researches so abundantly evince.", "But he was controlled by political motives: his great purpose was to bring his people, the despised Jewish race, into honour with the Greeks and Romans; and this purpose underlay every sentence, and filled his history with distortions and exaggerations.Josephus mentions that in his day there were 240 towns and villages scattered across Upper and Lower Galilee, some of which he names.", "Josephus' works are the primary source for the chain of Jewish high priests during the Second Temple period.", "A few of the Jewish customs named by him include the practice of hanging a linen curtain at the entrance to one's house, and the Jewish custom to partake of a Sabbath-day's meal around the sixth-hour of the day (at noon).", "He notes also that it was permissible for Jewish men to marry many wives (polygamy).", "His writings provide a significant, extra-Biblical account of the post-Exilic period of the Maccabees, the Hasmonean dynasty, and the rise of Herod the Great.", "He also describes the Sadducees, the Pharisees and Essenes, the Herodian Temple, Quirinius' census and the Zealots, and such figures as Pontius Pilate, Herod the Great, Agrippa I and Agrippa II, John the Baptist, James the brother of Jesus, and Jesus.", "Josephus represents an important source for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism and the context of early Christianity.A careful reading of Josephus's writings and years of excavation allowed Ehud Netzer, an archaeologist from Hebrew University, to discover what he considered to be the location of Herod's Tomb, after searching for 35 years.", "It was above aqueducts and pools, at a flattened desert site, halfway up the hill to the Herodium, 12 km south of Jerusalem—as described in Josephus's writings.", "In October 2013, archaeologists Joseph Patrich and Benjamin Arubas challenged the identification of the tomb as that of Herod.", "According to Patrich and Arubas, the tomb is too modest to be Herod's and has several unlikely features.", "Roi Porat, who replaced Netzer as excavation leader after the latter's death, stood by the identification.Josephus's writings provide the first-known source for many stories considered as Biblical history, despite not being found in the Bible or related material.", "These include Ishmael as the founder of the Arabs, the connection of \"Semites\", \"Hamites\" and \"Japhetites\" to the classical nations of the world, and the story of the siege of Masada.=== Josephus's original audience ===Scholars debate about Josephus's intended audience.", "For example, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' could be written for Jews—\"a few scholars from Laqueur onward have suggested that Josephus must have written primarily for fellow Jews (if also secondarily for Gentiles).", "The most common motive suggested is repentance: in later life he felt so bad about the traitorous ''War'' that he needed to demonstrate … his loyalty to Jewish history, law and culture.\"", "However, Josephus's \"countless incidental remarks explaining basic Judean language, customs and laws … assume a Gentile audience.", "He does not expect his first hearers to know anything about the laws or Judean origins.\"", "The issue of who would read this multi-volume work is unresolved.", "Other possible motives for writing ''Antiquities'' could be to dispel the misrepresentation of Jewish origins or as an apologetic to Greek cities of the Diaspora in order to protect Jews and to Roman authorities to garner their support for the Jews facing persecution.=== Literary influence and translations ===Josephus was a very popular writer with Christians in the 4th century and beyond as an independent witness to the events before, during, and after the life of Jesus of Nazareth.", "Josephus was always accessible in the Greek-reading Eastern Mediterranean.", "His works were translated into Latin, but often in abbreviated form such as Pseudo-Hegesippus's 4th century Latin version of ''The Jewish War'' ().", "Christian interest in ''The Jewish War'' was largely out of interest in the downfall of the Jews and the Second Temple, which was widely considered divine punishment for the crime of killing Jesus.", "Improvements in printing technology (the Gutenberg Press) led to his works receiving a number of new translations into the vernacular languages of Europe, generally based on the Latin versions.", "Only in 1544 did a version of the standard Greek text become available in French, edited by the Dutch humanist Arnoldus Arlenius.", "The first English translation, by Thomas Lodge, appeared in 1602, with subsequent editions appearing throughout the 17th century.", "The 1544 Greek edition formed the basis of the 1732 English translation by William Whiston, which achieved enormous popularity in the English-speaking world.", "It was often the book—after the Bible—that Christians most frequently owned.", "Whiston claimed that certain works by Josephus had a similar style to the Epistles of St. Paul.", "Later editions of the Greek text include that of Benedikt Niese, who made a detailed examination of all the available manuscripts, mainly from France and Spain.", "Henry St. John Thackeray and successors such as Ralph Marcus used Niese's version for the Loeb Classical Library edition widely used today.On the Jewish side, Josephus was far more obscure, as he was perceived as a traitor.", "Rabbinical writings for a millennium after his death (e.g.", "the Mishnah) almost never call out Josephus by name, although they sometimes tell parallel tales of the same events that Josephus narrated.", "An Italian Jew writing in the 10th century indirectly brought Josephus back to prominence among Jews: he authored the ''Yosippon'', which paraphrases Pseudo-Hegesippus's Latin version of ''The Jewish War'', a Latin version of ''Antiquities'', as well as other works.", "The epitomist also adds in his own snippets of history at times.", "Jews generally distrusted Christian translations of Josephus until the ''Haskalah'' (\"Jewish Enlightenment\") in the 19th century, when sufficiently \"neutral\" vernacular language translations were made.", "Kalman Schulman finally created a Hebrew translation of the Greek text of Josephus in 1863, although many rabbis continued to prefer the Yosippon version.", "By the 20th century, Jewish attitudes toward Josephus had softened, as he gave the Jews a respectable place in classical history.", "Various parts of his work were reinterpreted as more inspiring and favorable to the Jews than the Renaissance translations by Christians had been.", "Notably, the last stand at Masada (described in ''The Jewish War''), which past generations had deemed insane and fanatical, received a more positive reinterpretation as an inspiring call to action in this period.The standard ''editio maior'' of the various Greek manuscripts is that of Benedictus Niese, published 1885–95.The text of ''Antiquities'' is damaged in some places.", "In the ''Life'', Niese follows mainly manuscript P, but refers also to AMW and R. Henry St. John Thackeray for the Loeb Classical Library has a Greek text also mainly dependent on P. André Pelletier edited a new Greek text for his translation of ''Life''.", "The ongoing Münsteraner Josephus-Ausgabe of Münster University will provide a new critical apparatus.", "Late Old Slavonic translations of the Greek also exist, but these contain a large number of Christian interpolations.=== Evaluation as a military commander ===Author Joseph Raymond calls Josephus \"the Jewish Benedict Arnold\" for betraying his own troops at Jotapata, while historian Mary Smallwood, in the introduction to the translation of ''The Jewish War'' by G. A. Williamson, writes:" ], [ "Historiography and Josephus", "Josephus in the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', 1493 In the Preface to ''Jewish Wars'', Josephus criticizes historians who misrepresent the events of the Jewish–Roman War, writing that \"they have a mind to demonstrate the greatness of the Romans, while they still diminish and lessen the actions of the Jews.\"", "Josephus states that his intention is to correct this method but that he \"will not go to the other extreme … and will prosecute the actions of both parties with accuracy.\"", "Josephus confesses he will be unable to contain his sadness in transcribing these events; to illustrate this will have little effect on his historiography, Josephus suggests, \"But if any one be inflexible in his censures of me, let him attribute the facts themselves to the historical part, and the lamentations to the writer himself only.", "\"His preface to ''Antiquities'' offers his opinion early on, saying, \"Upon the whole, a man that will peruse this history, may principally learn from it, that all events succeed well, even to an incredible degree, and the reward of felicity is proposed by God.\"", "After inserting this attitude, Josephus contradicts Berossus: \"I shall accurately describe what is contained in our records, in the order of time that belongs to them … without adding any thing to what is therein contained, or taking away any thing therefrom.\"", "He notes the difference between history and philosophy by saying, \"Those that read my book may wonder how it comes to pass, that my discourse, which promises an account of laws and historical facts, contains so much of philosophy.", "\"In both works, Josephus emphasizes that accuracy is crucial to historiography.", "Louis H. Feldman notes that in ''Wars'', Josephus commits himself to critical historiography, but in ''Antiquities'', Josephus shifts to rhetorical historiography, which was the norm of his time.", "Feldman notes further that it is significant that Josephus called his later work \"Antiquities\" (literally, archaeology) rather than history; in the Hellenistic period, archaeology meant either \"history from the origins or archaic history.\"", "Thus, his title implies a Jewish peoples' history from their origins until the time he wrote.", "This distinction is significant to Feldman, because \"in ancient times, historians were expected to write in chronological order,\" while \"antiquarians wrote in a systematic order, proceeding topically and logically\" and included all relevant material for their subject.", "Antiquarians moved beyond political history to include institutions and religious and private life.", "Josephus does offer this wider perspective in ''Antiquities''." ], [ "Works", "The works of Josephus translated by Thomas Lodge (1602)The works of Josephus are major sources of our understanding of Jewish life and history during the first century.", "* ( 75) ''War of the Jews'', ''The Jewish War'', ''Jewish Wars'', or ''History of the Jewish War'' (commonly abbreviated ''JW'', ''BJ'' or ''War'')* ( 94) ''Antiquities of the Jews'', ''Jewish Antiquities'', or ''Antiquities of the Jews/Jewish Archeology'' (frequently abbreviated ''AJ'', ''AotJ'' or ''Ant.''", "or ''Antiq.", "'')* ( 97) ''Flavius Josephus Against Apion'', ''Against Apion'', ''Contra Apionem'', or ''Against the Greeks, on the antiquity of the Jewish people'' (usually abbreviated ''CA'')* ( 99) ''Life of Josephus'', or ''Autobiography of Josephus'' (abbreviated ''Life'' or ''Vita'')=== ''The Jewish War'' ===His first work in Rome was an account of the Jewish War, addressed to certain \"upper barbarians\"—usually thought to be the Jewish community in Mesopotamia—in his \"paternal tongue\" (''War'' I.3), arguably the Western Aramaic language.", "In AD 78 he finished a seven-volume account in Greek known as the ''Jewish War'' (Latin ''Bellum Judaicum'' or ''De Bello Judaico'').", "It starts with the period of the Maccabees and concludes with accounts of the fall of Jerusalem, and the subsequent fall of the fortresses of Herodion, Macharont and Masada and the Roman victory celebrations in Rome, the mopping-up operations, Roman military operations elsewhere in the empire and the uprising in Cyrene.", "Together with the account in his ''Life'' of some of the same events, it also provides the reader with an overview of Josephus's own part in the events since his return to Jerusalem from a brief visit to Rome in the early 60s (''Life'' 13–17).1581 German translation of Josephus' ''The Jewish War'' in the collection of the Jewish Museum of SwitzerlandIn the wake of the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Josephus would have witnessed the marches of Titus's triumphant legions leading their Jewish captives, and carrying treasures from the despoiled Temple in Jerusalem.", "It was against this background that Josephus wrote his ''War''.", "He blames the Jewish War on what he calls \"unrepresentative and over-zealous fanatics\" among the Jews, who led the masses away from their traditional aristocratic leaders (like himself), with disastrous results.", "For example, Josephus writes that \"Simon bar Giora|Simon bar Giora was a greater terror to the people than the Romans themselves.\"", "Josephus also blames some of the Roman governors of Judea, representing them as corrupt and incompetent administrators.=== ''Jewish Antiquities'' ===The next work by Josephus is his twenty-one volume ''Antiquities of the Jews'', completed during the last year of the reign of the Emperor Flavius Domitian, around 93 or 94 AD.", "In expounding Jewish history, law and custom, he is entering into many philosophical debates current in Rome at that time.", "Again he offers an ''apologia'' for the antiquity and universal significance of the Jewish people.", "Josephus claims to be writing this history because he \"saw that others perverted the truth of those actions in their writings,\"those writings being the history of the Jews.", "In terms of some of his sources for the project, Josephus says that he drew from and \"interpreted out of the Hebrew Scriptures\" and that he was an eyewitness to the wars between the Jews and the Romans, which were earlier recounted in ''Jewish Wars''.He outlines Jewish history beginning with the creation, as passed down through Jewish historical tradition.", "Abraham taught science to the Egyptians, who, in turn, taught the Greeks.", "Moses set up a senatorial priestly aristocracy, which, like that of Rome, resisted monarchy.", "The great figures of the Tanakh are presented as ideal philosopher-leaders.", "He includes an autobiographical appendix defending his conduct at the end of the war when he cooperated with the Roman forces.Louis H. Feldman outlines the difference between calling this work ''Antiquities of the Jews'' instead of ''History of the Jews''.", "Although Josephus says that he describes the events contained in ''Antiquities'' \"in the order of time that belongs to them,\" Feldman argues that Josephus \"aimed to organize his material systematically rather than chronologically\" and had a scope that \"ranged far beyond mere political history to political institutions, religious and private life.", "\"=== ''Against Apion'' ===Josephus's ''Against Apion'' is a two-volume defence of Judaism as classical religion and philosophy, stressing its antiquity, as opposed to what Josephus claimed was the relatively more recent tradition of the Greeks.", "Some anti-Judaic allegations ascribed by Josephus to the Greek writer Apion and myths accredited to Manetho are also addressed.=== Spurious works ===* (date unknown) ''Josephus's Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades'' (spurious; adaptation of \"Against Plato, on the Cause of the Universe\" by Hippolytus of Rome)" ], [ "See also", "* Josephus on Jesus* Josephus problem – a mathematical problem named after Josephus* Josippon* Pseudo-Philo" ], [ "Notes and references", "=== Explanatory notes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "General sources", "* * * * * * * ** * * * * * ** * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* ()* Bilde, Per.", "''Flavius Josephus between Jerusalem and Rome: his life, his works and their importance''.", "Sheffield: JSOT, 1988.", "* Chapman, Honora and Zuleika Rodgers: ''A Companion to Josephus'', edited by (Oxford, 2016).", "* Cohen, Shaye J. D.: ''Josephus in Galilee and Rome: his vita and development as a historian''.", "(Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition; 8).", "Leiden: Brill, 1979.", "* Feldman, Louis.", "\"Flavius Josephus revisited: the man, his writings, and his significance\".", "In: ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt'' 21.2 (1984).", "* Feldman, Louis H. and Gohei Hata: ''Josephus, the Bible, and History'', edited by (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1988).", "* Hadas-lebel, Mireille: '' Flavius Josephus Eyewitness to Rome's first-century conquest of Judea'', Macmillan 1993, Simon and Schuster 2001* den Hollander, William: ''Josephus, the Emperors, and the City of Rome: From Hostage to Historian'' (Boston: Brill, 2014).", "* * * * * Mason, Steve: ''Flavius Josephus on the Pharisees: a composition-critical study''.", "Leiden: Brill, 1991.", "* Mason, Steve: ''Josephus and the New Testament: Second Edition'', Hendrickson Publishers, 2003.", "* Rajak, Tessa: ''Josephus: the Historian and His Society''.", "2nd ed.", "London: 2002.", "(Oxford D.Phil.", "thesis, 2 vols.", "1974.", ")* Raphael, Frederic: ''A Jew Among Romans: The Life and Legacy of Flavius Josephus'' (New York: Pantheon Books, 2013).", "* Rodgers, Zuleika: ''Making History: Josephus and Historical Method'' (Boston: Brill, 2007).", "* St. John Thackeray, H.: ''Josephus: The Man and the Historian'', by (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1967)." ], [ "External links", "=== Works ===* PACE Josephus: text and resources in the Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement at York University, edited by Steve Mason.", "* Works by Flavius Josephus at Perseus digital library – Greek (Niese) and English (Whiston) 1895 editions* * * * The Works of Flavius Josephus at Christian Classics Ethereal Library (Whiston, lacks Loeb numbers)* '' De bello judaico'' digitized codex (1475) at Somni* Lecture, , June 2020.=== Other ===* The AHRC Reception of Josephus in Jewish Culture Project and Josephus Reception Archive * Josephus.org, G. J. Goldberg* Flavius Josephus The Jewish History Resource Center – Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem* Flavius Josephus, Judaea and Rome: A Question of Context* Josephus at livius.org" ] ]
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[ [ "Jan Borukowski" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jan Borukowski''' of Bielin (1524–1584) was the Bishopof Przemyśl, and was the royal secretary of Poland from 1553.In1569, he signed the act of annexation of Podlaskie, Volhynia and Kyiv to the kingdom during Sejm in Lublin." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Judy Blume" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Judith Blume''' (née '''Sussman'''; born February 12, 1938) is an American writer of children's, young adult, and adult fiction.", "Blume began writing in 1959 and has published more than 25 novels.", "Among her best-known works are ''Are You There God?", "It's Me, Margaret.''", "(1970), ''Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing'' (1972), ''Deenie'' (1973), and ''Blubber'' (1974).", "Blume's books have significantly contributed to children's and young adult literature.", "She was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by ''Time'' magazine in 2023.Blume was born and raised in Elizabeth, New Jersey, and graduated from New York University in 1961.As an attempt to entertain herself in her role as a homemaker, Blume began writing stories.", "Blume was one of the first young adult authors to write novels focused on such controversial topics as masturbation, menstruation, teen sex, birth control, and death.", "Her novels have sold over 82 million copies and have been translated into 32 languages.Blume has won many awards for her writing, including the American Library Association (ALA)'s Margaret A. Edwards Award in 1996 for her contributions to young adult literature.", "She was recognized as a Library of Congress Living Legend and awarded the 2004 National Book Foundation medal for distinguished contribution to American letters.Blume's novels are popular and widely admired.", "They are praised for teaching children and young adults about their bodies.", "However, the mature topics in Blume's books have generated criticism and controversy.", "The ALA has named Blume as one of the most frequently challenged authors of the 21st century.", "There have been several adaptations of Blume's novels, including ''Tiger Eyes'', released in 2012 with Willa Holland starring as Davey, and ''Are You There God?", "It's Me, Margaret.", "'', released in 2023.A large collection of her papers are held at the Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library at Yale University." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life ===Blume was born Judith Sussman on February 12, 1938, and raised in Elizabeth, New Jersey, the daughter of homemaker Esther Sussman (née Rosenfeld) and dentist Rudolph Sussman.", "She has a brother, David, who is five years older.", "Her family is Jewish.", "Blume witnessed hardships and death throughout her childhood.", "When she was in third grade, Blume's older brother had a kidney infection that led Blume, her brother, and her mother to temporarily move to Miami Beach to help him recover for two years.", "Blume's father stayed behind to continue working.", "Additionally, in 1951 and 1952, there were three airplane crashes in her hometown of Elizabeth.", "In the crashes, 118 people died, and Blume's father, who was a dentist, helped to identify the unrecognizable remains.", "Blume says she \"buried\" these memories until she began writing her 2015 novel ''In the Unlikely Event'', the plot of which revolves around the crashes.", "Throughout her childhood, Blume participated in many creative activities such as dance and piano.", "Blume describes her love of reading as a trait passed on by her parents.", "She has recalled spending much of her childhood creating stories in her head.", "Despite the love of stories, as a child Blume did not dream of being a writer.Blume graduated from the all-girls' Battin High School in 1956, then enrolled in Boston University.", "A few weeks into the first semester, she was diagnosed with mononucleosis and took a brief leave from school.", "In 1959, Blume's father died.", "Later that same year, on August 15, 1959, she married lawyer John M. Blume, whom she had met while a student at New York University.", "She graduated from New York University in 1961 with a bachelor's degree in Education.=== Adult life ===After college, Blume gave birth to daughter Randy Lee Blume in 1961 and became a homemaker.", "In 1963, her son Lawrence Andrew Blume was born.", "Blume began writing when her children began nursery school.", "John M. Blume and Judy Blume were divorced in 1975.", "(John M. Blume later died on September 20, 2020.)", "Shortly after her separation, she met Thomas A. Kitchens, a physicist.", "The couple married in 1976, a decision Blume has since called \"a mistake.\"", "The couple moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico for two years for Kitchens' work.", "They divorced in 1978.A few years later, a mutual friend introduced her to George Cooper, a former law professor turned non-fiction writer.", "Blume and Cooper were married in 1987.Cooper has one daughter from a previous marriage, Amanda, to whom Blume is very close.In August 2012, Blume announced that she was diagnosed with breast cancer after undergoing a routine ultrasound before leaving for a five-week trip to Italy.", "Six weeks after her diagnosis, Blume underwent a mastectomy and breast reconstruction.", "Blume was cancer-free following this surgery and able to recover.Randy Blume became a therapist with a sub-specialty in helping writers complete their works.", "She has one child, Elliot Kephart, who is credited with encouraging his grandmother, Judy Blume, to write the most recent \"Fudge\" books.", "Lawrence Blume is now a movie director, producer, and writer.", "As of 2021, Cooper and Blume resided in Key West.===Career===A lifelong avid reader, Blume first began writing through New York University courses when her children were attending preschool.", "Following two years of publisher rejections, Blume published her first book, ''The One in the Middle Is the Green Kangaroo'', in 1969.A year later, Blume published her second book, ''Iggie's House'' (1970), which was originally written as a story in ''Trailblazer'' magazine but then rewritten by Blume into a book.", "The decade that followed proved to be her most prolific, with 13 more books being published.", "Her third book was ''Are You There God?", "It's Me, Margaret.''", "(1970), which was a breakthrough best-seller and a trailblazing novel in young adult literature and established Blume as a leading voice in young adult literature.", "Some of Blume's other novels during the decade include ''Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing'' (1972), ''Otherwise Known as Sheila the Great'' (1972), and ''Blubber'' (1974).In 1975, Blume published the now frequently banned novel ''Forever'', which was groundbreaking in young adult literature as the first novel to display teen sex as normal.", "Blume explained that she was inspired to write this novel when her daughter, 13 years old at the time, said she wanted to read a book where the characters have sex but do not die afterward.", "These novels tackled complex subjects such as family conflict, bullying, body image, and sexuality.", "Blume has expressed that she writes about these subjects, particularly sexuality, because it is what she believes children need to know about and was what she wondered about as a child.After publishing novels for young children and teens, Blume tackled another genre—adult reality and death.", "Her novels ''Wifey'' (1978) and ''Smart Women'' (1983) reached the top of ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list.", "''Wifey'' became a bestseller with over 4 million copies sold.", "Blume's third adult novel, ''Summer Sisters'' (1998), was widely praised and sold more than three million copies.", "Despite its popularity, ''Summer Sisters'' (1998) faced a lot of criticism for its sexual content and inclusion of homosexual themes.", "Several of Blume's books appear on the list of top all-time bestselling children's books.", "As of 2020, her books have sold over 82 million copies and they have been translated into 32 languages.", "Although Blume has not published a novel since 2015 (''In the Unlikely Event''), she continues to write.", "In October 2017, Yale University acquired Blume's archive, which included some unpublished early work.As well as writing, Blume has been an activist against the banning of books in the United States.", "In the 1980s, when her books started facing censorship and controversy, she began reaching out to other writers, as well as teachers and librarians, to join the fight against censorship.", "This led Blume to join the National Coalition Against Censorship which aims to protect the freedom to read.", "As of 2020, Blume is still a board member for the National Coalition Against Censorship.", "She is also the founder and trustee of The Kids Fund, a charitable and educational foundation.", "Blume serves on the board for other organizations such as, the Authors Guild; the Society of Children's Book Writers and Illustrators; the Key West Literary Seminar; and the National Coalition Against Censorship.\"", "In 2018, Blume and her husband opened a non-profit book store called Books & Books located in Key West." ], [ "Reception", "Blume's novels have been read by millions and have flourished throughout generations.", "The element in her work readers are said to love most is Blume's openness and honesty regarding issues like divorce, sexuality, puberty, and bullying.", "Her first-person narrative writing has gained positive appraisal for its relatability and its ability to discuss difficult subjects without judgment or harshness.", "Following the publishing of ''Are You There God?", "It’s Me, Margaret'' (1970), Blume received many letters from young girls telling her how much they loved the book and identified with Margaret.", "Female novelists have praised Blume for her “taboo-trampling” literature that left readers feeling like they learned something about their bodies from reading her books.", "For example, ''Deenie'' (1973) explained masturbation and ''Forever'' (1975) taught young women about losing their virginity.", "Blume's children's books have also been praised for their delicate way of portraying the hardships that kids can face at a young age.", "''It’s Not the End of the World'' (1972) helped many kids understand divorce and the Fudge book series explored the various aspects of loving siblings despite the rivalry.Blume's novels have received much criticism and controversy.", "Parents, librarians, book critics, and political groups have wanted her books to be banned.", "When her first books were published in the 1970s, Blume has recalled facing little censorship.", "Since 1980, Blume's novels have been a central topic of controversy in young adult literature.", "Critics of Blume's novels say that she places too much emphasis on the physical and sexual sides of growing up, ignoring the development of morals and emotional maturity.", "Five of Blume's books were included in the American Library Association (ALA) list of the top 100 most banned books of the 1990s, with ''Forever'' (1975) in seventh place.", "''Forever'' is censored for its inclusion of teen sex and birth control.", "Blume recalls that the principal of her children's elementary school would not put ''Are You There God?", "It’s Me, Margaret'' in the library because the story involves menstruation.", "Conservative and religious groups continuously attempt to ban ''Are You There God?", "It’s Me, Margaret'' for the novel's portrayal of a young girl going through puberty claiming that it violates certain religious views.", "Blume's children's novels have also been criticized for these reasons, especially ''Blubber'' (1974), which many believed sent the message to readers that kids could do wrong and not face punishment." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Judy Blume has won more than 90 literary awards, including three lifetime achievement awards in the United States.", "In 1994, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.", "The ALA Margaret A. Edwards Award recognizes one author who has made significant contributions to young adult literature.", "Blume won the annual award in 1996 and the ALA considered her book ''Forever,'' published in 1975, was groundbreaking for its honest portrayal of high school seniors in love for the first time.", "In April 2000, the Library of Congress named her to its ''Living Legends'' in the Writers and Artists category for her significant contributions to America's cultural heritage.", "Blume received an honorary doctor of arts degree from Mount Holyoke College and was the main speaker at their annual commencement ceremony in 2003.In 2004 she received the annual Distinguished Contribution to American Letters Medal of the National Book Foundation for her enrichment of American literary heritage.", "In 2009, the National Coalition Against Censorship (NCAC) honored Blume for her lifelong commitment to free speech and her courage to battle censorship in literature.", "Blume also received the 2017 E.B.", "White Award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters for lifetime achievement in children's literature.", "In 2020, Blume was named an Honoree for Distinguished Service to the Literary Community by the Authors Guild Foundation." ], [ "Personal Beliefs", "Blume describes herself as a \"liberal Democrat,\" and on political controversies surrounding the transgender community and the transgender rights movement, she has said she is not a \"TERF.", "\"Blume is Jewish and she once wrote a haggadah for her children." ], [ "Media adaptations", "The first media adaptation of Blume's novels was the production of a TV film based on Blume's novel ''Forever'' that premiered on CBS in 1978.", "''Forever'' is the story of two teenagers in high school, Katherine Danziger and Michael Wagner, who fall in love for the first time.", "The film starred Stephanie Zimbalist as Katherine Danziger and Dean Butler as Michael Wagner.", "A decade later, in 1988, Blume and her son wrote and executive produced a small film adaptation of ''Otherwise Known as Sheila the Great''.", "The film was later shown on ABC.", "In 1995, a Fudge TV series was produced based on Blume's novel ''Fudge-a-Mania.''", "The show ran from 1995 to 1997 with the first season aired on ABC and the second on CBS.", "The series starred Jake Richardson as Peter Warren Hatcher, the storyteller, and Luke Tarsitano as Farley Drexel \"Fudge\" Hatcher.In 2012, Blume's 1981 novel ''Tiger Eyes'' was adapted into a film version.", "This was the first of Blume's novels to be turned into a theatrical feature film.", "''Tiger Eyes'' is the story of a teenage girl, Davey, who struggles to cope with the sudden death of her father, Adam Wexler.", "The screenplay was co-written by Blume and her son, Lawrence Blume, who was also the director.", "''Tiger Eyes'' stars Willa Holland as Davey and Amy Jo Johnson as Gwen Wexler.Blume is the subject of the 2018 song \"Judy Blume\" by Amanda Palmer.", "Thematically, the song explains to the listener Blume's role in Palmer's adolescent life.", "The song explains Blume's books as influential in Palmer's understanding of intimate and female-centered subjects such as puberty, menstruation, and the male gaze, and universal subjects like molestation, eating disorders, poverty, grief, and parental divorce.She is the subject of the documentary film ''Judy Blume Forever'', which premiered at the 2023 Sundance Film Festival.", "''Are You There God?", "It's Me, Margaret.''", "was released as a feature film in 2023." ], [ "Works", "=== Children’s books ===* ''The One in the Middle Is the Green Kangaroo'' (1969)* ''Iggie's House'' (1970)* ''Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing'' (1972)* ''Otherwise Known as Sheila the Great'' (1972)* ''The Pain and the Great One'' (1974)* ''Blubber'' (1974)* ''Starring Sally J. Freedman as Herself'' (1977)* ''Freckle Juice'' (1978)* ''Superfudge'' (1980)* ''Fudge-a-Mania'' (1990)* ''Double Fudge'' (2002)* ''Soupy Saturdays with the Pain and the Great One'' (2007)* ''Cool Zone with the Pain and the Great One'' (2008)* ''Going, Going, Gone!", "With the Pain and the Great One'' (2008)* ''Friend or Fiend?", "With the Pain and the Great One'' (2008)=== Young adult books ===* ''Are You There God?", "It’s Me, Margaret.''", "(1970)* ''Then Again, Maybe I Won’t'' (1971)* ''It's Not the End of the World'' (1972)* ''Deenie'' (1973)* ''Forever...'' (1975)* ''Tiger Eyes'' (1981)* ''Just as Long as We're Together'' (1987)* ''Here's to You, Rachel Robinson'' (1993)* ''Places I Never Meant to Be'' (1999)=== Adult books ===* ''Wifey'' (1978)* ''Smart Women'' (1983)* ''Summer Sisters'' (1998)* ''In the Unlikely Event'' (2015)=== Collaborative short stories ===* ''It’s Fine to Be Nine'' (2000)* ''It’s Heaven to Be Seven'' (2000)=== Non-fiction books ===* ''The Judy Blume Diary'' (1981)* ''Letter to Judy: What Your Kids Wish They Could Tell You'' (1986)* ''The Judy Blume Memory Book'' (1988)" ], [ "Other awards", "Blume's other awards include:* 1970: Outstanding Book of the Year from ''The New York Times'' for ''Are You There God?", "It’s Me, Margaret''* 1974: Outstanding Book of the Year from ''The New York Times'' for ''Blubber''* 1981: Children’ Choice Award from the International Reading Association and Children's’ Book Council for ''Superfudge''* 1983: Eleanor Roosevelt Humanitarian Award* 1984: Carl Sandberg Freedom to Read Award, from the Chicago Public Library* 1986: Civil Liberties Award from the Atlanta Civil Liberties Union* 1988: South Australian Youth Media Award for Best Author* 2005: ''Time'' magazine All-Time 100 Novels List for ''Are You There God?", "It’s Me, Margaret''* 2009: University of Southern Mississippi Medallion for lifelong contributions to children's literature* 2010: Inducted into New Jersey Hall of Fame* 2010: Inducted into Harvard Lampoon* 2011: Smithsonian Associates: The McGovern Award* 2013: ''Chicago Tribune'': Young Adult Literary Prize* 2013: New Atlantic Independent Booksellers Association (NAIBA) Legacy Award* 2013: The NAIBA Legacy Award* 2013: Assembly on Literature for Adolescents (ALAN) Award* 2013: National Coalition of Teachers of English (NCTE) National Intellectual Freedom Award* 2015: Catholic Library Association: Regina Award* 2018: Carl Sandburg Literary Award from the Chicago Public Library Foundation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Blume, Judy (1999).", "''Authors and Artists for Young Adults'' (Gale Research), 26: 7–17.Summarizes and extends 1990 article, with more emphasis on Blume's impact and censorship issues.", "By R.", "Garcia-Johnson.", "* Blume, Judy (1990).", "''Authors and Artists for Young Adults'' (Gale Research), 3: 25–36.Incorporates extensive passages from published interviews with Blume.", "* Lee, Betsy.", "''Judy Blume's Story'', Dillon Pr., 1981.." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Most frequently challenged authors of the 21st century at American Library Association ''Banned & Challenged Books''* Interview with Maryann Weidt, author of ''Presenting Judy Blume'' (1993) – ''NORTHERN LIGHTS Minnesota Author Interview'' TV Series #259* '' Speak Freely Amongst Yourselves: Censorship and Its Affect on the Arts'' (1993) at YouTube – television special with Blume as one panel member" ] ]
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[ [ "Joel Marangella" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joel Marangella''' is an American oboist who has performed in concert with many of the world's leading orchestras.", "A founding member of the Speculum Musicae, he was the principal oboist for the West Australian Symphony Orchestra, and a founding member of the New Music Ensemble." ], [ "Biography", "Marangella was born in Washington, D.C., and first studied in France with Fernand Eché at the Conservatoire National de Musique d’Orléans, and later with Pierre Pierlot, Maurice Bourgue, and Etienne Baudo at the Conservatoire de Paris.", "He pursued further studies at the Juilliard School in New York City, earning both bachelor's and master's degrees in music.", "While there he was a member of the Juilliard Ensemble under the direction of Luciano Berio, performing with them not only in New York but also the University of Hawaii and Dartmouth College.In 1971 Marangella won the Young Concert Artists International Auditions which led to his recital debut at Carnegie Hall.", "That same year he helped form the Speculum Musicae.", "He soon began to perform with notable music groups throughout the United States, notably playing the American premiere of Hans Werner Henze’s ''Double Concerto'' with the National Symphony Orchestra at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C.", "He has also appeared at several chamber music festivals, including the Spoleto Festival of the Two Worlds in Italy.Marangella has served as principal oboist for numerous ballet orchestras throughout his career.", "Former posts include Principal Oboe with the New York City Ballet, the American Ballet Theatre, the Bolshoi Ballet, the Royal Ballet, the Royal Swedish Ballet, and the Royal Danish Ballet.More recently Marangella's career has been centered in Australia.", "He has appeared as a soloist for all the major Australian orchestras, and has been Guest Principal Oboe with the Sydney Symphony." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "John Pople" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir John Anthony Pople''' (31 October 1925 – 15 March 2004) was a British theoretical chemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Walter Kohn in 1998 for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry." ], [ "Early life and education", "Pople was born in Burnham-on-Sea, Somerset, and attended the Bristol Grammar School.", "He won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1943.He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1946.Between 1945 and 1947 he worked at the Bristol Aeroplane Company.", "He then returned to the University of Cambridge and was awarded his PhD in mathematics in 1951 on lone pair electrons." ], [ "Career", "After obtaining his PhD, he was a research fellow at Trinity College, Cambridge and then from 1954 a lecturer in the mathematics faculty at Cambridge.", "In 1958, he moved to the National Physical Laboratory, near London as head of the new basics physics division.", "He moved to the United States of America in 1964, where he lived the rest of his life, though he retained British citizenship.", "Pople considered himself more of a mathematician than a chemist, but theoretical chemists consider him one of the most important of their number.", "In 1964 he moved to Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where he had experienced a sabbatical in 1961 to 1962.In 1993 he moved to Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, where he was Trustees Professor of Chemistry until his death." ], [ "Research", "Pople's major scientific contributions were in four different areas:===Statistical mechanics of water===Pople's early paper on the statistical mechanics of water, according to Michael J. Frisch, \"remained the standard for many years\".", "This was his thesis topic for his PhD at Cambridge supervised by John Lennard-Jones.===Nuclear magnetic resonance===In the early days of nuclear magnetic resonance he studied the underlying theory, and in 1959 he co-authored the textbook ''High Resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance'' with W.G.", "Schneider and H.J.", "Bernstein.===Semi-empirical theory===He made major contributions to the theory of approximate molecular orbital (MO) calculations, starting with one identical to the one developed by Rudolph Pariser and Robert G. Parr on pi electron systems, and now called the Pariser–Parr–Pople method.", "Subsequently, he developed the methods of Complete Neglect of Differential Overlap (CNDO) (in 1965) and Intermediate Neglect of Differential Overlap (INDO) for approximate MO calculations on three-dimensional molecules, and other developments in computational chemistry.", "In 1970 he and David Beveridge coauthored the book ''Approximate Molecular Orbital Theory'' describing these methods.===Ab initio electronic structure theory===Pople pioneered the development of more sophisticated computational methods, called ab initio quantum chemistry methods, that use basis sets of either Slater type orbitals or Gaussian orbitals to model the wave function.", "While in the early days these calculations were extremely expensive to perform, the advent of high speed microprocessors has made them much more feasible today.", "He was instrumental in the development of one of the most widely used computational chemistry packages, the Gaussian suite of programs, including coauthorship of the first version, Gaussian 70.One of his most important original contributions is the concept of a model chemistry whereby a method is rigorously evaluated across a range of molecules.", "His research group developed the quantum chemistry composite methods such as Gaussian-1 (G1) and Gaussian-2 (G2).", "In 1991, Pople stopped working on Gaussian and several years later he developed (with others) the Q-Chem computational chemistry program.", "Prof. Pople's departure from Gaussian, along with the subsequent banning of many prominent scientists, including himself, from using the software gave rise to considerable controversy among the quantum chemistry community.The Gaussian molecular orbital methods were described in the 1986 book ''Ab initio molecular orbital theory'' by Warren Hehre, Leo Radom, Paul v.R.", "Schleyer and Pople." ], [ "Awards and honours", "Pople received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1998.He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1961.He was made a Knight Commander (KBE) of the Order of the British Empire in 2003.He was a founding member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science.An IT room and a scholarship are named after him at Bristol Grammar School, as is a supercomputer at the Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center." ], [ "Personal life", "Pople married Joy Bowers in 1952 and was married until her death from cancer in 2002.Pople died of liver cancer in Chicago in 2004.He was survived by his daughter Hilary, and sons Adrian, Mark and Andrew.", "In accordance with his wishes, Pople's Nobel Medal was given to Carnegie Mellon University by his family on 5 October 2009." ], [ "See also", "* Pople diagram* Pople notation* STO-nG basis sets* Unrestricted Hartree–Fock* NDDO" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Sir John Pople, Gaussian Code, and Complex Chemical Reactions, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy* including the Nobel Lecture, 8 December 1998 ''Quantum Chemical Models''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jerry Falwell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jerry Laymon Falwell Sr.''' (August 11, 1933 – May 15, 2007) was an American Independent Baptist pastor, televangelist, and conservative activist.", "He was the founding pastor of the Thomas Road Baptist Church, a megachurch in Lynchburg, Virginia.", "He founded Lynchburg Christian Academy (Liberty Christian Academy) in 1967, founded Liberty University in 1971, and co-founded the Moral Majority in 1979." ], [ "Early life and education", "Falwell and his twin brother Gene were born in the Fairview Heights area of Lynchburg, Virginia, on August 11, 1933, the sons of Helen Virginia (''née'' Beasley) and Carey Hezekiah Falwell.", "His father was an entrepreneur and one-time bootlegger who was agnostic.", "His father shot and killed his own brother Garland and died of cirrhosis of the liver in 1948 at the age of 55.His paternal grandfather was a staunch atheist.", "Jerry Falwell was a member of a group in Fairview Heights known to the police as \"the Wall Gang\" because they sat on a low concrete wall at the Pickeral Café.", "Falwell met Macel Pate on his first visit to Park Avenue Baptist Church in 1949; Macel was a pianist there.", "They married on April 12, 1958.The couple had sons Jerry Jr. (a lawyer, and former chancellor of Liberty University) and Jonathan (senior pastor at Thomas Road Baptist Church) and a daughter Jeannie (a surgeon).Falwell and his wife had a close relationship, and she supported him throughout his career.", "The Falwells often appeared together in public, and they did not shy away from showing physical affection.", "Reflecting on his marriage, Falwell jokingly commented, \"Macel and I have never considered divorce.", "Murder maybe, but never divorce.\"", "Macel appreciated her husband's non-combative, affable nature, writing in her book that he \"hated confrontation and didn't want strife in our home... he did everything in his power to make me happy.\"", "The Falwells were married nearly fifty years until his death.He graduated from Brookville High School in Lynchburg, and from then-unaccredited Baptist Bible College in Springfield, Missouri in 1956.He enrolled there to subvert Pate's relationship with her fiancé who was a student there.", "Falwell was later awarded three honorary doctorates: Doctor of Divinity from Tennessee Temple Theological Seminary, Doctor of Letters from California Graduate School of Theology, and Doctor of Laws from Central University in Seoul, South Korea." ], [ "Associated organizations", "===Thomas Road Baptist Church===In 1956, aged 22, Falwell founded the Thomas Road Baptist Church.", "Originally located at 701 Thomas Road in Lynchburg, Virginia, with 35 members, the church became a megachurch.", "In the same year, he began ''The Old-Time Gospel Hour'', a nationally syndicated radio and television ministry.", "When Falwell died, his son Jonathan inherited his father's ministry, and took over as the senior pastor of the church.", "The weekly program's name was then changed to ''Thomas Road Live''.===Liberty Christian Academy===During the 1950s and 1960s, Falwell spoke and campaigned against the civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. and the racial desegregation of public school systems by the US federal government.", "Liberty Christian Academy (LCA, founded as Lynchburg Christian Academy) is a Christian school in Lynchburg which was described in 1966 by the ''Lynchburg News'' as \"a private school for white students\".The Lynchburg Christian Academy later opened in 1967 by Falwell as a segregation academy and as a ministry of Thomas Road Baptist Church.The Liberty Christian Academy is recognized as an educational facility by the Commonwealth of Virginia through the Virginia State Board of Education, Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, and the Association of Christian Schools International.===Liberty University===In 1971, Falwell co-founded Liberty University with Elmer L. Towns.", "Liberty University offers over 350 accredited programs of study, with approximately 13,000 students on-campus and 90,000 online.===Moral Majority===President Gerald Ford in 1976President Ronald Reagan in 1983President George H. W. Bush in 1991The Moral Majority became one of the largest political lobbies for evangelical Christians in the United States during the 1980s.", "According to Falwell's self-published autobiography, the Moral Majority was promoted as being \"pro-life, pro-traditional family, pro-moral, and pro-American\" and was credited with delivering two thirds of the white evangelical vote to Ronald Reagan during the 1980 presidential election.", "According to Jimmy Carter, \"that autumn 1980 a group headed by Jerry Falwell purchased $10 million in commercials on southern radio and TV to brand me as a traitor to the South and no longer a Christian.\"", "As head of the Moral Majority, Falwell consistently pushed for Republican candidates and for conservative politics.", "This led Billy Graham to criticize him for \"sermonizing\" about political issues that lacked a moral element.", "Graham stated at the time of Falwell's death, \"We did not always agree on everything, but I knew him to be a man of God.", "His accomplishments went beyond most clergy of his generation.", "\"===PTL===Falwell rides the water slide at Heritage USAIn March 1987, Pentecostal televangelist Jim Bakker came under media scrutiny when it was revealed that he had a sexual encounter (and alleged rape) with Jessica Hahn and had paid for her silence.", "Bakker believed that fellow Pentecostal pastor Jimmy Swaggart was attempting to take over his ministry because he had initiated a church investigation into allegations of his sexual misconduct.", "To avoid the takeover, Bakker resigned on March 19 and appointed Falwell to succeed him as head of his PTL ministry, which included the PTL Satellite Network, television program ''The PTL Club'' and the Christian-themed amusement park Heritage USA.Bakker believed Falwell would temporarily lead the ministry until the scandal died down, but Falwell barred Bakker from returning to PTL on April 28, and referred to him as \"probably the greatest scab and cancer on the face of Christianity in 2,000 years of church history\".", "Later that summer, as donations to the ministry declined in the wake of Bakker's scandal and resignation, Falwell raised $20 million to keep PTL solvent and delivered on a promise to ride the water slide at Heritage USA.", "Despite this, Falwell was unable to revive the ministry from bankruptcy and he resigned in October 1987." ], [ "Social and political views", "===Families===Falwell advocated beliefs and practices influenced by his version of biblical teachings.===Tithing===In 1989, he told Liberty University employees that membership in his church and tithing were mandatory.", "===Vietnam War===Falwell felt the Vietnam War was being fought with \"limited political objectives\", when it should have been an all out war against the North.", "In general, Falwell held that the president \"as a minister of God\" has the right to use arms to \"bring wrath upon those who would do evil.", "\"===Civil rights===On his evangelist program ''The Old-Time Gospel Hour'' in the mid-1960s, Falwell regularly featured segregationist politicians like governors Lester Maddox and George Wallace.", "About Martin Luther King he said: \"I do question the sincerity and non-violent intentions of some civil rights leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Mr. James Farmer, and others, who are known to have left-wing associations.", "\"In speaking of the ''Brown v. Board of Education'' ruling, he said, in 1958:In 1977, Falwell supported Anita Bryant's campaign, which was called by its proponents \"Save Our Children\", to overturn an ordinance in Dade County, Florida, prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, and he supported a similar movement in California.Twenty-eight years later, during a 2005 MSNBC television appearance, Falwell said he was not troubled by reports that the nominee for Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, John G. Roberts (whose appointment was confirmed by the US Senate) had done volunteer legal work for gay rights activists on the case of ''Romer v. Evans''.", "Falwell told then-MSNBC host Tucker Carlson that if he were a lawyer, he too would argue for civil rights for LGBT people.", "\"I may not agree with the lifestyle, but that has nothing to do with the civil rights of that part of our constituency\", said Falwell.", "When Carlson countered that conservatives \"are always arguing against 'special rights' for gays,\" Falwell said equal access to housing and employment are basic rights, not special rights.", "\"Civil rights for all Americans, black, white, red, yellow, the rich, poor, young, old, gay, straight, et cetera, is not a liberal or conservative value.", "It's an American value that I would think that we pretty much all agree on.", "\"===Israel and Jews===Falwell's relationship with Israeli Prime Minister, Menachem Begin was reported in the media in the summer of 1981.His staunch pro-Israel stand, sometimes referred to as \"Christian Zionism\", drew the support of the Anti-Defamation League and its leader Abraham Foxman.", "However, they condemned what they perceived as intolerance towards Muslims in Falwell's public statements.", "They also criticized him for remarking that \"Jews can make more money accidentally than you can on purpose.\"", "In his book ''Listen, America!''", "Falwell referred to the Jewish people as \"spiritually blind and desperately in need of their Messiah and Savior.", "\"In the 1984 book ''Jerry Falwell and the Jews'', Falwell is quoted saying: ===Education===Falwell repeatedly denounced certain teachings in public schools and secular education in general, calling them breeding grounds for atheism, secularism, and humanism, which he claimed to be in contradiction with Christian morality.", "He advocated that the United States change its public education system by implementing a school voucher system which would allow parents to send their children to either public or private schools.", "In his book ''America Can Be Saved'' he wrote that \"I hope I live to see the day when, as in the early days of our country, we won't have any public schools.", "The churches will have taken them over again and Christians will be running them.", "\"Falwell supported President George W. Bush's Faith Based Initiative, but had strong reservations concerning where the funding would go and the restrictions placed on churches: ===Apartheid===In the 1980s Falwell said sanctions against the apartheid regime of South Africa would result in what, he felt, would be a worse situation, such as a Soviet-backed revolution.", "He also urged his followers to buy up gold Krugerrands and push US \"reinvestment\" in South Africa.", "In 1985 he drew the ire of many when he called Nobel Peace Prize winner and Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu a phony \"as far as representing the black people of South Africa\".===''The Clinton Chronicles''===In 1994, Falwell promoted and distributed the video documentary ''The Clinton Chronicles: An Investigation into the Alleged Criminal Activities of Bill Clinton''.", "The video purported to connect Bill Clinton to a murder conspiracy involving Vince Foster, James McDougall, Ron Brown, and a cocaine-smuggling operation.", "The theory was discredited, but the recording sold more than 150,000 copies.The film's production costs were partly met by \"Citizens for Honest Government\", to which Falwell paid $200,000 in 1994 and 1995.In 1995 Citizens for Honest Government interviewed Arkansas state troopers Roger Perry and Larry Patterson regarding the murder conspiracy about Vincent Foster.", "Perry and Patterson also gave information regarding the allegations in the Paula Jones affair.The infomercial for the 80-minute videotape included footage of Falwell interviewing a silhouetted journalist who claimed to be afraid for his life.", "The journalist accused Clinton of orchestrating the deaths of several reporters and personal confidants who had gotten too close to his supposed illegal activities.", "The silhouetted journalist was subsequently revealed to be Patrick Matrisciana, the producer of the video and president of Citizens for Honest Government.", "\"Obviously, I'm not an investigative reporter\", Matrisciana admitted to investigative journalist Murray Waas.", "Later, Falwell seemed to back away from personally trusting the video.", "In an interview for the 2005 documentary ''The Hunting of the President'', Falwell admitted, \"to this day I do not know the accuracy of the claims made in ''The Clinton Chronicles''.", "\"===Views on homosexuality===Falwell condemned homosexuality as forbidden by the Bible.", "Homosexual rights groups called Falwell an \"agent of intolerance\" and \"the founder of the anti-gay industry\" for statements he had made and for campaigning against LGBT social movements.", "Falwell supported Anita Bryant's 1977 \"Save Our Children\" campaign to overturn a Florida ordinance prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and a similar movement in California.", "In urging the repeal of the ordinance, Falwell told one crowd, \"Gay folks would just as soon kill you as look at you.\"", "When the LGBT-friendly Metropolitan Community Church was almost accepted into the World Council of Churches, Falwell called them \"brute beasts\" and stated that they are, \"part of a vile and satanic system\" that \"will be utterly annihilated, and there will be a celebration in heaven.\"", "He later denied saying this.", "Falwell also regularly linked the AIDS pandemic to LGBT issues and stated, \"AIDS is not just God's punishment for homosexuals, it is God's punishment for the society that tolerates homosexuals.", "\"After comedian and actress Ellen DeGeneres came out as a lesbian, Falwell referred to her in a sermon as \"Ellen DeGenerate\".", "DeGeneres responded, \"Really, he called me that?", "Ellen DeGenerate?", "I've been getting that since the fourth grade.", "I guess I'm happy I could give him work.", "\"Falwell's legacy regarding homosexuality is complicated by his support for LGBT civil rights (see \"civil rights\" section above), as well as his attempts to reconcile with the LGBT community in later years.", "In October 1999, Falwell hosted a meeting of 200 evangelicals with 200 gay people and lesbians at Thomas Road Baptist Church for an \"Anti-Violence Forum\", during which he acknowledged that some American evangelicals' comments about homosexuality entered the realm of hate speech that could incite violence.", "At the forum, Falwell told homosexuals in attendance, \"I don't agree with your lifestyle, I will never agree with your lifestyle, but I love you\" and added, \"Anything that leaves the impression that we hate the sinner, we want to change that.\"", "He later commented to ''New York Times'' columnist Frank Rich that \"admittedly, evangelicals have not exhibited an ability to build a bond of friendship to the gay and lesbian community.", "We've said ''go somewhere else, we don't need you here at our churches.", "''\"===''Teletubbies''===In February 1999 a ''National Liberty Journal'' article (the media attributed it to Falwell) claimed that Tinky Winky, a Teletubby, was intended as a homosexual role model.", "The NLJ is a publication of the university he founded.", "An article published in 1998 by the ''Salon'' website had referred to Tinky Winky's status as an icon for the same movement.", "In response, Steve Rice, spokesperson for Itsy Bitsy Entertainment, which licenses ''Teletubbies'' in the United States, said, \"I really find it absurd and kind of offensive.\"", "The UK show was aimed at pre-school children, but the article stated \"he is purple–the gay pride color; and his antenna is shaped like a triangle–the gay-pride symbol\".", "Apart from those characteristics Tinky Winky also carries a magic bag which the ''NLJ'' and ''Salon'' articles said was a purse.", "Falwell added that \"role modeling the gay lifestyle is damaging to the moral lives of children\".===September 11 attacks===After the September 11 attacks in 2001, Falwell said on Pat Robertson's ''The 700 Club'', \"I really believe that the pagans, and the abortionists, and the feminists, and the gays and the lesbians who are actively trying to make that an alternative lifestyle, the ACLU, People for the American Way, all of them who have tried to secularize America.", "I point the finger in their face and say 'you helped this happen.'\"", "In his opinion, LGBT organizations had angered God, thereby in part causing God to let the attacks happen.", "Falwell believed the attacks were \"probably deserved\", a statement which Christopher Hitchens described as treason.", "Following heavy criticism, Falwell said that no one but the terrorists were to blame, and stated, \"If I left that impression with gays or lesbians or anyone else, I apologize.\"", "Falwell was later the object of some of his own followers' outrage for retracting his statements about divine judgment on America and its causes, because they had heard the same themes in his preaching over many years that America must repent of its lack of devotion to God, immoral living, and timid support of Israel if America wanted divine protection and blessing.===Labor unions===Falwell also said, \"Labor unions should study and read the Bible instead of asking for more money.", "When people get right with God, they are better workers.", "\"===Relationship with American fundamentalism===Falwell at an \"I Love America\" rally in 1980 Cultural anthropologist Susan Friend Harding, in her extensive ethnographic study of Falwell, noted that he adapted his preaching to win a broader, less extremist audience as he grew famous.", "This manifested itself in several ways: For example, he no longer condemned \"worldly\" lifestyle choices such as dancing, drinking wine, and attending movie theaters; softening his rhetoric which predicted an apocalypse and God's vengeful wrath; and shifting from a belief in outright biblical patriarchy to a complementarian view of appropriate gender roles.", "He further mainstreamed himself by aiming his strongest criticism at \"secular humanists\", pagans or various liberals in place of the racist, anti-Semitic and anti-Catholic rhetoric that was common among Southern fundamentalist preachers but increasingly condemned as hate speech by the consensus of American society.===Islam===Falwell opposed Islam.", "According to ''Asharq Al-Awsat'', a pan-Arab newspaper, Falwell called Islam \"satanic\".", "In a televised interview with ''60 Minutes'', Falwell called Muhammad a \"terrorist\", to which he added: \"I concluded from reading Muslim and non-Muslim writers that Muhammad was a violent man, a man of war.\"", "Falwell later apologized to Muslims for what he had said about Muhammad and affirmed that he did not necessarily intend to offend \"honest and peace-loving\" Muslims.", "However, he refused to remove his comments about Islam from his website.", "Egyptian Christian intellectuals, in response, signed a statement in which they condemned and rejected what Falwell had said about Muhammad being a terrorist." ], [ "Legal issues", "Beginning in the 1970s, Falwell was involved in legal matters which occupied much of his time and propelled his name recognition.===SEC and bonds===In 1972, the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) launched an investigation of bonds issued by Falwell's organizations.", "The SEC charged Falwell's church with \"fraud and deceit\" in the issuance of $6.5 million in unsecured church bonds.", "The church won a 1973 federal court case prosecuted at the behest of the SEC, in which the court exonerated the church and ruled that while technical violations of law did occur, there was no proof the church intended any wrongdoing.===Falwell versus ''Penthouse''===Falwell filed a $10 million lawsuit against ''Penthouse'' for publishing an article based upon interviews he gave to freelance reporters, after failing to convince a federal court to place an injunction upon the publication of that article.", "The suit was dismissed in Federal district court in 1981 on the grounds that the article was not defamatory or an invasion of Falwell's privacy (the Virginia courts had not recognized this privacy tort, which is recognized in other states).===''Hustler Magazine v. Falwell''===In 1983, Larry Flynt's pornographic magazine ''Hustler'' carried a parody of a Campari ad, featuring a mock \"interview\" with Falwell in which he admits that his \"first time\" was incest with his mother in an outhouse while drunk.", "Falwell sued for $45 million, alleging invasion of privacy, libel, and intentional infliction of emotional distress.", "A jury rejected the invasion of privacy and libel claims, holding that the parody could not have reasonably been taken to describe true events, but ruled in favor of Falwell on the emotional distress claim and awarded damages of $200,000.This was upheld on appeal.", "Flynt then appealed to the US Supreme Court, which unanimously held that the First Amendment prevents public figures from recovering damages for emotional distress caused by parodies.After Falwell's death, Larry Flynt released a comment regarding his friendship over the years with Falwell.My mother always told me that no matter how much you dislike a person, when you meet them face to face you will find characteristics about them that you like.", "Jerry Falwell was a perfect example of that.", "I hated everything he stood for, but after meeting him in person, years after the trial, Jerry Falwell and I became good friends.", "He would visit me in California and we would debate together on college campuses.", "I always appreciated his sincerity even though I knew what he was selling and he knew what I was selling.===Falwell versus Jerry Sloan===Falwell in Tallahassee, Florida, in 1984In 1984, Falwell was ordered to pay gay rights activist and former Baptist Bible College classmate Jerry Sloan $5,000 after losing a court battle.", "In July 1984 during a televised debate in Sacramento, California, Falwell denied calling the gay-friendly Metropolitan Community Churches \"brute beasts\" and \"a vile and Satanic system\" that will \"one day be utterly annihilated and there will be a celebration in heaven\".When Sloan insisted he had a tape, Falwell promised $5,000 if he could produce it.", "Sloan did, Falwell refused to pay, and Sloan successfully sued.", "The money was donated to build Sacramento's first LGBT community center, the Lambda Community Center, serving \"lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex\" communities.", "Falwell appealed the decision with his attorney charging that the Jewish judge in the case was prejudiced.", "He lost again and was made to pay an additional $2,875 in sanctions and court fees.=== Trademark infringement lawsuit against Christopher Lamparello ===In ''Lamparello v. Falwell'', a dispute over the ownership of the Internet domain ''fallwell.com'', the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit reversed an earlier District Court decision, arguing that Christopher Lamparello, who owned the domain, \"clearly created his website intending only to provide a forum to criticize ideas, not to steal customers.\"", "Lamparello's website describes itself as not being connected to Jerry Falwell and is critical of Falwell's views on homosexuality.", "On April 17, 2006, the Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal of the Court of Appeals ruling that Lamparello's usage of the domain was legal.Previous to this, a different man had turned over ''jerryfalwell.com'' and ''jerryfallwell.com'' after Falwell threatened to sue for trademark infringement.", "Lawyers for Public Citizen Litigation Group's Internet Free Speech project represented the domain name owners in both cases." ], [ "Apocalyptic beliefs", "On July 31, 2006, CNN's ''Paula Zahn Now'' program featured a segment on \"whether the crisis in the Middle East is actually a prelude to the end of the world\".", "In an interview Falwell claimed, \"I believe in the pre-millennial, pre-tribulational coming of Christ for all of his church, and to summarize that, your first poll, do you believe Jesus' coming the second time will be in the future, I would vote yes with the 59 percent and with Billy Graham and most evangelicals.", "\"Based on that and other statements, Falwell has been identified as a dispensationalist.In 1999, Falwell declared the Antichrist would probably arrive within a decade and \"of course he'll be Jewish\".", "After accusations of anti-Semitism Falwell apologized and explained he was simply expressing the theological tenet that the Antichrist and Christ share many attributes." ], [ "Failing health and death", "In early 2005, Falwell was hospitalized for two weeks with a viral infection, discharged, and re-hospitalized on May 30, 2005 in respiratory arrest.", "He was released from the hospital and returned to work.", "Later in the same year, a stent was implanted to correct a 70 percent blockage in his coronary arteries.On May 15, 2007, Falwell was found unconscious and without a pulse in his office at about 10:45 a.m., after he missed a morning appointment, and was taken to Lynchburg General Hospital.", "\"I had breakfast with him, and he was fine at breakfast...", "He went to his office, I went to mine and they found him unresponsive,\" said Ron Godwin, the executive vice president of Falwell's Liberty University.", "His condition was initially reported as \"gravely serious\"; CPR was administered unsuccessfully.", "At 2:10 p.m., during a live press conference, a doctor for the hospital confirmed that Falwell had died of \"cardiac arrhythmia, or sudden cardiac death\".", "The hospital released a statement saying that he was pronounced dead at Lynchburg General Hospital at 12:40 p.m., at the age of 73.Falwell's family; including his wife, the former Macel Pate (1933–2015); and sons, Jerry Falwell Jr. and Jonathan Falwell; were at the hospital at the time of the pronouncement.Falwell's funeral took place on May 22, 2007, at Thomas Road Baptist Church after he lay in repose both at the church and at Liberty University.", "Falwell's burial service was private.", "He is interred at a spot on the Liberty University campus near the Carter Glass Mansion and Falwell's office.", "B. R. Lakin, his mentor, is buried nearby.", "After Falwell's death, his sons succeeded him at the two positions he held, Jerry Falwell Jr. as president of Liberty University and Jonathan Falwell as the senior pastor of Thomas Road Baptist Church.", "Jerry Falwell Sr.'s daughter, Jeannie F. Savas, is a surgeon.The last televised interview with Jerry Falwell Sr. was conducted by Christiane Amanpour for the CNN original series ''CNN Presents: God's Warriors.''", "He had been interviewed on May 8, one week before his death; in the interview he revealed that he had asked God for at least 20 more years in order to accomplish his vision for the university he founded.", "Falwell's last televised sermon was his May 13, 2007, message on Mother's Day." ], [ "Legacy", "Views on Falwell's legacy are mixed.", "Supporters praise his advancement of his socially conservative message.", "They also tout his evangelist ministries, and his stress on church planting and growth.", "Conversely, many of his detractors have accused him of hate speech and identified him as an \"agent of intolerance\".The antitheistic social commentator Christopher Hitchens described his work as \"Chaucerian fraud\" and a \"faith-based fraud.\"", "Hitchens took special umbrage with Falwell's alignment with \"the most thuggish and demented Israeli settlers\", and his declaration that 9/11 represented God's judgment on America's sinful behaviour; deeming it \"extraordinary that not even such a scandalous career is enough to shake our dumb addiction to the 'faith-based.'\"", "Hitchens also mentioned that, despite his support for Israel, Falwell \"kept saying to his own crowd, yes, you have got to like the Jews, because they can make more money in 10 minutes than you can make in a lifetime\".", "Appearing on CNN a day after Falwell's death, Hitchens said, \"The empty life of this ugly little charlatan proves only one thing: that you can get away with the most extraordinary offenses to morality and to truth in this country if you will just get yourself called 'reverend'.", "\"At one point, prank callers, especially home activists, were an estimated 25 percent of Falwell's total calls until the ministry disconnected the toll-free number in 1986.In the mid-1980s Edward Johnson, programmed his Atari home computer to make thousands of repeat phone calls to Falwell's 1-800 phone number, since Johnson claimed Falwell had swindled large amounts of money from his followers, including Johnson's mother.", "Southern Bell forced Johnson to stop after he had run up Falwell's telephone bill by an estimated $500,000.Falwell's son, Jerry Falwell Jr., is a lawyer; he became the president of Liberty University after his father's death, until being put on indefinite leave on August 7, 2020, after posting an inappropriate photo with a young woman on social media.", "He resigned on August 24 amid further questions about his and his wife's sexual and financial involvement with an associate.", "Falwell Jr. said later that the real reason his father began attending church as a teenager was because he had fallen in love with Macel (who played piano there and was engaged at the time).", "Later Jerry Falwell Sr. used deception to convince her to break off the engagement.Filmmaker Terrence Malick had intended since the 1980s to write and direct a film about the lives of Jerry Falwell and pianist-singer Jerry Lee Lewis but the movie was not made." ], [ "Publications", "****''Champions for God''.", "Victor Books, 1985.", "*''Church Aflame''.", "(co-author Elmer Towns) Impact, 1971.", "*''Dynamic Faith Journal''.", "Thomas Nelson (64 pages) (January 30, 2006) *''Falwell: An Autobiography''.", "Liberty House, 1996.", "(Ghost written by Mel White) *''Fasting Can Change Your Life''.", "Regal, 1998.", "*''Finding Inner Peace and Strength''.", "Doubleday, 1982.", "*''If I Should Die Before I Wake''.", "Thomas Nelson, 1986.", "(ghost-written by Mel White)*''Jerry Falwell: Aflame for God''.", "Thomas Nelson, 1979.", "(co-authors Gerald Strober and Ruth Tomczak)*''Liberty Bible Commentary on the New Testament''.", "Thomas Nelson/Liberty University, 1978.", "*''Liberty Bible Commentary''.", "Thomas Nelson, 1982.", "*''Listen, America!''", "Bantam Books (July 1981) *''Stepping Out on Faith''.", "Tyndale House, 1984.", "*''Strength for the Journey''.", "Simon & Schuster, 1987.", "(ghost-written by Mel White)*''The Fundamentalist Phenomenon''.", "Doubleday, 1981.", "*''The Fundamentalist Phenomenon/The Resurgence of Conservative Christianity''.", "Baker Book House, 1986.", "*''The New American Family''.", "Word, 1992.", "*''When It Hurts Too Much to Cry''.", "Tyndale House, 1984.", "*''Wisdom for Living''.", "Victor Books, 1984." ], [ "See also", "*Christian fundamentalism*Faith and Values Coalition*Jerry Johnston*List of fatwas*List of Southern Baptist Convention affiliated people*National Christian Network" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===*******************" ], [ "External links", "* Jerry Falwell Ministries* Jerry Falwell Photo Gallery (1933–2007) from Time.com**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jay Leno" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Douglas Muir Leno''' (; born April 28, 1950) is an American television host, writer and comedian.", "After doing stand-up comedy for years, he became the host of NBC's ''The Tonight Show'' from 1992 until 2009 when Conan O'Brien took over as host.", "Beginning in September 2009, Leno started a primetime talk show, ''The Jay Leno Show'', which aired weeknights at 10:00p.m.", "ET, also on NBC.", "When O'Brien turned down NBC's offer to have Leno host a half hour monologue show before ''The Tonight Show'' to boost ratings amid reported viewership diminishing, it led to the 2010 ''Tonight Show'' conflict which resulted in Leno returning to hosting the show on March 1, 2010.He hosted his last episode of his second tenure on February 6, 2014.That year, he was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame.", "From 2014 to 2022, he hosted ''Jay Leno's Garage,'' and from 2021 to 2023, hosted the revival of ''You Bet Your Life''.Leno writes a regular column in ''Popular Mechanics'' showcasing his car collection and giving automotive advice.", "He also writes occasional \"Motormouth\" articles for ''The Sunday Times''." ], [ "Early life", "Leno was born April 28, 1950, in New Rochelle, New York.", "His homemaker mother, Catherine (née Muir; 1911–1993), was born in Greenock, Scotland, and came to the United States at age 11.His father, Angelo (1910–1994), was an insurance salesman born in New York to immigrants from Flumeri, Campania, Italy.", "Leno grew up in Andover, Massachusetts and graduated from Andover High School.", "He obtained a bachelor's degree in speech therapy from Emerson College in Boston, where he started a comedy club in 1973.His older brother, Patrick (May 12, 1940 – October 6, 2002), was a Vietnam War veteran who became an attorney." ], [ "Career", "===Early career===Leno made his first appearance on ''The Tonight Show'' on March 2, 1977, performing a comedy routine.", "During the 1970s, he had minor roles in several television series and films, first in the 1976 episode \"J.J. in Trouble\" of ''Good Times,'' and the same year in the pilot of ''Holmes & Yo-Yo''.", "After an uncredited appearance in the 1977 film ''Fun with Dick and Jane'', he played more prominent roles in 1978 in ''American Hot Wax'' and ''Silver Bears''.", "His other film and television appearances from that period include ''Almost Heaven'' (1978), \"Going Nowhere\" (1979) on ''One Day at a Time'', ''Americathon'' (1979), ''Polyester'' (1981), \"The Wild One\" (1981) on ''Alice'', and both \"Feminine Mistake\" (1979) and \"Do the Carmine\" (1983) on ''Laverne & Shirley''.", "His only starring film role was the 1989 direct-to-video ''Collision Course'', with Pat Morita.", "He also appeared numerous times on ''Late Night with David Letterman''.He also appeared on three weeks of the short-lived NBC game show ''Match Game-Hollywood Squares Hour'' in 1983 and 1984.===''The Tonight Show''===Leno in 1993, in the year after becoming host of ''The Tonight Show''Starting in 1986, Leno was a regular substitute host for Johnny Carson on ''The Tonight Show''.", "In 1992, he replaced Carson as host amid controversy with David Letterman, who had been hosting ''Late Night with David Letterman'' since 1982 (which aired after ''The Tonight Show''), and whom many—including Carson himself—expected to be Carson's successor.", "The story of this turbulent transition became the basis of a book and a movie.", "Leno continued to perform as a stand-up comedian throughout his ''Tonight Show'' tenure.", "In 1988, he received a contract extension with NBC itself.", "The July 1995 episode of ''The Tonight Show'' which featured an interview with Hugh Grant (who had been arrested for receiving oral sex in a public place from a prostitute) saw Leno rate higher than Letterman for the first time.In 2004, Leno signed a contract extension with NBC to retain him as host of ''The Tonight Show'' until 2009.Later in 2004, Conan O'Brien signed a contract with NBC to become the show's host in 2009, replacing Leno at that time.During the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, Leno was accused of violating WGA guidelines by writing his own monologue for ''The Tonight Show''.", "NBC and Leno claimed there were private meetings with the WGA where a secret agreement was reached allowing this; the WGA denied such meetings.", "Leno answered questions in front of the Writers Guild of America, West trial committee in February 2009 and June 2009, and when the WGAW published its list of strikebreakers on August 11, 2009, Leno was not on it.On April 23, 2009, Leno checked himself into a hospital with an undisclosed illness.", "He was released the following day and returned to work on Monday, April 27.The two subsequently canceled ''Tonight Show'' episodes for April 23 and 24 were his first in 17 years as host.", "The illness was not initially disclosed, but Leno later told ''People'' magazine that it was for exhaustion.", "====Michael Jackson trial====During the 2005 trial of Michael Jackson over allegations of child molestation, Leno was one of a few celebrities who appeared as defense witnesses.", "In his testimony regarding a phone conversation with the accuser, Leno testified that he was not asked for any money and there did not appear to be any coaching — but the calls seemed unusual and scripted.Leno in 2006As a result, Leno was initially not allowed to tell jokes about Jackson or the case, which had been a fixture of ''The Tonight Show''s opening monologue in particular.", "But he and his show's writers used a legal loophole by having Leno briefly step aside while stand-in comedians took the stage and told jokes about the trial.", "These stand-ins included Roseanne Barr, Drew Carey, Brad Garrett and Dennis Miller.", "The gag order was challenged, and the court ruled that Leno could continue telling jokes about the trial as long as he did not discuss his testimony.", "Leno celebrated by devoting an entire monologue to Michael Jackson jokes.===Succession by Conan O'Brien; ''The Jay Leno Show''===Because Leno's show continued to lead all late-night programming in the Nielsen ratings, the pending expiration of his contract led to speculation about whether he would become a late-night host for another network when his commitment to NBC expired.", "He left ''The Tonight Show'' on Friday, May 29, 2009, and Conan O'Brien took over on June 1, 2009.On December 8, 2008, it was reported that Leno would remain on NBC and move to a new hour-long show at 10 p.m. Eastern Time (9 p.m. Central Time) five nights a week.", "It would follow a similar format to ''The Tonight Show'', be filmed in the same studio, and retain many of Leno's most popular segments, while O'Brien continued to host ''The'' ''Tonight Show''.Leno's new show, ''The Jay Leno Show'', debuted on September 14, 2009.It was announced at the Television Critics Association summer press tour that it would feature one or two celebrities, occasional musical guests, and keep the popular \"Headlines\" segments, which would be near the end of the show.", "First guests included Jerry Seinfeld, Oprah Winfrey (via satellite), and a short sit-down with Kanye West discussing his controversy at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, which had occurred the night before.===Timeslot conflict and return to ''The Tonight Show''===In their new roles, neither O'Brien nor Leno succeeded in delivering the viewing audiences the network anticipated.", "On January 7, 2010, multiple media outlets reported that beginning March 1, 2010, Leno would move from his 10 p.m. weeknight time slot to 11:35 p.m., due to a combination of pressure from local affiliates, whose newscasts were suffering, and both Leno's and O'Brien's poor ratings.", "Leno's show would be shortened from an hour to 30 minutes.", "All NBC late night programming would also be preempted by the 2010 Winter Olympics between February 15 and 26, moving ''The Tonight Show'' to 12:05 a.m., the first post-midnight timeslot in its history.", "O'Brien's contract stipulated that NBC could move the show ahead to 12:05 a.m. without penalty (a clause included primarily to accommodate sports preemptions).On January 10, NBC confirmed that they would move Leno out of primetime as of February 12 and move him to late-night as soon as possible.", "TMZ reported that O'Brien was given no advance notice of this change, and that NBC offered him two choices: an hour-long 12:05a.m.", "time slot, or the option to leave the network.", "On January 12, O'Brien issued a press release that he would not continue with ''Tonight'' if it moved to a 12:05 a.m. time slot, saying, \"I believe that delaying ''The Tonight Show'' into the next day to accommodate another comedy program will seriously damage what I consider to be the greatest franchise in the history of broadcasting.", "''The Tonight Show'' at 12:05 simply isn't ''The Tonight Show.", "''\"On January 21, it was announced that NBC had struck a deal with O'Brien: He would leave ''The Tonight Show,'' receive a $33 million payout, and his staff of almost 200 would receive $12 million in the departure.", "His final episode aired on Friday, January 22, 2010.Leno returned as host of ''The Tonight Show'' following the 2010 Winter Olympics on March 1, 2010.On July 1, 2010, ''Variety'' reported that total viewership for Leno's ''Tonight Show'' had dropped from 5 million to 4 million for the second quarter of 2010, compared to the same period in 2009.Although it represented the show's lowest second-quarter ratings since 1992, ''Tonight'' was still the most-watched late night program, ahead of ABC's ''Nightline'' (3.7 million) and ''Late Show with David Letterman'' (3.3 million).===Announcement of successor===On April 3, 2013, NBC announced that Leno would leave ''The Tonight Show'' in spring 2014, with Jimmy Fallon as his designated successor.Leno's final show as the host of ''The Tonight Show'' was on February 6, 2014, with guests Billy Crystal (who was the first guest on the first version of Leno's show), musical guest Garth Brooks, and surprise guests Jack Black, Kim Kardashian, Jim Parsons, Sheryl Crow, Chris Paul, Carol Burnett and Oprah Winfrey.===After ''The Tonight Show''===Leno speaking in 2020Leno has maintained an active schedule as a touring stand-up comedian, doing an average of 200 live performances a year in venues across the United States and Canada and at charity events and USO tours.", "He has also appeared on the ''Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon'' and ''Late Night with Seth Meyers,'' and was a guest on the finale of ''The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson.''", "He appeared in a cameo role drilling and tormenting James Corden in a facetious boot camp for talk-show hosts on the premiere of ''The Late Late Show with James Corden''.", "He declined an invitation to appear on ''Late Show with David Letterman'' despite speculation he would appear on the show's finale in 2015, although he had appeared with Letterman along with Winfrey in a ''Late Show'' commercial airing during Super Bowl XLIV in 2010.Leno hosted a one-hour ''Jay Leno's Garage'' special on CNBC in 2014, and the show returned as a primetime series on the cable channel from 2015 until 2022.The series was canceled in January 2023 after seven seasons due to a decision by the channel to re-emphasize business-oriented programming.Leno also had a recurring role in the Tim Allen comedy series ''Last Man Standing'' since season 5, playing a mechanic, Joe Leonard, in a store operated by Allen's character, Mike Baxter.Leno hosted the third revival of the game show ''You Bet Your Life'' for two seasons, from 2021 until 2023.The show was renewed for a third season but was cancelled in August 2023 after Leno refused to cross the picket line during the 2023 Writers Guild of America strike, after Fox First Run offered stations two other syndicated game shows to fill ''You Bet Your Life'''s timeslot during the strike, instead of reruns.Leno also does voice acting, such as The Crimson Chin on ''The Fairly OddParents'' from 2001 to 2016 and Billy Beagle of ''Mickey and the Roadster Racers''.In 2023, Leno returned to NBC to appear as a celebrity guest judge on the two-episode season finale of ''Hot Wheels: Ultimate Challenge''." ], [ "Public image", "===Criticism===Leno on set of ''The Tonight Show'' in 2005Leno has faced criticism for his perceived role in the 2010 ''Tonight Show'' conflict.", "Critics have cited a 2004 ''Tonight Show'' clip where Leno said he would allow O'Brien to take over without incident.", "At the time, Leno said he did not want O'Brien to leave for a competing network, adding, \"I'll be 59 when the switch occurs.", "That's five years from now.", "There's really only one person who could have done this into his 60s, and that was Johnny Carson; I think it's fair to say I'm no Johnny Carson.\"", "Leno also described ''The Tonight Show'' as a dynasty, saying, \"You hold it and hand it off to the next person.", "And I don't want to see all the fighting.\"", "At the end of the segment, he said, \"Conan, it's yours!", "See you in five years, buddy!", "\"Rosie O'Donnell was among O'Brien's most vehement supporters, calling Leno a \"bully\" and his actions \"classless and kind of career-defining\".", "Bill Zehme, the co-author of Leno's autobiography ''Leading with My Chin'', told the ''Los Angeles Times'', \"The thing Leno should do is walk, period.", "He's got everything to lose in terms of public popularity by going back.", "People will look at him differently.", "He'll be viewed as the bad guy.", "\"In 2009, Leno received criticism for asking rapper Kanye West how his recently deceased mother, Donda West, would have felt about the incident at the 2009 VMAs, causing West to begin crying live on air.Howard Stern has also been a critic of Leno before and following his ''Tonight Show'' timeslot-change announcement; Stern appeared on ''Late Night with Conan O'Brien'' in 2006 and said he felt it was unlikely that Leno would ever willingly give up ''The Tonight Show''.", "During the conflict, Stern made many negative remarks about Leno as a guest on ''Late Show with David Letterman''.Jimmy Kimmel discussed his appearance on Leno's show during an interview with Marc Maron for the latter's podcast in 2012.Kimmel stated that he felt O'Brien was not given a proper chance, but that he was also motivated by his own history with Leno.", "According to Kimmel, Leno had some years prior been in serious discussions with ABC about the possibility of jumping ship from NBC.", "During this period, Leno initiated a friendship with Kimmel, wanting to ensure that they would be on good terms if the move was made.", "(Under that scenario, Leno would have taken Kimmel's time slot and become his lead-in.)", "However, after Leno made the arrangement to remain at NBC, \"those conversations were gone,\" according to Kimmel.", "Realizing that Leno's relationship with him had been artificial, Kimmel felt \"worked over,\" reasoning that Leno was using the ABC discussions as a bargaining tactic to try to get his old job back.John Oliver has also criticized Leno for his coverage of the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal on ''The Tonight Show'' in an episode on public shaming.Leno has also been criticized for the perceived change in the content of his monologues from his previous stand-up material.", "Actor and comedian Patton Oswalt was among the celebrities who openly voiced disappointment with Leno, saying, \"Comedians who don't like Jay Leno now, and I'm one of them, we're not like, 'Jay Leno sucks'; it's that we're so hurt and disappointed that one of the best comedians of our generation ... willfully has shut the switch off.", "\"In August 2020, Leno faced criticism for expressing support for Ellen DeGeneres despite a workplace investigation into toxic behavior and sexual misconduct and harassment claims against producers of ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show''.===Support for Leno===NBC Sports chairman and former ''Saturday Night Live'' producer Dick Ebersol spoke out against all who had criticized Leno, calling them \"chicken-hearted and gutless\".", "Jeff Gaspin, then chairman of NBC Universal Television Entertainment, also defended Leno, saying, \"This has definitely crossed the line.", "Jay Leno is the consummate professional and one of the hardest-working people in television.", "It's a shame that he's being pulled into this.\"", "Fellow comedians Paul Reiser, Jerry Seinfeld and Jim Norton (a frequent contributor to ''The Tonight Show'') also voiced support for Leno.Responding to the mounting criticism, Leno said NBC had assured him that O'Brien was willing to accept the proposed arrangement and that they would not let either host out of his contract.", "He also said that the situation was \"all business\", and that all of the decisions were made by NBC.", "He appeared on the January 28, 2010 episode of ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'' in an attempt to repair some of the damage done to his public image." ], [ "Influences", "Leno's comedic influences include Johnny Carson, Robert Klein, Alan King, David Brenner, Mort Sahl, George Carlin, Don Rickles, Bob Newhart, and Rodney Dangerfield.Dennis Miller and Jerry Seinfeld have credited Leno as their inspiration." ], [ "Personal life", "President Ronald Reagan in April 1987Leno has been married to Mavis Leno since 1980.In 1993, during his first season as host of ''The Tonight Show'', Leno's mother died at the age of 82; and the next year, his father died at 84.Leno's older brother, Patrick, a Vietnam veteran and graduate of Yale Law School, died of cancer in 2002 at the age of 62.Leno is known for his prominent jaw, which has been described as mandibular prognathism.", "In the book ''Leading with My Chin'', he says he was aware of surgery that could reset his mandible, but that he did not wish to endure a prolonged healing period with his jaws wired shut.Leno is dyslexic.", "He claims to need only four or five hours of sleep each night.", "He does not consume alcohol, smoke, or gamble.", "He spends much of his free time visiting car collections and working in his private garage.Leno has claimed that he has not spent any of the money he earned from ''The Tonight Show,'' but lives off of his money from his stand-up routines.", "He reportedly earned $32 million in 2005.In 2014, he received an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Emerson College, where he also delivered the commencement speech.", "He also received an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Academy of Art University in 2021.President Barack Obama in March 2009On November 12, 2022, Leno suffered \"serious burns\" to his face and hands when a vehicle at his Los Angeles garage burst into flames.", "As part of the treatment, he received a \"new ear\".", "On January 17, 2023, he sustained multiple broken bones after falling off a motorcycle.===Charity===In 2001, he and his wife donated $100,000 to the Feminist Majority Foundation's campaign to stop gender apartheid in Afghanistan, to educate the public regarding the plight of women in Afghanistan under Taliban rule.", "Mavis Leno is on the board of the Feminist Majority.In 2009, he donated $100,000 to a scholarship fund at Salem State College (now Salem State University) in honor of Lennie Sogoloff, who gave Leno his start at his jazz club, Lennie's-on-the-Turnpike.In August 2012, Leno auctioned his Fiat 500, which was sold for $385,000 with all the proceeds going to a charity that helps wounded war veterans recover by providing them with temporary housing., Leno sponsors 2 scholarships at McPherson College.===Love Ride===Since 1985, Leno has been the Grand Marshal for the Love Ride, a motorcycle charity event which since its founding in 1984 has raised nearly $14 million for charities benefiting muscular dystrophy research, Autism Speaks, and in 2001, the September 11 attacks recovery.===Vehicle collection===Leno arriving at the ''45th Primetime Emmy Awards'' in his Hispano-Suiza Aero, 1993Leno owns approximately 286 vehicles (169 cars and 117 motorcycles).", "He also has a website and a TV program called ''Jay Leno's Garage'', which contains video clips and photos of his car collection in detail, as well as other vehicles of interest to him.", "Leno's garage manager is Bernard Juchli.", "Among his collection are two Doble steam cars, a sedan and a roadster that were owned by Howard Hughes, the fifth Duesenberg Model X known to survive, and one of nine remaining 1963 Chrysler Turbine Cars.", "The collection also includes three antique electric cars — the 1909 Baker Motor Vehicle is his wife Mavis's favorite car.He has a regular column in ''Popular Mechanics'' which showcases his car collection and gives advice about various automotive topics, including restoration and unique models, such as his jet-powered motorcycle and solar-powered hybrid.", "Leno also writes occasional \"Motormouth\" articles for ''The Sunday Times'', reviewing high-end sports cars and giving his humorous take on motoring matters.Leno opened his garage to Team Bondi, the company that developed the 2011 video game ''L.A.", "Noire'', which is set in Los Angeles in the late-1940s.", "Leno's collection contains almost 100 cars from this period, and allowed the team to create their images as accurately as possible.===Politics===With President Ronald Reagan and their wives in 1987Hosting the 2014 Genesis Prize award ceremony in Jerusalem, Leno made jokes mocking then-President Barack Obama and then-Secretary of State John Kerry, accusing Obama of \"trying to break\" the U.S.'s relationship with Israel.In a 2015 interview with ''The Jerusalem Post'', Leno said, \"I always considered Israel as not only the only democracy in the Middle East, I think it's the purest, because every Israeli voter seems to have his own political party.\"", "He also added about Israel's relations with other Middle Eastern countries: \"Israel is so efficient in defending itself and so good at it, that to the rest of the world it looks like bullying.", "\"In a 2024 interview on ''Piers Morgan Uncensored'', Leno said that he is \"not a fan\" of former President Donald Trump." ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Award Nominated work Result 1989 Writers Guild of America Award for Variety – Musical, Award, Tribute, Special Event ''Family Comedy Hour'' 1990 American Comedy Award for Funniest Male Performer in a TV Special – Network, Cable or Syndication ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' 1993 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'' 1994 1995 1996 1998 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program 1999 TV Guide Award for Favorite Late Night Show Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series 2000 TV Guide Award for Favorite Late Night Show Hollywood Walk of Fame Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'' 2001 TV Guide Award for Variety Star of the Year 2002 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series 2003 2005 People's Choice Award for Favorite Late Night Talk Show Host Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program 2006 People's Choice Award for Favorite Late Night Talk Show Host 2007 People's Choice Award for Favorite Talk Show Host 2008 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short–Format Non-Fiction Program ''Jay Leno's Garage'' 2009 2011 Hasty Pudding Man of the Year 2012 People's Choice Award for Favorite Late Night TV Host ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'' Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short–Format Non-Fiction Program ''Jay Leno's Garage'' 2013 TCA Career Achievement Award Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short–Format Non-Fiction Program ''Jay Leno's Garage'' 2014 TCA Career Achievement Award Mark Twain Prize for American Humor" ], [ "Books", "* Leno, Jay.", "''Headlines: Real but Ridiculous Headlines from America's Newspapers''.", "1989.", "* Leno, Jay.", "''More Headlines''.", "1990.", "* Leno, Jay.", "''Headlines III: Not the Movie, Still the Book''.", "1991.", "* Leno, Jay.", "''Headlines IV: The Next Generation''.", "1992.", "* Leno, Jay.", "''Jay Leno's Police Blotter: Real-Life Crime Headlines''.", "1994.", "* Leno, Jay (with Bill Zehme).", "''Leading With My Chin''.", "1996 (autobiography).", "* Leno, Jay (with S. B. Whitehead-Illustrator).", "''Jay Leno: If Roast Beef Could Fly''.", "2004 (children' book).", "* Leno, Jay (with S. B. Whitehead-Illustrator).", "''How to Be the Funniest Kid in the Whole Wide World (or Just in Your Class)''.", "2005 (children' book)." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''Tonight Show with Jay Leno'' episodes* ''Jay Leno's Garage'' (NBC)* An interview with Jay Leno , ''Totalcar'' magazine* ''The New York Times'' on Leno's affiliation with McPherson College* Live performance videos from the ''Tonight Show''*" ] ]
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[ [ "Jeroboam II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jeroboam II''' (, ''Yāroḇʿām''; ; ) was the son and successor of Jehoash (alternatively spelled Joash) and the thirteenth king of the ancient Kingdom of Israel, over which he ruled for forty-one years in the eighth century BC.", "His reign was contemporary with those of Amaziah and Uzziah, kings of Judah." ], [ "History", "William F. Albright has dated his reign to 786–746 BC, while E. R. Thiele says he was coregent with Jehoash 793 to 782 BC and sole ruler 782 to 753 BC.He was victorious over the Arameans, conquered Damascus, and extended Israel to its former limits, from \"the entering of Hamath to the sea of the plain\".In 1910, G. A. Reisner found sixty-three inscribed potsherds while excavating the royal palace at Samaria, which were later dated to the reign of Jeroboam II and mention regnal years extending from the ninth to the 17th of his reign.", "These ostraca, while unremarkable in themselves, contain valuable information about the script, language, religion and administrative system of the period.", "In 2020 a bulla belonging to a servant of Jeroboam II was authenticated.Archaeological evidence confirms the biblical account of his reign as the most prosperous that the northern kingdom of Israel had yet known.", "By the late 8th century BC, the territory of Israel was the most densely settled in the entire Levant, with a population of about 350,000.This prosperity was built on trade in olive oil, wine, and possibly horses, with Egypt and especially Assyria providing the markets.", "According to the prophet Amos, the triumphs of the king had engendered a haughty spirit of boastful overconfidence at home.", "Oppression and exploitation of the poor by the mighty, luxury in palaces of unheard-of splendor, and a craving for amusement were some of the internal fruits of these external triumphs.", "Archaeologist Israel Finkelstein has argued that many of the stories of King Solomon's rule over a large, prosperous kingdom were inspired by memories or records of the reign of Jeroboam II.", "For example, Finkelstein claimed that a list of districts in 1 Kings 4 supposedly under Solomonic rule actually matches the geographic boundaries of the Kingdom of Israel in the time of Jeroboam II.", "Thomas Römer has argued that Jeroboam I may not have existed and that Deuteronomistic redactors transferred the reign of Jeroboam II to Jeroboam I, although Lester L. Grabbe finds this theory unlikely.Under Jeroboam II, the God of Israel was worshiped at Dan and Beth-el and at other old Israelite shrines, through actual images, such as the golden calf.", "These services at Dan and Beth-el, at Gilgal and Beer-sheba, were of a nature to arouse the indignation of the prophets, and the foreign cults, both numerous and degrading, contributed still further to arousing of the prophetic spirit.", "Jeroboam's reign was the period of the prophets Hosea, Joel, Amos and Jonah, all of whom condemned the materialism and selfishness of the Israelite elite of their day: \"Woe unto those who lie upon beds of ivory ... eat lambs from the flock and calves ... and sing idle songs ...\" The Book of Kings condemns Jeroboam for doing \"evil in the eyes of the Lord\", meaning both the oppression of the poor and his continuing support of the cult centres of Dan and Bethel, in opposition to the temple in Jerusalem.===Earthquake in Israel c. 760 BC===A major earthquake had occurred in Israel c. 760 BC, which may have been during the time of Jeroboam II, towards the end of his rule.", "This earthquake is mentioned in the Book of Amos as having occurred during the rule of \"Jeroboam son of Jehoash\".Geologists believe they have found evidence of this big earthquake in sites throughout Israel and Jordan.", "Archeologists Yigael Yadin and Israel Finkelstein dated the earthquake level at Tel Hazor to 760 BC based on stratigraphic analysis of the destruction debris.", "Similarly, David Ussishkin arrived at the same date based on the \"sudden destruction\" level at Lachish.According to Steven A. Austin, the magnitude of this earthquake may have been at least 7.8, but more likely as high as 8.2.", "\"This magnitude 8 event of 750 B.C.", "appears to be the largest yet documented on the Dead Sea transform fault zone during the last four millennia.", "\"The epicenter of this earthquake may have been 200–300 km north of present-day Israel.Multiple biblical references exist to this earthquake in the Book of Amos, and also in Zechariah 14:5.Recent excavations by Aren Maeir in ancient Gath have revealed evidence of a major earthquake.", "\"Based on the tight stratigraphic context, this can be dated to the mid-8th cent.", "BCE\" ..." ], [ "In the Bible", "His name occurs in the Old Testament only in 2 Kings; 1 Chronicles; Book of Hosea; and Book of Amos.", "In all other passages it is Jeroboam I, the son of Nebat that is meant." ], [ "See also", "* 2 Kings 14, 15* Omrides, the previous dynasty* Shema Seal" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* View of Philistine temple and “Amos” earthquake The Tell es-Safi/Gath Excavations Weblog – July 2010" ] ]
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[ [ "Joan of Arc" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joan of Arc''' ( ; ;  – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War.", "Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who transcended gender roles and gained recognition as a savior of France.Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France.", "In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination.", "Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief army.", "She arrived at the city in April 1429, wielding her banner and bringing hope to the demoralized French army.", "Nine days after her arrival, the English abandoned the siege.", "Joan encouraged the French to aggressively pursue the English during the Loire Campaign, which culminated in another decisive victory at Patay, opening the way for the French army to advance on Reims unopposed, where Charles was crowned as the King of France with Joan at his side.", "These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later.After Charles's coronation, Joan participated in the unsuccessful siege of Paris in September 1429 and the failed siege of La Charité in November.", "Her role in these defeats reduced the court's faith in her.", "In early 1430, Joan organized a company of volunteers to relieve Compiègne, which had been besieged by the Burgundians—French allies of the English.", "She was captured by Burgundian troops on 23 May.", "After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November.", "She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes, acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church.", "She was declared guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen.In 1456, an inquisitorial court reinvestigated Joan's trial and overturned the verdict, declaring that it was tainted by deceit and procedural errors.", "Joan has been revered as a martyr, and viewed as an obedient daughter of the Roman Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence.", "After the French Revolution, she became a national symbol of France.", "In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church and, two years later, was declared one of the patron saints of France.", "She is portrayed in numerous cultural works, including literature, music, paintings, sculptures, and theater." ], [ "Name", "Joan of Arc's name was written in a variety of ways.", "There is no standard spelling of her name before the sixteenth century; her last name was usually written as \"Darc\" without an apostrophe, but there are variants such as \"Tarc\", \"Dart\" or \"Day\".", "Her father's name was written as \"Tart\" at her trial.", "She was called \"Jeanne d'Ay de Domrémy\" in Charles VII's 1429 letter granting her a coat of arms.", "Joan may never have heard herself called \"Jeanne d'Arc\".", "The first written record of her being called by this name is in 1455, 24 years after her death.She was not taught to read and write in her childhood, and so dictated her letters.", "She may have later learned to sign her name, as some of her letters are signed, and she may even have learned to read.", "Joan referred to herself in the letters as (\"Joan the Maiden\") or as (\"the Maiden\"), emphasizing her virginity, and she signed \"Jehanne\".", "In the sixteenth century, she became known as the \"Maid of Orleans\"." ], [ "Birth and historical background", "France, 1429----Joan of Arc was born around 1412 in Domrémy, a small village in the Meuse valley now in the Vosges department in the north-east of France.", "Her date of birth is unknown and her statements about her age were vague.", "Her parents were Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée.", "Joan had three brothers and a sister.", "Her father was a peasant farmer with about of land, and he supplemented the family income as a village official, collecting taxes and heading the local watch.She was born during the Hundred Years' War between England and France, which had begun in 1337 over the status of English territories in France and English claims to the French throne.", "Nearly all the fighting had taken place in France, devastating its economy.", "At the time of Joan's birth, France was divided politically.", "The French king Charles VI had recurring bouts of mental illness and was often unable to rule; his brother Louis, Duke of Orléans, and his cousin John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, quarreled over the regency of France.", "In 1407, the Duke of Burgundy ordered the assassination of the Duke of Orléans, precipitating a civil war.", "Charles of Orléans succeeded his father as duke at the age of thirteen and was placed in the custody of Bernard, Count of Armagnac; his supporters became known as \"Armagnacs\", while supporters of the Duke of Burgundy became known as \"Burgundians\".", "The future French king Charles VII had assumed the title of Dauphin (heir to the throne) after the deaths of his four older brothers and was associated with the Armagnacs.Henry V of England exploited France's internal divisions when he invaded in 1415.The Burgundians took Paris in 1418.In 1419, the Dauphin offered a truce to negotiate peace with the Duke of Burgundy, but the duke was assassinated by Charles's Armagnac partisans during the negotiations.", "The new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, allied with the English.", "Charles VI accused the Dauphin of murdering the Duke of Burgundy and declared him unfit to inherit the French throne.", "During a period of illness, Charles's wife Isabeau of Bavaria stood in for him and signed the Treaty of Troyes, which gave their daughter Catherine of Valois in marriage to Henry V, granted the succession of the French throne to their heirs, and effectively disinherited the Dauphin.", "This caused rumors that the Dauphin was not King Charles VI's son, but the offspring of an adulterous affair between Isabeau and the murdered duke of Orléans.", "In 1422, Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other; the 9-month-old Henry VI of England was the nominal heir of the Anglo-French dual monarchy as agreed in the treaty, but the Dauphin also claimed the French throne." ], [ "Early life", "alt=Joan in dress facing left in profile, holding banner in her right hand and sheathed sword in her left.In her youth, Joan did household chores, spun wool, helped her father in the fields and looked after their animals.", "Her mother provided Joan's religious education.", "Much of Domrémy lay in the Duchy of Bar, whose precise feudal status was unclear; though surrounded by pro-Burgundian lands, its people were loyal to the Armagnac cause.", "By 1419, the war had affected the area, and in 1425, Domrémy was attacked and cattle were stolen.", "This led to a sentiment among villagers that the English must be expelled from France to achieve peace.", "Joan had her first vision after this raid.Joan later testified that when she was thirteen, around 1425, a figure she identified as Saint Michael surrounded by angels appeared to her in the garden.", "After this vision, she said she wept because she wanted them to take her with them.", "Throughout her life, she had visions of St. Michael, a patron saint of the Domrémy area who was seen as a defender of France.", "She stated that she had these visions frequently and that she often had them when the church bells were rung.", "Her visions also included St. Margaret and St. Catherine; although Joan never specified, they were probably Margaret of Antioch and Catherine of Alexandria—those most known in the area.", "Both were known as virgin saints who strove against powerful enemies, were tortured and martyred for their beliefs, and preserved their virtue to the death.", "Joan testified that she swore a vow of virginity to these voices.", "When a young man from her village alleged that she had broken a promise of marriage, Joan stated that she had made him no promises, and his case was dismissed by an ecclesiastical court.During Joan's youth, a prophecy circulating in the French countryside, based on the visions of , promised an armed virgin would come forth to save France.", "Another prophecy, attributed to Merlin, stated that a virgin carrying a banner would put an end to France's suffering.", "Joan implied she was this promised maiden, reminding the people around her that there was a saying that France would be destroyed by a woman but would be restored by a virgin.", "In May 1428, she asked her uncle to take her to the nearby town of Vaucouleurs, where she petitioned the garrison commander, Robert de Baudricourt, for an armed escort to the Armagnac court at Chinon.", "Baudricourt harshly refused and sent her home.", "In July, Domrémy was raided by Burgundian forces which set fire to the town, destroyed the crops, and forced Joan, her family and the other townspeople to flee.", "She returned to Vaucouleurs in January 1429.Her petition was refused again, but by this time she had gained the support of two of Baudricourt's soldiers, Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy.", "Meanwhile, she was summoned to Nancy under safe conduct by Charles II, Duke of Lorraine, who had heard about Joan during her stay at Vaucouleurs.", "The duke was ill and thought she might have supernatural powers that could cure him.", "She offered no cures, but reprimanded him for living with his mistress.Henry V's brothers, John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, had continued the English conquest of France.", "Most of northern France, Paris, and parts of southwestern France were under Anglo-Burgundian control.", "The Burgundians controlled Reims, the traditional site for the coronation of French kings; Charles had not yet been crowned, and doing so at Reims would help legitimize his claim to the throne.", "In July 1428, the English had started to surround Orléans and had nearly isolated it from the rest of Charles's territory by capturing many of the smaller bridge towns on the Loire River.", "Orléans was strategically important as the last obstacle to an assault on the remainder of Charles's territory.", "According to Joan's later testimony, it was around this period that her visions told her to leave Domrémy to help the Dauphin Charles.Baudricourt agreed to a third meeting with Joan in February 1429, around the time the English captured an Armagnac relief convoy at the Battle of the Herrings during the Siege of Orléans.", "Their conversations, along with Metz and Poulengy's support, convinced Baudricourt to allow her to go to Chinon for an audience with the Dauphin.", "Joan traveled with an escort of six soldiers.", "Before leaving, Joan put on men's clothes, which were provided by her escorts and the people of Vaucouleurs.", "She continued to wear men's clothes for the remainder of her life." ], [ "Chinon", "Charles VII of France by Jean Fouquet (, Louvre, Paris)|alt=Miniature of Charles the seventh of France.Charles VII met Joan for the first time at the Royal Court in Chinon in late February or early March 1429, when she was seventeen and he was twenty-six.", "She told him that she had come to raise the siege of Orléans and to lead him to Reims for his coronation.", "They had a private exchange that made a strong impression on Charles; Jean Pasquerel, Joan's confessor, later testified that Joan told him she had reassured the Dauphin that he was Charles VI's son and the legitimate king.Charles and his council needed more assurance, sending Joan to Poitiers to be examined by a council of theologians, who declared that she was a good person and a good Catholic.", "They did not render a decision on the source of Joan's inspiration, but agreed that sending her to Orléans could be useful to the king and would test if her inspiration was of divine origin.", "Joan was then sent to Tours to be physically examined by women directed by Charles's mother-in-law Yolande of Aragon, who verified her virginity.", "This was to establish if she could indeed be the prophesied virgin savior of France, to show the purity of her devotion, and to ensure she had not consorted with the Devil.The Dauphin, reassured by the results of these tests, commissioned plate armor for her.", "She designed her own banner and had a sword brought to her from under the altar in the church at Sainte-Catherine-de-Fierbois.", "Around this time she began calling herself \"Joan the Maiden\", emphasizing her virginity as a sign of her mission.Before Joan's arrival at Chinon, the Armagnac strategic situation was bad but not hopeless.", "The Armagnac forces were prepared to endure a prolonged siege at Orléans, the Burgundians had recently withdrawn from the siege due to disagreements about territory, and the English were debating whether to continue.", "Nonetheless, after almost a century of war, the Armagnacs were demoralized.", "Once Joan joined the Dauphin's cause, her personality began to raise their spirits, inspiring devotion and the hope of divine assistance.", "Her belief in the divine origin of her mission turned the longstanding Anglo-French conflict over inheritance into a religious war.", "Before beginning the journey to Orléans, Joan dictated a letter to the Duke of Bedford warning him that she was sent by God to drive him out of France." ], [ "Military campaigns", "===Orléans===''Joan of Arc enters Orléans'' by Jean-Jacques Scherrer (1887, Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Orléans)|alt=Joan of Arc on horseback with armor and holding banner being greeted by the people of Orléans.In the last week of April 1429, Joan set out from Blois as part of an army carrying supplies for the relief of Orléans.", "She arrived there on 29 April and met the commander Jean de Dunois, the Bastard of Orléans.", "Orléans was not completely cut off, and Dunois got her into the city, where she was greeted enthusiastically.", "Joan was initially treated as a figurehead to raise morale, flying her banner on the battlefield.", "She was not given any formal command or included in military councils but quickly gained the support of the Armagnac troops.", "She always seemed to be present where the fighting was most intense, she frequently stayed with the front ranks, and she gave them a sense she was fighting for their salvation.", "Armagnac commanders would sometimes accept the advice she gave them, such as deciding what position to attack, when to continue an assault, and how to place artillery.On 4 May, the Armagnacs went on the offensive, attacking the outlying (fortress of Saint Loup).", "Once Joan learned of the attack, she rode out with her banner to the site of the battle, a mile east of Orléans.", "She arrived as the Armagnac soldiers were retreating after a failed assault.", "Her appearance rallied the soldiers, who attacked again and took the fortress.", "On 5 May, no combat occurred since it was Ascension Thursday, a feast day.", "She dictated another letter to the English warning them to leave France and had it tied to a bolt, which was fired by a crossbowman.The Armagnacs resumed their offensive on 6 May, capturing Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, which the English had deserted.", "The Armagnac commanders wanted to stop, but Joan encouraged them to launch an assault on ''les Augustins'', an English fortress built around a monastery.", "After its capture, the Armagnac commanders wanted to consolidate their gains, but Joan again argued for continuing the offensive.", "On the morning of 7 May, the Armagnacs attacked the main English stronghold, ''les Tourelles''.", "Joan was wounded by an arrow between the neck and shoulder while holding her banner in the trench on the south bank of the river but later returned to encourage the final assault that took the fortress.", "The English retreated from Orléans on 8 May, ending the siege.At Chinon, Joan had declared that she was sent by God.", "At Poitiers, when she was asked to show a sign demonstrating this claim, she replied that it would be given if she were brought to Orléans.", "The lifting of the siege was interpreted by many people to be that sign.", "Prominent clergy such as , Archbishop of Embrun, and the theologian Jean Gerson wrote treatises in support of Joan after this victory.", "In contrast, the English saw the ability of this peasant girl to defeat their armies as proof she was possessed by the devil.===Loire Campaign===After the success at Orléans, Joan insisted that the Armagnac forces should advance promptly toward Reims to crown the Dauphin.", "Charles allowed her to accompany the army under the command of John II, Duke of Alençon, who collaboratively worked with Joan and regularly heeded her advice.", "Before advancing toward Reims, the Armagnacs needed to recapture the bridge towns along the Loire: Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, and Beaugency.", "This would clear the way for Charles and his entourage, who would have to cross the Loire near Orléans to get from Chinon to Reims.The campaign to clear the Loire towns began on 11 June when the Armagnac forces led by Alençon and Joan arrived at Jargeau and forced the English to withdraw inside the town's walls.", "Joan sent a message to the English to surrender; they refused and she advocated for a direct assault on the walls the next day.", "By the end of the day, the town was taken.", "The Armagnac took few prisoners and many of the English who surrendered were killed.", "During this campaign, Joan continued to serve in the thick of battle.", "She began scaling a siege ladder with her banner in hand but before she could climb the wall, she was struck by a stone which split her helmet.Alençon and Joan's army advanced on Meung-sur-Loire.", "On 15 June, they took control of the town's bridge, and the English garrison withdrew to a castle on the Loire's north bank.", "Most of the army continued on the south bank of the Loire to besiege the castle at Beaugency.Meanwhile, the English army from Paris under the command of Sir John Fastolf had linked up with the garrison in Meung and traveled along the north bank of the Loire to relieve Beaugency.", "Unaware of this, the English garrison at Beaugency surrendered on 18 June.", "The main English army retreated toward Paris; Joan urged the Armagnacs to pursue them, and the two armies clashed at the Battle of Patay later that day.", "The English had prepared their forces to ambush an Armagnac attack with hidden archers, but the Armagnac vanguard detected and scattered them.", "A rout ensued that decimated the English army.", "Fastolf escaped with a small band of soldiers, but many of the English leaders were captured.", "Joan arrived at the battlefield too late to participate in the decisive action, but her encouragement to pursue the English had made the victory possible.===Coronation and siege of Paris===Charles VII in Guillaume de Nangis' ''Chronicon abbreviatum regum Francorum''; Joan of Arc stands holding a banner of France to his left.", "Unknown author (15th century).|alt=Miniature of coronation of King Charles the seventh of FranceAfter the destruction of the English army at Patay, some Armagnac leaders argued for an invasion of English-held Normandy, but Joan remained insistent that Charles must be crowned.", "The Dauphin agreed, and the army left Gien on 29 June to march on Reims.", "The advance was nearly unopposed.", "The Burgundian-held town of Auxerre surrendered on 3 July after three days of negotiations, and other towns in the army's path returned to Armagnac allegiance without resistance.", "Troyes, which had a small garrison of English and Burgundian troops, was the only one to resist.", "After four days of negotiation, Joan ordered the soldiers to fill the city's moat with wood and directed the placement of artillery.", "Fearing an assault, Troyes negotiated a surrender.Reims opened its gates on 16 July 1429.Charles, Joan, and the army entered in the evening, and Charles's consecration took place the following morning.", "Joan was given a place of honor at the ceremony, and announced that God's will had been fulfilled.After the consecration, the royal court negotiated a truce of fifteen days with the Duke of Burgundy, who promised he would try to arrange the transfer of Paris to the Armagnacs while continuing negotiations for a definitive peace.", "At the end of the truce, Burgundy reneged on his promise.", "Joan and the Duke of Alençon favored a quick march on Paris, but divisions in Charles's court and continued peace negotiations with Burgundy led to a slow advance.As the Armagnac army approached Paris, many of the towns along the way surrendered without a fight.", "On 15 August, the English forces under the Duke of Bedford confronted the Armagnacs near Montépilloy in a fortified position that the Armagnac commanders thought was too strong to assault.", "Joan rode out in front of the English positions to try to provoke them to attack.", "They refused, resulting in a standoff.", "The English retreated the following day.", "The Armagnacs continued their advance and launched an assault on Paris on 8 September.", "During the fighting, Joan was wounded in the leg by a crossbow bolt.", "She remained in a trench beneath the city walls until she was rescued after nightfall.", "The Armagnacs had suffered 1,500 casualties.", "The following morning, Charles ordered an end to the assault.", "Joan was displeased and argued that the attack should be continued.", "She and Alençon had made fresh plans to attack Paris, but Charles dismantled a bridge approaching Paris that was necessary for the attack and the Armagnac army had to retreat.After the defeat at Paris, Joan's role in the French court diminished.", "Her aggressive independence did not agree with the court's emphasis on finding a diplomatic solution with Burgundy, and her role in the defeat at Paris reduced the court's faith in her.", "Scholars at the University of Paris argued that she failed to take Paris because her inspiration was not divine.", "In September, Charles disbanded the army, and Joan was not allowed to work with the Duke of Alençon again.===Campaign against Perrinet Gressart===Miniature depicting Jeanne d'Arc from ''The Lives of Famous Women'', by (1506, alt=A human figure on horseback, with the horse pointing left.", "The figure is wearing armor and carrying an orange banner.", "The horse is white and has red accessories.In October, Joan was sent as part of a force to attack the territory of , a mercenary who had served the Burgundians and English.", "The army besieged Saint-Pierre-le-Moûtier, which fell after Joan encouraged a direct assault on 4 November.", "The army then tried unsuccessfully to take La-Charité-sur-Loire in November and December and had to abandon their artillery during the retreat.", "This defeat further diminished Joan's reputation.Joan returned to court at the end of December, where she learned that she and her family had been ennobled by Charles as a reward for her services to him and the kingdom.", "Before the September attack on Paris, Charles had negotiated a four-month truce with the Burgundians, which was extended until Easter 1430.During this truce, the French court had no need for Joan.===Siege of Compiègne and capture===The Duke of Burgundy began to reclaim towns which had been ceded to him by treaty but had not submitted.", "Compiègne was one such town of many in areas which the Armagnacs had recaptured over the previous few months.", "Joan set out with a company of volunteers at the end of March 1430 to relieve the town, which was under siege.", "This expedition did not have the explicit permission of Charles, who was still observing the truce.", "Some writers suggest that Joan's expedition to Compiègne without documented permission from the court was a desperate and treasonable action, but others have argued that she could not have launched the expedition without the financial support of the court.In April, Joan arrived at Melun, which had expelled its Burgundian garrison.", "As Joan advanced, her force grew as other commanders joined her.", "Joan's troops advanced to Lagny-sur-Marne and defeated an Anglo-Burgundian force commanded by the mercenary Franquet d'Arras who was captured.", "Typically, he would have been ransomed or exchanged by the capturing force, but Joan allowed the townspeople to execute him after a trial.Mural ''Joan captured by the Burgundians at Compiègne'' by Jules-Eugène Lenepveu (, Panthéon, Paris)|alt=Joan in armor and surcoat being pulled off her horse by soldiers.Joan reached Compiègne on 14 May.", "After defensive forays against the Burgundian besiegers, she was forced to disband the majority of the army because it had become too difficult for the surrounding countryside to support.", "Joan and about 400 of her remaining soldiers entered the town.On 23 May 1430, Joan accompanied an Armagnac force which sortied from Compiègne to attack the Burgundian camp at Margny, northeast of the town.", "The attack failed, and Joan was captured; She agreed to surrender to a pro-Burgundian nobleman named Lyonnel de Wandomme, a member of Jean de Luxembourg's contingent.", "who quickly moved her to his castle at Beaulieu-les-Fontaines near Noyes.", "After her first attempt to escape, she was transferred to Beaurevoir Castle.", "She made another escape attempt while there, jumping from a window of a tower and landing in a dry moat; she was injured but survived.", "In November, she was moved to the Burgundian town of Arras.The English and Burgundians rejoiced that Joan had been removed as a military threat.", "The English negotiated with their Burgundian allies to pay Joan's ransom and transfer her to their custody.", "Bishop Pierre Cauchon of Beauvais, a partisan supporter of the Duke of Burgundy and the English crown, played a prominent part in these negotiations, which were completed in November.", "The final agreement called for the English to pay 10,000 livres tournois to obtain her from Luxembourg.", "After the English paid the ransom, they moved Joan to Rouen, their main headquarters in France.", "There is no evidence that Charles tried to save Joan once she was transferred to the English." ], [ "Trials and execution", "=== Trial ===''The Trial of Joan of Arc'', by Louis Maurice Boutet de Monvel (1909–1910, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.)|alt=Joan of Arc facing left addressing assessors, scribes.", "She has soldiers behind herJoan was put on trial for heresy in Rouen on 9 January 1431.She was accused of having blasphemed by wearing men's clothes, of acting upon visions that were demonic, and of refusing to submit her words and deeds to the church because she claimed she would be judged by God alone.", "Joan's captors downplayed the secular aspects of her trial by submitting her judgment to an ecclesiastical court, but the trial was politically motivated.", "Joan testified that her visions had instructed her to defeat the English and crown Charles, and her success was argued to be evidence she was acting on behalf of God.", "If unchallenged, her testimony would invalidate the English claim to the rule of France and undermine the University of Paris, which supported the dual monarchy ruled by an English king.The verdict was a foregone conclusion.Joan's guilt could be used to compromise Charles's claims to legitimacy by showing that he had been consecrated by the act of a heretic.", "Cauchon served as the ordinary judge of the trial.", "The English subsidized the trial, including payments to Cauchon and Jean Le Maître, who represented the Inquisitor of France.", "All but 8 of the 131 clergy who participated in the trial were French and two thirds were associated with the University of Paris, but most were pro-Burgundian and pro-English.Miniature of Pierre Cauchon presiding at Joan of Arc's trial, unknown author (15th century, Bibliothèque nationale de France)|alt=miniature of Pierre CouchonCauchon attempted to follow correct inquisitorial procedure, but the trial had many irregularities.", "Joan should have been in the hands of the church during the trial and guarded by women, but instead was imprisoned by the English and guarded by male soldiers under the command of the Duke of Bedford.", "Contrary to canon law, Cauchon had not established Joan's infamy before proceeding with the trial.", "Joan was not read the charges against her until well after her interrogations began.", "The procedures were below inquisitorial standards, subjecting Joan to lengthy interrogations without legal counsel.", "One of the trial clerics stepped down because he felt the testimony was coerced and its intention was to entrap Joan; another challenged Cauchon's right to judge the trial and was jailed.", "There is evidence that the trial records were falsified.During the trial, Joan showed great control.", "She induced her interrogators to ask questions sequentially rather than simultaneously, refer back to their records when appropriate, and end the sessions when she requested.", "Witnesses at the trial were impressed by her prudence when answering questions.", "For example, in one exchange she was asked if she knew she was in God's grace.", "The question was meant as a scholarly trap, as church doctrine held that nobody could be certain of being in God's grace.", "If she answered positively, she would have been charged with heresy; if negatively, she would have confessed her own guilt.", "Joan avoided the trap by stating that if she was not in God's grace, she hoped God would put her there, and if she was in God's grace then she hoped she would remain so.", "One of the court notaries at her trial later testified that the interrogators were stunned by her answer.", "To convince her to submit, Joan was shown the instruments of torture.", "When she refused to be intimidated, Cauchon met with about a dozen assessors (clerical jurors) to vote on whether she should be tortured.", "The majority decided against it.In early May, Cauchon asked the University of Paris to deliberate on twelve articles summarizing the accusation of heresy.", "The university approved the charges.", "On 23 May, Joan was formally admonished by the court.", "The next day, she was taken out to the churchyard of the abbey of Saint-Ouen for public condemnation.", "As Cauchon began to read Joan's sentence, she agreed to submit.", "She was presented with an abjuration document, which included an agreement that she would not bear arms or wear men's clothing.", "It was read aloud to her, and she signed it.===Execution===Public heresy was a capital crime, in which an unrepentant or relapsed heretic could be given over to the judgment of the secular courts and punished by death.", "Having signed the abjuration, Joan was no longer an unrepentant heretic but could be executed if convicted of relapsing into heresy.As part of her abjuration, Joan was required to renounce wearing men's clothes.", "She exchanged her clothes for a woman's dress and allowed her head to be shaved.", "She was returned to her cell and kept in chains instead of being transferred to an ecclesiastical prison.Witnesses at the rehabilitation trial stated that Joan was subjected to mistreatment and rape attempts, including one by an English noble, and that guards placed men's clothes in her cell, forcing her to wear them.", "Cauchon was notified that Joan had resumed wearing male clothing.", "He sent clerics to admonish her to remain in submission, but the English prevented them from visiting her.Miniature of Joan's Execution from ''The Vigils of King Charles VII'', anonymous (, alt= Joan in red dress being bound to a stake as a group of men look onOn 28 May, Cauchon went to Joan's cell, along with several other clerics.", "According to the trial record, Joan said that she had gone back to wearing men's clothes because it was more fitting that she dress like a man while being held with male guards, and that the judges had broken their promise to let her go to mass and to release her from her chains.", "She stated that if they fulfilled their promises and placed her in a decent prison, she would be obedient.", "When Cauchon asked about her visions, Joan stated that the voices had blamed her for abjuring out of fear, and that she would not deny them again.", "As Joan's abjuration had required her to deny her visions, this was sufficient to convict her of relapsing into heresy and to condemn her to death.", "The next day, forty-two assessors were summoned to decide Joan's fate.", "Two recommended that she be abandoned to the secular courts immediately; the rest recommended that the abjuration be read to her again and explained.", "In the end, they voted unanimously that Joan was a relapsed heretic and should be abandoned to the secular power, the English, for punishment.At about the age of nineteen, Joan was executed on 30 May 1431.In the morning, she was allowed to receive the sacraments despite the court process requiring they be denied to heretics.", "She was then taken to Rouen's Vieux-Marché (Old Marketplace), where she was publicly read her sentence of condemnation.", "At this point, she should have been turned over to the appropriate authority, the bailiff of Rouen, for secular sentencing, but instead was delivered directly to the English and tied to a tall plastered pillar for execution by burning.", "She asked to view a cross as she died, and was given one by an English soldier made from a stick, which she kissed and placed next to her chest.", "A processional crucifix was fetched from the church of Saint-Saveur.", "She embraced it before her hands were bound, and it was held before her eyes during her execution.", "After her death, her remains were thrown into the Seine River.===Aftermath and rehabilitation trial===Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Noyon)|alt=A group of highly detailed and realistic painted plaster statues depicting four men wearing various ecclesiastical garments.", "They are arranged in a complex composition around a representation of Joan of Arc on a set of stairs.The military situation was not changed by Joan's execution.", "Her triumphs had raised Armagnac morale, and the English were not able to regain momentum.", "Charles remained king of France, despite a rival coronation held for the ten-year-old Henry VI of England at Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris in 1431.In 1435, the Burgundians signed the Treaty of Arras, abandoning their alliance with England.", "Twenty-two years after Joan's death, the war ended with a French victory at the Battle of Castillon in 1453, and the English were expelled from all of France except Calais.Joan's execution created a political liability for Charles, implying that his consecration as the king of France had been achieved through the actions of a heretic.", "On 15 February 1450, a few months after he regained Rouen, Charles ordered Guillaume Bouillé, a theologian and former rector of the University of Paris, to open an inquest.", "In a brief investigation, Bouillé interviewed seven witnesses of Joan's trial and concluded that the judgment of Joan as a heretic was arbitrary.", "She had been a prisoner of war treated as a political prisoner, and was put to death without basis.Bouillé's report could not overturn the verdict but it opened the way for the later retrial.In 1452, a second inquest into Joan's trial was opened by Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville, papal legate and relative of Charles, and Jean Bréhal, the recently appointed Inquisitor of France, who interviewed about 20 witnesses.", "The inquest was guided by 27 articles describing how Joan's trial had been biased.", "Immediately after the inquest, d'Estouteville went to Orléans on 9 June and granted an indulgence to those who participated in the ceremonies in Joan's honor on 8 May commemorating the lifting of the siege.For the next two years d'Estouteville and Bréhal worked on the case.", "Bréhal forwarded a petition from Joan's mother, Isabelle, and Joan's two brothers Jean and Pierre, to Pope Nicholas V in 1454.Bréhal submitted a summary of his findings to theologians and lawyers in France and Italy, as well as a professor at the University of Vienna, most of whom gave opinions favorable to Joan.", "After Nicholas V died in early 1455, the new pope Callixtus III gave permission for a rehabilitation trial, and appointed three commissioners to oversee the process: Jean Juvénal des Ursins, archbishop of Reims; Guillaume Chartier, bishop of Paris; and Richard Olivier de Longueil, bishop of Coutances.", "They chose Bréhal as Inquisitor.The rehabilitation trial began on 7 November 1455 at Notre Dame Cathedral when Joan's mother publicly delivered a formal request for her daughter's rehabilitation, and ended on 7 July 1456 at Rouen Cathedral, having heard from about 115 witnesses.", "The court found that the original trial was unjust and deceitful; Joan's abjuration, execution and their consequences were nullified.", "In his summary of the trial, Bréhal suggested that Cauchon and the assessors who supported him might be guilty of malice and heresy.", "To emphasize the court's decision, a copy of the Articles of Accusation was formally torn up.", "The court ordered that a cross should be erected on the site of Joan's execution." ], [ "Visions", "alt=Joan seated and looking forward with her furled banner while an angel whispers in her ear.", "An armored figure with fleur-de-lys banner is blowing a horn in the background.Joan's visions played an important role in her condemnation, and her admission that she had returned to heeding them led to her execution.", "Theologians of the era believed that visions could have a supernatural source.", "The assessors at her trial focused on determining the specific source of Joan's visions, using an ecclesiastical form of (discernment of spirits).", "Because she was accused of heresy, they sought to show that her visions were false.", "The rehabilitation trial nullified Joan's sentence, but did not declare her visions authentic.", "In 1894, Pope Leo XIII pronounced that Joan's mission was divinely inspired.Modern scholars have discussed possible neurological and psychiatric causes for her visions.", "Her visions have been described as hallucinations arising from epilepsy or a temporal lobe tuberculoma.", "Others have implicated ergot poisoning, schizophrenia, delusional disorder, or creative psychopathy induced by her early childhood rearing.", "One of the Promoters of the Faith at her 1903 canonization trial argued that her visions may have been manifestations of hysteria.", "Other scholars argue that Joan created some of the visions' specific details in response to the demands of the interrogators at her trial.Many of these explanations have been challenged; the trial records designed to demonstrate that Joan was guilty of heresy are unlikely to provide the objective descriptions of symptoms needed to support a medical diagnosis.Joan's firm belief in the divinity of her visions strengthened her confidence, enabled her to trust herself, and gave her hope during her capture and trial." ], [ "Clothing", "Joan's cross-dressing was the topic of five of the articles of accusation against her during the trial.", "In the view of the assessors, it was the emblem of her heresy.", "Her final condemnation began when she was found to have resumed wearing men's clothes, which was taken as a sign that she had relapsed into heresy.", "''Jeanne d'Arc'', a gilded bronze statue by Emmanuel Frémiet (1874, Place des Pyramides)|alt=see captionFrom the time of her journey to Chinon to her abjuration, Joan usually wore men's clothes and cropped her hair in a male fashion.", "When she left Vaucouleurs to see the Dauphin in Chinon, Joan was said to have worn a black doublet, a black tunic, and a short black cap.", "By the time she was captured, she had acquired more elaborate outfits.", "At her trial, she was accused of wearing breeches, a mantle, a coat of mail, a doublet, hose joined to the doublet with twenty laces, tight boots, spurs, a breastplate, buskins, a sword, a dagger, and a lance.", "She was also described as wearing furs, a golden surcoat over her armor, and sumptuous riding habits made of precious cloth.During the trial proceedings, Joan is not recorded as giving a practical reason why she cross-dressed.", "She stated that it was her own choice to wear men's clothes, and that she did so not at the request of men but by the command of God and his angels.", "She stated she would return to wearing women's clothes when she fulfilled her calling.Although Joan's cross-dressing was used to justify her execution, the church's position on it was not clear.", "In general, it was seen as a sin, but there was no agreement about its severity.", "Thomas Aquinas stated that a woman may wear a man's clothes to hide herself from enemies or if no other clothes were available, and Joan did both, wearing them in enemy territory to get to Chinon, and in her prison cell after her abjuration when her dress was taken from her.", "Soon after the siege of Orléans was lifted, Jean Gerson said that Joan's male clothes and haircut were appropriate for her calling, as she was a warrior and men's clothes were more practical.Cross-dressing may have helped her maintain her virginity by deterring rape and signaling her unavailability as a sexual object; scholars have stated that when she was imprisoned, wearing men's clothes would have only been a minor deterrent to rape as she was shackled most of the time.", "For most of her active life, Joan did not cross-dress to hide her gender.", "Rather, it may have functioned to emphasize her unique identity as , a model of virtue that transcends gender roles and inspires people." ], [ "Legacy", "Joan is one of the most studied people of the Middle Ages, partly because her two trials provided a wealth of documents.", "Her image, changing over time, has included being the savior of France, an obedient daughter of the Roman Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence.===Military leader and symbol of France===''Joan of Arc'', statue by Denis Foyatier (1855, Orléans)|alt=Joan of Arc on horseback, with sword in right hand Joan's reputation as a military leader who helped drive the English from France began to form before her death.", "Just after Charles's coronation, Christine de Pizan wrote the poem ''Ditié de Jehanne D'Arc'', celebrating Joan as a supporter of Charles sent by Divine Providence and reflecting French optimism after the triumph at Orléans.", "As early as 1429, Orléans began holding a celebration in honor of the raising of the siege on 8 May.After Joan's execution, her role in the Orléans victory encouraged popular support for her rehabilitation.", "Joan became a central part of the annual celebration, and by 1435, a play, (Mystery of the Siege of Orléans), portrayed her as the vehicle of the divine will that liberated Orléans.", "The Orléans festival celebrating Joan continues in modern times.Less than a decade after her rehabilitation trial, Pope Pius II wrote a brief biography describing her as the maid who saved the kingdom of France.", "Louis XII commissioned a full-length biography of her around 1500.Joan's early legacy was closely associated with the divine right of the monarchy to rule France.", "During the French Revolution, her reputation came into question because of her association with the monarchy and religion, and the festival in her honor held at Orléans was suspended in 1793.In 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte authorized its renewal and the creation of a new statue of Joan at Orléans, stating, \"The illustrious Joan ... proved that there is no miracle which French genius cannot accomplish when national independence is threatened.", "\"Since then, she has become a prominent symbol as the defender of the French nation.", "After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Joan became a rallying point for a new crusade to reclaim Lorraine, the province of her birth.", "The Third Republic held a patriotic civic holiday in her honor on 8 May to celebrate her victory at Orléans.", "During World War I, her image was used to inspire victory.", "In World War II, all sides of the French cause appealed to her legacy: she was a symbol for Philippe Pétain in Vichy France, a model for Charles de Gaulle's leadership of the Free French, and an example for the Communist resistance.", "More recently, her association with the monarchy and national liberation has made her a symbol for the French far right, including the monarchist movement Action Française and the National Front Party.", "Joan's image has been used by the entire spectrum of French politics, and she is an important reference in political dialogue about French identity and unity.===Saint and heroic woman===Illustration by alt=See captionJoan is a saint in the Roman Catholic Church.", "She was viewed as a religious figure in Orléans after the siege was lifted, and an annual panegyric was pronounced there on her behalf until the 1800s.", "In 1849, the Bishop of Orlėans Félix Dupanloup delivered an oration that attracted international attention and in 1869, petitioned Rome to begin beatification proceedings.", "She was beatified by Pope Pius X in 1909, and canonized on 16 May 1920 by Pope Benedict XV.", "Her feast day is 30 May, the anniversary of her execution.", "In an apostolic letter, Pope Pius XI declared Joan one of the patron saints of France on 2 March 1922.Joan was canonized as a Virgin, not as a Christian martyr because she had been put to death by a canonically constituted court, which did not execute for her faith in Christ, but for her private revelation.", "Nevertheless, she has been popularly venerated as a martyr since her death: one who suffered for her modesty and purity,her country,and the strength of her convictions.", "Joan is also remembered as a visionary in the Church of England with a commemoration on 30 May.", "She is revered in the pantheon of the Cao Dai religion.While Joan was alive, she was already being compared to biblical women heroes, such as Esther, Judith, and Deborah.", "Her claim of virginity, which signified her virtue and sincerity, was upheld by women of status from both the Armagnac and Burgundian-English sides of the Hundred Years' War: Yolande of Aragon, Charles's mother-in-law, and Anne of Burgundy, Duchess of Bedford.Joan has been described as a model of an autonomous woman who challenged traditions of masculinity and femininity to be heard as an individual in a patriarchal culture—setting her own course by heeding the voices of her visions.", "She fulfilled the traditionally male role of a military leader, while maintaining her status as a valiant woman.", "Merging qualities associated with both genders, Joan has inspired numerous artistic and cultural works for many centuries.", "In the nineteenth century, hundreds of works of art about her—including biographies, plays, and musical scores—were created in France, and her story became popular as an artistic subject in Europe and North America.", "By the 1960s, she was the topic of thousands of books.", "Her legacy has become global, and inspires novels, plays, poems, operas, films, paintings, children's books, advertising, computer games, comics and popular culture across the world." ], [ "See also", "* Name of Joan of Arc* Trial of Joan of Arc* Rehabilitation trial of Joan of Arc* Cultural depictions of Joan of Arc* Alternative historical interpretations of Joan of Arc* Jeanne Hachette" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===:'''Books'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * :'''Journal articles, dissertations, and theses'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * :'''Online sources'''* * * * * * :'''Primary sources'''* * * * * :'''Transcripts of Joan of Arc's trial and the rehabilitation trial'''* (English language translation of Joan's trial.", ")* (Latin text of Joan's trial.", ")* (Latin text of the rehabilitation trial, volume I.", ")* (Latin text of the rehabilitation trial, volume II.)" ], [ "External links", "* \"The Siege of Orleans\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Anne Curry, Malcolm Vale & Matthew Bennett (''In Our Time'', 24 May 2007)" ] ]
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[ [ "Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted''' (; 22 February 1879 – 17 December 1947) was a Danish physical chemist, who developed the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory simultaneously with and independently of Martin Lowry." ], [ "Biography", "Brønsted was born in Varde, Denmark on 22 February 1879.His mother died shortly after his birth and at the age of 14, Brønsted lost his father and moved to Copenhagen with his older sister and his stepmother.", "In 1897, Brønsted began his studies as a chemical engineer at the Polytechnic Institute inCopenhagen.", "After his first degree, Brønsted changed fields and received his magister degree in chemistry in 1902 from the University of Copenhagen.", "In 1905, he became an assistant at the Chemical Institute and obtained his doctoral degree in 1908.In the same year, Brønsted became a professor of physical and inorganic chemistry at the University of Copenhagen.In 1929, Brønsted was a visiting professor at Yale University.", "His research gained worldwide recognition, resulting in four Nobel prize nominations, a gold H. C. Ørsted Medal and being appointed as a fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the National Academy of Sciences.Brønsted married Charlotte Warberg, whom he met during his first degree.", "The couple had four children.", "In World War II, Brønsted's opposition to the Nazis led to his election to the Danish parliament in 1947, but he was too ill to take his seat and died shortly after the election." ], [ "Research", "Early in his career, Brønsted studied chemical thermodynamics and later studied electrolyte solutions and carried out an extensive series of solubility measurements.", "These measurements led him to establish general laws which were later confirmed when the Debye–Hückel theory was proposed.Brønsted is best known for his work on reaction kinetics, in particular acid–base reactions.", "In 1923, he recognized that acid–base reactions involved the transfer of a proton, from the acid (proton donor) to the base (proton acceptor).", "Almost simultaneously and independently, the British chemist Martin Lowry arrived at the same conclusion, thus the name Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.", "Also in 1923, Gilbert N. Lewis proposed an electronic theory of acid–base reactions, but both theories remain commonly used.Later in his career, Brønsted kept studying reaction kinetics, with a special focus on reactions taking place in non-aqueous solutions.", "He also developed some work about the effect of molecular size on the thermodynamical properties of hydrocarbons, polymers and colloids.", "He also worked with the Nobel prize winner George de Hevesy on isotope separation by fractional distillation." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Janus kinase" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Janus kinase''' ('''JAK''') is a family of intracellular, non-receptor tyrosine kinases that transduce cytokine-mediated signals via the JAK-STAT pathway.", "They were initially named \"'''just another kinase'''\" 1 and 2 (since they were just two of many discoveries in a PCR-based screen of kinases), but were ultimately published as \"Janus kinase\".", "The name is taken from the two-faced Roman god of beginnings, endings and duality, Janus, because the JAKs possess two near-identical phosphate-transferring domains.", "One domain exhibits the kinase activity, while the other negatively regulates the kinase activity of the first." ], [ "Family", "Overview of signal transduction pathways involved in apoptosisThe four JAK family members are:* Janus kinase 1 (JAK1)* Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)* Janus kinase 3 (JAK3)* Tyrosine kinase 2 (TYK2)Transgenic mice that do not express JAK1 have defective responses to some cytokines, such as interferon-gamma.", "JAK1 and JAK2 are involved in type II interferon (interferon-gamma) signalling, whereas JAK1 and TYK2 are involved in type I interferon signalling.", "Mice that do not express TYK2 have defective natural killer cell function." ], [ "Functions", "The JAK-STAT system consists of three main components:(1) a receptor (green), which penetrates the cell membrane;(2) Janus kinase (JAK) (yellow), which is bound to the receptor, and;(3) Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) (blue), which carries the signal into the nucleus and DNA.", "The red dots are phosphates.After the cytokine binds to the receptor, JAK adds a phosphate to (phosphorylates) the receptor.", "This attracts the STAT proteins, which are also phosphorylated and bind to each other, forming a pair (dimer).", "The dimer moves into the nucleus, binds to the DNA, and causes transcription of genes.", "Enzymes that add phosphate groups are called protein kinases.Since members of the type I and type II cytokine receptor families possess no catalytic kinase activity, they rely on the JAK family of tyrosine kinases to phosphorylate and activate downstream proteins involved in their signal transduction pathways.", "The receptors exist as paired polypeptides, thus exhibiting two intracellular signal-transducing domains.JAKs associate with a proline-rich region in each intracellular domain that is adjacent to the cell membrane and called a box1/box2 region.", "After the receptor associates with its respective cytokine/ligand, it goes through a conformational change, bringing the two JAKs close enough to phosphorylate each other.", "The JAK autophosphorylation induces a conformational change within itself, enabling it to transduce the intracellular signal by further phosphorylating and activating transcription factors called STATs (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription, or Signal Transduction And Transcription).", "The activated STATs dissociate from the receptor and form dimers before translocating to the cell nucleus, where they regulate transcription of selected genes.Some examples of the molecules that use the JAK/STAT signaling pathway are colony-stimulating factor, prolactin, growth hormone, and many cytokines.", "Janus Kinases have also been reported to have a role in the maintenance of X chromosome inactivation.===Clinical significance===JAK inhibitors are used for the treatment of atopic dermatitis and rheumatoid arthritis.", "They are also being studied in psoriasis, polycythemia vera, alopecia, essential thrombocythemia, ulcerative colitis, myeloid metaplasia with myelofibrosis and vitiligo.", "Examples are tofacitinib, baricitinib, upadacitinib and filgotinib (GLPG0634).In 2014 researchers discovered that oral JAK inhibitors, when administered orally, could restore hair growth in some subjects and that applied to the skin, effectively promoted hair growth." ], [ "Structure", "Domain structure of Janus kinases, JH = JAK homology domainJAKs range from 120-140 kDa in size and have seven defined regions of homology called Janus homology domains 1 to 7 (JH1-7).", "JH1 is the kinase domain important for the enzymatic activity of the JAK and contains typical features of a tyrosine kinase such as conserved tyrosines necessary for JAK activation (e.g., Y1038/Y1039 in JAK1, Y1007/Y1008 in JAK2, Y980/Y981 in JAK3, and Y1054/Y1055 in Tyk2).", "Phosphorylation of these dual tyrosines leads to the conformational changes in the JAK protein to facilitate binding of substrate.", "JH2 is a \"pseudokinase domain\", a domain structurally similar to a tyrosine kinase and essential for a normal kinase activity, yet lacks enzymatic activity.", "This domain may be involved in regulating the activity of JH1, and was likely a duplication of the JH1 domain which has undergone mutation post-duplication.", "The JH3-JH4 domains of JAKs share homology with Src-homology-2 (SH2) domains.", "The amino terminal (NH2) end (JH4-JH7) of Jaks is called a FERM domain (short for band 4.1, ezrin, radixin and moesin); this domain is also found in the focal adhesion kinase (FAK) family and is involved in association of JAKs with cytokine receptors and/or other kinases." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Jacob Grimm" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm''' (4 January 1785 – 20 September 1863), also known as '''Ludwig Karl''', was a German author, linguist, philologist, jurist, and folklorist.", "He formulated Grimm's law of linguistics, and was the co-author of the ''Deutsches Wörterbuch'', the author of ''Deutsche Mythologie'', and the editor of ''Grimms' Fairy Tales''.", "He was the older brother of Wilhelm Grimm; together, they were the literary duo known as the Brothers Grimm." ], [ "Life and books", "Jacob Grimm was born 4 January 1785, in Hanau in Hesse-Kassel.", "His father, Philipp Grimm, was a lawyer who died while Jacob was a child, and his mother Dorothea was left with a very small income.", "Her sister was lady of the chamber to the Landgravine of Hesse, and she helped to support and educate the family.", "Jacob was sent to the public school at Kassel in 1798 with his younger brother Wilhelm.In 1802, he went to the University of Marburg where he studied law, a profession for which he had been intended by his father.", "His brother joined him at Marburg a year later, having just recovered from a severe illness, and likewise began the study of law.===Meeting von Savigny===Jacob Grimm became inspired by the lectures of Friedrich Carl von Savigny, a noted expert of Roman law; Wilhelm Grimm, in the preface to the ''Deutsche Grammatik'' (German Grammar), credits Savigny with giving the brothers an awareness of science.", "Savigny's lectures also awakened in Jacob a love for historical and antiquarian investigation, which underlies all his work.", "It was in Savigny's library that Grimm first saw Bodmer's edition of the Middle High German minnesingers and other early texts, which gave him a desire to study their language.In the beginning of 1805, he was invited by Savigny to Paris, to help him in his literary work.", "There Grimm strengthened his taste for the literature of the Middle Ages.", "Towards the close of the year, he returned to Kassel, where his mother and brother had settled after Wilhelm finished his studies.", "The following year, Jacob obtained a position in the war office with a small salary of 100 thalers.", "He complained that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform and pigtail, but the role gave him spare time for the pursuit of his studies.===Librarianship===In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was appointed superintendent of the private library of Jérôme Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Kassel had been incorporated by Napoleon.", "Grimm was appointed an auditor to the state council, while retaining his superintendent post.", "His salary rose to 4000 francs and his official duties were nominal.", "In 1813, after the expulsion of Bonaparte and the reinstatement of an elector, Grimm was appointed Secretary of Legation accompanying the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army.", "In 1814, he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of books taken by the French, and he attended the Congress of Vienna as Secretary of Legation in 1814–1815.Upon his return from Vienna, he was sent to Paris again to secure book restitutions.", "Meanwhile, Wilhelm had obtained a job at the Kassel library, and Jacob was made second librarian under Volkel in 1816.Upon the death of Volkel in 1828, the brothers both expected promotion, and they were dissatisfied when the role of first librarian was given to Rommel, the keeper of the archives.", "Consequently, they moved the following year to the University of Göttingen, where Jacob was appointed professor and librarian, and Wilhelm under-librarian.", "Jacob Grimm lectured on legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on the ''Germania'' of Tacitus.===Later work===Marble bust of Grimm by Elisabet Ney, carved 1856–58 in BerlinGrimm joined other academics, known as the Göttingen Seven, who signed a protest against the King of Hanover's abrogation of the liberal constitution which had been established some years before.", "As a result, he was dismissed from his professorship and banished from the Kingdom of Hanover in 1837.He returned to Kassel with his brother, who had also signed the protest.", "They remained there until 1840, when they accepted King Frederick William IV's invitation to move to the University of Berlin, where they both received professorships and were elected members of the Academy of Sciences.", "Grimm was not under any obligation to lecture, and seldom did so; he spent his time working with his brother on their dictionary project.", "During their time in Kassel, he regularly attended the meetings of the academy and read papers on varied subjects, including Karl Konrad Friedrich Wilhelm Lachmann, Friedrich Schiller, old age, and the origin of language.", "He described his impressions of Italian and Scandinavian travel, interspersing more general observations with linguistic details.", "He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1857.Grimm died in Berlin at the age of 78, working until the very end of his life.", "He describes his own work at the end of his autobiography:Nearly all my labours have been devoted, either directly or indirectly, to the investigation of our earlier language, poetry and laws.", "These studies may have appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me they have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated to foster the love of it.", "My principle has always been in these investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the small for the illustration of the great, the popular tradition for the elucidation of the written monuments." ], [ "Linguistic work", "===''History of the German Language''===During the research for his 'History of the German Language' Grimm corresponded with numerous colleagues.", "Ghent University Library holds several letters between Jacob Grimm and Jan Frans Willems.Grimm's ''Geschichte der deutschen Sprache'' (History of the German Language) explores German history hidden in the words of the German language and is the oldest linguistic history of the Teutonic tribes.", "He collected scattered words and allusions from classical literature and tried to determine the relationship between the German language and those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians, and other nations whose languages were known only through Greek and Latin authors.", "Grimm's results were later greatly modified by a wider range of available comparison and improved methods of investigation.", "Many questions that he raised remain obscure due to the lack of surviving records of the languages, but his book's influence was profound.===''German Grammar''===Grimm's famous ''Deutsche Grammatik'' (German Grammar) was the outcome of his purely philological work.", "He drew on the work of past generations, from the humanists onwards, consulting an enormous collection of materials in the form of text editions, dictionaries, and grammars, mostly uncritical and unreliable.", "Some work had been done in the way of comparison and determination of general laws, and the concept of a comparative Germanic grammar had been grasped by the Englishman George Hickes by the beginning of the 18th century, in his ''Thesaurus''.", "Ten Kate in the Netherlands had made valuable contributions to the history and comparison of Germanic languages.", "Grimm himself did not initially intend to include all the languages in his ''Grammar'', but he soon found that Old High German postulated Gothic, and that the later stages of German could not be understood without the help of other West Germanic varieties including English, and that the literature of Scandinavia could not be ignored.", "The first edition of the first part of the ''Grammar'', which appeared in 1819, treated the inflections of all these languages, and included a general introduction in which he vindicated the importance of a historical study of the German language against the quasi-philosophical methods then in vogue.In 1822 the book appeared in a second edition (really a new work, for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, he had to \"mow the first crop down to the ground\").", "The considerable gap between the two stages of Grimm's development of these editions is shown by the fact that the second volume addresses phonology in 600 pages – more than half the volume.", "Grimm had concluded that all philology must be based on rigorous adherence to the laws of sound change, and he subsequently never deviated from this principle.", "This gave to all his investigations a consistency and force of conviction that had been lacking in the study of philology before his day.His advances have been attributed mainly to the influence of his contemporary Rasmus Christian Rask.", "Rask was two years younger than Grimm, but the Icelandic paradigms in Grimm's first editions are based entirely on Rask's grammar; in his second edition, he relied almost entirely on Rask for Old English.", "His debt to Rask is shown by comparing his treatment of Old English in the two editions.", "For example, in the first edition he declines ''dæg, dæges'', plural ''dægas'', without having observed the law of vowel-change pointed out by Rask.", "(The correct plural is ''dagas.'')", "The appearance of Rask's Old English grammar was probably the primary impetus for Grimm to recast his work from the beginning.", "Rask was also the first to clearly formulate the laws of sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially in the vowels (previously ignored by etymologists).The ''Grammar'' was continued in three volumes, treating principally derivation, composition and syntax, the last of which was unfinished.", "Grimm then began a third edition, of which only one part, comprising the vowels, appeared in 1840, his time being afterwards taken up mainly by the dictionary.", "The ''Grammar'' is noted for its comprehensiveness, method and fullness of detail, with all his points illustrated by an almost exhaustive mass of material, and it has served as a model for all succeeding investigators.", "Diez's grammar of the Romance languages is founded entirely on Grimm's methods, which have had a profound influence on the wider study of the Indo-European languages in general.===Grimm's law===Jacob is recognized for enunciating Grimm's law, the Germanic Sound Shift, which was first observed by the Danish philologist Rasmus Christian Rask.", "Grimm's law, also known as the \"Rask-Grimm Rule\" or the First Germanic Sound Shift, was the first law in linguistics concerning a non-trivial sound change.", "It was a turning point in the development of linguistics, enabling the introduction of a rigorous methodology to historic linguistic research.", "It concerns the correspondence of consonants between the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language and its Germanic descendants, Low Saxon and High German, and was first fully stated by Grimm in the second edition of the first part of his ''Grammar''.", "The correspondence of single consonants had been more or less clearly recognized by several of his predecessors, including Friedrich von Schlegel, Rasmus Christian Rask and Johan Ihre, the last having established a considerable number of ''literarum permutationes'', such as '''b''' for '''f''', with the examples ''bœra'' = ''ferre'' (\"to bear\"), ''befwer'' = ''fibra'' (\"fiber\").", "Rask, in his essay on the origin of the Icelandic language, gave the same comparisons, with a few additions and corrections, and even the same examples in most cases.", "As Grimm in the preface to his first edition expressly mentioned Rask's essay, there is every probability that it inspired his own investigations.", "But there is a wide difference between the isolated permutations described by his predecessors and his own comprehensive generalizations.", "The extension of the law to High German in any case is entirely Grimm's work.The idea that Grimm wished to deprive Rask of his priority claims is based on the fact that he does not expressly mention Rask's results in his second edition, but it was always his plan to refrain from all controversy or reference to the works of others.", "In his first edition, he calls attention to Rask's essay, and praises it ungrudgingly.", "Nevertheless, a certain bitterness of feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, after Rask refused to consider the value of Grimm's views when they clashed with his own.===''German Dictionary''===Grimm's monumental dictionary of the German Language, the ''Deutsches Wörterbuch'', was started in 1838 and first published in 1854.The Brothers anticipated it would take 10 years and encompass some six to seven volumes.", "However, it was undertaken on so large a scale as to make it impossible for them to complete it.", "The dictionary, as far as it was worked on by Grimm himself, has been described as a collection of disconnected antiquarian essays of high value.", "It was finally finished by subsequent scholars in 1961 and supplemented in 1971.At 33 volumes at some 330,000 headwords, it remains a standard work of reference to the present day.", "A current project at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities is underway to update the ''Deutsches Wörterbuch'' to modern academic standards.", "Volumes A–F were planned for completion in 2012 by the Language Research Centre at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and the University of Göttingen." ], [ "Literary work", "The first work Jacob Grimm published, ''Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang'' (1811), was of a purely literary character.", "Yet even in this essay Grimm showed that ''Minnesang'' and ''Meistergesang'' were really one form of poetry, of which they merely represented different stages of development, and also announced his important discovery of the invariable division of the ''Lied'' into three strophic parts.Grimm's text-editions were mostly prepared in conjunction with his brother.", "In 1812 they published the two ancient fragments of the ''Hildebrandslied'' and the ''Weißenbrunner Gebet'', Jacob having discovered what until then had never been suspected — namely the alliteration in these poems.", "However, Jacob had little taste for text editing, and, as he himself confessed, working on a critical text gave him little pleasure.", "He therefore left this department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned his brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre.Both Brothers were attracted from the beginning by all national poetry, whether in the form of epics, ballads or popular tales.", "They published In 1816–1818 a collection of legends culled from diverse sources and published the two-volume ''Deutsche Sagen'' (German Legends).", "At the same time they collected all the folktales they could find, partly from the mouths of the people, partly from manuscripts and books, and published in 1812–1815 the first edition of those ''Kinder- und Hausmärchen'' (Children's and Household Tales), which has carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household of the western world.", "The closely related subject of the satirical beast epic of the Middle Ages also held great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an edition of the ''Reinhart Fuchs'' in 1834.His first contribution to mythology was the first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, undertaken jointly with his brother, and was published in 1815.However, this work was not followed by any others on the subject.The first edition of his ''Deutsche Mythologie'' (German Mythology) appeared in 1835.This work covered the whole range of the subject, attempting to trace the mythology and superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of direct evidence, and following their evolution to modern-day popular traditions, tales, and expressions." ], [ "Legal scholarship", "Grimm's work as a jurist was influential for the development of the history of law, particularly in Northern Europe.His essay ''Von der Poesie im Recht'' (''Poetry in Law'', 1816) developed a far-reaching, suprapositivist Romantic conception of law.", "The ''Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer'' (''German Legal Antiquities'', 1828) was a comprehensive compilation of sources of law from all Germanic languages, whose structure allowed an initial understanding of older German legal traditions not influenced by Roman law.", "Grimm's ''Weisthümer'' (4 vol., 1840–63), a compilation of partially oral legal traditions from rural Germany, allows research of the development of written law in Northern Europe." ], [ "Politics", "Jacob Grimm's work tied in strongly with his views on Germany and its culture.", "His work on both fairy tales and philology dealt with the country's origins.", "He wished for a united Germany, and, like his brother, supported the Liberal movement for a constitutional monarchy and civil liberties, as demonstrated by their involvement in the Göttingen Seven protest.", "In the German revolution of 1848, he was elected to the Frankfurt National Parliament.", "The people of Germany had demanded a constitution, so the Parliament, formed of elected members from various German states, met to form one.", "Grimm was selected for the office largely because of his part in the University of Göttingen's refusal to swear to the king of Hanover.", "In Frankfurt he made some speeches and was adamant that the Danish-ruled but German-speaking duchy of Holstein be under German control.", "Grimm soon became disillusioned with the National Assembly and asked to be released from his duties to return to his studies.He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1863." ], [ "Death", "Jacob Grimm died on 20 September 1863, in Berlin, Germany from natural causes, at the age of 78." ], [ "Works", "The following is a complete list of Grimm's separately published works.", "Those he published with his brother are marked with a star (*).", "For a list of his essays in periodicals, etc., see vol.", "V of his ''Kleinere Schriften'', from which the present list is taken.", "His life is best studied in his own ''Selbstbiographie'', in vol.", "I of the ''Kleinere Schriften''.", "There is also a brief memoir by Karl Goedeke in ''Göttinger Professoren'' (Gotha (Perthes), 1872).", "*''Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang'' (Göttingen, 1811)*''Kinder- und Hausmärchen'' (Berlin, 1812–1815) (many editions)*''Das Lied von Hildebrand und des Weissenbrunner Gebet'' (Kassel, 1812)*''Altdeutsche Wälder'' (Kassel, Frankfurt, 1813–1816, 3 vols.", ")*''Der arme Heinrich von Hartmann von der Aue'' (Berlin, 1815)*''Irmenstrasse und Irmensäule'' (Vienna, 1815)*''Die Lieder der alten Edda'' (Berlin, 1815)*''Silva de romances viejos'' (Vienna, 1815)*''Deutsche Sagen'' (Berlin, 1816–1818, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1865–1866)*''Deutsche Grammatik'' (Göttingen, 1819, 2nd ed., Göttingen, 1822–1840) (reprinted 1870 by Wilhelm Scherer, Berlin)*''Wuk Stephanowitsch' Kleine Serbische Grammatik, verdeutscht mit einer Vorrede'' (Leipzig and Berlin, 1824) Vuk Stefanovic Karadzic – Serbian Grammar*''Zur Recension der deutschen Grammatik'' (Kassel, 1826)*''Irische Elfenmärchen, aus dem Englischen'' (Leipzig, 1826)*''Deutsche Rechtsaltertümer'' (Göttingen, 1828, 2nd ed., 1854)*''Hymnorum veteris ecclesiae XXVI.", "interpretatio theodisca'' (Göttingen, 1830)*''Reinhart Fuchs'' (Berlin, 1834)*''Deutsche Mythologie'' (Göttingen, 1835, 3rd ed., 1854, 2 vols.", ")*''Taciti Germania edidit'' (Göttingen, 1835)*''Über meine Entlassung'' (Basel, 1838)*(together with Schmeller) ''Lateinische Gedichte des X. und XI.", "Jahrhunderts'' (Göttingen, 1838)*''Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann über Reinhart Fuchs'' (Berlin, 1840)*''Weistümer, Th.", "i.''", "(Göttingen, 1840) (continued, partly by others, in 5 parts, 1840–1869)*''Andreas und Elene'' (Kassel, 1840)*''Frau Aventure'' (Berlin, 1842)*''Geschichte der deutschen Sprache'' (Leipzig, 1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.", ")*''Des Wort des Besitzes'' (Berlin, 1850)*''Deutsches Wörterbuch'', Bd.", "i.", "(Leipzig, 1854)*''Rede auf Wilhelm Grimm und Rede über das Alter'' (Berlin, 1868, 3rd ad., 1865)*''Kleinere Schriften'' (F. Dümmler, Berlin, 1864–1884, 7 vols.).", "** vol.", "1 : ''Reden und Abhandlungen'' (1864, 2nd ed.", "1879)** vol.", "2 : ''Abhandlungen zur Mythologie und Sittenkunde'' (1865)** vol.", "3 : ''Abhandlungen zur Litteratur und Grammatik'' (1866)** vol.", "4 : ''Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze'', part I (1869)** vol.", "5 : ''Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze'', part II (1871)** vol.", "6 : ''Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze'', part III** vol.", "7 : ''Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze'', part IV (1884)" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "External links", "* ** * * * Works co-authored by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm: * Teutonic Mythology, English translation of Grimm's ''Deutsche Mythologie'' (1880).", "* Household Tales by the Brothers Grimm, translated by Margaret Hunt (This site is the only one to feature all of the Grimms' notes translated in English along with the tales from Hunt's original edition.", "Andrew Lang's introduction is also included.", ")* * * * * The Grimm dictionary online* Biography at LeMO-Portal" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jamiroquai" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jamiroquai''' ( ) are an English funk and acid jazz band from London.", "Formed in 1992, they are fronted by vocalist Jay Kay, and were prominent in the London-based funk and acid jazz movement of the 1990s.", "They built on their acid jazz sound in their early releases and later drew from rock, disco, electronic and Latin music genres.", "Lyrically, the group has addressed social and environmental justice.", "Kay has remained as the only original member through several line-up changes.The band made their debut under Acid Jazz Records but subsequently found mainstream success under Sony.", "While under this label, three of their albums have charted at number one in the UK, including ''Emergency on Planet Earth'' (1993), ''Synkronized'' (1999) and ''A Funk Odyssey'' (2001).", "The band's 1998 single, \"Deeper Underground\", was also number one in their native country.As of 2017, Jamiroquai had sold more than 26 million albums worldwide.", "Their third album, ''Travelling Without Moving'' (1996), received a Guinness World Record as the best-selling funk album in history.", "The music video for its second single, \"Virtual Insanity\", also contributed to the band's success.", "The song was named Video of the Year at the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards and earned the band a Grammy Award in 1998." ], [ "History", "=== 1992–1993: Formation and ''Emergency on Planet Earth''===Jay Kay was sending songs to record companies, including a hip-hop single released in 1986 under the label StreetSounds.", "During this time, Kay was influenced by Native American and First Nation peoples and their philosophies; this led to the creation of \"When You Gonna Learn\", a song covering social issues.", "After he had it recorded, Kay fought with his producer, who took out half of the lyrics and produced the song based on what was charting at the time.", "With the track restored to his preference, the experience helped Kay realise he \"wanted a proper live band with a proper live sound\".", "The band would be named \"Jamiroquai\", a portmanteau of the words \"jam\" and the name of a Native American confederacy, the Iroquois.", "He was signed to Acid Jazz Records in 1991 after he sent a demo tape of himself covering a song by the Brand New Heavies.", "Kay gradually gathered band members, including Wallis Buchanan, who played the didgeridoo.", "Kay's manager scouted keyboardist Toby Smith, who joined the group as Kay's songwriting partner.", "In 1992, Jamiroquai began their career by performing in the British club scene.", "They released \"When You Gonna Learn\" as their debut single, charting outside the UK Top 50 on its initial release.", "In the following year, Stuart Zender became the band's bassist by audition.After the success of \"When You Gonna Learn\", the band were offered major-label contracts.", "Kay signed a one-million-dollar, eight-album record deal with Sony Soho2.He was the only member under contract, but he would share his royalties with his band members in accordance to their contributions as musicians.", "Their label for US releases would be under the Work Group.", "The band released their debut album, ''Emergency on Planet Earth'', where it entered the UK albums chart at number 1.Kevin L. Carter of ''The Philadelphia Inquirer'' commented that the album \"is full of upbeat, multi-hued pop tunes based heavily in acid jazz, '70s fusion, funk and soul, reggae and world music\".", "With it, the band would continue to build upon their acid-jazz sounds in the following years.", "The album's ecologically charged concept gave Kay press coverage, although Mark Jenkins of ''The Washington Post'' found the record's sloganeering \"as crude as the music is slick\".===1994–2000: ''The Return of the Space Cowboy'' – ''Synkronized''===Jay Kay performing with Jamiroquai, The band's original drummer, Nick van Gelder, failed to return from holiday and was replaced by Derrick McKenzie, who recorded with the group in one take for his audition.", "They issued their second album, ''The Return of the Space Cowboy'', in 1994, and it ranked at number 2 in the UK chart.", "During its recording, Kay was in a creative block, worsened by his increasing drug use at the time; which resulted in its complex songwriting.", "However, the record was said to have \"captureed this first phase of Jamiroquai at their very best\", according to Daryl Easlea of BBC Music.", "Josef Woodard from ''Entertainment Weekly'' wrote that its \"syncopated grooves and horn-lined riffs\" were \"played by humans, not samplers\".Released in 1996, ''Travelling Without Moving'' reached number 24 in the ''Billboard'' 200 and number 2 in the UK albums chart.", "With 8 million copies sold worldwide, it has been listed in the Guinness World Records as the best-selling funk album in history since 2001.The album's lead single, \"Virtual Insanity\", gained popularity for its music video, which was heavily played on MTV.", "Containing symphonic and jungle elements, Kay aimed for a more accessible sound.", "Ted Kessler of ''NME'' saw ''Travelling Without Moving'' as an improvement from previous albums, while critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that it did not have \"uniform consistencies\" in comparison.While the group were preparing their fourth album, ''Synkronized'' (1999), Zender left Jamiroquai due to internal conflicts with Kay.", "While Zender had not been involved in the album's songwriting, the group chose to scrap his recorded tracks to avoid lawsuits, and Nick Fyffe was recruited for new sessions.", "This resulted in what was thought to be both a \"tighter, more angry collection of songs\" for ''Synkronized'', and a change of musical direction from \"creating propulsive collections of looooong tunes, and speaking out against injustice\".", "Some of the album's tracks, including \"Canned Heat\", display a hi-NRG and house style, while slower tempos on others were said to \"ease the pressure for Kay's more romantic musings\".", "The album reached number 1 in the UK albums chart and number 28 in the US ''Billboard'' 200.A year prior to ''Synkronized'', \"Deeper Underground\" was released as a single for the ''Godzilla'' soundtrack and reached number one in the UK singles chart.===2001–2016: ''A Funk Odyssey'' – ''Rock Dust Light Star''===Kay, Harris, McKenzie and Paul Turner performing at the alt=A band performing on stage; a male singer wearing a head-dress, along with a guitarist, a drummer, a bassist and three female vocalistsThe group issued their follow-up, ''A Funk Odyssey'', a disco record exploring Latin music influences, in 2001.It introduced guitarist Rob Harris, whose playing in the album \"melts seductively into a mix that occasionally incorporates lavish orchestration\", according to Jim Abbot of ''Orlando Sentinel''.", "''Slant Magazine'''s Sal Cinquemani claimed: \"Like its predecessors, ''Odyssey'' mixes self-samplage with Jamiroquai’s now-signature robo-funk.\"", "The album topped the chart in the UK.", "In the US, under Epic Records, it reached number 44 in the US ''Billboard 200''.", "It was the last album to feature Smith, who left the band in the following year to spend more time with his family.Their sixth album, ''Dynamite'', was released in 2005 and reached number 3 in the UK; Rashod D. Ollison of ''The Baltimore Sun'' said the album \"boasts a harder digital edge ... With heavier beats, manipulated guitar lines and odd digital textures, ''Dynamite'' is less organic than Jamiroquai's other efforts\".", "Its tracks \"Feels Just Like It Should\" and \"Love Blind\" were characterised as \"having a fatter, dirtier sound than usual\".", "In 2006, Kay's contract with Sony ended, which led to the issue of the band's greatest hits collection, ''High Times: Singles 1992–2006''.", "It charted at number one in the UK after its first week of release.", "The following year, Jamiroquai performed at the Gig in the Sky, a concert held on a private Boeing 757 in association with Sony Ericsson.", "The band thus currently hold the Guinness World Record for \"fastest concert\", performed on the aircraft whilst travelling at 1,017 km/h (632 mph).", "''Rock Dust Light Star'' was released in 2010 under Mercury Records, where it charted at number 7 in the UK.", "Kay considered the album as \"a real band record\" that \"captures the flow of our live performances\".", "Critics have seen this as a return to their organic funk and soul style, as it forgoes \"the electro textures that followed the band into the new millennium\", according to Luke Winkie of ''MusicOMH''.", "It also has a sound Thomas H. Green of ''The Telegraph'' described as \"Californian Seventies funk rock\".=== 2017–present: ''Automaton''===Jamiroquai released their 2017 album, ''Automaton'', through Virgin EMI.", "It was their eighth studio album and the first in seven years, reaching number 4 in the UK.", "It was produced by Kay and band keyboardist Matt Johnson, and it \"carefully balances their signature sound with… EDM, soul and trap sounds\", according to Ryan Patrick of ''Exclaim!''.", "Craig Jenkins of ''Vulture'' writes: \"Arrangements that used to spill out over horn, flute, didgeridoo, and string accompaniments now lean closer to French house\".", "By 2018, the group's line-up consisted of Kay, Harris, McKenzie, Johnson, Paul Turner on bass guitar, percussionist Sola Akingbola, Nate Williams on guitar and keyboards and Howard Whiddett with Ableton Live.Jay Kay announced on the back notes of their 2021 re-released single, \"Everybody's Going To The Moon\", that the band were working on a new album." ], [ "Artistry", "=== Musical style and influences ===Jamiroquai's music is generally termed acid jazz, funk, disco, soul, house, and R&B.", "Their sound has been described by J. D. Considine as having an \"anything-goes attitude, an approach that leaves the band open to anything\".", "Tom Moon wrote that the band \"embraces old-school funk, Philly-soul strings, the crisp keyboard sounds of the '70s and even hints of jazz fusion\", blending these with \"agitated, aggressive dance rhythms to create an easygoing feel that looks both backward and forward\".", "Ben Sisario facetiously commented that Jay Kay and Toby Smith as songwriters, \"studied ''Innervisions''-era Stevie Wonder|Stevie Wonder carefully, and just about everything the group has recorded sounds like it could in fact have been played by Wonder himself.", "\"Kay is the primary songwriter of Jamiroquai.", "When composing, he sings melodies and beats for band members to transcribe to their instrumentation.", "The band relies on analog sounds, such as running keyboards through vintage effects pedals \"to get the warmth and the clarity of those instruments\".", "Parry Gettelman of the ''Orlando Sentinel'' described Kay's vocals as \"not identifiably male or female, black or white\".", "Other writers said Toby Smith's keyboard arrangements were \"psychedelic and soulful\", and compared Stuart Zender's bass playing to the work of Marcus Miller.", "Wallis Buchanan on didgeridoo was met with either praise or annoyance from critics.Kay was influenced by Roy Ayers, Herbie Hancock, Lou Donaldson, Grant Green, Sly Stone, Gil Scott-Heron, and hip-hop and its culture.", "He was introduced to much of these influences in the mid-1980s by British club DJs.", "\"I'd been into Stevie and all that… Then I got into the JBs, Maceo Parker and the Meters… I decided around that time to try to make music built around those loose, open grooves.\"", "A 2003 compilation titled ''Late Night Tales: Jamiroquai'' under Azuli Records, also contains a selection of some of the band's late 1970s R&B, disco and quiet storm influences.", "Kay and the group have been compared to Stevie Wonder, with some critics accusing the band of copying black artists.", "In response, Kay said \"we never tried to hide our influences\".", "The band references them as Kay maintained Jamiroquai's own sound: \"it's about the style of music you aim for, not the exact sound.", "If you just sample Barry White or Sly Stone, that's one thing; to get their spirit is different.", "\"=== Lyrics ===Jamiroquai's lyrics have touched on socially charged themes.", "With ''Emergency on Planet Earth'' (1993), it revolves around environmental awareness and speaks out against war.", "''The Return of the Space Cowboy'' (1994) contains themes of homelessness, Native American rights, youth protests, and slavery.", "\"Virtual Insanity\" from ''Travelling Without Moving'' (1996) is about the prevalence of technology and the replication and simulation of life.", "The lyrics of ''Automaton'' (2017) allude to dystopian films and compromised relationships within a digital landscape.However, critics wrote that the band had focused more on \"boy–girl seductions\" and \"having fun\" rather than social justice, and that Kay's interest in sports cars contradicts his earlier beliefs.", "Kay was reluctant to release ''Travelling Without Moving'' (1996), as it adopted a motorcar concept, but he added: \"just because I love to drive a fast car, that doesn't mean I believe in destroying the environment.\"", "He also stated in separate interviews he was tired of being \"a troubadour of social consciousness\", and \"after a while you realise that people won't boogie and dance to politics.", "\"=== Stage and visuals ===Jamiroquai performing at the O2 in London, 2017.Left to right: Johnson, Harris, Williams, Kay and Akingbola.While critics said the group tended towards 1970s funk and soul archetypes in their performances, Kay's presence received praise, with critics noting his strong vocals and energetic dance moves on stage.", "Robert Hilburn said Kay \"establishes a rapport with the audience\" and has a \"disarming sense of humor\".", "Helen Brown of ''The Telegraph'' was more critical, writing of a 2011 concert that there was no \"deeply personal emotion\" in its set list or in Kay's vocals, and \"much of the material is exhilarating in the moment, forgettable thereafter\".With their visual style being described as \"sci-fi and futuristic\", Jamiroquai's music video of \"Virtual Insanity\" made them \"icons of the music-video format\", according to Spencer Kornhaber from ''The Atlantic''.", "It was directed by Jonathan Glazer, and depicted Kay \"performing in a room where the floors, walls and furniture all moved simultaneously.", "\"Kay has worn elaborate headgear, some he designed himself.", "He said that the headgear give him a spiritual power described by the Iroquois as \"orenda\".", "The illuminating helmet that appears in the music video for \"Automaton\" was designed by Moritz Waldemeyer for Kay to control its lights and movements and to portray him as an endangered species.", "Kay also often wears Native American head-dresses, which has met with criticism by ''Indian Country Today'', commenting he had worn sacred regalia of the First Nations.", "As of October 2023, he was still wearing them while performing." ], [ "Legacy", "As a prominent component of the London-based funk and acid-jazz movement of the 1990s, writer Kenneth Prouty said: \"few acid jazz groups have reached the level of visibility in the pop music mainstream as London-born Jamiroquai\".", "The success of the 1996 single \"Virtual Insanity\" led to the climax of \"1970s soul and funk that early acid jazz artists had initiated\".", "The band were also credited for popularising the didgeridoo.", "Artists who mention the group as an influence include Chance the Rapper, SZA, Kamaal Williams, the Internet, Calvin Harris, and Tyler, the Creator.", "According to Tony Farsides of ''The Guardian'', \"Jamiroquai's musical prowess goes largely ignored.", "Whilst the band have received plaudits from American heavyweights such as Quincy Jones and Maurice White of Earth, Wind And Fire, Jamiroquai fight to be taken seriously in the UK.\"", "Writing for the same newspaper, Ian Gittins said the group \"have long been shunned by music's tastemakers for a perceived naffness, and have shown their utter disregard for this critical snobbery by getting bigger and bigger\".", "Sisario gave a negative review of the band's discography in ''The Rolling Stone Album Guide'' in 2004, finding much of their material to be identical.Jamiroquai were the third-best-selling UK act of the 1990s, after the Spice Girls and Oasis.", "As of April 2017, they have sold more than 26 million albums worldwide.", "Despite finding popularity in the UK with high-charting albums, the band could not maintain their relevance in the United States.", "''Travelling Without Moving'' was their most successful release in the country, but they have since lost commercial momentum.", "The band's studio albums became less frequently released.", "Kay said in 2013: \"I will only put out an album now when I am inspired to do so\"." ], [ "Awards and nominations", "Jamiroquai have received 15 Brit Award nominations.", "In 1999, the band won an Ivor Novello Award for an Outstanding Song Collection.", "Front-man Kay was given a BMI Presidents Award \"in recognition of his profound influence on songwriting within the music industry.\"", "Jamiroquai received a nomination for Best Pop Album at the 1998 Grammy Awards and won Best Performance by a Duo Or Group for \"Virtual Insanity\".", "The band were also nominated for Best Short Form Music Video for \"Feels Just Like It Should\" at the 2005 Grammy Awards.", "For their \"Virtual Insanity\" music video, Jamiroquai had ten nominations at the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards and four wins: Best Visual Effects, Best Cinematography, Best Breakthrough Video and Video of the Year." ], [ "Discography", "* ''Emergency on Planet Earth'' (1993)* ''The Return of the Space Cowboy'' (1994)* ''Travelling Without Moving'' (1996)* ''Synkronized'' (1999)* ''A Funk Odyssey'' (2001)* ''Dynamite'' (2005)* ''Rock Dust Light Star'' (2010)* ''Automaton'' (2017)" ], [ "Members", "'''Current members'''* Jay Kay – lead vocals (1992–present)* Derrick McKenzie – drums (1994–present)* Sola Akingbola – percussion * Rob Harris – guitar* Matt Johnson – keyboards (2002-present)* Paul Turner – bass (2005–present)* Howard Whiddett – Ableton Live* Nate Williams – guitar and keyboards'''Former members'''* Nick Van Gelder – drums (1992–1994)* Stuart Zender – bass (1992–1999)* Toby Smith – keyboards (1992–2002) (died 2017)* Wallis Buchanan – didgeridoo *Simon Bartholomew – guitar* Glenn Nightengale – guitar* Gavin Dodds – guitar* Simon Katz – guitar (1995–2000)* Nick Fyffe – bass (1999–2005)* Maurizio Ravalico – percussion* Kofi Karikari – percussion* DJ D-Zire – turntable* Gary Barnacle – saxophone, flute * John Thirkell – trumpet, flugelhorn* Mike Smith – saxophone" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ** * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Sutter" ], [ "Introduction", " '''John Augustus Sutter''' (February 23, 1803 – June 18, 1880), born '''Johann August Sutter''' and known in Spanish as '''Don Juan Sutter''', was a Swiss immigrant who became a Mexican and later an American citizen, known for establishing Sutter's Fort in the area that would eventually become Sacramento, California, the state's capital.", "Although he became famous following the discovery of gold by his employee James W. Marshall and the mill-making team at Sutter's Mill, Sutter saw his own business ventures fail during the California Gold Rush.", "Those of his elder son, John Augustus Sutter Jr., were more successful." ], [ "Early life", "The birthplace of John Sutter in KandernJohann August Sutter was born on February 23, 1803, in Kandern, Baden (present-day Germany), to Johann Jakob Sutter, a foreman at a paper mill, and Christina Wilhelmine Sutter (née Stober).", "His father came from the nearby town of Rünenberg, in the canton of Basel in Switzerland, and his maternal grandfather was a pastor from Grenzach, on the Swiss-German border.After attending school in Kandern, Sutter studied at Saint-Blaise between 1818 and 1819, then worked as an apprentice at the Thurneysen printing and publishing house in Basel until 1823.Between 1823 and 1828, he worked as a clerk at clothing shops in Aarburg and Burgdorf.", "At age 21, he married the daughter of a rich widow.", "He operated a store but showed more interest in spending money than in earning it.", "Because of family circumstances and mounting debts, Johann faced charges that would have him placed in jail and so he decided to dodge trial and fled to America.", "He styled his name as Captain John Augustus Sutter.In May 1834, he left his wife and five children behind in Burgdorf, Switzerland, and with a French passport, he boarded the ship ''Sully'', which travelled from Le Havre, France, to New York City, where it arrived on July 14, 1834." ], [ "The New World", "In North America, John Augustus Sutter (as he would call himself for the rest of his life) undertook extensive travels.", "Before he went to the United States, he had learned Spanish and English in addition to French.", "He and 35 Germans moved from the St. Louis area to Santa Fe, New Mexico, then a province of Mexico, then moved to the town of Westport, now the site of Kansas City.", "On April 1, 1838, he joined a group of missionaries, led by the fur trapper Andrew Drips, and traveled the Oregon Trail to Fort Vancouver in Oregon Territory, which they reached in October.", "Sutter originally planned to cross the Siskiyou Mountains during the winter, but acting chief factor James Douglas convinced him that such an attempt would be perilous.", "Douglas charged Sutter £21 to arrange transportation on the British bark ''Columbia'' for himself and his eight followers.The ''Columbia'' departed Fort Vancouver on November 11 and sailed to the Kingdom of Hawaii, reaching Honolulu on December 9.Sutter had missed the only ship outbound for Alta California, and had to remain in the Kingdom for four months.", "Over the months, Sutter gained friendly relations with the Euro-American community, dining with the Consuls of the United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, John Coffin Jones and Richard Charlton, along with merchants such as American Faxon Atherton.", "The brig ''Clementine'' was eventually hired by Sutter to take freight provisions and general merchandise for New Archangel (now known as Sitka), the capital of the Russian-American Company colonies in Russian America.", "Joining the crew as unpaid supercargo, Sutter, 10 Native Hawaiian laborers, and several other followers embarked on April 20, 1839.Staying at New Archangel for a month, Sutter joined several balls hosted by Governor Kupreyanov, who likely gave help in determining the course of the Sacramento River.", "The ''Clementine'' then sailed for Alta California, arriving on July 1, 1839, at Yerba Buena (now San Francisco), which at that time was only a small seaport town.===Beginnings of Sutter's Fort===John Sutter, 1866At the time of Sutter's arrival, Alta California was a province of Mexico and had a population of Native Americans estimated at 100,000–700,000.Sutter had to go to the capital at Monterey to obtain permission from the governor, Juan Bautista Alvarado, to settle in the territory.", "Alvarado saw Sutter's plan of establishing a colony in Central Valley as useful in \"buttressing the frontier which he was trying to maintain against Indians, Russians, Americans and British.\"", "Sutter persuaded Governor Alvarado to grant him 48,400 acres of land for the sake of curtailing American encroachment on the Mexican territory of California.", "This stretch of land was called New Helvetia and Sutter was given the right to \"represent in the Establishment of New Helvetia all the laws of the country, to function as political authority and dispenser of justice, in order to prevent the robberies committed by adventurers from the United States, to stop the invasion of savage Indians, and the hunting and trading by companies from the Columbia (river).", "\"The governor stipulated however that for Sutter to qualify for land ownership, he had to reside in the territory for a year and become a Mexican citizen, which he did to assuage the governor on August 29, 1840.However, shortly after his land tract was granted and his fort was erected, Sutter quickly reneged on his agreement to discourage European trespass.", "On the contrary, Sutter aided the migration of other Europeans to California.", "\"I gave passports to those entering the country… and this (Bautista) did not like it… I encouraged immigration, while they discouraged it.", "I sympathized with the Americans while they hated them.", "\"Contemporaneous illustration of Sutter's FortConstruction was begun in August 1839 on a fortified settlement which Sutter named New Helvetia, or \"New Switzerland,\" after his homeland.", "In order to elevate his social standing, Sutter impersonated a Swiss guard officer who had been displaced by the French Revolution and identified himself accordingly as 'Captain Sutter of the Swiss Guard'.", "When the settlement was completed in 1841, on June 18, he received title to on the Sacramento River.", "The site is now part of the California state capital of Sacramento.===Relationship with Native Americans===Sutter's Fort had a central building made of adobe bricks, surrounded by a high wall with protection on opposite corners to guard against attack.", "It also had workshops and stores that produced all goods necessary for the New Helvetia settlement.Sutter employed or enslaved Native Americans of the Miwok and Maidu tribes, the Hawaiians (Kanakas) he had brought, and also employed some Europeans at his compound.", "He envisioned creating an agricultural utopia, and for a time the settlement was in fact quite large and prosperous.", "Prior to the Gold Rush, it was the destination for most immigrants entering California via the high passes of the Sierra Nevada, including the ill-fated Donner Party of 1846, for whose rescue Sutter contributed supplies.In order to build his fort and develop a large ranching/farming network in the area, Sutter relied on Indian labor.", "Some Native Americans worked voluntarily for Sutter (e.g.", "Nisenans, Miwoks, Ochecames), but others were subjected to varying degrees of coercion that resembled slavery or serfdom.", "Sutter believed that Native Americans had to be kept \"strictly under fear\" in order to serve white landowners.", "Housing and working conditions at the fort were very poor, and have been described as \"enslavement\", with uncooperative Indians being \"whipped, jailed, and executed.\"", "Sutter's Native American \"employees\" slept on bare floors in locked rooms without sanitation, and ate from troughs made from hollowed tree trunks.", "Housing conditions for workers living in nearby villages and rancherías was described as being more favorable.", "Pierson Reading, Sutter’s fort manager, wrote in a letter to a relative that “the Indians of California make as obedient and humble slaves as the Negro in the South\".", "If Indians refused to work for him, Sutter responded with violence.", "Observers accused him of using \"kidnapping, food privation, and slavery\" in order to force Indians to work for him, and generally stated that Sutter held the Indians under inhumane conditions.", "Theodor Cordua, a German immigrant who leased land from Sutter, wrote:“When Sutter established himself in 1839 in the Sacramento Valley, new misfortune came upon these peaceful natives of the country.", "Their services were demanded immediately.", "Those who did not want to work were considered as enemies.", "With other tribes the field was taken against the hostile Indian.", "Declaration of war was not made.", "The villages were attacked usually before daybreak when everybody was still asleep.", "Neither old nor young was spared by the enemy, and often the Sacramento River was colored red by the blood of the innocent Indians, for these villages usually were situated at the banks of the rivers.", "During a campaign one section of the attackers fell upon the village by way of land.", "All the Indians of the attacked village naturally fled to find protection on the other bank of the river.", "But there they were awaited by the other half of the enemy and thus the unhappy people were shot and killed with rifles from both sides of the river.", "Seldom an Indian escaped such an attack, and those who were not murdered were captured.", "All children from six to fifteen years of age were usually taken by the greedy white people.", "The village was burned down and the few Indians who had escaped with their lives were left to their fate.”Heinrich Lienhard, a Swiss immigrant that served as Sutter's majordomo, wrote of the treatment of the enslaved once captured:\"As the room had neither beds nor straw, the inmates were forced to sleep on the bare floor.", "When I opened the door for them in the morning, the odor that greeted me was overwhelming, for no sanitary arrangements had been provided.", "What these rooms were like after ten days or two weeks can be imagined, and the fact that nocturnal confinement was not agreeable to the Indians was obvious.", "Large numbers deserted during the daytime, or remained outside the fort when the gates were locked.", "\"Lienhard also claimed that Sutter was known to rape his Indian captives, even girls as young as 12 years old.", "Despite the procurement of fertile agriculture, Sutter fed his Native American work force in pig troughs, where they would eat gruel with their hands in the sun on their knees.", "Numerous visitors to Sutter’s Fort noted the shock of this sight in their diaries, alongside their discontent for his kidnapping of Indian children who were sold into bondage to repay Sutter's debts or given as gifts.", "American explorer and mountain man James Clyman reported in 1846 that:\"The Capt.", "Sutter keeps 600 to 800 Indians in a complete state of Slavery and as I had the mortification of seeing them dine I may give a short description.", "10 or 15 Troughs 3 or 4 feet long were brought out of the cook room and seated in the Broiling sun.", "All the Labourers grate sic and small ran to the troughs like so many pigs and fed themselves with their hands as long as the troughs contained even a moisture.\"Dr.", "Waseurtz af Sandels, a Swedish explorer who visited California in 1842–1843, also wrote about Sutter's brutal treatment of Indian slaves in 1842:\"I could not reconcile my feelings to see these fellows being driven, as it were, around some narrow troughs of hollow tree trunks, out of which, crouched on their haunches, they fed more like beasts than human beings, using their hands in hurried manner to convey to their mouths the thin porage sic which was served to them.", "Soon they filed off to the fields after having, I fancy, half satisfied their physical wants.", "\"These concerns were even shared by Juan Bautista Alvarado, then Governor of Alta California, who deplored Sutter's ill-treatment of indigenous Californians in 1845:\"The public can see how inhuman were the operations of Sutter who had no scruples about depriving Indian mothers of their children.", "Sutter has sent these little Indian children as gifts to people who live far from the place of their birth, without demanding of them any promises that in their homes the Indians should be treated with kindness.", "\"Despite his promises to the Mexican government, Sutter was hospitable to American settlers entering the region, and provided an impetus for many of them to settle there.", "The hundreds of thousands of acres which these men took from the Native Americans had been an important source of food and resources.", "As the White settlers were ranching two million head of livestock, shooting wild game in enormous numbers, and replacing wilderness with wheat fields, available food for Indians in the region diminished.", "In response, some Indians took to raiding the cattle of White ranchers.", "In August 1846, an article in ''The Californian'' declared that in respect to California Indians, \"The only effectual means of stopping inroads upon the property of the country, will be to attack them in their villages.\"", "On February 28, 1847 Sutter ordered the Kern and Sutter massacres in retaliation.Much of Sutter's labor practices were illegal under Mexican law.", "However, in April 22, 1850, following the annexation of California by the United States, the California state legislature passed the \"Act for the Government and Protection of Indians,\" legalizing the kidnapping and forced servitude of Indians by White settlers.", "In 1851, the civilian governor of California declared, \"That a war of extermination will continue to be waged ... until the Indian race becomes extinct, must be expected.\"", "This expectation soon found its way into law.", "An 1851 legislative measure not only gave settlers the right to organize lynch mobs to kill Indians, but allowed them to submit their expenses to the government.", "By 1852 the state had authorized over a million dollars in such claims.In 1856, a ''San Francisco Bulletin'' editorial stated, \"Extermination is the quickest and cheapest remedy, and effectually prevents all other difficulties when an outbreak of Indian violence occurs.\"", "In 1860, the legislature passed a law expanding the age and condition of Indians available for forced slavery.", "A ''Sacramento Daily Union'' article of the time accused high-pressure lobbyists interested in profiting off enslaved Indians of pushing the law through, gave examples of how wealthy individuals had abused the law to acquire Indian slaves from the reservations, and stated, \"The Act authorizes as complete a system of slavery, without any of the checks and wholesome restraints of slavery, as ever was devised.", "\"===='Red Star' and 'Bear Flag' revolts=========Lone star rebellion=====Red-and-white version of the Lone Star of California, as hoisted during the 1842 Alvarado rebellion.Note: In early 1846, Sutter hoisted perhaps the above version if not another in red, white, and green.", "In published, period recollections, Bear Flag rebel J. William Russell wrote, \"When I got to the fort the 'lone star' flag was flying.", "The colors was made up of the old Mexican flag.", "\"In 1844–1845, there was a revolt of the Mexican colony of California against the army of the mother country.Two years earlier, in 1842, Mexico had removed California Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado, and sent Brigadier General Manuel Micheltorena to replace him.", "It also sent an army.The army had been recruited from Mexico's worst jails, and the soldiers soon began stealing Californians' chickens and other property.", "Micheltorena's army was described as descending on California \"like a plague of locusts, stripping the countryside bare.\"", "Californians complained that the army was committing robberies, beatings, and rapes.In late 1844, the Californios revolted against Micheltorena.", "Micheltorena had appointed Sutter as ''commandante militar.''", "Sutter, in turn, recruited men, one of whom was John Marsh, a medical doctor and owner of the large Rancho los Meganos.", "Marsh, who sided with the Californios, wanted no part of this effort.", "However, Sutter gave Marsh a choice: either join the army or be arrested and put in jail.In 1845, Sutter's forces met the Californio forces at the Battle of Providencia (also known as the Second Battle of Cahuenga Pass).", "The battle consisted primarily of an artillery exchange, and during the battle Marsh secretly went over to parley with the other side.", "There was a large number of Americans fighting on both sides.", "Marsh met with them and convinced the Americans on both sides that there was no reason for Americans to be fighting each other.The Americans agreed and quit the fight, and as a result, Sutter’s forces lost the battle.", "The defeated Micheltorena took his army back to Mexico, and Californian Pio Pico became governor.=====Mexico's loss of the Mexican American War=====Mexico's control of ''Alta California'' having become especially tenuous during the United States' war against Mexico, Sutter, as a self-professed citizen of France, threatened to muster British, Canadian and American immigrants and indigenous and again declare New Helvetia a republic under French protection.", "Sutter wrote to U.S.", "Counsel Jacob Leese in Yerba Buena: \"Very curious reports come to me from below but the poor wretches do not know what they do.", "The first French frigate that comes here will do me justice.", "The first step they do against me I will make a declaration of Independence and proclaim California a Republic independent of Mexico.", "\"thumbOn July 7, 1846, Commodore John B. Montgomery, in the aftermath of the renegade Bear Flag Revolt's Battle of Monterey, raised the American flag there.", "Montgomery sent a messenger with an American flag to Sutter, who, on July 11, 1846, hoisted the same,completing formal transition of his fort to U.S. command the next month upon his own commission as a lieutenant under U.S. Army Captain John C. Fremont.", "Command of the fort reverted to Sutter in March of the next year.===Beginning of the Gold Rush===Sutter's Mill in 1850.In 1848, gold was discovered in the area.", "Initially, one of Sutter's most trusted employees, James W. Marshall, found gold at Sutter's Mill.", "It started when Sutter hired Marshall, a New Jersey native who had served with John C. Frémont in the Bear Flag Revolt, to build a water-driven sawmill in Coloma, along the American River.", "Sutter was intent on building a city on his property (not yet named ), including housing and a wharf on the Sacramento River, and needed lumber for the construction.", "One morning, as Marshall inspected the tailrace for silt and debris, he noticed some gold nuggets and brought them to Sutter's attention.", "Together, they read an encyclopedia entry on gold and performed primitive tests to confirm whether it was precious metal.", "Sutter concluded that it was, in fact, gold, but he was very anxious that the discovery not disrupt his plans for construction and farming.", "At the same time, he set about gaining legitimate title to as much land near the discovery as possible.Sutter's attempt at keeping the gold discovery quiet failed when merchant and newspaper publisher Samuel Brannan returned from Sutter's Mill to San Francisco with gold he had acquired there and began publicizing the find.", "Large crowds of people overran the land and destroyed nearly everything Sutter had worked for.", "To avoid losing everything, Sutter deeded his remaining land to his son John Augustus Sutter Jr.When Sutter's oldest son arrived from Switzerland, Sutter Sr. asked his fellow Swiss majordomo Heinrich Lienhard to lend him his half of the gold he had mined, so that Sutter could impress his son with a large amount of the precious metal.", "However, when Lienhard later went to the Fort, Sutter, Jr., having taken charge of his father's debt-ridden business, was unable to return his share of the gold to Lienhard.", "Lienhard finally accepted Sutter's flock of sheep as payment.The younger Sutter, who had come from Switzerland and joined his father in September 1848, saw the commercial possibilities of the land and promptly started plans for building a new town he named Sacramento, after the Sacramento River.", "The elder Sutter deeply resented this; he had wanted the town named Sutterville (for them) and for it to be built near New Helvetia.Sutter gave up New Helvetia to pay the last of his debts.", "He rejoined his family and lived in Hock Farm (in California along the Feather River).In 1853, the California legislature made Sutter a major general in the California Militia.===Land grant challenge===Camp Union, Sutterville (State Historical marker and fort pillar)Camp Union, Sutterville (State Historical marker)Sutter's El Sobrante (Spanish for leftover) land grant was challenged by the Squatter's Association, and in 1858 the U.S. Supreme Court denied its validity.Sutter got a letter of introduction to the Congress of the United States from the governor of California.", "He moved to Washington D.C. at the end of 1865, after Hock Farm was destroyed by fire in June 1865.Sutter sought reimbursement of his losses associated with the Gold Rush.", "He received a pension of US$250 a month as a reimbursement of taxes paid on the Sobrante grant at the time Sutter considered it his own.", "He and wife Annette moved to Lititz, Pennsylvania in 1871.The proximity to Washington, D.C. along with the reputed healing qualities of Lititz Springs appealed to the aging Sutter.", "He also wanted three of his grandchildren (he had grandchildren in Acapulco, Mexico, as well) to have the benefits of the fine private Moravian Schools.", "After having prospectors destroy his crops and slaughter cows leaving everything but his own gold, John Sutter spent the rest of his life trying to get the government to pay him for his losses, without success.Sutter built his home across from the Lititz Springs Hotel (renamed in 1930 to be the General Sutter Inn and subsequently renamed to be the Lititz Springs Inn & Spa).", "For more than fifteen years, Sutter petitioned Congress for restitution but little was done.", "On June 16, 1880, Congress adjourned, once again, without action on a bill which would have given Sutter US$50,000 (~$ in ).", "Two days later, on June 18, 1880, Sutter died in the Mades Hotel in Washington D.C.", "He was returned to Lititz and is buried adjacent to God's Acre, the Moravian Graveyard; Anna Sutter died the following January and is buried with him.===Legacy to the region===General Sutter grave in Lititz, PA Moravian CemeteryThere are numerous California landmarks bearing the name of Sutter.", "Sutter Street in San Francisco is named for John A. Sutter.", "Sutter's Landing, Sutterville Road, Sutter Middle School, Sutter's Mill School, and Sutterville Elementary School in Sacramento are all named after him.", "The Sutterville Bend of the Sacramento River is named for Sutter, as is Sutter Health, a non-profit health care system in Northern California.", "The City of Sutter Creek, California and Sutter, California are also named after him.", "In Acapulco, Mexico, the property that used to belong to John Augustus Sutter Jr. became the Hotel Sutter, which is still in service.", "The Sutter Buttes, a mountain range near Yuba City, California, and Sutter County, California (of which Yuba City is the seat) are named after him as well.The Johann Agust Sutter House in Lititz, Pennsylvania was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.The 'Sutter's Gold' rose, an orange blend hybrid tea rose bred by Herbert C. Swim, was named after him.Gov.", "Jerry Brown, elected to a third term in 2010, had a Welsh corgi named Sutter Brown, affectionately referred to as the First Dog of California.", "Sutter died in late 2016 from cancer.On June 15, 2020, amid the Black Lives Matter protests and the removal of many statues deemed to be racist, the statue of John Sutter outside the Sutter Medical Center in Sacramento, CA, was removed, \"out of respect for some community members' viewpoints, and in the interest of public safety for patients and staff.\"" ], [ "Popular culture", "===Scholarly studies===* Albert L. Hurtado, ''John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier'' (2006) University of Oklahoma Press, 416 pp.", ".===Films===* ''Days of '49'' (1924, serial), with Charles Brinley as Sutter* ''California in '49'' (1924), with Charles Brinley as Sutter* ''The Kaiser of California'' (1936), with Luis Trenker as Sutter* ''Sutter's Gold'' (1936), with Edward Arnold as Sutter* ''Kit Carson'' (1940), with Edwin Maxwell as Sutter* \"The Pathfinder\" (''The Great Adventure'', 1964), with Carroll O'Connor as Sutter* ''Fortune'' (1969), with Pierre Michael as Sutter* ''Donner Pass: The Road to Survival'' (1978), with Royal Dano as Sutter* ''The Chisholms'', CBS miniseries, role of Sutter played by Ben Piazza (1980)* ''California Gold Rush'' (1981), with John Dehner as Sutter* ''Dream West'' (1986), with Jerry Orbach as Sutter* ''General Sutter'' (1999), with Hannes Schmidhauser as Sutter===Comics===* ''Tex Willer Special #9: La Valle del Terrore'' (1996) by Claudio Nizzi and Magnus===Music===* \"Sutter's Mill\", a song by New Riders of the Purple Sage (1972)* \"Sutter's Mill\", a song by Dan Fogelberg (1985)===Literature===* , a novel by Blaise Cendrars (1925).", "A character sketch, it portrays his life as more tragic than it really was.", "* Stefan Zweig narrates Sutter's story in one of his (1927) called (\"The Discovery of Eldorado\").", "* In the children's book ''Mitch and Amy'' (1967) by Beverly Cleary, Mitch's class is studying the Gold Rush and Mitch uses toothpicks to create a replica of Sutter's mill.", "* Luis Trenker , 1961 novelization of his 1936 screenplay, in turn based on * \"John Sutter\", a poem by Yvor Winters (1960)" ], [ "See also", "* Kern and Sutter massacres* Fort Ross, California" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===** * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* His account of the discovery of gold* Captain Sutter's account of the first discovery of the gold (illustrated lithograph)* Collection of John Sutter Journal Entries* Guide to the John Augustus Sutter Papers at The Bancroft Library* Finding Aid to the Sutter/Link Family Papers, 1849–1992 (bulk 1849–1964), The Bancroft Library* Street names in San Francisco * Sutterville, California State Historic Landmark* Sutter's Fort, California State Historic Landmark* General Sutter Inn Lititz, PA* John A. Sutter Jr. Marker.", "Spanish (Acapulco) / English (Sacramento)* * Scientific American, \" Gen. John A. Sutton\", 1880-07-10, pp.", "21" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Adams (composer)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Coolidge Adams''' (born February 15, 1947) is an American composer and conductor whose music is rooted in minimalism.", "Among the most regularly performed composers of contemporary classical music, he is particularly noted for his operas, which are often centered around recent historical events.", "Apart from opera, his ''oeuvre'' includes orchestral, concertante, vocal, choral, chamber, electroacoustic and piano music.Born in Worcester, Massachusetts, Adams grew up in a musical family, being regularly exposed to classical music, jazz, musical theatre and rock music.", "He attended Harvard University, studying with Kirchner, Sessions and Del Tredici among others.", "Though his earliest work was aligned with modernist music, he began to disagree with its tenets upon reading John Cage's ''Silence: Lectures and Writings''.", "Teaching at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music, Adams developed his own minimalist aesthetic, which was first fully realized in ''Phrygian Gates'' (1977) and later in the string septet ''Shaker Loops''.", "Increasingly active in the contemporary music scene of San Francisco, his large-scale orchestral works ''Harmonium'' and ''Harmonielehre'' (1985) first gained him national attention.", "Other popular works from this time include the fanfare ''Short Ride in a Fast Machine'' (1986) and the orchestral work ''El Dorado'' (1991).Adams's first opera was ''Nixon in China'' (1987), which recounts Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China and was the first of many collaborations with theatre director Peter Sellars.", "Though the work's reception was initially mixed, it has become increasingly favored since its premiere, receiving performances worldwide.", "Begun soon after ''Nixon in China'', the opera ''The Death of Klinghoffer'' (1991) was based on the Palestinian Liberation Front's 1985 hijacking and murder of Leon Klinghoffer and incited considerable controversy over its content and choice of subject matter.", "His next notable works include a Chamber Symphony (1992), a Violin Concerto (1993), the opera-oratorio ''El Niño'' (2000), the orchestral piece ''My Father Knew Charles Ives'' (2003) and the six-string electric violin concerto ''The Dharma at Big Sur''.", "Adams won a Pulitzer Prize for Music for ''On the Transmigration of Souls'' (2002), a piece for orchestra and chorus commemorating the victims of the September 11, 2001, attacks.", "Continuing with historical subjects, Adams wrote the opera ''Doctor Atomic'' (2005), based on J. Robert Oppenheimer, the Manhattan Project, and the building of the first atomic bomb.", "Later operas include ''A Flowering Tree'' (2006) and ''Girls of the Golden West'' (2017).In many ways, Adams's music is developed from the minimalist tradition of Steve Reich and Philip Glass; however, he tends to more readily engage in the immense orchestral textures and climaxes of late Romanticism in the vein of Wagner and Mahler.", "His style is to a considerable extent a reaction against the modernist serialism promoted by the Second Viennese and Darmstadt School.", "In addition to the Pulitzer, Adams has received the Erasmus Prize, a Grawemeyer Award, five Grammy Awards, the Harvard Arts Medal, France's Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, and six honorary doctorates." ], [ "Life and career", "===Youth and early career===John Coolidge Adams was born in Worcester, Massachusetts, on February 15, 1947.As an adolescent, he lived in Woodstock, Vermont for five years before moving to East Concord, New Hampshire, and his family spent summers on the shores of Lake Winnipesaukee, where his grandfather ran a dance hall.", "Adams' family did not own a television, and did not have a record player until he was ten.", "However, both his parents were musicians; his mother was a singer with big bands, and his father was a clarinetist.", "He grew up with jazz, Americana, and Broadway musicals, once meeting Duke Ellington at his grandfather's dance hall.", "Adams also played baseball as a boy.In the third grade, Adams took up the clarinet, initially taking lessons from his father, Carl Adams, and later with Boston Symphony Orchestra bass clarinetist Felix Viscuglia.", "He also played in various local orchestras, concert bands, and marching bands while a student.", "Adams began composing at the age of ten and first heard his music performed as a teenager.", "He graduated from Concord High School in 1965.Adams next enrolled in Harvard University, where he earned a bachelor of arts, magnum cum laude, in 1969 and a master of arts in 1971, studying composition under Leon Kirchner, Roger Sessions, Earl Kim, Harold Shapero, and David Del Tredici.", "As an undergraduate, he conducted Harvard's student ensemble, the Bach Society Orchestra, for a year and a half; his ambitious programming drew criticism in the student newspaper, where one of his concerts was called \"the major disappointment of last week's musical offerings\".", "Adams also became engrossed by the strict modernism of the twentieth century (such as that of Boulez) while at Harvard, and believed that music had to continue progressing, to the extent that he once wrote a letter to Leonard Bernstein criticizing the supposed stylistic reactionism of ''Chichester Psalms''.", "By night, however, Adams enjoyed listening to The Beatles, Jimi Hendrix, and Bob Dylan, and has relayed he once stood in line at eight in the morning to purchase a copy of ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.", "''Adams was the first student at Harvard to be allowed to write a musical composition for his senior thesis.", "For his thesis, he wrote ''The Electric Wake'' for \"electric\" (i.e.", "amplified) soprano accompanied by an ensemble of \"electric\" strings, keyboards, harp, and percussion.", "However, a performance could not be put together at the time, and Adams has never heard the piece performed.After graduating, Adams received a copy of John Cage's book ''Silence: Lectures and Writings'' from his mother.", "Largely shaken of his loyalty to modernism, he was inspired to move to San Francisco, where he taught at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music from 1972 until 1982, teaching classes and directing the school's New Music Ensemble.", "In the early 1970s, Adams wrote several pieces of electronic music for a homemade modular synthesizer he called the \"Studebaker\".", "He also wrote ''American Standard'', composed of three movements, a march, a hymn, and a jazz ballad, which was recorded and released on Obscure Records in 1975.===1977 to ''Nixon in China''===Adams' first opera, ''Nixon in China'', is about President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China.In 1977, Adams wrote the half-hour-long solo piano piece ''Phrygian Gates'', which he later called \"my first mature composition, my official 'opus one'\", as well as its much shorter companion piece, ''China Gates''.", "The next year, he finished ''Shaker Loops'', a string septet based on an earlier, unsuccessful string quartet called ''Wavemaker''.", "In 1979, he finished his first orchestral work, ''Common Tones in Simple Time'', which was premiered by the San Francisco Conservatory of Music Orchestra under Adams' baton.In 1979, Adams became the New Music Adviser for the San Francisco Symphony and created the symphony's New and Unusual Music concerts.", "A commission from the symphony resulted in Adams' large, three-movement choral symphony ''Harmonium'' (1980–81) setting texts by John Donne and Emily Dickinson.", "He followed this up with the three-movement, orchestral piece (without strings), ''Grand Pianola Music'' (1982).", "That summer, he wrote the score for ''Matter of Heart'', a documentary about psychoanalyst Carl Jung, a score he later derided as being \"of stunning mediocrity\".", "In the winter of 1982–83, Adams worked on the purely-electronic score for ''Available Light'', a dance choreographed by Lucinda Childs with sets by architect Frank Gehry.", "Without dance, the electronic piece alone is called ''Light Over Water''.After an eighteen-month period of writer's block, Adams wrote his three-movement, orchestral piece ''Harmonielehre'' (1984–85), which he described as \"a statement of belief in the power of tonality at a time when I was uncertain about its future\".", "As with many of Adams' pieces, it was inspired by a dream, in this case, a dream in which he was driving across the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge and saw an oil tanker on the surface of the water abruptly turn upright and take off like a Saturn V rocket.From 1985 to 1987, Adams composed his first opera, ''Nixon in China'', with libretto by Alice Goodman, based on Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China.", "The opera marked the first collaboration between Adams and theatre director Peter Sellars, who had proposed it to Adams in 1983.Adams has subsequently worked with Sellars on all of his operas.During this time, Adams also wrote ''The Chairman Dances'' (1985), which he described as an \"'out-take' of Act III of ''Nixon in China''\", to fulfill a long-delayed commission for the Milwaukee Symphony.", "He also wrote the short orchestral fanfare ''Short Ride in a Fast Machine'' (1986).Adams has collaborated with theater director left===1988 to ''Doctor Atomic''===Adams wrote two orchestral pieces in 1988: ''Fearful Symmetries'', a 25-minute work in the same style as ''Nixon in China'', and ''The Wound-Dresser'', a setting of Walt Whitman's 1865 poem of the same title, written when Whitman was volunteering at a military hospital during the American Civil War.", "''The Wound-Dresser'' is scored for baritone voice, two flutes (or two piccolos), two oboes, clarinet, bass clarinet, two bassoons, two horns, trumpet (or piccolo trumpet), timpani, synthesizer, and strings.During this time, Adams established an international career as a conductor.", "From 1988 to 1990, he served as conductor and music advisor for the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra.", "He has also served as artistic director and conductor of the Ojai and Cabrillo Music Festivals in California.", "He has conducted orchestras around the world, including the New York Philharmonic, the Chicago Symphony, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Los Angeles Philharmonic, the London Symphony Orchestra, and the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, performing pieces by composers as diverse as Debussy, Copland, Stravinsky, Haydn, Reich, Zappa, and Wagner, as well as his own works.He completed his second opera, ''The Death of Klinghoffer'', in 1991, again working with librettist Alice Goodman and director Peter Sellars.", "The opera is based on the 1985 hijacking of the Italian cruise ship ''Achille Lauro'' by Palestinian terrorists and details the murder of passenger Leon Klinghoffer, a retired, physically disabled American Jew.", "The opera has generated controversy, including allegations that it is antisemitic and glorifies terrorism.Adams' next piece, ''Chamber Symphony'' (1992), is for a 15-member chamber orchestra.", "Written in three movements, the work is inspired by an unlikely combination of sources: Arnold Schoenberg's Chamber Symphony No.", "1, Op.", "9 (which Adams was studying at the time) and the \"hyperactive, insistently aggressive and acrobatic\" music of the cartoons his young son was watching.The next year, he composed his Violin Concerto for American violinist Jorja Fleezanis.", "Lasting a little more than half an hour, this work is also in three movements: a \"long extended rhapsody for the violin\" is followed by a slow chaconne (titled \"Body through which the dream flows\", a phrase from a poem by Robert Haas), and the piece ends with an energetic toccare.", "Adams received the Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition for his violin concerto.In 1995, he completed ''I Was Looking at the Ceiling and Then I Saw the Sky'', a stage piece with libretto by poet June Jordan and staging by Peter Sellars.", "Inspired by musicals, Adams referred to the piece as a \"songplay in two acts\".", "The main characters are seven young Americans from different social and ethnic backgrounds, all living in Los Angeles, with stories that take place around the 1994 Northridge earthquake.", "''Hallelujah Junction'' (1996) is a three-movement composition for two piano, which employs variations of a repeated two-note rhythm.", "The intervals between the notes remain the same through much of the piece.", "Adams used the same phrase for the title of his 2008 memoir.Written to celebrate the millennium, ''El Niño'' (2000) is an \"oratorio about birth in general and about the Nativity in specific\".", "The piece incorporates a wide range of texts, including biblical texts as well as poems by Hispanic poets like Rosario Castellanos, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Gabriela Mistral, Vicente Huidobro, and Rubén Darío,After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, the New York Philharmonic commissioned Adams to write a memorial piece for the victims of the attacks.", "The resulting piece, ''On the Transmigration of Souls'', was premiered around the first anniversary of the attacks.", "''On the Transmigration of Souls'' is scored for orchestra, chorus, and children's choir, accompanied by taped readings of the names of the victims mixed with the sounds of the city.", "It won the 2003 Pulitzer Prize for Music as well as the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Composition.Commissioned by the San Francisco Symphony, Adams' orchestral piece ''My Father Knew Charles Ives'' (2003) is cast in three movements: \"Concord\", \"The Lake\", and \"The Mountain\".", "Though his father did not actually know American composer Charles Ives, Adams saw many similarities between the two men's lives and between their lives and his own, including their love of small-town New England life and their unfulfilled musical dreams.Adams' third opera, ''Doctor Atomic'', is about J. Robert Oppenheimer (shown above, in 1944) and the development of the atomic bomb in 1945.Written for the Los Angeles Philharmonic to celebrate the opening of Disney Hall in 2003, ''The Dharma at Big Sur'' (2003) is a two-movement work for solo electric six-string violin and orchestra.", "Adams wrote that with ''Dharma'', he \"wanted to compose a piece that embodied the feeling of being on the West Coast – literally standing on a precipice overlooking the geographic shelf with the ocean extending far out to the horizon…\" Inspired by the music of Lou Harrison, the piece calls for some instruments (harp, piano, samplers) to use just intonation, a tuning system in which intervals sound pure, rather than equal temperament, the common Western tuning system in which all intervals except the octave are impure.Adams' third opera, ''Doctor Atomic'' (2005), is about physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the Manhattan Project, and the creation and testing of the first atomic bomb.", "The work premiered at the San Francisco Opera in October of 2005.The libretto of ''Doctor Atomic'', written by Peter Sellars, draws on original source material, including personal memoirs, recorded interviews, technical manuals of nuclear physics, declassified government documents, and the poetry of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', John Donne, Charles Baudelaire, and Muriel Rukeyser.", "The opera takes place in June and July 1945, mainly over the last few hours before the first atomic bomb explodes at the test site in New Mexico.", "Characters include Oppenheimer and his wife Kitty, Edward Teller, General Leslie Groves, and Robert Wilson.", "Two years later, Adams extracted music from the opera to create the three-movement ''Doctor Atomic Symphony''.13 years later, in 2018, The Santa Fe Opera performed Dr. Atomic throughout their summer season.", "The production took place in Santa Fe, just 33 miles away from the Los Alamos Laboratory, the research and development facility for the Manhattan Project.", "This proximity forged a deeper connection between the production and the people of Los Alamos, fostering a newfound relationship with the pueblo communities.", "According to Andrew Martinez, this association \"became an opportunity to confront the histories and present-day experiences of pain and suffering that New Mexico citizens have endured since that rainy summer night in July 1945 when the first atomic bomb was detonated\".", "The production also notably featured a large 2,400-pound silver orb hanging from the ceiling, representing the bomb.", "This single set piece stood amidst an otherwise empty stage, set against the backdrop of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains.=== After ''Doctor Atomic'' ===Adams' next opera, ''A Flowering Tree'' (2006) with libretto by Adams and Sellars, is based on a folktale from the Kannada language of southern India as translated by A.K.", "Ramanujan about a young girl who discovers that she has the magic ability to transform into a flowering tree.", "The two-act opera was commissioned as part of the Vienna New Crowned Hope Festival to celebrate the 250th anniversary of Mozart's birth.", "As such, it has many parallels with Mozart's ''The Magic Flute'', including its themes of \"magic, transformation and the dawning of moral awareness\".Adams wrote three pieces for the St. Lawrence String Quartet: his First Quartet (2008), his concerto for string quartet and orchestra, ''Absolute Jest'' (2012), and his Second Quartet (2014).", "Both ''Absolute Jest'' and the Second Quartet are based on fragments from Beethoven, with ''Absolute Jest'' using music from his late quartets (specifically Opus 131, Opus 135 and the ''Große Fuge'') and the Second Quartet drawing from Beethoven's Opus 110 and 111 piano sonatas.From 2011 to 2013, Adams wrote his two-act Passion oratorio, ''The Gospel According to the Other Mary'', a decade after his Nativity oratorio, ''El Niño''.", "The work focuses on the final few weeks of the life of Jesus from the point of view of \"the other Mary\", Mary of Bethany (sometimes mis-identified as Mary Magdalene), her sister Martha, and her brother, Lazarus.", "The libretto by Peter Sellars draws its texts from the Old Testament and New Testament of the Bible and from Rosario Castellanos, Rubén Darío, Dorothy Day, Louise Erdrich, Hildegard von Bingen, June Jordan, and Primo Levi.", "''Scheherazade.2'' (2014) is a four-movement \"dramatic symphony\" for violin and orchestra.", "Written for violinist Leila Josefowicz who frequently performed Adams' Violin Concerto and ''The Dharma at Big Sur'', the work was inspired by the character Scheherazade (from ''One Thousand and One Nights'') who, after being forced into marriage, recounts tales to her husband in order to delay her death.", "Adams associated modern examples of suffering and injustice towards women around the world, with acts in Tahrir Square during the Egyptian revolution of 2011, Kabul, and comments from ''The Rush Limbaugh Show''.Adams' most recent opera, ''Girls of the Golden West'' (2017), with a libretto by Sellars based on historical sources, is set in mining camps during the California Gold Rush of the 1850s.", "Sellars described the opera this way: \"These true stories of the Forty-Niners a name for people who took part in the 1849 Gold Rush are overwhelming in their heroism, passion and cruelty, telling tales of racial conflicts, colorful and humorous exploits, political strife and struggles to build anew a life and to decide what it would mean to be American.", "\"The Library of Congress announced on June 14, 2023 that it was acquiring Adams' manuscripts and papers for its Music Division, which also includes the papers of other notable American performing artists, such as Leonard Bernstein, Aaron Copland, George and Ira Gershwin, Martha Graham, Charles Mingus, and Neil Simon.=== Personal life ===Adams was married to Hawley Currens, a music teacher, from 1970 to 1974.He is married to photographer Deborah O'Grady, with whom he has a daughter, Emily, and a son, the composer Samuel Carl Adams." ], [ "Musical style", "John Adams, ''Phrygian Gates'', 21–40 (1977), demonstrates the repetitive approach that is a mainstay of the minimalist traditionThe music of Adams is usually categorized as minimalist or post-minimalist, although in an interview he said that his music is part of the 'post-style' era at the end of the twentieth century.", "While Adams employs minimalist techniques, such as repeating patterns, he is not a strict follower of the movement.", "Though Adams did adopt much of the minimalist technique of predecessors Steve Reich and Philip Glass, his writing synthesizes this with the immense orchestral textures of Wagner, Mahler and Sibelius.", "Comparing ''Shaker Loops'' to the minimalist composer Terry Riley's piece ''In C'', Adams remarked:Many of Adams's ideas in composition are a reaction to the philosophy of serialism and its depictions of \"the composer as scientist\".", "The Darmstadt School of twelve tone composition was dominant during the time that Adams was receiving his college education, and he compared class to a \"mausoleum where we would sit and count tone-rows in Webern\".Adams experienced a musical epiphany after reading John Cage's book ''Silence'' (1973), which he claimed \"dropped into his psyche like a time bomb\".", "Cage posed fundamental questions about what music was, and regarded all types of sounds as viable sources of music.", "This perspective offered to Adams a liberating alternative to the rule-based techniques of serialism.", "Cage's own music, however, Adams found equally restricting.", "At this point, Adams began to experiment with electronic music, and his experiences are reflected in the writing of ''Phrygian Gates'' (1977–78), in which the constant shifting between modules in Lydian mode and Phrygian mode refers to activating electronic gates rather than architectural ones.", "Adams explained that working with synthesizers caused a \"diatonic conversion\", a reversion to the belief that tonality was a force of nature.Some of Adams's compositions are an amalgamation of different styles.", "One example is ''Grand Pianola Music'' (1981–82), a humorous piece that purposely draws its content from musical cliches.", "In ''The Dharma at Big Sur,'' Adams draws from literary texts such as Jack Kerouac, Gary Snyder, and Henry Miller to illustrate the California landscape.", "Adams professes his love of other genres other than classical music; his parents were jazz musicians, and he has also listened to rock music, albeit only passively.", "Adams once claimed that originality wasn't an urgent concern for him the way it was necessary for the minimalists and compared his position to that of Gustav Mahler, J.S.", "Bach, and Johannes Brahms, who \"were standing at the end of an era and were embracing all of the evolutions that occurred over the previous thirty to fifty years\".Adams, like other minimalists of his time (e.g.", "Philip Glass), used a steady pulse that defines and controls the music.", "The pulse was best known from Terry Riley's early composition ''In C'', and slowly more and more composers used it as a common practice.", "Jonathan Bernard highlighted this adoption by comparing ''Phrygian Gates'', written in 1977, and ''Fearful Symmetries'' written eleven years later in 1988.In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Adams started to add a new character to his music, which he called \"the Trickster\".", "The Trickster allowed Adams to use the repetitive style and rhythmic drive of minimalism, yet poke fun at it at the same time.", "When Adams commented on his own characterization of particular minimalist music, he stated that he went joyriding on \"those Great Prairies of non-event\"." ], [ "Critical reception", "===Overview===Adams won the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 2003 for his 9/11 memorial piece, ''On the Transmigration of Souls''.", "Response to his output as a whole has been more divided, and Adams's works have been described as both brilliant and boring in reviews that stretch across both ends of the rating spectrum.", "''Shaker Loops'' has been described as \"hauntingly ethereal\", while 1999's ''Naïve and Sentimental Music'' has been called \"an exploration of a marvelously extended spinning melody\".", "''The New York Times'' called 1996's ''Hallelujah Junction'' \"a two-piano work played with appealingly sharp edges\", and 2001's ''American Berserk'' \"a short, volatile solo piano work\".The most critically divisive pieces in Adams's collection are his historical operas.", "At first release, ''Nixon in China'' received mostly negative press feedback.", "Donal Henahan, writing in ''The New York Times'', called the Houston Grand Opera world premiere of the work \"worth a few giggles but hardly a strong candidate for the standard repertory\" and \"visually striking but coy and insubstantial\".", "James Wierzbicki for the ''St.", "Louis Post-Dispatch'' described Adams's score as the weak point in an otherwise well-staged performance, noting the music as \"inappropriately placid\", \"cliché-ridden in the abstract\" and \"trafficked heavily in Adams's worn-out Minimalist clichés\".", "With time, however, the opera has come to be revered as a great and influential production.", "Robert Hugill for ''Music and Vision'' called the production \"astonishing ... nearly twenty years after its premier\", while ''The Guardian'''s Fiona Maddocks praised the score's \"diverse and subtle palette\" and Adams' \"rhythmic ingenuity\".More recently, ''The New York Times'' writer Anthony Tommasini commended Adams for his work conducting the American Composers Orchestra.", "The concert, which took place in April 2007 at Carnegie Hall, was a celebratory performance of Adams's work on his sixtieth birthday.", "Tommasini called Adams a \"skilled and dynamic conductor\", and noted that the music \"was gravely beautiful yet restless\".===Klinghoffer controversy===The opera ''The Death of Klinghoffer'' has been criticized as antisemitic by some, including by the Klinghoffer family.", "Leon Klinghoffer's daughters, Lisa and Ilsa, after attending the opera, released a statement saying: \"We are outraged at the exploitation of our parents and the coldblooded murder of our father as the centerpiece of a production that appears to us to be anti-Semitic.\"", "In response to these accusations of antisemitism, composer and Oberlin College professor Conrad Cummings wrote a letter to the editor defending ''Klinghoffer'' as \"the closest analogue to the experience of Bach's audience attending his most demanding works\", and noted that, as a person of Jewish descent, he \"found nothing anti-Semitic about the work\".After the September 11 attacks in 2001, performances by the Boston Symphony Orchestra of excerpts from ''Klinghoffer'' were canceled.", "BSO managing director Mark Volpe remarked of the decision: \"We originally programmed the choruses from John Adams' The Death of Klinghoffer because we believe in it as a work of art, and we still hold that conviction.", "... Tanglewood Festival Chorus members explained that it was a purely human reason, and that it wasn't in the least bit a criticism of the work.\"", "Adams and ''Klinghoffer'' librettist Alice Goodman criticized the decision, and Adams rejected a request to substitute a performance of ''Harmonium'', saying: \"The reason that I asked them not to do ''Harmonium'' was that I felt that ''Klinghoffer'' is a serious and humane work, and it's also a work about which many people have made prejudicial judgments without even hearing it.", "I felt that if I said, 'OK, ''Klinghoffer'' is too hot to handle, do ''Harmonium'', that in a sense I would be agreeing with the judgment about ''Klinghoffer''.'", "\" In response to an article by the ''San Francisco Chronicle'''s David Wiegand denouncing the BSO decision, musicologist and critic Richard Taruskin accused the work of catering to \"anti-American, anti-Semitic and anti-bourgeois\" prejudices.A 2014 revival by the Metropolitan Opera reignited debate.", "Former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani, who marched in protest against the production, wrote: \"This work is both a distortion of history and helped, in some ways, to foster a three decade long feckless policy of creating a moral equivalency between the Palestinian Authority, a corrupt terrorist organization, and the state of Israel, a democracy ruled by law.\"", "The Mayor serving at the time, Bill de Blasio, criticized Giuliani's participation in the protests, and Oskar Eustis, the artistic director of The Public Theater, said in support of the production: \"It is not only permissible for the Met to do this piece – it's required for the Met to do the piece.", "It is a powerful and important opera.\"", "A week after watching a Met performance of the opera, Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg said \"there was nothing anti-Semitic about the opera,\" and characterized the portrayal of the Klinghoffers as \"very strong, very brave\", and the terrorists as \"bullies and irrational\"." ], [ "List of works", "===Ballets======Operas and stage works===* ''Nixon in China'' (1987)* ''The Death of Klinghoffer'' (1991)* ''I Was Looking at the Ceiling and Then I Saw the Sky'' (song play) (1995)* ''El Niño'' (opera-oratorio) (2000)* ''Doctor Atomic'' (2005)* ''A Flowering Tree'' (2006)* ''The Gospel According to the Other Mary'' (opera-oratorio) (2013)* ''Girls of the Golden West'' (2017)* ''Antony and Cleopatra'' (2022)===Orchestral works===* ''Common Tones in Simple Time'' (1979)* ''Grand Pianola Music'' (1982)* ''Shaker Loops'' (adaptation of the 1978 string septet for string orchestra) (1983)* ''Harmonielehre'' (1985)* ''The Chairman Dances'' (1985)* ''Tromba Lontana'' (1986)* ''Short Ride in a Fast Machine'' (1986)* ''Fearful Symmetries'' (1988)* ''El Dorado'' (1991)* ''Lollapalooza'' (1995)* ''Slonimsky's Earbox'' (1996)* ''Naïve and Sentimental Music'' (1998)* ''Guide to Strange Places'' (2001)* ''My Father Knew Charles Ives'' (2003)* ''Doctor Atomic Symphony'' (2007)* ''City Noir'' (2009)* ''I Still Dance'' (2019)* ''Frenzy'' (2023)===Concertante===*piano** ''Eros Piano'' (for piano and orchestra) (1989)** ''Century Rolls'' (concerto for piano and orchestra) (1997)** ''Must the Devil Have All the Good Tunes?''", "(concerto for piano and orchestra) (2018)*violin** Violin Concerto (1995 Grawemeyer Award for Music composition) (1993)** ''The Dharma at Big Sur'' (concerto for solo electric violin and orchestra) (2003)** ''Scheherazade.2'' (dramatic symphony for violin and orchestra) (2014)*others** ''Absolute Jest'' (for string quartet and orchestra) (2012)** Saxophone Concerto (2013)===Vocal and choral works===* ''Harmonium'' (1980)* ''The Nixon Tapes'' (three suites from ''Nixon in China'') (1987)* ''The Wound-Dresser'' (1989)* ''Choruses from The Death of Klinghoffer'' (1991)* ''On the Transmigration of Souls'' (2002)===Chamber music===* Piano Quintet (1970)* ''Shaker Loops'' (for string septet) (1978)* Chamber Symphony (1992)* ''John's Book of Alleged Dances'' (for string quartet) (1994)* ''Road Movies'' (for violin and piano) (1995)* ''Gnarly Buttons'' (for clarinet and chamber ensemble) (1996)* ''Son of Chamber Symphony'' (2007)* ''Fellow Traveler'' (for string quartet) (2007)* First Quartet (2008)* Second Quartet (2014)===Other ensemble works===* ''American Standard'', including \"Christian Zeal and Activity\" (1973)* ''Grounding'' (1975)* ''Scratchband'' (1996)* ''Nancy's Fancy'' (2001)===Tape and electronic compositions===* ''Heavy Metal'' (1970)* ''Studebaker Love Music'' (1976)* ''Onyx'' (1976)* ''Light Over Water'' (1983)* ''Hoodoo Zephyr'' (1993)===Piano===* ''Phrygian Gates'' (1977)* ''China Gates'' (1977)* ''Hallelujah Junction'' (for two pianos) (1996)* ''American Berserk'' (2001)* ''Roll Over Beethoven'' (for two pianos) (2014)* ''I Still Play'' (2017)===Film scores===* ''Matter of Heart'' (1982)* ''The Cabinet of Dr. Ramirez'' (1991)* ''American Tapestry'' (1999)* ''I Am Love (Io sono l'amore)'' – pre-existing pieces by Adams (2010)* ''Call Me by Your Name'', contributions (2017)===Orchestrations and arrangements===* ''The Black Gondola'' (Liszt's ''La lugubre gondola II'' (1882)) (1989)* ''Berceuse élégiaque'' (Busoni's ''Berceuse élégiaque'' (1907)) (1989)* ''Wiegenlied'' (Liszt's ''Wiegenlied'' (1881)) (1989)* ''Six Songs by Charles Ives'' (Ives songs) (1989–93)* ''Le Livre de Baudelaire'' (Debussy's ''Cinq poèmes de Charles Baudelaire'') (1994)* ''La Mufa'' (Piazzolla tango) (1995)* ''Todo Buenos Aires'' (Piazzolla tango) (1996)" ], [ "Awards and recognition", "''' Major awards '''*Pulitzer Prize for Music for ''On the Transmigration of Souls'' (2003)**Pulitzer Prize for Music Finalist for ''Century Rolls'' (1998) and ''The Gospel According to the Other Mary'' (2014)*Erasmus Prize (2019)'''Grammy awards'''*Best Contemporary Composition for ''Nixon in China'' (1989)*Best Contemporary Composition for ''El Dorado'' (1998)*Best Classical Album for ''On the Transmigration of Souls'' (2004)*Best Orchestral Performance for ''On the Transmigration of Souls'' (2004)*Best Classical Contemporary Composition for ''On the Transmigration of Souls'' (2004)'''Other awards'''*Royal Philharmonic Society Music Award for Best Chamber Composition for ''Chamber Symphony'' (1994)*University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition for ''Violin Concerto'' (1995)*California Governor's Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Arts* Cyril Magnin Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Arts*''Chevalier dans l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres'' (Knight of the Order of Arts and Letters) (2015)*Harvard Arts Medal (2007)*2018 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the category of Music and Opera'''Memberships'''*Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1997)* Member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1997)'''Honorary Doctorates'''*Honorary Doctorate of Arts from University of Cambridge (2003)*Honorary Doctorate of Arts from Northwestern University (2008)* Honorary Doctorate of Music from Duquesne University (2009)* Honorary Doctorate of Music from Harvard University (2012)* Honorary Doctorate of Music from Yale University (2013)* Honorary Doctorate of Music from Royal Academy of Music (2015)'''Other'''*Creative Chair of the Los Angeles Philharmonic (2009–present)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*Butterworth, Neil.", "\"John Adams\", ''Dictionary of American Classical Composers''.", "2nd ed.", "New York and London: Routledge, 2005.", "*Daines, Matthew.", "\"The Death of Klinghoffer by John Adams\", ''American Music'' vol.", "16, no.", "3 (Autumn 1998), pp.", "356–358.review*Richardson, John.", "\"John Adams: A Portrait and a Concert of American Music\", ''American Music'' vol.", "23, no.", "1 (Spring 2005), pp.", "131–133.review*Rimer, J. Thomas.", "\"''Nixon in China'' by John Adams\", ''American Music'' vol.", "12, no.", "3 (Autumn 1994), pp.", "338–341.review*Schwarz, K. Robert.", "\"Process vs. Intuition in the Recent Works of Steve Reich and John Adams\", ''American Music'' vol.", "8, no.", "3 (Autumn 1990), pp.", "245–273." ], [ "External links", "* * Profile, Boosey & Hawkes* Profile, Cdmc* * Programs regarding John Adams, NPR Music* * * Composer's entry on IRCAM's database'''Specific operas'''* \"''Doctor Atomic'': An Opera by John Adams and Peter Sellars\" on doctor-atomic.com.", "References 2005 world premiere performances at the San Francisco Opera.", "* Essay on ''Doctor Atomic'' by Thomas May.", "* \"The Myth of History\": Interview with Adams and Peter Sellars about ''Nixon in China'''''Interviews'''* \"A Vast Synthesising Approach\", interview with Robert Davidson, February 27, 1999* * \"An American Portrait: Composer John Adams\", WGBH Radio, Boston" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jon Voight" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jonathan Vincent Voight''' (; born December 29, 1938) is an American actor.", "Voight is associated with the angst and unruliness that typified the late-1960s counterculture.", "He has received numerous accolades, including an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award, and four Golden Globe Awards as well as nominations for four Primetime Emmy Awards.", "In 2019, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts.", "Films in which Voight has appeared have grossed more than $5.2 billion worldwide.Voight won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of a paraplegic Vietnam veteran in ''Coming Home'' (1978).", "His other Oscar-nominated roles were for playing Joe Buck, a would-be gigolo, in ''Midnight Cowboy'' (1969), a ruthless bank robber Oscar \"Manny\" Manheim in ''Runaway Train'' (1985) and as sportscaster Howard Cosell in ''Ali'' (2001).", "Other notable films include ''Deliverance'' (1972), ''The Champ'' (1979), ''Heat'' (1995), ''Mission: Impossible'' (1996), ''The Rainmaker'' (1997), ''Enemy of the State'' (1998), ''Pearl Harbor'' (2001), ''Zoolander'' (2001), ''Holes'' (2003), ''Glory Road'' (2006), ''Transformers'' (2007), and ''Pride and Glory'' (2008).", "He is also known for his role in the ''National Treasure'' film series.Voight is also known for his television roles, including as Nazi officer Jürgen Stroop in ''Uprising'' (2001) and Pope John Paul II on the eponymous miniseries (2005).", "His role as Mickey Donovan on the Showtime drama series ''Ray Donovan'' brought him newfound acclaim and attention among critics and audiences, as well as his fourth Golden Globe win in 2014.He also appeared on the thriller series ''24'' in its seventh season.Despite originally adopting liberal views, Voight has gained attention in his later years for his outspoken conservative and religious beliefs.", "He is the father of actress Angelina Jolie and actor James Haven." ], [ "Early life and education", "Jonathan Vincent Voight was born on December 29, 1938, in Yonkers, New York, to Barbara () and Elmer Voight (), a professional golfer.", "He has two brothers, Barry Voight, a former volcanologist at Pennsylvania State University, and James Wesley Voight, known as Chip Taylor, a singer-songwriter who wrote \"Wild Thing\" and \"Angel of the Morning\".", "Voight's paternal grandfather and his paternal grandmother's parents were Slovak immigrants, while his maternal grandfather and his maternal grandmother's parents were German immigrants.", "Political activist Joseph P. Kamp was his great-uncle through his mother.Voight was raised as a Catholic and attended Archbishop Stepinac High School in White Plains, New York, where he first took an interest in acting.", "Following his graduation in 1956, he enrolled at The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., where he majored in art and graduated with a B.A.", "degree in 1960.After graduation, Voight moved to New York City, where he pursued an acting career.", "He graduated from the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre, where he studied under Sanford Meisner." ], [ "Career", "===1961–1969: Early roles and breakthrough ===Voight as Prince Hamlet in ''Hamlet'' (1976)Voight started his off-Broadway career in a revue called ''O Oysters'', which ran in early 1961.He made his Broadway debut in the fall of 1961 as Rolf in ''The Sound of Music''.", "In the early 1960s, Voight found work in television, appearing in several episodes of ''Gunsmoke'', between 1963 and 1968, as well as guest spots on ''Naked City'' and ''The Defenders'', both in 1963, and ''Twelve O'Clock High'', in 1966 and ''Cimarron Strip'' in 1968.Voight's theater career took off in January 1965, playing Rodolfo in Arthur Miller's ''A View from the Bridge'' in an Off-Broadway revival.", "Voight's film debut did not come until 1967, when he took a part in Phillip Kaufman's crimefighter spoof, ''Fearless Frank''.", "He also took a small role in 1967's western, ''Hour of the Gun'', directed by veteran helmer John Sturges.", "In 1968 he took a role in director Paul Williams's ''Out of It''.In 1968, Voight was cast in the groundbreaking ''Midnight Cowboy'' (1969), the film that would make his career.", "He played Joe Buck, a naïve male hustler from Texas, adrift in New York City.", "He comes under the tutelage of Dustin Hoffman's Ratso Rizzo, a tubercular petty thief and con artist.", "The film explored late 1960s New York and the development of an unlikely, but poignant friendship between the two main characters.", "Directed by John Schlesinger and based on a novel by James Leo Herlihy, the film struck a chord with critics and audiences.", "Because of its controversial themes, the film was released with an X rating and would make history by being the only X-rated feature to win Best Picture at the Academy Awards.", "Both Voight and Hoffman were nominated for Best Actor, but lost out to John Wayne in'' True Grit.", "''=== 1970–1989: Stardom and acclaim ===In 1970, Voight appeared in Mike Nichols' adaptation of ''Catch-22'', and re-teamed with director Paul Williams to star in ''The Revolutionary'', as a left-wing college student struggling with his conscience.", "Voight next starred in 1972's ''Deliverance.''", "Directed by John Boorman, from a script that James Dickey had helped to adapt from his own novel of the same name, it tells the story of a canoe trip in a feral, backwoods America.", "Both the film and the performances of Voight and co-star Burt Reynolds received great critical acclaim, and were popular with audiences.", "Voight also appeared at the Studio Arena Theater, in Buffalo, New York, in the Tennessee Williams play ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' from 1973 to 1974 as Stanley Kowalski.Academy Awards in April 1988Voight played a directionless young boxer in 1973's ''The All American Boy'', then appeared in the 1974 film ''Conrack'', directed by Martin Ritt.", "Based on Pat Conroy's autobiographical novel ''The Water Is Wide'', Voight portrayed the title character, an idealistic young schoolteacher sent to teach underprivileged black children on a remote South Carolina island.", "The same year he appeared in ''The Odessa File'', based on Frederick Forsyth's thriller, as Peter Miller, a young German journalist who discovers a conspiracy to protect former Nazis still operating within Germany.", "This film first teamed him with the actor-director Maximilian Schell, who acted out a character named and based on the \"Butcher of Riga\" Eduard Roschmann, and for whom Voight would appear in 1976's ''End of the Game'', a psychological thriller based on a story by Swiss novelist and playwright Friedrich Dürrenmatt.Voight was Steven Spielberg's first choice for the role of Matt Hooper in the 1975 film ''Jaws'', but he turned down the role, which was ultimately played by Richard Dreyfuss.", "In 1978, Voight portrayed the paraplegic Vietnam veteran Luke Martin in Hal Ashby's film ''Coming Home,'' and was awarded Best Actor at the Cannes Film Festival, for his portrait of a cynical, yet noble paraplegic, reportedly based on real-life Vietnam veteran-turned-antiwar-activist Ron Kovic, with whom Jane Fonda's character falls in love.", "The film included a much-talked-about love scene between the two.", "Fonda won her second Best Actress award for her role, and Voight won for Best Actor in a Leading Role at the Oscars.", "In 1979, Voight once again put on boxing gloves, starring in 1979's remake of the 1931 Wallace Beery and Jackie Cooper vehicle ''The Champ,'' with Voight playing the part of an alcoholic ex-heavyweight and a young Ricky Schroder playing the role of his adoring son.", "The film was an international success, but less popular with American audiences.He next reteamed with director Ashby in 1982's ''Lookin' to Get Out'', in which he played Alex Kovac, a con man who has run into debt with New York mobsters and hopes to win enough in Las Vegas to pay them off.", "Voight both co-wrote the script and also co-produced.", "He also produced and acted in 1983's ''Table for Five'', in which he played a widower bringing up his children by himself.", "Also in 1983, Voight was slated to play Robert Harmon in John Cassavetes' Golden Bear-winning ''Love Streams'', having performed the role on stage in 1981.However, a few weeks before shooting began, Voight announced that he also wanted to direct the picture and was consequently dropped.", "In 1985, Voight teamed up with Russian writer and director Andrei Konchalovsky to play the role of escaped con Oscar \"Manny\" Manheim in ''Runaway Train''.", "The script was based on a story by Akira Kurosawa, and paired Voight with Eric Roberts as a fellow escapee.", "Voight received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor and won the Golden Globe's award for Best Actor.", "Roberts was also honored for his performance, receiving an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.", "Voight followed up this and other performances with a role in the 1986 film, ''Desert Bloom'', and reportedly experienced a \"spiritual awakening\" toward the end of the decade.", "In 1989, Voight starred in and helped write ''Eternity'', which dealt with a television reporter's efforts to uncover corruption.===1990–2012: Established actor ===He made his first acting debut into television films, acting in 1991's ''Chernobyl: The Final Warning'', followed by ''The Last of his Tribe'', in 1992.He followed with 1992's ''The Rainbow Warrior'' for ABC, the story of the ill-fated Greenpeace ship sunk by French operatives in Auckland Harbour.", "For the remainder of the decade, Voight would alternate between feature films and television movies, including a starring role in the 1993 miniseries ''Return to Lonesome Dove'', a continuation of Larry McMurtry's western saga, 1989's ''Lonesome Dove''.", "Voight played Captain Woodrow F. Call, the part played by Tommy Lee Jones in the original miniseries.", "Voight made a cameo appearance as himself on the ''Seinfeld'' episode \"The Mom & Pop Store\" airing November 17, 1994, in which George Costanza buys a car that appears to be owned by Jon Voight.", "Voight described the process leading up to the episode in an interview on the Red Carpet at the 2006 BAFTA Emmy Awards:::Well what happened was I was asked to be on Seinfeld.", "They said: \"Would you do a Seinfeld?\"", "And I said, and I just happened to know to see a few Seinfelds and I knew these guys were really tops; they were really, really clever guys, and I liked the show.", "And so I said \"Sure!\"", "and I thought they would ask me to do a walk-on, the way it came: \"Would you come be part of the show?\"", "And I said \"Yeah, sure I'll do it.\"", "You know what I mean?", "Then I got the script and my name was on every page because it was about my car.", "And I laughed; it was hysterically funny.", "So I was really delighted to do it.", "The writer came up to me and he said \"Jon, would you come take a look at my car to see if you ever owned it?", "\", because the writer wrote it from a real experience where someone sold him the car based on the fact that it was my car.", "And I went down and I looked at the car and I said \"No, I never had this car.\"", "So unfortunately I had to give him the bad news.", "But it was a funny episode.Cannes Film Festival in 1993In 1992, Voight appeared in the HBO film ''The Last of His Tribe''.", "In 1995, Voight played the role of \"Nate\", a sophisticated fence, in the crime drama film ''Heat'', directed by Michael Mann, and appeared in the television films ''Convict Cowboy'' and ''The Tin Soldier'', also directing the latter film.", "Voight next appeared in 1996's blockbuster film ''Mission: Impossible'', directed by Brian De Palma and starring Tom Cruise.", "Voight played the role of spymaster James Phelps, a role originated by Peter Graves in the television series.", "In 1997, Voight appeared in six films, beginning with ''Rosewood'', based on the 1923 destruction of the primarily black town of Rosewood, Florida, by the white residents of nearby Sumner.", "Voight played John Wright, a white Rosewood storeowner who follows his conscience and protects his black customers from the white rage.", "He next appeared in ''Anaconda'', set in the Amazon; he played Paul Sarone, a snake hunter obsessed with a fabled giant anaconda, who hijacks an unwitting National Geographic film crew who are looking for a remote Indian tribe.", "Voight next appeared in a supporting role in Oliver Stone's ''U Turn'', portraying a blind man.", "He took a supporting role in ''The Rainmaker'', adopted from the John Grisham novel and directed by Francis Ford Coppola.", "He played an unscrupulous lawyer representing an insurance company, facing off with a neophyte lawyer played by Matt Damon.", "His last film of 1997 was ''Boys Will Be Boys'', a family comedy directed by Dom DeLuise.The following year, Voight had the lead role in the television film ''The Fixer'', in which he played Jack Killoran, a lawyer who crosses ethical lines in order to \"fix\" things for his wealthy clients.", "A near-fatal accident awakens his dormant conscience and Killoran soon runs afoul of his former clients.", "He also took a substantial role in Tony Scott's 1998 political thriller, ''Enemy of the State,'' in which he played Will Smith's character's stalwart antagonist from the NSA .", "Voight was reunited with director Boorman in 1998's ''The General''.", "Set in Dublin, Ireland, the film tells the true-life story of the charismatic leader of a gang of thieves, Martin Cahill, at odds with both the police and the Provisional IRA.", "Voight portrays Inspector Ned Kenny, determined to bring Cahill to justice.", "He next appeared in 1999's ''Varsity Blues''.", "He played a blunt, autocratic football coach, pitted in a test of wills against his star player, portrayed by James Van Der Beek.", "Produced by fledgling MTV Pictures, the film became a surprise hit and helped connect Voight with a younger audiencee.", "Voight played Noah in the 1999 television production ''Noah's Ark'', and appeared in ''Second String,'' also for TV.", "He also appeared with Cheryl Ladd in the feature ''A Dog of Flanders'', a remake of a popular film set in Belgium.Voight next portrayed President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 2001's action/war film ''Pearl Harbor'', having accepted the role when Gene Hackman declined (his performance was received favorably by critics).", "Also that year, he appeared as Lord Croft, father of the title character of ''Lara Croft: Tomb Raider''.", "Based on the popular video game, the digital adventuress was played on the big screen by Voight's own real-life daughter Angelina Jolie.", "That year, he also appeared in ''Zoolander'', directed by Ben Stiller who starred as the title character, a vapid supermodel with humble roots.", "Voight appeared as Zoolander's coal-miner father.", "The film extracted both pathos and cruel humor from the scenes of Zoolander's return home, when he entered the mines alongside his father and brothers and Voight's character expressed his unspoken disgust at his son's chosen profession.", "Also in 2001, Voight joined Leelee Sobieski, Hank Azaria and David Schwimmer in the made-for-television film ''Uprising'', which was based on the uprising in the Warsaw ghetto.", "Voight played Major-General Juergen Stroop, the German officer responsible for the destruction of the Jewish resistance, and received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or MovieVoight in June 2013Director Michael Mann tagged Voight for a supporting role in the 2001 biopic ''Ali'', which starred Will Smith as the controversial former heavyweight champ, Muhammad Ali.", "Voight was almost unrecognizable under his make-up and toupée, as he impersonated the sports broadcaster Howard Cosell.", "Voight received his fourth Academy Award nomination, this time for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, for his performance.", "Also in 2001, he appeared in the television mini-series ''Jack and the Beanstalk: The Real Story'' along with Vanessa Redgrave, Matthew Modine, Richard Attenborough, and Mia Sara.", "In 2003, he played the role of Marion Seville/Mr.", "Sir in ''Holes''.", "In 2004, Voight joined Nicolas Cage, in ''National Treasure'' as Patrick Gates, the father of Cage's character.", "In 2005, he played the title role in the second part of CBS' miniseries, ''Pope John Paul II''.", "In 2006, he was Kentucky Wildcats head coach Adolph Rupp in the Disney hit ''Glory Road''.", "In 2007, he played United States Secretary of Defense John Keller in the summer blockbuster ''Transformers'', reuniting him with ''Holes'' star Shia LaBeouf.", "Also in 2007, Voight reprised his role as Patrick Gates in ''National Treasure: Book of Secrets''.", "He appeared in ''Bratz'' with his goddaughter Skyler Shaye.", "In 2008, he appeared as Creighton Kinkaid in the Christmas film ''Four Christmases''.", "In 2009, Voight played Jonas Hodges, the American antagonist, in the seventh season of the hit Fox drama ''24'', a role that many argue is based on real life figures Alfried Krupp, Johann Rall and Erik Prince.", "Voight plays the chief executive officer of a fictional private military company based in northern Virginia called ''Starkwood'', which has loose resemblances to Academi and ThyssenKrupp.", "Voight made his first appearance in the two-hour prequel episode ''24: Redemption'' on November 23.He then went on to recur for 10 episodes of Season 7.He joined Dennis Haysbert as the only two actors ever to have been credited with the \"Special Guest Appearance\" card on ''24''.That same year Voight also lent his voice talents in the Thomas Nelson audio Bible production known as ''The Word of Promise''.", "In this dramatized audio, Voight played the character of Abraham.", "The project also featured a large ensemble of other well-known Hollywood actors including Jim Caviezel, Louis Gossett Jr., John Rhys-Davies, Luke Perry, Gary Sinise, Jason Alexander, Christopher McDonald, Marisa Tomei and John Schneider.===2013–present===In 2013, Voight made his much-acclaimed appearance on ''Ray Donovan'' as Mickey Donovan, the main character's conniving father.", "The role earned him an Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film in 2014 as well as nominations for two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series.", "He reprised his role in the 2022 film ''Ray Donovan: The Movie''.", "He played Henry Shaw Sr. in ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them'' (2016).", "The following year he acted in the Christian drama ''Same Kind of Different as Me'' alongside Greg Kinnear and Renée Zellweger.", "On March 26, 2019, Voight was appointed to a six-year term on the Board of Trustees of the Kennedy Center in Washington DC.", "He portrayed Supreme Court Justice Warren E. Burger in the film ''Roe v. Wade'' (2020).", "In 2022 he participated in the documentary film ''Desperate Souls, Dark City and the Legend of Midnight Cowboy'' with Bob Balaban, Brian De Palma and Brenda Vaccaro.", "It premiered at the 79th Venice International Film Festival and was later shortlisted for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature at the 96th Academy Awards.", "In 2022, Voight was cast in the science fiction epic ''Megalopolis'', directed by Francis Ford Coppola." ], [ "Political views", "Voight alongside President Donald Trump in 2019 after receiving the National Medal of ArtsIn his early life, Voight's political views aligned with American liberal views, and he supported President John F. Kennedy, describing his assassination as traumatizing to people at that time.", "He also worked for George McGovern's voter registrations efforts in the inner cities of Los Angeles.", "Voight actively protested against the Vietnam War.", "In the 1970s, he made public appearances alongside Jane Fonda and Leonard Bernstein in support of the leftist Popular Unity group in Chile.In a July 28, 2008, op-ed in ''The Washington Times,'' Voight wrote that he regretted his youthful anti-war activism, and claimed that the peace movement of that time was driven by \"Marxist propaganda\".", "He also claimed that the radicals in the peace movement were responsible for the communists coming to power in Vietnam and Cambodia and for failing to stop the subsequent slaughter of 1.5 million people in the Killing Fields.In the same op-ed, Voight also criticized the Democratic Party and Barack Obama's bid to become president, claiming that the Democrats had created \"a propaganda campaign with subliminal messages, creating a God-like figure (Obama)\" who would \"demoralize this country and help create a socialist America.\"", "He claimed that Obama had grown up with the teachings of very angry, militant white and black people around him.Voight endorsed Republican presidential nominees Mitt Romney and Donald Trump in the 2012 and 2016 presidential elections respectively.", "Speaking at an inauguration rally for Trump in January 2017, Voight said, \"God answered all our prayers\" by granting Trump the White House.", "In May 2019, Voight released a short two-part video on Twitter supporting Trump's policies, and calling him \"the greatest president since Abraham Lincoln.", "\"In November 2020, after the United States presidential election, Voight released a statement through his Twitter account, in which he stated he was very angry that Joe Biden had won the election.", "He further implied that Biden had committed electoral fraud and proclaimed that the United States was engaged in \"our greatest fight since the Civil War – the battle of righteousness versus Satan, because these leftists are evil, corrupt, and they want to tear down this nation.\"", "He finished the statement by imploring his followers to not let the 2020 presidential election be certified without attempting to make sure it was accurate first.", "After the January 6 United States Capitol attack, and after Biden's victory was confirmed in Congress on January 7, Voight released one more video on his Twitter account for his followers telling them to cease protesting.In 2022, following a mass shooting at an elementary school in Uvalde, Texas, Voight posted a video in support of gun control, arguing that \"proper qualifications\" and \"testing\" should be necessary for gun ownership.", "In November 2023, Voight expressed disappointment in his daughter Angelina Jolie, criticizing her differing views on the Israel-Hamas war and accusing her of spreading misinformation.", "While Jolie called for a ceasefire, Voight defended Israel's right to protect its people and emphasized the conflict's significance in preserving the Holy Land and the history of the Jews." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1962, Voight married actress Lauri Peters, whom he met when they both appeared in the original Broadway production of ''The Sound of Music''.", "They divorced in 1967.He married actress Marcheline Bertrand in 1971.They separated in 1976, filed for divorce in 1978, and finalized it in 1980.Their children, James Haven (born 1973) and Angelina Jolie (born 1975), went on to enter the film business as actors and producers.", "Through Jolie, he has six grandchildren.Voight has never remarried in the 45-plus years since splitting from his second wife.", "Over the decades, he has dated Linda Morand, Stacey Pickren, Rebecca De Mornay, Eileen Davidson, Barbra Streisand, Nastassja Kinski, and Diana Ross." ], [ "Acting credits", "===Film=== Year Title RoleNotes 1967 ''Fearless Frank'' Fearless Frank ''Hour of the Gun'' Bill 'Curly Bill' Brocius 1969 ''Midnight Cowboy'' Joe Buck ''Out of It'' Russ 1970 ''Catch-22'' 1st Lieutenant Milo Minderbinder ''The Revolutionary'' A 1972 ''Deliverance'' Ed Gentry 1973 ''The All-American Boy'' Vic Bealer 1974 ''Conrack'' Pat Conroy ''The Odessa File'' Peter Miller 1975 ''End of the Game'' Walter Tschanz Only released in West Germany in 1978 1978 ''Coming Home'' Luke Martin 1979 ''The Champ'' Billy Flynn 1982 ''Lookin' to Get Out'' Alex Kovac Also writer 1983 ''Table for Five'' J.P. Tannen 1985 ''Runaway Train'' Oscar 'Manny' Manheim 1986 ''Desert Bloom'' Jack Chismore 1990 ''Eternity'' Edward / James Also writer 1995 ''Heat'' Nate 1996 ''Mission: Impossible'' Jim Phelps 1997 ''The Rainmaker'' Leo F. Drummond ''Rosewood'' John Wright ''Anaconda'' Paul Serone ''U Turn'' Blind Man ''Most Wanted'' General Adam Woodward Lt. Col. Grant Casey 1998 ''Enemy of the State'' Thomas Brian Reynolds ''The General'' Ned Kenny 1999 ''Baby Geniuses'' Unknown Co-executive producer ''Varsity Blues'' Coach Bud Kilmer ''A Dog of Flanders'' Michael La Grande 2001 ''Zoolander'' Larry Zoolander ''Lara Croft: Tomb Raider'' Lord Richard Croft ''Pearl Harbor'' Franklin D. Roosevelt ''Ali'' Howard Cosell 2003 ''Holes'' Marion Seville / Mr Sir 2004 ''Superbabies: Baby Geniuses 2'' Bill Biscane / Kane ''The Manchurian Candidate'' Senator Thomas Jordan ''National Treasure'' Patrick Gates 2006 ''The Legend of Simon Conjurer'' Dr. Crazx ''Glory Road'' Adolph Rupp 2007 ''September Dawn'' Jacob Samuelson ''Transformers'' Mr. John Keller ''Bratz'' Principal Dimly ''National Treasure: Book of Secrets'' Patrick Henry Gates2008 ''Pride and Glory'' Assistant Chief Francis Tierney Sr. ''Four Christmases'' Creighton ''An American Carol'' George Washington ''Tropic Thunder'' Himself Cameo 2012 ''Beyond'' Jon Koski ''Beatles Stories'' Himself Documentary 2013 ''Baby Geniuses and the Mystery of the Crown Jewels'' Taxi Driver Direct-to-video ''Getaway'' Mysterious Voice ''Dracula: The Dark Prince'' Leonardo Van Helsing 2014 ''Baby Geniuses and the Treasure of Egypt'' Moriarty Direct-to-video ''The Final Song'' Unknown Executive producer 2015 ''Woodlawn'' Paul 'Bear' Bryant ''Baby Geniuses and the Space Baby'' Moriarty Direct-to-video2016 ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them'' Henry Shaw Sr. ''American Wrestler: The Wizard'' Principal SkinnerSr.", "2017 ''Same Kind of Different as Me'' Earl Hall2018 ''Surviving the Wild'' Grandfather Gus ''Orphan Horse'' Ben Crowley 2020 ''Roe v. Wade'' Warren E. Burger 2022 ''Dangerous Game: The Legacy Murders'' Ellison Betts ''Desperate Souls, Dark City and the Legend of Midnight Cowboy'' Himself Documentary 2023 ''Mercy'' Patrick Quinn2024 ''The Painter'' Byrne ''Reagan'' Viktor Novikov Post-production ''Megalopolis'' TBA Post-production===Television=== Year Title RoleNotes 1963 ''Naked City'' Victor Binks Episode: \"Alive and Still a Second Lieutenant\" ''The Defenders'' Cliff Wakeman 2 episodes 1966 ''Summer Fun'' Unknown Episode: \"Kwimpers of New Jersey\" ''NET Playhouse'' Unknown Episode: \"A Sleep of Prisoners\" ''12 O'Clock High'' Captain Karl Holtke Episode: \"Graveyard\" 1966–1968 ''Gunsmoke'' Steven Downing / Cory / Petter Karlgren 3 episodes 1967 ''Coronet Blue'' Peter Wicklow Episode: \"The Rebels\" 1967 ''N.Y.P.D.''", "Adam Episode: \"The Bombers\" 1968 ''Cimarron Strip'' Bill Mason Episode: \"Without Honor\" 1991 ''Chernobyl: The Final Warning'' Dr. Robert Gale Television film 1992 ''The Rainbow Warrior'' Peter Willcox Television film ''The Last of His Tribe'' Professor Alfred Kroeber Television film 1993 ''Return to Lonesome Dove'' Captain Woodrow F. Call Miniseries 1994 ''Seinfeld'' Himself Episode: \"The Mom & Pop Store\" 1995 ''The Tin Soldier'' Yarik Television film; also director ''Convict Cowboy'' Ry Weston Television film 1998 ''The Fixer'' Jack Killoran Television film; executive producer 1999 ''Noah's Ark'' Noah Miniseries 2000 ''The Princess & the Barrio Boy'' Unknown Television film; executive producer 2001 ''Uprising'' Major General Jürgen Stroop Television film ''Jack and the Beanstalk: The Real Story'' Sigfriend 'Siggy' Mannheim Miniseries 2002 ''Second String'' Head Coach Chuck Dichter Television film 2003 ''Jasper, Texas'' Sheriff Billy Rowles Television film2004 ''The Five People You Meet in Heaven'' Eddie Television film ''The Karate Dog'' Hamilton Cage Television film 2005 ''Pope John Paul II'' John Paul II Miniseries 2008 ''24: Redemption'' Jonas Hodges Television film 2009 ''24'' Jonas Hodges Recurring guest role (season 7) 2010 ''Lone Star'' Clint Thatcher 2 episodes 2013–2020 ''Ray Donovan'' Mickey Donovan Main role 2016 ''J.L.", "Family Ranch'' John Landsburg Television film 2020 ''J.L.", "Family Ranch: The Wedding Gift'' John Landsburg Television film 2022 ''Ray Donovan: The Movie'' Mickey Donovan Television film=== Theatre === Year Title RoleNotes1959 ''The Sound of Music'' Rolf Gruber (replacement) Lunt-Fontanne Theatre, Broadway debut 1966 ''The Tempest'' Ariel The Old Globe, San Diego1966 ''Romeo and Juliet'' Romeo The Old Globe, San Diego1967 ''That Summer - That Fall'' Steve Helen Hayes Theatre, Broadway 1975 ''The Hashish Club'' Producer only Bijou Theatre, Broadway1976 ''Hamlet'' Prince Hamlet The Old Globe, San Diego1992 ''The Seagull'' Trigorin Lyceum Theatre, Broadway" ], [ "Awards and nominations" ], [ "See also", "*List of actors with Academy Award nominations*List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "John Climacus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Climacus''' (; ; ), also known as '''John of the Ladder''', '''John Scholasticus''' and '''John Sinaites''', was a 6th–7th-century Christian monk at the monastery on Mount Sinai.", "He is revered as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church." ], [ "History", "There is almost no information about John's life.", "There is in existence an ancient ''vita'' (life) of the saint by a monk named Daniel of Raithu monastery.", "Daniel, though claiming to be a contemporary, admits to no knowledge of John's origins—any detail on John's birth is the result of much later speculation, and is confined to references in the Menologion.", "The ''Vita'' is generally unhelpful for establishing dates of any kind.", "Formerly scholarship, on the basis of John's entry in the Menologion, had placed him in the latter 6th century.", "That view was challenged by J. C. Guy and others, and consensus (such as there is) has shifted to a 7th-century provenance.", "If Daniel's ''vita'' is trustworthy (there is nothing against which to judge its accuracy), then John came to the ''Vatos'' Monastery at Mount Sinai, now Saint Catherine's Monastery, and became a novice when he was about 16 years old.", "He was taught about the spiritual life by the elder monk Martyrius.", "After the death of Martyrius, John, wishing to practice greater asceticism, withdrew to a hermitage at the foot of the mountain.", "In this isolation he lived for some twenty years, constantly studying the lives of the saints and thus becoming one of the most learned Church Fathers.In the meantime, this tradition has been proven to be historically implausible.", "The artful rhetorical figures in his writings, as well as philosophical forms of thought indicate a solid academic education, as was customary for a profession in administration and law during his epoch.", "Such training could not be acquired in Sinai.In addition, biographical observations indicate that he probably lived by the sea, probably in Gaza, and apparently practiced law there.", "It was only after his wife's death, in his early forties, that he entered the Sinai Monastery.", "These findings also explain the horizon and the literary quality of his writings, which have a clear philosophical background.", "The legend of his renunciation of the world at the age of 16 is based on the motive of portraying him as untouched by secular education, as is found in other biographies of saints.", "Their roots in theological and philosophical educational traditions are deliberately blurred.When he was about sixty-five years of age, the monks of Sinai persuaded him to become their hegumen.", "He acquitted himself of his functions as abbot with the greatest wisdom, and his reputation spread so far that, according to the ''Vita'', Pope Gregory the Great wrote to recommend himself to his prayers, and sent him a sum of money for the hospital of Sinai, in which the pilgrims were wont to lodge.Of John's literary output we know only the ''Κλῖμαξ'' () or ''The Ladder of Divine Ascent'', composed in the early seventh century at the request of John, Abbot of Raithu, a monastery situated on the shores of the Red Sea, and a shorter work ''To the Pastor'' (Latin: ''Liber ad Pastorem''), most likely a sort of appendix to the ''Ladder''.", "It is in the ''Ladder'' that we hear of the ascetic practice of carrying a small notebook to record the thoughts of the monk during contemplation.The ''Ladder'' describes how to raise one's soul and body to God through the acquisition of ascetic virtues.", "Climacus uses the analogy of Jacob's Ladder as the framework for his spiritual teaching.", "Each chapter is referred to as a \"step\", and deals with a separate spiritual subject.", "There are thirty Steps of the ladder, which correspond to the age of Jesus at his baptism and the beginning of his earthly ministry.", "Within the general framework of a 'ladder', Climacus' book falls into three sections.", "The first seven Steps concern general virtues necessary for the ascetic life, while the next nineteen (Steps 8–26) give instruction on overcoming vices and building their corresponding virtues.", "The final four Steps concern the higher virtues toward which the ascetic life aims.", "The final rung of the ladder—beyond prayer (προσευχή), stillness (ἡσυχία), and even dispassion (ἀπάθεια)—is love (ἀγάπη).Originally written simply for the monks of a neighboring monastery, the ''Ladder'' swiftly became one of the most widely read and much-beloved books of Byzantine spirituality.", "This book is one of the most widely read among Orthodox Christians, especially during the season of Great Lent which immediately precedes Pascha (Easter).", "It is often read in the ''trapeza'' (refectory) in Orthodox monasteries, and in some places it is read in church as part of the Daily Office on Lenten weekdays, being prescribed in the ''Triodion''.An icon known by the same title, ''Ladder of Divine Ascent'', depicts a ladder extending from earth to heaven.", "Several monks are depicted climbing a ladder; at the top is Jesus, prepared to receive them into Heaven.", "Also shown are angels helping the climbers, and demons attempting to shoot with arrows or drag down the climbers, no matter how high up the ladder they may be.", "Most versions of the icon show at least one person falling.", "Often, in the lower right corner John Climacus himself is shown, gesturing towards the ladder, with rows of monastics behind him.Saint John's feast day is March 30 in both the East and West.", "The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine Catholic churches additionally commemorate him on the Fourth Sunday of Great Lent.", "Many churches are dedicated to him in Russia, including a church and belltower in the Moscow Kremlin.", "John Climacus was also known as \"Scholasticus\", but he is not to be confused with John Scholasticus, Patriarch of Constantinople.Several translations into English have been made, including one by Holy Transfiguration Monastery (Boston, 1978).", "This volume contains the ''Life of St. John'' by Daniel, ''The Ladder of Divine Ascent'', and ''To the Pastor'', and provides footnotes explaining many of the concepts and terminology used from an Orthodox perspective, as well as a General Index.File:The Ladder of Divine Ascent Monastery of St Catherine Sinai 12th century.jpg|John Climacus is shown at the top of the ''Ladder of Divine Ascent'' icon, with other monks following him, 12th-century icon (Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai, Egypt)File:FS-7562 19.jpg|St.", "John of the Ladder (Climacus): illustration from a Klimax manuscript (early 12th century)" ], [ "See also", "* Søren Kierkegaard, who published several works under the pseudonym \"Johannes Climacus\" and two under the pseudonym \"Anti-Climacus\"* Saint John Climacus, patron saint archive* The Uncondemning Monk; also commemorated 30 March" ], [ "References" ], [ "Relevant Literature", "*Popova, Tatiana.", "\"The Naming of Food and Drink in the Ladder of John Climacus.\"", "Studia Ceranea.", "''Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Centre for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-East Europe'' 11 (2021): 371-386." ], [ "External links", "* * * * ''St John Climacus and the Ladder of Divine Ascent'' Sermon* ''John Climacus: The Ladder of Divine Ascent'' by Colm Luibheid, John Henebry (Google Books)* Excerpts from John Climacus* St John Climacus (of the Ladder) Orthodox icon and synaxarion for Fourth Sunday of Great Lent* Venerable John Climacus of Sinai, Author of \"the Ladder\" March 30 feast* Pope Benedict XVI General Audience of Febr.", "11, 2009 on John Climacus" ] ]
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[ [ "Jerome Callet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jerome Callet''' (April 24, 1930 – May 13, 2019) was a brass embouchure clinician, and designer of brass instruments and mouthpieces.Callet rediscovered the original brass embouchure technique utilized in Europe during the baroque era, which at the time was only passed on verbally from trumpet guild members to their sons, and subsequently, by the great classical and jazz players of the first half of the 20th century.", "While this technique was described in written form within the first brass instruction books published in France in the late 1800s, as well as some American trumpet method books from the early 20th century, the instructions were mistranslated by subsequent generations of teachers, altering the trajectory and quality of brass playing and instruction for the past 100 years.", "Callet subsequently began creating and manufacturing his own line of trumpets and mouthpieces, for he believed that most modern trumpet equipment was designed to compensate for the failures of modern trumpet playing and teaching.Born April 24, 1930, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Callet began his trumpet studies at age thirteen after being inspired by two fellow students, Cal Massey and Tommy Turrentine, at Herron Hill Junior High School in Pittsburgh.", "Although he subsequently studied with several well known and accomplished trumpet instructors in the Pittsburgh area and dedicated himself laboriously to mastering the instrument, by the age of thirty Callet could still not play a high C. In 1947, after many years of struggle, Callet began researching the physical elements necessary to develop a \"Super Power Embouchure\", such as those developed by players such as Harry James, Charlie Shavers, Horst Fischer, Maurice Andre, and Maynard Ferguson.", "In 1970, at the age of 40, and after much trial and error, Callet had developed his new embouchure, and named it Superchops.", "The Superchops embouchure methodology eventually led him on the quest to design and produce the best trumpets and mouthpieces available.", "Callet's involvement with the business of instruments began with sixteen years in sales (1953–1968) for Elden Benge, followed by eight years of experience with Dominick Calicchio (1968–1975).", "He absorbed much of his knowledge of trumpet making from these two brilliant men.", "With this rich background and his talent as an accomplished machinist, Mr. Callet was able to release his first line of trumpet mouthpieces in 1973, and his first trumpet under his own brand name in 1984.In 1973, he also developed a line of mouthpieces to complement his embouchure theories.", "In the meantime, he taught embouchure technique in Pittsburgh (1960) and New York (from 1972 to April 2019).", "The fulfillment of his quest to create the best brass instruments possible culminated with his \"New York Soloist\" B♭ trumpet, released in 2013 (built by Kanstul), and his 1ss, 1sc, and 1sb trumpet mouthpieces, released in 2017 (built by Jim New).", "Callet's historical legacy of trumpet manufacturing is represented by his \"Sima Bb\", \"Sima C\", \"Sima D/Eb\", \"Jazz Bb\", \"Superchops Bb\", \"Symphonique Bb\", \"Symphonique C\", \"Stratosphere Bb\", and previous \"Soloist Bb\" trumpets, as well as his \"Grand Prix\" flugelhorn, his earlier \"Jazz\" and \"NY\" flugelhorns, and his \"Jazz\" trombone.", "More than 6,000 Callet trumpets and 15,000 Callet mouthpieces were manufactured overall.", "Callet published five books on trumpet embouchure and technique, including ''Trumpet Secrets'' (2002), ''Beyond Arban'' (1991), ''Superchops'' (1987), ''Brass Power and Endurance'' (1974), and ''Trumpet Yoga'' (1971), as well as the ''Master Superchops'' DVD (2007).", "Callet also conducted brass embouchure clinics in the United States, Canada, Germany, Finland, Switzerland, France, Denmark, Hungary and Japan." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*''Trumpet yoga: The ultimate modern trumpet embouchure'', 1971.", "*''Brass power and endurance'', 1974.", "*''Superchops: The virtuoso embouchure method for trumpet and brass''.", "1987.", "*''Beyond Arban''.", "1991.", "*''Trumpet Secrets, Volume 1''.", "2002" ], [ "External links", "* Master Super Chops* Jerome Callet Trumpets" ] ]
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[ [ "History of Java" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''History of Java''' can refer to:* The history of the island of Java* ''The History of Java'', an 1817 book on the history of the Java by Stamford Raffles, founder of modern Singapore* The version history of the Java programming language* The history of the Java platform" ], [ "See also", "* History of JavaScript* ECMAScript (JavaScript) version history* Java (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Java (board game)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Java''''' is a German-style board game designed by Wolfgang Kramer and Michael Kiesling, illustrated by Franz Vohwinkel, and published in 2000 by Ravensburger in German and by Rio Grande Games in English.", "In the game, players build the island of Java to set up palace festivals and gain victory points.", "Upon its release, the game received several awards." ], [ "Gameplay", "The game provides the atmosphere of the island of Java on a hexagonal board.", "Players build the island and score by setting up palace festivals at opportune moments.", "When players run out of hexagons to build the island, the game is over.", "A final scoring phase now takes place and a winner is declared." ], [ "Reception", "Bernhard Fischer, reviewing from ''Spieletest'', praised the game’s strategy and tactics.", "However, he criticised its poor appeal for intermediate players and complex rules.", "''Java'' also placed 9th place in the 2001 ''Deutscher Spiele Preis'' award and the ''Games Magazine'' Best Advanced Strategy Game in 2002.It is the second game in the Mask Trilogy, following ''Tikal'' and followed by ''Mexica''." ], [ "Reviews", "*''Family Games: The 100 Best''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "John Radcliffe (physician)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Radcliffe''' (1650 – 1 November 1714) was an English physician, academic and politician.", "A number of landmark buildings in Oxford, including the Radcliffe Camera (in Radcliffe Square), the Radcliffe Infirmary, the Radcliffe Science Library, Radcliffe Primary Care and the Radcliffe Observatory were named after him.", "The John Radcliffe Hospital, a large tertiary hospital in Headington, is also named after him." ], [ "Life", "Radcliffe was born the son of George Radcliffe and Anne Loader, in Wakefield, Yorkshire, where he was baptised on 1 May 1650.He was educated at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Wakefield and Northallerton Grammar School and graduated from the University of Oxford, where he was an exhibitioner at University College tutored by Obadiah Walker, to become a Fellow of Lincoln College.", "He obtained his MD in 1682 and moved to London shortly afterwards.", "There he enjoyed great popularity and became royal physician to William III and Mary II.In 1690 he was elected Member of Parliament for Bramber, Sussex and in 1713 member for Buckingham.On his death in the following year, his property was bequeathed to various charitable causes, including St Bartholomew's Hospital, London and University College, Oxford, where the Radcliffe Quad is named after him.", "The charitable trust founded by his will of 13 September 1714 still operates as a registered charity." ], [ "Anecdotes of Radcliffe", "1.Among the many singularities related of Radcliffe, it has been noticed that, when he was in a convivial party, he was unwilling to leave it, even though sent for by persons of the highest distinction.", "Whilst he was thus deeply engaged at a tavern, he was called on by a grenadier, who desired his immediate attendance on his ''colonel''; but no entreaties could prevail on the physician to postpone his revelry.", ":\"Sir,\" the soldier was quoted as saying, \"my orders are to bring you to the boss.\"", "And being a very powerful man, he took him up in his arms, and carried him off per force.", "He had betrayed his loyal friend.", "After traversing some dirty lanes, the doctor and his escort arrived at a narrow alley.", ":\"What the Devil is all this,\" said Radcliffe, \"your colonel doesn't live here?", "\":\"No,\" said his military friend, \"my colonel does not live here – but my comrade does, and he's worth two of the colonel, so by God, doctor, if you don't do your best for ''him'', it will be the worst for ''you!", "''\"2.To confer medical authority upon themselves, doctors of the day often published their theories, clinical findings, and pharmacopoeia (collections of \"receipts\" or prescriptions).", "Radcliffe, however, not only wrote little but also took a certain iconoclastic pride in having read little, remarking once of some vials of herbs and a skeleton in his study: “This is Radcliffe’s library.” However, he bequeathed a substantial sum of money to Oxford for the founding of the Radcliffe Library, an endowment which, Samuel Garth quipped, was \"about as logical as if a eunuch should found a seraglio.", "\"3.Physician to King William III until 1699, when Radcliffe offended the King by remarking \"Why truly, I would not have your Majesty's two legs for your three kingdoms.\"" ], [ "Medical institutions named after Radcliffe", "The John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford is named after John Radcliffe, as was the former Radcliffe Infirmary, now being redeveloped for academic use by Oxford University as the Radcliffe Observatory Quarter." ], [ "Works", "* '''''Pharmacopoeia Radcliffeana''': or, Dr. Radcliff's Prescriptions, Faithfully gather'd from his Original Recipie's To which are annex'd, Useful Observations upon each Prescription.", "The Second Edition Corrected.''", ".", "Rivington, London 2nd Ed.", "by Edward Strother '''1716''' Free EBook digitized by Google* '''''Pharmacopoeiae Radcliffeanae Pars Altera''': Or, The Second and Last Part of Dr. Radcliff's Prescriptions, with useful Observations, &c. To which is annex'd, An Appendix, Containing a Body of Prescriptions, answering the Intentions requir'd in all Diseases Internal and External, with useful Cautions subjoin'd to each Head, and a complete Index to the Whole.", "Being a Work of General Use to all Physicians, Apothecaries, and Surgeons.''", ".", "Rivington, London.", "by Edward Strother '''1716''' Free EBook digitized by Google* ''Dr.", "Radcliffe's practical dispensatory : containing a complete body of prescriptions, fitted for all diseases, internal and external, digested under proper heads'' .", "Rivington, London 4th Ed.", "by Edward Strother '''1721''' Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf" ], [ "Further reading", "* Hone, Campbell R. (1950) ''The Life of Dr. John Radcliffe, 1652–1714, Benefactor of the University of Oxford''.", "London: Faber and Faber.", "* Guest, Ivor (1991) ''Dr John Radcliffe and His Trust''.", "London: The Radcliffe Trust, 595 pages" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Joual" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Joual''''' () is an accepted name for the linguistic features of Quebec French that are associated with the French-speaking working class in Montreal which has become a symbol of national identity for some.", "''Joual'' has historically been stigmatized by some, and celebrated by others.", "While ''Joual'' is often considered a sociolect of the Québécois working class, many feel that perception is outdated, with ''Joual'' becoming increasingly present in the arts.Speakers of Quebec French from outside Montreal usually have other names to identify their speech, such as Magoua in Trois-Rivières, and Chaouin south of Trois-Rivières.", "Linguists tend to eschew this term, but historically some have reserved the term ''Joual'' for the variant of Quebec French spoken in Montreal.Both the upward socio-economic mobility among the Québécois, and a cultural renaissance around ''Joual'' connected to the Quiet Revolution in the Montreal East-End have resulted in ''Joual'' being spoken by people across the educational and economic spectrum.", "Today, many Québécois who were raised in Quebec during the 20th century (command of English notwithstanding) can understand and speak at least some ''Joual''." ], [ "History", "The creation of ''Joual'' can be traced back to the \"era of silence\", the period from the 1840s to the 1960s and the start of the Quiet Revolution.", "The \"era of silence\" was marked with stark stigmatization of the common working man.", "Written documents were not shared with the typical working class man, and the very strict form of French that was used by elites excluded a majority of the population.", "The Quiet Revolution during the 1960s was a time of awakening, in which the Quebec working class demanded more respect in society, including wider use of Québécois in literature and the performing arts.", "Michel Tremblay is an example of a writer who deliberately used ''Joual'' and Québécois to represent the working class populations of Quebec.", "''Joual'', a language of the working class, quickly became associated with slang and vulgar language.", "Despite its continued use in Canada, there are still ideologies present which place a negative connotation on the use of ''Joual''." ], [ "Origin of the name", "Although coinage of the name ''joual'' is often attributed to French-Canadian journalist André Laurendeau, who in October 1959 wrote an article in ''Le Devoir'' criticizing the quality of the French language spoken by French Canadian students, the usage of this term throughout French-speaking Canada likely predates this text.The actual word ''Joual'' is the representation of how the word ''cheval'' (Standard French: , ) is pronounced by those who speak ''Joual''.", "(\"Horse\" is used in a variation of the phrase , i.e.", "to speak French terribly; hence, a put-down of the Québécois dialect.)", "The weak schwa vowel disappeared.", "Then the voiceless was voiced to , thereby creating .", "Next, the at the beginning of a syllable in some regional dialects of French or even in very rapid speech in general weakened to become the semi-vowel written .", "The end result is the word transcribed as ''Joual''." ], [ "Most notable or stereotypical linguistic features", "Diphthongs are normally present where long vowels would be present in standard French.", "There is also the usage of ''sontaient, sonté'' (''ils étaient, ils ont été'').Although ''moé'' and ''toé'' are today considered substandard slang pronunciations of ''moi'' and ''toi'', these were the original pronunciations of ''ancien régime'' French used in all provinces of Northern France, by the royalty, aristocracy, and common people.", "After the 1789 French Revolution, the standard pronunciation in France changed to that of a previously-stigmatized form in the speech of Paris, but Quebec French continued to evolve from the historically older dialects, having become isolated from France following the 1760 British conquest of New France.", "''Joual'' shares many features with modern Oïl languages, such as Norman, Gallo, Picard, Poitevin and Saintongeais though its affinities are greatest with the 17th century koiné of Paris.", "Speakers of these languages of France predominated among settlers to New France.", "It could be argued that at least some aspects of more modern ''Joual'' are further linguistic contractions of standard French.", "''D'la'' (''de la'') is an example where the word ''de'' has nearly fallen out of usage over time and has become contracted.", "This argument does apply to other words, and this phenomenon has become widespread throughout contemporary French language.A defining characteristic of the sociolect is the deliberate use of the pronoun ''tu'' to indicate a question.", "The pronoun maintains its traditional usage, that of representing the second person singular, but is also used in conjunction with a verb, to indicate a question.", "''Tu'' is used, for this purpose, regardless of the technically relevant grammatical person.", "This is because ''tu'', in this use-case, is a contraction of the antiquated ''t-il'' particle originating from 13th century France, which was used to indicate a question.", "For example, in metropolitan french, a question may be asked as simply ''\"Veut-il manger?\"''", "whereas in Joual, it may be asked as ''\"Il veux-tu manger?", "\"Another significant characteristic of ''Joual'' is the liberal use of profanities called ''sacre'' in everyday speech.===Words of English origin===There are a number of English loanwords in ''Joual'', although they have been stigmatized since the 1960s, instead favoring alternative terms promoted by the ''Office québécois de la langue française''.", "The commonality of English loanwords in ''Joual'' is attributed to the unilingually anglophone nature of the factory owners, business higher-ups, and industrial supervisors which employed the majority of french-speaking blue-collar workers throughout 20th century.", "This need to use English in workplace environments, when referring to technical elements of the worker's labour, caused the gradual integration of English loanwords into french.", "These words would eventually come to be conjugated and integrated as though they were traditionally french words (such as \"Check\" becoming the verb \"Chequer\").", "The usage of deprecated anglicisms varies both regionally and historically.", "In the table below are a few common ''Joual'' words of English origin.", "+Joual wordPronunciation (approximation)Standard French word (approximation)English meaning ExampleBécosse (f)toilette extérieure (f)outdoor toilet (from \"back house\")''le boss des bécosses'' (someone who behaves as though they are the boss)Bécik (m) or bicyclette (f), vélo (m)bicycleBike (m)motocyclette (f)motorbikeBines (f)fèves (f)beansBrakerHelp:IPA|bʁeike freinerto brake (verb)Breakeur (m)Help:IPA|bʁeikɚ disjoncteur (m)circuit breakerBum (m)pronounced like in Englishclochard (m)bum, vagrantChequervérifier to check something out (verb)''check ben ça'' (\"check this out\")Chum (m, sometimes f)Help:IPA|tʃɔmcopain (m), ami (m), amie (f)boyfriend or male friend, occasionally female friendDomperHelp:IPA|dõpejeter, rompre avecto throw out (rubbish) or to break up with someone (verb)''domper la puck'' (in hockey-\"dumping the puck\")Flat (m)like in English crevaison (f), plongeon sur le ventre (m)flat tyre or belly flop (in the pool)FrencherHelp:IPA|fʁɛntʃeembrasser (avec langue)to French kiss (verb)Froque (f)manteau (m)jacketHood (m)like in English or capot (m)hood of a carLift (m)like in English lift (as in giving someone a lift in a vehicle)Pinotte (f)like in English, but with a shorter iarachide (f)peanut, also street slang for \"amphetamines\"States (les)États-Unis (les)the United StatesTank (m)Help:IPA|tẽːkréservoir (m)container, ''tank à gaz'': \"fuel tank\"Toaster (m)Help:IPA|tostɚgrille-pain (m)toasterToughHelp:IPA|tɔfdur, difficiletoughTruck (m)Help:IPA|tʁɔkcamion (m)truckSkidoo (m)motoneige (f)snowmobile (from Bombardier's \"Ski-Doo\")Screen (m)moustiquaire (f)screen of a windowWindshieldpare-brise (m) windshieldSome words were also previously thought to be of English origin, although modern research has shown them to be from regional French dialects:* Pitoune (log, cute girl, loose girl): previously thought to come from \"happy town\" although the word ''pitchoune'' exists in dialects from southern France (possibly coming from the Occitan word ''pichona'', \"little girl\"), now used to mean \"cute girl\".", "* Poutine: was thought to come from \"pudding\", but some have drawn a parallel with the Occitan language (also called Provençal or Languedoc) term ''podinga'', a stew made of scraps, which was the previous use of the term in Montreal.===Glossary=== Joual French English (from classic French pronunciation of toi) you (singular, oblique) (from classic French pronunciation of moi) me pis, pis quoi et puis, puis quoi and, So what moé j'vo ʒvɔ or j'va Help:IPA|ʒvʌ moi je vais au/a la I will, I am going Çé c'est It is Lé Les The (plural)Ço sɔÇaThat Po pɔ Pas Not Lo ʟɔ Là There j'fa, j'fasse, je fasse je fais I am doing D'la De la Of the (feminine), from the (feminine), some (feminine), a quantity of (feminine) té, t'es tu es you are Yé Il est He is, it is tsé (tsé là), t'sais tu sais you know je s'ré je serai I will be j'cres, j'cré je crois I believe pantoute pas du tout (de ''pas en tout'') not at all y il he a, a'l'o elle, elle a she, she has ouais or ouin oui yeah, yep y'o jɔ il y a, il a there is, he has toul', tou'l' tout le all of the icitte ici here ben bien well / very / many (contextual) tu d'ben peut-être maybe bengadon, ben r'gardon, ben gardon bien regarde-donc well look at Ga don ço, gadon ço, r'gardon ço Regarde donc ça Look at that su, d'su, de su sur, dessus on, over top of su la, s'a sur la on the (feminine) su'l sur le on the (masculine) anyway, en tout co ã tu̥ kɔ, entouco, entéco, ent'lé co, entouka en tout cas, en tous les cas in any case, however, anyway (from English \"anyway\" addition of this word is non-ubiquitous, but en tout co has broad usage) Aweille!, Enweille!", "Envoye!", "Bouge!", "Allez!", "Send!", "Move!", "Go on!", "(contextual) enweille don, àweille don envoie donc, allez come on faite, fette saoul drunk fette, faite, té faite fini, tu es fini finished, you are finished nuitte nuit night ti / 'tite, p'tite / p'tit petit / petite small (masculine / feminine) déhor, d'wor, dewor, dowor dehors outside, get out (contextual) boutte (masculine) bout end, tip, bit (un ti boutte = un petit bout = a little bit or a little while) toutte tout everything, all, the whole litte lit bed tusuite, tudsuite, tud'suite, tu'd'suite, toud'suite tout de suite right now astheure, asteur(from \"à cette heure\") maintenant, couramment now, currently, from now on han?", "hein?", "eh?", "huh?", "or what?", "heille hé hey frette froid cold fà fait make/do s'fèque, s'fà que, sfàk donc (ça fait que) so, therefore mèk, mainque, main que lorsque (from old French « mais que ») as soon as, upon dins, dan lé dans les in the (plural) cé c'est, ceci est this is c'pos, cé po, s'pospɔ ce n'est pas it's not end'ssour, end'ssou en dessous under s'assir, s'assoère s'asseoir to sit down ak, ac, a'ec, èk, èque avec with boète bwaɪ̯t boîte box à soère, à swère ce soir tonight àmandonné, aman'né à un moment donné at some point, at any given time bouette boue mud c't'un, cé t'un, s't'un c'est un it's a j'suis, chuis je suis (un) I am garah, gararh garage garage (non-ubiquitous usage) char voiture car, short for chariot tarla, con, nono stupide dumb kétaine, quétaine de mauvais goût, ringard (France) tasteless, cheesy (fashion) fif, fifi éfféminé sissy, feminine male (can also mean queer, derogatory) tapette (une) pédé (un) queer, feminine male, male homosexual or pre sex change male (all usage is derogatory) grand slack grand et mince tall and skinny (from English \"slack\") smatte (té), smartte (té) sympatique, gentil friendly, kind plotte chatte, vagin cunt, whore, pussy, vagina (contextually derogatory) graine, grène pénis Cock, penis (graine is the literal translation of the word seed, contextually derogatory) botare bâtard bastard eulle l' le the étchoeuré écœuré tired (annoyed) t'su, d'su mettre sur put on vert (té) inexpérimenté (tu es) (you are) inexperienced (being new, \"green\", to something, vert is the literal translation of the word green) troud'cu, trou'd'cu, trou d'cul enfoiré, trou de cul ass hole (contextually derogatory) panel (un) camionnette, fourgon van (panel van, cargo van, non-ubiquitous usage) jarret, hârret mollet calf lulu mèche (deux) twintails (non-ubiquitous usage) Drette lo Ici même (droit là) Right there Ç'à d'l'air à ço, Ç'à d'l'air de'd ço Ça ressemble à ça It looks like that J'te dis Je te dis I tell you J'toute fourré, j's'tout fourré, schtout fourré Je suis confus I'm so confused, I'm all fucked up J'cogne des clous Je suis épuisé I'm so tired Checke-moé le don, Regarde le (donc) lui Look at him Checke Fern, Checke checke Regarde ça/lui/elle, Regarde Look at him/her/that or simply look (gender neutral form, contextual, non-ubiquitous usage, circa 1980s but still holds meaning) 'Stacoze de'd, stacoze de, C't-à-cause de, c'est à cause de it is because of 'Stacé C'est assez That's enough Viarge Putain !", "Damn !", "Grouille (toé) Dépêche-toi Hurry up ta yeul!, la yeul!, ferme ta boète!, la ferme!, la farme!", "tais-toi!", "ferme ta gueule!", "shut up!, shut your animal mouth!", "(derogatory), shut your box!", "(derogatory) Y pue d'la yeul (referring to a human male, Y means Il singular third person male whereas A (pronounced à) means Elle singular third person female) Ça pue de la gueule (animal), Il a la mauvaise haleine (human male) He has a stinky animal mouth, He has bad breath, He stinks from the mouth (gueule directly translates to animal mouth, hence the sentence is derogatory if relating to a human male.", "Pue is the literal translation of a conjugation of the verb to stink) Chus dan marde Je suis dans le pétrin (Je suis dans la merde) I'm in big trouble (I'm in shit)" ], [ "In popular culture", "The two-act play ''Les Belles-sœurs'' by Canadian writer Michel Tremblay premiered in 1968 at the Théâtre du Rideau Vert in Montreal.", "Many consider it to have had a profound impact on Canadian culture, as it was one of the first times ''Joual'' was seen on a national stage.", "The play follows a working-class woman named Germaine in Montréal.", "After winning a million trading stamps, she invites her friends over to help paste them into booklets to redeem them.", "But Germaine is unsuspecting of her jealous friends who are envious of her winnings.", "The fact that the play was originally written in ''Joual'' is very important to the socio-linguistic aspect of the women.", "The characters all come from the working class and for the most part, speak in ''Joual'', which at the time was not seen on the main stage.", "The play was cited at the time as a \"radical element among Quebec critics as the dawn of a new era of liberation, both political and aesthetic\".When ''Les Belles-sœurs'' premiered in Paris, France in 1973 as it was originally written, in ''Joual'', it was met with some initial criticism.", "One critic described it as difficult to understand as ancient Greek.", "Tremblay responded, \"a culture should always start with speak to herself.", "The ancient Greeks spoke to each other\".", "The popularity of the play has since caused it to be translated into multiple languages, raising controversies in the translation community over retaining the authenticity of ''Les Belles-sœurs'' even when not performed in the original dialect of ''Joual''.Writing in ''Joual'' gave Tremblay an opportunity to resist cultural and linguistic \"imperialism\" of France, while signifying the secularization of Québec culture." ], [ "See also", "* Anglicism* Association québécoise de linguistique* Basilect* Bilingualism* Canada* Canadian French* Canadien (disambiguation)* Chaouin* Chiac* Cockney* Demographics of Quebec* Franglais* French Canadian* French Canadians* French language in Canada* Language contact* Language planning* Languages of Canada* Linguistic description* Magoua* Mixed language* Mockney* Post-creole continuum* Quebec (disambiguation)* Quebec English* Quebec French* Quebec French lexicon* Quebec French phonology* Quebec French profanity* Quebecer (disambiguation)* Québécois* Sociolinguistics* Standard French" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Article on ''Joual'' at Canadian theatre* Article on ''Joual'' in ''La Linguistique'' journal* A few excerpts of texts in ''Joual''* http://www.yorku.ca/paull/articles/1990h.html* http://www.yorku.ca/paull/articles/1992.html* http://www.yorku.ca/paull/articles/2004b.html" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jacob and Esau" ], [ "Introduction", "Hendrick ter Brugghen, ''Esau Selling His Birthright'', .The biblical Book of Genesis speaks of the relationship between fraternal twins '''Jacob and Esau''', sons of Isaac and Rebecca.", "The story focuses on Esau's loss of his birthright to Jacob and the conflict that ensued between their descendant nations because of Jacob's deception of their aged and blind father, Isaac, in order to receive Esau's birthright/blessing from Isaac.This conflict was paralleled by the affection the parents had for their favored child: \"Isaac, who had a taste for wild game, loved Esau, but Rebekah loved Jacob.\"", "Even since conception, their conflict was foreshadowed: \"And the children struggled together within her; and she said, If it be so, why am I thus?", "And she went to inquire of the lord.", "And the lord said unto her, Two nations are in thy womb, and two manner of people shall be separated from thy bowels; and the one people shall be stronger than the other people; and the elder shall serve the younger.\"", "Genesis 25:26 states that Esau was born before Jacob, who came out holding on to his older brother's heel as if he was trying to pull Esau back into the womb so that he could be firstborn.", "The name Jacob means \"he grasps the heel\" which is a Hebrew idiom for deceptive behavior." ], [ "Birthright", "The Mess of Pottage (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot)In Genesis, Esau returned to his brother, Jacob, being famished from the fields.", "He begged his twin brother to give him some \"red pottage\" (paralleling his nickname, , ''adom'', meaning \"red\").", "Jacob offered to give Esau a bowl of stew in exchange for his birthright (the right to be recognized as firstborn) and Esau agreed.The birthright (''bekorah'') has to do with both position and inheritance.", "By birthright, the firstborn son inherited the leadership of the family and the judicial authority of his father.", "Deuteronomy 21:17 states that he was also entitled to a double portion of the paternal inheritance.In the interpretation of Daniel J. Elazar, Esau acts impulsively: \"Esau demonstrates that he does not deserve to be the one who continues Abraham's responsibilities and rewards under God's covenant, since he does not have the steady, thoughtful qualities which are required... Jacob shows his willingness as well as his greater intelligence and forethought... What he does is not quite honorable, though not illegal.", "The title that he gains is at least partially valid, although he is insecure enough about it to conspire later with his mother to deceive his father so as to gain the blessing for the first-born as well.", "\"Later, Esau marries two wives, both Hittite women, that is, locals, in violation of Abraham's (and God's) injunction not to take wives from among the Canaanite population.", "Again, one gets the sense of a headstrong person who acts impulsively, without sufficient thought.", "His marriage is described as a vexation to both Rebecca and Isaac.", "Even his father, who has strong affection for him, is hurt by his act.", "According to Daniel J. Elazar this action alone forever rules out Esau as the bearer of patriarchal continuity.", "Esau could have overcome the sale of his birthright; Isaac was still prepared to give him the blessing due the firstborn.", "But acquiring foreign wives meant the detachment of his children from the Abrahamic line.", "Despite the deception on the part of Jacob and his mother to gain Isaac's patriarchal blessing, Jacob's vocation as Isaac's legitimate heir in the continued founding of the Jewish people is reaffirmed.Elazar suggests the Bible indicates that a bright, calculating person, even if he is less than honest at times, is preferable as a founder over a bluff, impulsive one who cannot make discriminating choices." ], [ "Blessing of the firstborn", "Horst, Gerrit Willemsz.", "- Isaac blessing JacobPronouncing the blessing was considered to be the act formally acknowledging the firstborn as the principal heir.In Genesis 27:5–7, Rebecca overhears Isaac tell Esau, \"Bring me venison and prepare a savoury food, that I may eat, and bless thee before the before my death.\"", "Rebecca counsels Jacob to pretend to be Esau, in order to obtain the blessing in his brother's stead.", "He dressed himself in Esau's best clothes and disguised himself by covering his arms in lamb skin so that if his blind father touched him, he would think Jacob his more hirsute brother.", "Jacob brought Isaac a dish of goat meat prepared by Rebecca to taste like venison.", "Isaac then bestowed the blessing (''bekhorah''), which confers a prophetic wish for fertility (vv.", "27–28) and dominion (v.29), on Jacob before Esau's return.Esau is furious and vows to kill Jacob as soon as their father has died.", "Rebecca intervenes to save her younger son Jacob from being murdered by her elder son, Esau.", "At Rebecca's urging, Jacob flees to a distant land to work for his mother's brother, Laban.", "She explains to Isaac that she has sent Jacob to find a wife among her own people.Jacob does not immediately receive his father's inheritance.", "Jacob, having fled for his life, leaves behind the wealth of Isaac's flocks and land and tents in Esau's hands.", "Jacob is forced to sleep out on the open ground and then work for wages as a servant in Laban's household.", "Jacob, who had deceived his father, is in turn deceived and cheated by his uncle Laban concerning Jacob's seven years of service (lacking money for a dowry) for the hand of Laban's daughter Rachel, receiving his older daughter Leah instead.", "However, despite Laban, Jacob eventually becomes so rich as to incite the envy of Laban and Laban's sons." ], [ "Reconciliation", "Peter Paul Rubens, ''The Reconciliation of Jacob and Esau'', 1624.Genesis 32-33 tells of Jacob and Esau's eventual meeting according to God's commandment in Genesis 31:3 and 32:10 after Jacob had spent more than 20 years staying with Laban in Padan-Aram.", "The two men prepare for their meeting like warriors about to enter into battle.", "Jacob divides his family into two camps such that if one is taken the other might escape.", "Jacob sends messengers to Esau, as well as gifts meant to appease him.", "Jacob gets the name ''Israel'' after he wrestles with the Angel of God as he is traveling to Esau.", "His hip is knocked out of joint but he keeps on wrestling and gains the name.", "After the encounter with the angel, Jacob crosses over the ford Jabbok and encounters Esau who seems initially pleased to see him, which attitude of favour Jacob fosters by means of his gift.", "Esau refuses the gift at first but Jacob humbles himself before his brother and presses him to take it, which he finally does.", "However, Jacob evidently does not trust his brother's favour to continue for long, so he makes excuses to avoid traveling to Mount Seir in Esau's company, and he further evades Esau's attempt to put his own men among Jacob's bands and finally completes the deception of his brother yet again by going to Succoth and then to Shalem, a city of Shechem, instead of following Esau at a distance to Seir.", "The next time Jacob and Esau meet is at the burial of their father, Isaac, in Hebron." ], [ "Views of the birthright", "The narrative of Esau selling his birthright to Jacob, in Genesis 25, states that Esau despised his birthright.", "However, it also alludes to Jacob being deceitful.In Esau's mother and father's eyes, the deception may have been deserved.", "Rebecca later abets Jacob in receiving his father's blessing disguised as Esau.", "Isaac then refuses to take Jacob's blessing back after learning he was tricked, and does not give this blessing to Esau but, after Esau begs, gives him an inferior blessing.Justus Knecht comments that: \"''The Wisdom of God,'' which makes good come out of evil, can be learnt from this story.", "Almighty God had from the beginning, or rather from all eternity, chosen Jacob to be the heir of His promises.", "The faults of men (such as Isaac's preference for Esau, Jacob's deceit, and Esau's hatred) could not alter what He had ordained; on the contrary, they served, under the divine guidance, for the accomplishment of it.", "Jacob, especially, was strengthened in confidence in God, and purified by the very consequences of his deceit, his long exile and servitude.", "He was by them confirmed in humility and piety, and trained to be a holy man of God, and the worthy heir of the promises.\"" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Citations======Sources===******" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph Lister" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister''', (5 April 1827 – 10 February 1912) was a British surgeon, medical scientist, experimental pathologist and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery and preventive healthcare.", "Joseph Lister revolutionised the craft of surgery in the same manner that John Hunter revolutionised the science of surgery.From a technical viewpoint, Lister was not an exceptional surgeon, but his research into bacteriology and infection in wounds raised his operative technique to a new plane where his observations, deductions and practices revolutionised surgery throughout the world.Lister's contributions were four-fold.", "Firstly, as a surgeon at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, he introduced carbolic acid (modern-day phenol) as a steriliser for surgical instruments, patients' skins, sutures, surgeons' hands, and wards, promoting the principle of antiseptics.", "Secondly, he researched the role of inflammation and tissue perfusion in the healing of wounds.", "Thirdly, he advanced diagnostic science by analyzing specimens using microscopes.", "Fourthly, he devised strategies to increase the chances of survival after surgery.", "His most important contribution, however, was recognising that putrefaction in wounds is caused by germs, in connection to Louis Pasteur's then-novel germ theory of fermentation.Lister's work led to a reduction in post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients, leading to him being distinguished as the \"father of modern surgery\"." ], [ "Early life", "Lister was born to a prosperous, educated Quaker family in the village of Upton, then near but now in London, England.", "He was the fourth child and second son of four sons and three daughters born to gentleman scientist and wine merchant Joseph Jackson Lister and school assistant Isabella Lister née Harris.", "On 14 July 1818, the couple were married in a ceremony in Ackworth, West Yorkshire.Lister's paternal great-great-grandfather, Thomas Lister, was the last of several generations of farmers who lived in Bingley in West Yorkshire.", "Lister joined the Society of Friends as a young man and passed his beliefs on to his son, Joseph Lister.", "He moved to London in 1720 to open a tobacconist in Aldersgate Street in the City of London.", "His son, John Lister, was born there.", "Lister's grandfather was apprenticed to a watchmaker, Isaac Rogers, in 1752 and followed that trade on his own account in Bell Alley, Lombard Street from 1759 to 1766.He then took over his father's tobacco business, but gave it up in 1769 in favour of working at his father-in-law Stephen Jackson's business as a wine-merchant at No 28 Old Wine and Brandy Values on Lothbury Street, opposite Tokenhouse Yard.His father was a pioneer in the design of achromatic object lenses for use in compound microscopes He spent 30 years perfecting the microscope, and in the process, discovered the Law of Aplanatic Foci, building a microscope where the image point of one lens coincided with the focal point of another.", "Up until that point, the best higher magnification lenses produced an excessive secondary aberration known as a coma, which interfered with normal use.", "It was considered a major advance that elevated histology into an independent science.", "By 1832, Lister's work had built a reputation sufficient to enable his being elected to the Royal Society.", "His mother, Isabella, was the youngest daughter of master mariner Anthony Harris.", "Isabella worked at the Ackworth School, a Quaker school for the poor, assisting her widowed mother who was the superintendent of the school.The eldest daughter of the couple was Mary Lister.", "On 21 August 1851, she married the barrister Rickman Godlee of Lincoln's Inn and the Middle Temple, who belonged to the Friends meeting house in Plaistow.", "The couple had six children.", "Their second child was Rickman Godlee, a neurosurgeon, who became Professor of Clinical Surgery at the University College Hospital and surgeon to Queen Victoria.", "He became Lister's biographer in 1917.The eldest son of Joseph and Isabella Lister was John Lister, who died of a painful brain tumour.", "With John's death, Joseph became the heir of the family.", "The couple's second daughter was Isabella Sophia Lister, who married the Irish Quaker Thomas Pim in 1848.Lister's other brother was William Henry Lister, who died after a long illness.", "The youngest son of the couple was Arthur Lister, a wine merchant, botanist and lifelong Quaker, who studied Mycetozoa.", "He worked alongside his daughter Gulielma Lister to produce the standard monograph on Mycetozoa.", "By 1898, Lister's work had built a reputation sufficient to enable his being elected to the Royal Society.", "Gulielma Lister, a talented artist later updated the standard monograph with colour drawings.", "Her work built a reputation sufficient to enable her to be elected a fellow of the Linnean Society in 1904, becoming its vice-president in 1929.The couple's last child was Jane Lister; she married Smith Harrison, a wholesale tea merchant, who was marrying for a second time.After their marriage, the Listers lived at 5 Tokenhouse Yard in Central London for three years until 1822, where they ran a port wine business in partnership with Thomas Barton Beck.Beck was the grandfather of the professor of surgery and proponent of the germ theory of disease, Marcus Beck, who would later promote Lister's discoveries in his fight to introduce antiseptics.", "In 1822, Lister's family moved to Stoke Newington.", "In 1826, the family moved to Upton House, a long low Queen Anne style mansion that came with 69 acres of land.", "It had been rebuilt in 1731, to suit the style of the period." ], [ "Education", "===School===As a child, Lister had a stammer and this was possibly the reason was educated at home until he was eleven.", "Lister then attended Isaac Brown and Benjamin Abbott's Academy, a private Quaker school in Hitchin in Hertfordshire.", "When Lister was thirteen, he attended Grove House School in Tottenham, also a private Quaker School to study mathematics, natural science, and languages.", "His father was insistent that Lister received a good grounding in French and German, in the knowledge he would learn Latin at school.", "From an early age, Lister was strongly encouraged by his father.", "and would talk about his father's great influence later in life, particularly in encouraging him in his study of natural history.", "Lister's interest in natural history led him to study bones and to collect and dissect small animals and fish that were examined using his father's microscope and then drawn using the camera lucida technique that his father had explained to him, or sketched.", "His father's interests in microscopical research, developed in Lister the determination to become a surgeon and prepared him for a life of scientific research.", "None of Lister's relatives were in the medical profession.", "According to Godlee, the decision to become a physician seemed to be an entirely spontaneous decision.In 1843 his father decided to send him to university.", "As Lister was unable to attend either University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge owing to the religious tests that effectively barred him, he decided to apply to the non-sectarian University College London Medical School (UCL), one of only a few institutions in Great Britain that accepted Quakers at that time.", "Lister took the public examination in the junior class of botany; a required course that would enable him to matriculate.", "Lister left school in the spring of 1844, when he was seventeen.===University===In 1844, just before Lister's seventeenth birthday, he moved to an apartment at 28 London Road that he shared with Edward Palmer, who was also a Quaker.", "Between 1844 and 1845, Lister continued his pre-matriculation studies, on Greek, Latin and natural philosophy.", "In the Latin and Greek classes, he won a \"Certificate of Honour\".", "For the experimental natural philosophy class, Lister won first prize and was awarded a copy of Charles Hutton's \"Recreations in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy\".Although his father wanted him to continue his general education, the university had demanded since 1837, that each student obtain a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree before commencing medical training.", "Lister matriculated in August 1845, initially studying for a BA in classics.", "Between 1845 and 1846, Lister studied the mathematics of natural philosophy, mathematics and Greek earning a \"Certificate of Honour\" in each class.", "Between 1846 and 1847, Lister studied both anatomy and atomic theory (chemistry) and won a prize for his essay.", "On 21 December 1846, Lister and Palmer attended Robert Liston's famous operation where ether was applied by Lister's classmate, William Squire to anaesthetise a patient for the first time.", "On 23 December 1847, Lister and Palmer moved to 2 Bedford place and were joined by John Hodgkin, the nephew of Thomas Hodgkin who discovered Hodgkin lymphoma.", "Lister and Hodgkin had been school friends.In December 1847, Lister graduated with a degree of Bachelor of Arts 1st division, with a distinction in classics and botany.", "While he was studying, Lister suffered from a mild bout of smallpox, a year after his elder brother died of the disease.", "The bereavement combined with the stress of his classes led to a nervous breakdown in March 1848.Lister's nephew Godlee used the term to describe the situation and is perhaps indicative that adolescence was just as difficult in 1847, as it is now.", "Lister decided to take a long holiday to recuperate and this delayed the start of his studies.", "In late April 1848, Lister visited the Isle of Man with Hodgkin and by 7 June 1848 he was visiting Ilfracombe.", "At the end of June, Lister accepted an invitation to stay in home of Thoman Pim, a Dublin Quaker.", "Using it as his base, Lister travelled throughout Ireland.", "On 1 July 1848, Lister received a letter full of warmth and love from his father where his last meeting was \"...sunshine after a refreshing shower, following a time of cloud\" and advised him to \"cherish a pious cheerful spirit, open to see and to enjoy the bounties and the beauties spread around us :—not to give way to turning thy thoughts upon thyself nor even at present to dwell long on serious things\".", "From 22 July 1848, for almost a year, the record is blank.===Medical student===Lister registered as a medical student in the winter of 1849.During his studies, Lister was active in the University Debating Society and the Hospital Medical Society.", "In the autumn of 1849, he returned to college, bearing a gift of a microscope from his father.", "After completing courses in anatomy, physiology and surgery, he was awarded \"Certificate of Honour's\", winning the silver medal in anatomy and physiology and a gold medal in botany.His main lecturers were John Lindley professor of botany, Thomas Graham professor of chemistry, Robert Edmond Grant professor of comparative anatomy, George Viner Ellis professor of anatomy and William Benjamin Carpenter professor of medical jurisprudence.", "Although Lister often spoke highly about Lindley and Graham in his writings, it was Wharton Jones professor of ophthalmic medicine and surgery and William Sharpey professor of physiology, who exercised the greatest influence on Lister.", "As a student, Lister was greatly attracted by Dr. Sharpey's lectures, which inspired in him a love of experimental physiology and histology that never left him.Wharton Jones was praised by Thomas Henry Huxley for the method and quality of his physiology lectures.", "As a clinical scientist working in physiological sciences, he was foremost in the number of discoveries he made.", "He was also considered a brilliant ophthalmic surgeon, his main field.", "He conducted research into the circulation of the blood and phenomena of inflammation that was carried out on the frog's web and the bat's wing, and no doubt suggested this method of research to Lister.", "Sharpey was called the ''father of modern physiology'' as he was the first to give a series of lectures on the subject.", "Prior to that the field has been considered part of anatomy.", "Sharpey studied at Edinburgh university, then went to Paris to study clinical surgery under the French anatomist Guillaume Dupuytren and operative surgery under Jacques Lisfranc de St. Martin.", "It was in Paris that Sharpey met Syme and became life-long friends.", "After moving to Edinburgh, he taught anatomy with Allen Thomson as his physiological colleague.", "He left Edinburgh in 1836, in order to become the first Professor of Physiology at University College, London====Clinical instruction====The microscope given to Lister in 1849 by his father J.J. Lister who designed it.", "This is the third in a set of three built by James Smith.", "It is an Achromatic microscope with compound automatic objective and graduated automatic objective Before he qualified for his degree, Lister had to complete two years of clinical instruction, beginning his residency at University College Hospital in October 1850.He began as an intern and then house physician to Walter Hayle Walshe.", "professor of pathological anatomy and author of 1846 study, ''The Nature and Treatment of Cancer''.", "Lister continued his run of academic excellence in 1850 by being awarded \"Certificates of Honours\" and winning two gold medals in anatomy and silver medals in surgery and medicine.Then in his second year in 1851, Lister became first a dresser in January 1851 then a house surgeon to John Eric Erichsen in May 1851.Erichsen was professor of surgery and author of the 1853 ''Science and Art of Surgery'' described as one of the most celebrated textbooks on surgery in English.", "The book went through many editions, of which Marcus Beck edited the eighth and ninth editions, adding Lister's antiseptic techniques and Pasteur and Robert Koch's germ theory.", "His first case notes were recorded on 5 February 1851.As a dresser, his immediate boss was Henry Thompson who recalled \"..a shy Quaker...I remember that he had a better microscope than any man in the college\".Lister had only just begun working in his role as dresser to Erichsen in January 1851, when there was an epidemic of erysipelas in the male ward.", "An infected patient who came from an Islington workhouse was left in Erichsen's surgical ward for two hours.", "The hospital had been free of infection but within days there were twelve cases of infection and four deaths.", "In his notebook, Lister stated that the disease was a form of surgical fever, and particularly noted that recent surgical patients were infected the worst, but those with older operations with suppurating wounds, 'mostly escaped'.", "It was while Lister worked for Erichsen, that his interest in the healing of wounds began.", "Erichsen was a miasmist who thought the wounds were infected from ''miasmas'' that came from the wound itself and caused a noxious form of \"bad air\" that spread to other patients in the ward.", "Erichsen believed that 7 patients with an infected wound had led to saturation of the ward with \"bad air\" that spread to cause gangrene.", "However, Lister took a more rational approach, seeing that some wounds when they were debrided and cleaned, would sometimes heal.", "He believed that something in the wound itself was at fault.When he became a house surgeon, Lister had patients put in his charge.", "For the first time, he came into contact face-to-face with the various forms of blood-poisoning diseases like pyaemia and hospital gangrene, the disease that rots living tissue with a remarkable rapidity.", "While examining the excision of the elbow of a little boy during the autopsy, who had died of pyaemia, Lister noticed that a thick yellow-pus was present at the seat of the humerus bone, and that distended the brachial and axillary veins.", "He also noticed the pus advanced in the reverse direction along the veins, bypassing the valves in the veins.", "He also found suppuration in a knee-joint and multiple abscesses in the lungs.", "Lister knew that Charles-Emmanuel Sédillot had discovered that multiple abscesses in the lungs were caused by introducing pus into the veins of an animal but at the time could not explain the facts but believed the pus in the organs had a metastatic origin.", "On 2 October 1900, during The Huxley Lecture, Lister described how his interest in the germ theory of disease and how the theory applied to surgery, began with his investigation into the death of the little boy.There was an epidemic of gangrene during his surgeoncy.", "The method to effect a recovery was to chloroform the patient, scrape the soft slough off and burn the necrotic flesh away with mercury pernitrate Occasionally the treatment would be successful but if a grey film appeared at the edge of the wound, then it presaged death.", "In one patient, the treatment was repeated several times due to it failing, resulting in Erichsen amputating the limb, which healed fine.", "The evidence that Lister recognised was that disease was a \"local poison\" and probably parasitic in nature.", "He examined the diseased tissues under his microscope.", "He saw peculiar objects that he could not identify, as he had no frame of reference to draw conclusions from the observations.", "In his notebook he recorded:I imagined they might be the materies morbi in the form of some kind of fungus.Lister wrote two papers on the epidemics; both were lost.", "The first paper was on ''Hospital gangrene'' and the second was on the use of the ''Microscope''.", "They were read to the Student Medical Society at UCL.====Lister's first operation====On 26 June 2013, medical historian Ruth Richardson and orthopaedic surgeon Bryan Rhodes published a paper in which they described their discovery of Lister's first operation, made while both were researching his career.", "At 1pm on 27 June 1851, Lister, who was a second-year medical student and working at a casualty ward in Gower Street, conducted his first operation.", "The operation was on Julia Sullivan, a mother of eight grown children.", "She had been stabbed in the abdomen by her husband, a drunk and ne'er-do-well, who was taken into custody.", "On 15 September 1851, Lister was called as a witness to his trial at the Old Bailey.", "His testimony helped convict the husband, who was transported to Australia for 20 years.Lister found the woman with a coil of intestine about eight inches across, consisting about a yard of the small intestines, that were damaged in two places, protruding from her lower abdomen.", "The abdomen itself contained three open wounds.", "After cleaning the intestines with blood-warm water, Lister was unable to place them back into the body, so he took the decision to extend the cut.", "They were then placed back in the body, the wounds sewn shut and the abdomen sutured.", "The patient was administered opium to induce constipation, to enable the intestines to recover.", "Sulivan recovered her health.", "It was a full decade before his first public operation in the Glasgow Infirmary.This operation was missed by historians.", "Liverpool consultant surgeon John Shepherd, in his essay on Lister, ''Joseph Lister and abdominal surgery'', written in 1968, failed to mention the operation, instead starting his dates from the 1860s onwards.", "He apparently was unaware of what Lister accomplished.====Microscope experiments 1852=========Observations on the Contractile Tissue of the Iris=====Lister wrote his first paper while he was still at university.", "It was considered good enough to be published in the ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science'' in 1853.On 11 August 1852, Lister was presented with piece of a fresh human iris by Wharton Jones, at the University College Hospital.", "Lister was present at the operation conducted by Jones and took the rare opportunity to study the iris.", "Lister reviewed the existing research, as well as studying tissue from a horse, a cat, a rabbit and a guinea-pig as well as taking six surgical specimens from patients who underwent a surgical operation on their eye.", "Lister was unable to complete the research to his satisfaction, due to the need to pass his final examination.", "He offered an apology in the paper:The paper advanced the work of Swiss physiologist Albert von Kölliker, demonstrating the existence of two distinct muscles, the dilator and sphincter in the iris, that corrected the convictions of previous researchers that there was no dilator pupillae muscle.=====Observations on the Muscular Tissue of the Skin=====His next paper was an investigation into goose bumps that was published on 1 June 1853, in the same journal.", "Lister was able to confirm Kölliker's experimental studies, that in humans the smooth muscle fibres are responsible for the making hair standout from the skin, in contrast to other mammals in which large tactile hairs are associated with striated muscle.", "Lister demonstrated a new method of creating histological sections from the tissue of the scalp.Lister's microscopy skills were so advanced that he was able to correct the observations of German histologist, Friedrich Gustav Henle, who mistook small blood vessels for muscle fibres.", "In each of the papers, he created camera lucida drawings that were so accurate, they could be used to scale and measure the observations.Both papers attracted significant attention both in Britain and abroad.", "The naturalist Richard Owen, who was an old friend of Lister's father was particularly impressed by both papers.", "Owen contemplated recruiting Lister for his own department and forwarded him a thank-you letter on 2 August 1853.Kölliker was particularly pleased at the analysis that Lister had formulated.", "Kölliker who made many trips to Britain, would eventually meet Lister and became life-long friends.", "Their close friendship was described in a letter by Kölliker on 17 November 1897, that Rickman Godlee choose to use to illustrate their relationship.", "Kölliker sent a letter to Lister, when he was president of the Royal Society, congratulating Lister on receiving the Copley medal and fondly remembered his old friends who had died and celebrated his time in Scotland while with Syme and Lister.", "Kölliker was 80 years old at the time.", "===Graduation===Lister graduated with Bachelor of Medicine with honours, in the autumn 1852.During his final year, Lister won several prestigious awards, that were heavily contested among the student body of the London teaching hospitals.", "He won the Longridge Prizethat included a £40 stipend.", "He was also awarded a gold medals in Structural and Physiological Botany.", "Lister obtained two of the four available gold medals in Anatomy and Physiology as well as surgery, that came with a medal scholarship of £50 a year, for two years, for his second examination in medicine.", "In the same year, Lister passed the examination for the fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons, bringing to a close nine years of education.With his medical education completed, Sharpey advised Lister to spend a month at the medical practice of his lifelong friend James Syme in Edinburgh and then visit medical schools in Europe for a longer period for training.", "Sharpey himself had been taught first in Edinburgh and later Paris.", "Sharpey had met Syme, a teacher of clinical surgery, who was widely considered the best surgeon in the United Kingdom while he was in Paris.", "Sharpey had gone north to Edinburgh in 1818, along with many other surgeons since, due to the influence of John Hunter.", "Hunter had taught Edward Jenner who is seen as the first surgeon to take a scientific approach to the study of medicine, that was known as the ''Hunterian method'' Hunter was an early advocate for careful investigation and experimentation, using the techniques of pathology and physiology to give himself a better understanding of healing than many of his colleagues.", "For example, his 1794 paper, ''A treatise on the blood, inflammation and gun-shot wounds'' was the first systematic study of swelling, discovering that inflammation was common to all diseases.", "Due to Hunter, surgery was raised from a job then practiced by hobbyists or amateurs into a true scientific profession.", "As the Scottish universities taught medicine and surgery from a scientific viewpoint, surgeons who wished to emulate those techniques travelled north for training.", "Scottish universities had several other features that distinguished them from the medical universities in the south.", "They were inexpensive and did not require religious admissions tests, attracting the most scientifically progressive students in Britain.", "The most important differentiator, was that medical schools in Scotland had evolved from a scholarly tradition, where English medical schools relied on hospitals and practice.", "Experimental science had no practitioners at English medical schools and while Edinburgh University medical school was large and active at the time, southern medical schools were generally moribund, their laboratory space and teaching materials being inadequate.", "English medical schools tended to view surgery as manual labour, not a respectable calling for a gentleman academic." ], [ "Surgical profession 1854", "Before Lister's studies of surgery, many people believed that chemical damage from exposure to \"bad air\", or ''miasma'', was responsible for infections in wounds.", "Hospital wards were occasionally aired out at midday as a precaution against the spread of infection via miasma, but facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available.", "A surgeon was not required to wash his hands before seeing a patient; in the absence of any theory of bacterial infection, such practices were not considered necessary.", "Despite the work of Ignaz Semmelweis and Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., hospitals practised surgery under unsanitary conditions.", "Surgeons of the time referred to the \"good old surgical stink\" and took pride in the stains on their unwashed operating gowns as a display of their experience." ], [ "Edinburgh 1853–1860", "===James Syme===Syme was a well-established clinical lecturer at Edinburgh University for more than two decades before he met Lister and was considered the boldest and most original surgeon then living in Great Britain.", "He became a surgical pioneer during his career, preferring simpler surgical procedures as he detested complexity, in the era that immediately preceded the introduction of anesthesia.In September 1823, at the age of 24, Syme made a name for himself by first performing an amputation at the hip-joint, the first time in Scotland.", "Considered the bloodiest operation in surgery, Syme completed it in less than a minute, as speed was essential in a time before anesthesia.", "Syme became widely known and acclaimed for his development of a surgical operation that became known as ''Syme amputation'', an amputation at the level of the ankle-joint, where the foot is removed and the heel pad is preserved.", "Syme was considered a scientific surgeon, as evidenced by his paper ''On the Power of the Periosteum to form New Bone'', and became one of the first advocates of antiseptics.===Arrival in Edinburgh===In September 1853, Lister arrived in Edinburgh bearing letters of introduction from Sharpey to Syme.", "Lister was anxious about his first appointment but decided to settle in Edinburgh after meeting Syme who embraced him with open arms, invited him to dinner and offered him an opportunity to assist in his private operations.Lister was invited to Syme's house, ''Millbank'', in Morningside (now part of Astley Ainslie Hospital), where he met, amongst others, Agnes Syme, Syme's daughter by another marriage and granddaughter of the physician Robert Willis.", "While Lister thought that Agnes was not conventionally pretty, he admired her quickness of mind, her familiarity with medical practice, and her warmth.", "Lister became a frequent visitor to Millbank and met a much wider group of eminent people than he would have in London.In the same month, Lister began work as an assistant to Syme at the University of Edinburgh In a letter to his father, Lister was surprised at the size of the Infirmary and spoke about his impressions of Syme, \"..is larger than I expected to find it; there are 200 Surgical beds, and a large number in other departments.", "At University College Hospital there were only about 60 Surgical beds, so altogether a prospect appears to be opening of a very profitable stay here.", "...Syme is, I suppose, the first of British surgeons, and to observe the practice and hear the conversation of such a man is of the greatest possible advantage\".", "By October 1853, Lister decided to spend the winter in Edinburgh.", "Syme was so impressed by Lister, that after a month Lister became Syme's supernumerary house surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh and his assistant in his private hospital at Minto House in Chambers Street.", "As house surgeon, he assisted Syme during every operation, taking notes.", "It was a much coveted position and gave Lister the option of choosing which of the ordinary cases he would attend.", "During this period, Lister presented a paper at the Royal Edinburgh Medico-Chirurgical Society on the structure of cancellous exostoses that had been removed by Syme, demonstrating that the method of ossification of these growths was the same as that which occurs in epiphyseal cartilage.In September 1854, Lister's house surgeoncy appointment was finished.", "With the prospect of being out of a job, he had spoken to his father about seeking a position at the Royal Free Hospital in London.", "However, Sharpey had written to Syme, warning him that it was unlikely that Lister would be welcome at the Royal Free as he would have likely eclipsed Thomas H. Wakley, whose father held considerable sway at the hospital.", "Lister then planned to tour Europe for a year.", "However an opportunity presented itself, when the noted infirmary surgeon and surgical lecturer at the Edinburgh Extramural School of Medicine Richard James Mackenzie had died.", "Mackenzie had been seen as a successor to Syme but had contracted cholera in Balbec in Scutari, Istanbul, while on a four-month volunteer sabbatical as field surgeon to the 79th Highlanders during the Crimean War.", "Lister took advantage of the situation and proposed to Syme that he take over Mackenzie's position to become assistant surgeon to Syme.", "Syme initially rejected the idea as Lister was not licensed to operate in Scotland, but later warmed to the idea.", "In October 1854, Lister was appointed a lecturer Lister successfully transferred the lease held by Mackenzie at his lecture room at 4 High School Yards, to himself.", "On 21 April 1855, Lister was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh and two days later, rented a house at 3 Rutland Square for living.", "In June 1855, Lister made a hurried trip to Paris to take a course on operative surgery on the dead body and returned in June.===Extramural lecturing===Poster announcing the Joseph Lister lecturers at High School YardsOn 7 November 1855, Lister gave his first extramural lecture on the \"Principles and Practice of Surgery\", in a lecture theatre at 4 High School Yards known as ''Old Jerusalem'' and directly located across from the Infirmary.", "His first lecture was read from 21 pages of foolscap folio.", "Lister's first lectures were based on notes, either read or spoken, but over time he used them less and less becoming extempore in his speech, slowly and deliberately forming his argument as he went along.", "By this deliberate way of speaking, he managed to overcome a slight, occasional stammer which, in his early days, had been more pronounced.His first student was John Batty Tuke, in a class of nine or ten, mostly consisting of dressers.", "Within a week, twenty-three people had joined.", "In the next year, only eight folk turned up.", "In the summer of 1858, Lister had the ignominious experience of reading his lecture to a single student, who arrived ten minutes late.", "Seven more students arrived later.His first lecture focused on the concept of surgery, stating a definition of disease that linked it to the Hippocratic Oath.", "He then explained that surgery could have more benefits than medicines, that could only comfort the patient at best.", "He then explained the attributes a good surgeon should exhibit, before finishing the lecture by recommending Syme's book \"Principles of Surgery\".", "Lister completed 114 lectures that followed a standard syllabus.", "Lecture VII described his earliest experiment on inflammation when he put mustard on his arm and watched the results.", "Lecture IV to IX dealt with the circulation of blood.", "Inflammation was discussed in lectures X to XIII.", "The second half of the course dealt with clinical surgery.", "For the last 4 days, he gave 2 lectures a day, in order to complete the event before his marriage, with the first course ending on 18 April 1856.In the summer of 1858, Lister started a second, completely separate course, where he lectured on surgical pathology and operative surgery.===Marriage===By mid-summer 1854, Lister realised that he was attracted to Agnes Syme and he started to court her.", "Lister wrote to his father and mother about his love but both his parents were concerned about the union, particularly concerning the fact he was Quaker and Agnes have no indication that she was going to change her denomination.", "During that time, when a Quaker married a person of another denomination, it would be considered as marrying ''out of the society''.", "Lister was determined to marry Agnes and sent a further letter to his father, asking his father if his financial support would continue should Lister and Agnes become married.", "Lister's father replied that Agnes not being in the Society of Friends would not affect his pecuniary arrangements.", "Joseph Jackson offered his son extra money to buy furniture and suggested that Syme would offer a dowry and that he would negotiate with Syme directly on it His father suggested that Lister should voluntarily resign from the Society of Friends.", "Lister made up his mind and subsequently left the Quakers to become a protestant, later joining the congregation of the Saint Paul's Episcopal Church, in Jeffrey Street, Edinburgh.", "In August 1855, Lister became engaged to Agnes Syme.", "On 23 April 1856, Lister married Agnes Syme in the drawing room of Millbank, Syme's house in Morningside.", "Agnes's sister stated that this was out of consideration of any Quaker relations.", "Only the Syme family were present.", "The Scottish physician and family friend John Brown toasted the couple after the reception.On their honeymoon, the couple spent a month at Upton and the Lake District, followed by three months on a tour of the leading medical institutes in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy.", "The couple returned in October 1856.By this time, Agnes was enamoured of medical research and became Lister's partner in the laboratory for the rest of her life.", "When they returned to Edinburgh, the couple moved into a rented house at 11 Rutland Street in Edinburgh.", "The house was situated over three floors with a study on the first floor, that was converting into a consulting room for patients and a room with hot and cold taps on the second floor that became his laboratory.", "The Scottish surgeon Watson Cheyne, who was almost a surrogate son to Lister, stated after his death that Agnes had entered into her work wholeheartedly, had been his only secretary, and that they discussed his work ''on an almost equal footing''.Lister's books are full of Agnes' careful handwriting.", "Agnes would take dictation from Lister, taken at hours at a stretch.", "Spaces would be left blank amongst the reams of Agnes' handwriting for small diagrams, that Lister would create using the camera lucida technique and Agnes would later paste in.===Assistant surgeoncy===On 13 October 1856, he was unanimously elected to the position of Assistant Surgeoncy at Edinburgh Royal Infirmary.", "In 1856 he was also elected a member of the Harveian Society of Edinburgh.===Contributions to physiology and pathology 1853–1859===While he was in Edinburgh, Lister conducted a series of physiological and pathological experiments between the years 1853 and 1859.His approach was rigorous and meticulous in both measurement and description.", "Lister was clearly aware of the latest advances of physiological research in France, Germany, and other European countries and maintained an on-going discussion of his observations and results with other leading physicians in his peer group including Albert von Kölliker, Wilhelm von Wittich, Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow and ensured he correctly cited their work.Lister's primary instrument of research was his microscope and his primary research material were frogs.", "Before his honeymoon, the couple had visited his uncle's house in Kinross.", "Lister had taken his microscope and captured several frogs, intending to use them in the study of inflammation, but they escaped.", "When he returned from his honeymoon, he used frogs captured from Duddingston Loch in his experiments.", "Lister carried out his experiments in his laboratory and in the veterinary college abattoir on animals that were either dead or when they were chloroformed.", "If Lister was using a frog they were ''pithed'', to deprive them of sensation.", "He also used bats, sheep, cats, rabbits, oxen and horses in his experiments.", "Lister was tireless in his pursuit of knowledge and this is illustrated by Thomas Annandale, his assistant who stated:These experiments resulted in the publication of eleven papers between 1857 and 1859.They included the study of the nervous control of arteries, the earliest stages of inflammation, the early stages of coagulation, the structure of nerve fibres, and the study of the nervous control of the gut with reference to sympathetic nerves.", "He continued the experiments for three years, until he was appointed to a position at the University of Glasgow.====1855 Beginning of inflammation research====In a letter dated 16 September 1855, Lister recorded the beginnings of his research into inflammation, six weeks before his lectures were to begin.", "Inflammation was the subject that would preoccupy him for the rest of his life.", "Later in life, Lister stated that he considered his research into the nature of inflammation to be an \"essential preliminary\" to his conception of the antiseptic principle and insisted these early findings be included in any memorial volume of his work.", "In 1905, when he was seventy eight years old, he wrote,Inflammation is defined by four symptoms, heat, redness, swelling and pain.", "For surgeons prior to Lister, this meant the arrival of suppuration or putrefaction, meaning local or general infection.", "As the germ theory of disease had not been discovered, infection as a concept did not exist.", "However, Lister knew that the phenomena of the slowing of the blood through the capillaries seemed to precede inflammation.", "Joseph Jackson Lister had written a paper with Thomas Hodgkin that described how blood cells behaved prior to a clot, i.e.", "specifically how the concave cells fitted themselves together into stacks.", "Lister knew that to observe the next step, it was important that the tissue remain alive so the blood vessels could be observed through the microscope.In September 1855, Lister first experiment was on the artery of a frog viewed under his microscope, which was subjected to a water droplet of differing temperatures, to determine the early stage of inflammation.", "He initially applied a water droplet at which caused the artery to contract for a second and the flow ceased, then dilated and the area turned red and the flow of blood increased.", "He progressively increased the temperature until it was .", "The blood slowed down then coagulated.", "He continued the experiment on the wing of chloroformed bat to widen his research focus.", "Lister concluded that the contraction of the vessels lead to the exclusion of blood cells from the capillaries, not their arrest and blood serum continued to flow.", "This was his first independent discovery.The experiments ceased between October 1855 and continued in September 1856 when the couple moved into Rutland Square.", "Lister started with mustard as an irritant, then Croton oil, acetic acid, oil of Cantharidin and chloroform and many others.", "They led to the production of three papers.", "His first paper grew out of need to prepare for this extramural lectures and had begun the year before, continuing in development for six weeks, after he moved into Rutland street.", "The early paper titled: \"On the early stages of inflammation as observed in the Foot of a Frog\" was read to the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh on 5 December 1856.The last third was read out extempore.====1856 Beginning of coagulation research====Lister's research into the process of coagulation was the second major area of investigation that he conducted during this period.", "He had observed during inflammation in certain cases of septicaemia, that it affected the blood vessels lining leading to intravascular blood clotting, that led to putrefaction and secondary haemorrhage in wounds.", "Beginning with a simple experiment in December 1856 that was described in a note by Agnes, where he pricked his own finger to observe the process of coagulation, it led to five physiology papers on coagulation between 1858 and the last in 1863.There were several competing theories that explained the occurrence of a blood clot, and although the theories were largely abandoned, it was still thought that blood contained a liquifying agent, i.e.", "fibrin held in a solution of ammonia that became known as the \"Ammonia theory\".In 1824, Charles Scudamore had proposed carbonic acid as the solution.", "The prevailing theory was from Benjamin Ward Richardson, who won the 1857 Astley Cooper triennial prize for his essay, where he postulated that blood remained liquid due the presence of ammonia.", "In the same year, Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke proposed that the vital actions of the vessels inhibited the bloods natural tendency to coagulate.====1856 On the minute structure of involuntary muscle fibre====Lister's third paper was published in 1858 in the same journal and was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 1 December 1856.It was research into the histology and function of the minute structures of involuntary muscle fibres.", "The experiment was conducted in the autumn of 1856, and was designed to confirm Kölliker's observations on the structure of individual muscle fibres.", "Kölliker description had been criticised as he had used needles to separate the tissue, to observe the individual cells, so his critics stated that he had observed artefacts for the experiment rather than the real muscle cells.", "Lister proved conclusively that the muscle fibres of blood vessels, described by Lister as slightly flattened elongated elements, were similar to those found by Kölliker in pig intestine, but were wrapped spirally and individually, around the innermost membrane.", "He stated that the different variations in shape, from long tubular bodies with pointed ends and elongated nuclei to short \"spindles\" with squat nuclei, were due to different phases of the contraction.", "During \"The Huxley Lecture\" he stated he could not imagine a more efficient mechanism being used to constrict these vessels.====1857 On the flow of the lacteal fluid in the mesentery of the mouse====His next paper was a short report based on observations that he made in 1853.This first experiment by Lister, as opposed to purely microscope work, was to prove two goals: firstly to determine the nature of the flow of chyle in the lymphatics and secondly, to determine if the lacteals in the gastrointestinal wall could absorb solid matter, in the form of granules, from the lumen.", "For the first experiment, a mouse that was fed beforehand on bread and milk was chloroformed then had its abdomen opened and a length of intestine placed on glass under a microscope.", "Lister repeated the experiment several times and each time saw mesenteric lymph flowing in a steady stream, without visible contractions of the lacteals.", "For the second experiment Lister dyed some bread with indigo dye and fed it to a mouse, with the result that no indigo particles were ever seen in the chyle.", "Lister delivered the paper to the 27th meeting of the British Medical Association, that was held in Dublin between 26 August to 2 September 1857.The paper was formally published in 1858 in the ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science''.====Seven papers on the origin and mechanism of inflammation====In 1858, Lister published seven papers on physiological experiments he conducted on the origin and mechanism of inflammation.", "Two of these papers were research into the neural control by the nervous system of blood vessels, \"An Inquiry Regarding the Parts of the Nervous System Which Regulate the Contractions of the Arteries\" and \"On the Cutaneous Pigmentary System of the Frog\", while the third and the principal paper in the series was titled: \"On the Early Stages of Inflammation\", which extended the research by Wharton Jones.", "The three papers were read to the Royal Society of London on 18 June 1857.They had originally been written as one paper and had been sent to Sharpey, John Goodsir and the English pathologist James Paget for review.", "However, Paget and Goodsir both recommended that is should be published as three separate papers.====1858 An Inquiry Regarding the Parts of the Nervous System Which Regulate the Contractions of the Arteries====The first of these series of experiments was designed to satisfy a contemporary dispute between physiologists, concerning the origin of the influence exercised over blood vessel diameter (calibre) by the sympathetic nervous system.", "The dispute began when Albrecht von Haller formulated a new theory known as ''Sensibility and Irritability'' in his 1752 thesis ''De partibus corporis humani sensibilibus et irritabilibus''.", "The dispute had been debated since the middle of the 18th century.", "Haller put forward the view that contractability was a power inherent in the tissues which possessed it, and was fundamental fact of physiology.", "It concerned the property of ''irratability'', the supposed automatic response of muscular tissue, especially visceral tissue, to external stimulus, that caused them to contract when stimulated.", "Even as late as 1853, highly respected textbooks, for example William Benjamin Carpenter ''Principles of Human Physiology'' stated the doctrine of 'irritability' was a fact beyond dispute, and was still considered contentious when John Hughes Bennett created the ''Physiology'' article for the 8th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica in 1859.In his experiments that he started in the autumn of 1856, Lister used a microscope fitted with ocular micrometer to measure the diameter of blood vessels in a frogs web.", "In a before and after experiment, he ablated parts of the central nervous system and also before and after, with the splitting of the sciatic nerve.", "Lister concluded that blood vessel tone was controlled by the medulla oblongata and the spinal cord.", "This refuted Wharton's conclusions, in his paper ''Observations on the State of the Blood and the Blood-Vessels in Inflammation.''", "who was not able to confirm that the control of blood vessels of the hind legs was dependent upon spinal centres.====1858 On the Cutaneous Pigmentary System of the Frog====The second part of the original paper that was an experiment into the nature and behaviour of pigment.", "It had been known for some years that the skin of the frog is capable of varying in colour under different circumstances.", "The first account of this mechanism and how it is affected had been first described by Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke of Vienna in 1832 and later investigated further by Wilhelm von Wittich in 1854 and Emile Harless in 1947.Lister had seen how the beginning of inflammation was always accompanied by a change of colour in the frogs web.", "He determined that the pigments consisted of \"very minute pigment-granules\" that are contained in a network of stellate cells, the branches of which, subdividing minutely and anastomosing freely with one another and with those of neighbouring cells, constitute a delicate network in the substance of the true skin.", "It had been supposed that the concentration and diffusion of the pigment depended upon the contraction and extension of the branches of the star-shaped cells in which it was contained; and that only these movements of the cells were under the influence of the nervous system.", "At the time, there was no cell theory of matter nor was there any dyes or fixatives that could used to enhance experimental discovery.", "Indeed, Lister wrote of this, stating \"The extreme delicacy of the cell wall makes it very difficult to trace it among the surrounding tissue\".", "Lister observed that it was the pigment granules themselves and not the cells that moved, and that this movement is not merely brought about by the control of the nervous system, but that it may be caused by the direct action of irritants on the tissues themselves.", "He believed that pigment reflected the activity of blood vessels, though it was the slowing of blood flow that initiates the process of inflammation.====1858 On the early stages of inflammation====The focal study was the longest paper of the three and the last to be published.", "Like many of his colleagues, Lister was aware that inflammation was the first stage of many postoperative conditions and that excessive inflammation often preceded the onset of a septic condition.", "Once that happened, the patient would develop a fever.", "Lister had come to the conclusion that accurate knowledge of the functioning of inflammation could not be obtained by researching the more advanced stages that were subject to secondary processes.", "He therefore started, in quite a different way from that of almost all his predecessors by directing his enquiry to the very first deviations from health, hoping to find in them \"the essential character of the morbid state most unequivocally stamped\".", "Essentially, Lister performed these experiments to discover the causes of erythrocyte adhesiveness.", "As well as experimenting on frogs web and bats wing, Lister used blood that he had obtained from the end of his own finger that was inflamed and compared it against blood from one of his other fingers.", "He discovered that after something irritating had been applied to living tissues which did not kill them outright firstly the blood-vessels contracted and their lumen became very small; the part became pale.", "Secondly, the vessels after an interval, dilated and the part became red.", "Thirdly, some of the blood in the most injured blood-vessels slowed down in its flow and coagulated.", "Redness occurred which, being solid, could not be pressed away.", "Lastly, the fluid of the blood passed through the vessel walls and formed a \"blister\" about the seat of injury.", "He found that each tiny artery was surrounded by a muscle, which enables it to contract and dilate.", "He found further that this contraction and dilation was not an individual act on its part, but was an act dictated to it by the nervous cells in the spinal cord.The paper was divided into four sections:* The aggregation of red blood cells when removed from the body, i.e., which occurs during coagulation.", ":: This section deals with the aggregation of the cells of the blood, which occurs during the process of clotting.", "It shows that when blood is removed from the body this aggregation depends on their possessing a certain degree of mutual adhesiveness, which is much greater in the white blood cells than in the red blood cells.", "This property, though apparently not depending upon vitality, is capable of remarkable variations, in consequence of very slight chemical changes in the blood plasma.", "* The structure and function of blood vessels.", ":: This section shows that the arteries regulate, by their contractility, the amount of blood transmitted in a given time through the capillaries, but that neither full dilatation, extreme contraction, nor any intermediate state of the arteries, is capable per se of producing accumulation of blood cells in the capillaries.", "* The effects of irritants on blood vessels, e.g., hot water.", "::This section details how the effects are two-fold:::* firstly, a dilatation of the arteries (commonly preceded by a brief period of contraction), which is developed through the nervous system and is not confined to the part brought into actual contact with the irritant, but implicates a surrounding area of greater or less extent; and:::* secondly, an alteration in the tissues upon which the irritant directly acts, which makes them influence the blood in the same manner as does ordinary solid matter.", "This imparts adhesiveness to both the red and the white blood cells, making them prone to stick to one another and to the walls of the vessels, and so gives rise, if the damage to the tissues be severe, to stagnation of the blood flow and ultimately to obstruction.", "* The effects of irritants on tissue.", ":: The fourth section describes the effects of irritants upon the tissues.", "It proves that those which destroy the tissues when they act powerfully, produce by their gentler action only a condition bordering on loss of vitality, i.e.", "a condition in which the tissues are incapacitated, but from which they may recover, provided the irritation has not been too severe or protracted.Lister's paper was able to show that capillary action is governed by the constriction and dilation of the arteries.", "The action is affected by trauma, irritation or reflex action through the central nervous system.", "He noticed that although the capillary walls lack muscle fibres, they are very elastic and are subject to significant capacity variations that are influenced by arterial blood flow into the circulatory system.", "Drawings made with a camera lucida were used to depict the experimental reactions.", "They displayed vascular stasis and congestion in the early stages of the body's reaction to damage.", "According to Lister, vascular alterations that were initially brought on by reflexes occurring within the nervous system were followed by changes that were brought on by local tissue damage.", "In the conclusions to the paper, Lister linked his experimental observations to physical clinical conditions, for example skin damage resulting from boiling water and trauma occurring after a surgical incision.After the paper was read to the Royal Society in June 1857, it was very well received and his name became known outside Edinburgh.====On a Case of Spontaneous Gangrene from Arteritis, and on the Causes of Coagulation of the Blood in Diseases of the Blood-Vessels====Lister's first paper is an account of a case of spontaneous gangrene in a child.", "The paper on coagulation was read before the Medico-Chirugical Society of Edinburgh on 18 March 1858.In an account written by Agnes, she states that there was no one at the medical school meeting who was capable of appreciating it, and the remarks made upon it were very poor.", "There was suggestions for improvement which Lister threw out.", "There was lots of cheering, proclaiming it a great success.", "The paper was written-up at 7pm, with Lister dictating and Agnes writing it during a 50-minute session, followed by the exposition to the society at George Street hall at 8pm.Lister first used the amputated legs from sheep and discovered that blood remained liquid in the blood vessels for up to six days and still underwent coagulation, albeit more slowly when the vessel was opened.", "He also noticed that if vessels remained fresh, the blood would remain fluid.", "In later experiments he moved to cats.", "He tried to emulate an inflamed blood vessel by exposing the jugular vein of the animal and applying irritants then constricting and opening the flow, to measure the effect.", "He noticed that in the damaged vessel the blood would coagulate He eventually came to the conclusion that if there was ammonia in the blood, it was much less important than the condition of the vessel in stopping coagulation.", "He tested his hypothesis on three cadavers by examining the condition of various veins and arteries and found he was correct.", "He also concluded that the Ammonia theory did not apply to vessels in the body, but it could apply to blood outside the body.", "While that was incorrect, his other conclusions were accurate.", "Specifically that inflammation in the blood vessel lining, results in coagulation occurring.", "Lister realised that vascular occlusion increased the pressure through the network of small vessels, leading to the formation of \"liquor sanguinis\" that lead to further localised damaged perfusion.", "Certainly, Lister had no knowledge of the coagulation cascade but his experiments contributed to the current understanding of clotting, the final product of coagulation.Lister continued experimenting in April, examining vessels and blood from a horse.", "This resulted in another communication to the society on 7 April.", "His work in coagulation continued until the end of year.", "Lister's second article on coagulation was published in August 1958, was one of two case histories he published in the Edinburgh Medical Journal in 1858.Titled: \"Case of Ligature of the Brachial Artery, Illustrating the Persistent Vitality of the Tissues\".", "The history described saving a patient's arm from being amputated which had been constricted by a tourniquet for thirty hours.", "The second history was titled \"Example of mixed Aortic Aneurysm\" and published in December 1858.====1858 Preliminary account of an inquiry into the functions of the visceral nerves====Lister continual interest in the nervous control of blood vessels led him to conduct a series of experiments during June and July 1858, where he researched the nervous control of the gut.", "The research was published in the form of three letters sent to Sharpey.", "The first two letters were sent on 28 June and 7 July 1858 The last letter was published as the \"Preliminary Account of an Inquiry into the Functions of the Visceral Nerves, with special reference to the so-called Inhibitory System.", "\".He had been studying the work of Claude Bernard, LJ Budge and Augustus Waller and had become interested in what was known as \"sympathetic action\", where inflammation appeared in a different area from the source of irritation.", "This led him to study Pflüger's 1857 paper titled \"About the inhibitory nervous system for the peristaltic movements of the intestines\", proposed that the splanchnic nerves instead of exciting the intestine muscle layer that they are connected to, inhibit their movement.", "The German physiologist Eduard Weber made the same claim.", "Pflüger had named these inhibitory nerves \"Hemmungs-Nervensystem\", a name that Syme, at Lister's request thought they should be translated as ''inhibitory nervous system''.", "Lister dismissed Pflüger's idea of inhibitory nerves as not only implausible but not supported by observation, as a mild stimulus caused increased muscle activity which changed to a decreased muscle activity as the incoming stimulus became stronger.", "Lister believed that it was questionable whether the motions of the heart or the intestines are ever checked by the spinal system, except for very brief periods.Lister conducted a series of experiments using mechanical irritation and galvanism to stimulate the nerves and spinal cord in rabbits and frogs.", "and due to rabbits active gut movement, he considered them ideal for the experiment.", "To ensure their gut reflexes were not impaired, the rabbits were not anaesthetised.", "Lister conducted three experiments.", "In the first experiment, an incision was made in the rabbit's side and a section of intestine was pulled through the skin.", "Lister then connected a magnetic coil battery to the splanchnic nerves in the spinal cord.", "When the current was applied, the gut completely relaxed but when the current was applied locally, a small localised contraction occurred that did not spread to the bowel.", "Lister stated that \"this observation is of fundamental importance, since it proves that the inhibitory influence does not operate directly upon the muscular tissue, but upon the nervous apparatus by which its contractions are, under ordinary circumstances, elicited\".", "In the second experiment, Lister examined the reaction in a section of the bowel, when he restricted the blood supply by tying the vessels and found that there was increase in peristalsis.", "When he applied current the gut relaxed.", "He concluded that activity in the gut was under the control of bowel wall nerves and had been stimulated due to loss of blood.", "In the third experiment he removed the nerves from a section of bowel while ensuring to maintain a good blood supply.", "This time, stimulation of the section had no effect except when the section would spontaneously contract.", "During the histological study of the bowel wall, Lister discovered a plexus of neurons the myenteric plexus, that confirmed the observations made by Georg Meissner in 1857.Lister concluded, \"...it appears that the intestines possess an intrinsic ganglionic apparatus which is in all cases essential to the peristaltic movements, and, while capable of independent action, is liable to be stimulated or checked by other parts of the nervous system\".Although Lister did not believe in the inhibitory system, he did conclude that extrinsic nerves controlled the intestinal motor function indirectly through their effect on the plexus.", "It was not until 1964 that this was proven by Karl‐Axel Norberg.====Notice of further researches on the coagulation of the blood====Lister's third paper on coagulation was a short article in the form of a communication consisting of five pages that was read before the Medico-Chirugical Society of Edinburgh on 16 November 1859.In the paper, Lister found that the coagulation of blood was not solely dependent on the presence of ammonia, but may also be influenced by other factors.", "In a demonstration before the society, Lister had a sample of horse's blood that had been shed twenty-nine hours earlier and added acetic acid to it.", "The blood remained fluid despite being acidified, but it eventually coagulated after being left to stand for 15 minutes.", "Lister demonstrated that the Ammonia theory was incorrect as the coagulation of the blood was not dependent on the presence of ammonia.", "He concluded that the coagulation of blood may be influenced by other factors in addition to or instead of ammonia, and that the Ammonia theory was fallacious.===Glasgow appointment===On 1 August 1859, Lister wrote to his father to inform him of the ill-health of James Adair Lawrie, Regius Professor of Surgery at the University of Glasgow, believing he was close to death.", "The anatomist Allen Thomson had written to Syme to inform him of Lawrie's condition and that it was his opinion that Lister was the most suitable person for the position.", "Lister stated that Syme believed he should become a candidate for the position.", "He went on to discuss the merits of the post; a higher salary, being able to undertake more surgery and being able to create a bigger private practice.", "Lawrie died on 23 November 1859.In the following month, Lister received a private communication, although baseless, that confirmed he had received the appointment.", "However, it was clear the matter was not settled when a letter appeared in the Glasgow Herald on 18 January 1860 that discussed a rumour that the decision had been handed over to the Lord Advocate and officials in Edinburgh.", "The letter annoyed the members of the governing body of Glasgow University, the Senatus Academicus.", "The matter was referred to the Vice-Chancellor Thomas Barclay that tipped the decision in favour of Lister.", "On 28 January 1860, Lister's appointment was confirmed." ], [ "Glasgow 1860–1869", "Joseph Lister 1860 by Thomas Annan===University life===To be formally induced into the academic staff, Lister had to deliver a Latin oration before the senatus academicus.", "In a letter to his father, he described how surprised he was when a letter arrived from Allen Thomson informing him that the thesis had to be presented the next day on 9 March.", "Lister unable to start the paper until 2am the next night, had only prepared around two thirds of it, when he arrived in Glasgow.", "The rest was written at Thomson's house.", "In the letter, he described the dread he felt being admitted into the room prior to presenting the oration.", "After the thesis was read and Lister was inducted to the senate, he signed a statement not to act contrary to the wishes of the Church of Scotland.", "While the contents of his thesis have been lost, the title is known, \"De Arte Chirurgica Recte Erudienda\" (\"On the proper way of teaching the art of surgery\").In early May 1860, the couple made the journey to Glasgow to move into their new house at 17 Woodside Place, at the time on the western edge of the city.", "In 1860, university life in Glasgow was lived in the grimy quadrangles of the small college on Glasgow High Street, a mile east of the city centre next to Glasgow Royal Infirmary (GRI) and the Cathedral and surrounded by the most squalid part of the old medieval city.", "The Scottish poet and novelist Andrew Lang wrote of his student days at the college, that while Coleridge could smell 75 different stenches during his student days in Cologne, Lang counted more.", "The city was so polluted the grass did not grow.The position of Professor of Surgery at Glasgow was peculiar, as it did not carry with it an appointment as surgeon to the Royal Infirmary, as the university was separate from the hospital.", "The allotment of surgical wards to the care of the Professor of Surgery depended upon the goodwill of the directors of the infirmary.", "His predecessor Lawrie never held any hospital appointments at all.", "Having no patients to care for, Lister immediately began a summer lecture course.", "He discovered that college classrooms were considered too small and had low ceilings for the number of students, which made them unpleasant to be in when filled to overcrowding.", "Before his first lecture, the couple cleaned and painted the dingy lecture room assigned to them, at their own expense.", "He inherited a large class of students from his predecessor that grew rapidly.After his first session, he wrote favourably of Glasgow:In August 1860, Lister was visited by his parents, who took a \"saloon\" carriage on the Great Northern Railway.", "In September 1860, Marcus Beck came to live with the Listers and their two servants, while he studied medicine at the university.", "In the closing weeks of the summer, the Listers along with Beck, Lucy Syme and Ramsay went on a short holiday to Balloch, Loch Lomond.", "While the group was visiting Tarbet, Argyll, the men rowed across the loch and ascended Ben Lomond.===Election to surgeoncy===In August 1860, Lister had been rejected for a post at the Royal Infirmary by David Smith, a shoemaker who was the chairman of the hospital board.", "When Lister put his case to Smith explaining the need for anatomical demonstrations so the students could understand the practice of surgery, Smith stated his belief that \"the infirmary was a curative institution, not an educational one\".", "The rejection both annoyed and surprised Lister as he had been promised by Thomson that the position was assured.", "Indeed, he had informed his father of the fact that the post was guaranteed in his letter to his father.In November 1860, the winter lecture course began.", "In total 182 students registered for the lectures and according to Godlee it was likely the \"largest class of systematic surgery in Great Britain, if not in Europe\".", "The class consisting of mostly 4th year students with some 3rd and 2nd year students, was so enthused, that they decided to make Lister the Honorary President of their Medical Society.", "When the time approached for the election to the surgeoncy in 1861, 161 students signed a petition on parchment supporting his claim for election.", "Lister was not elected until 5 August 1861, in what was described by Beck as a \"troublesome canvas\".", "Lister was put in charge of wards XXIV (24) and XXV (25) in October 1861.It wasn't until November 1861 that he performed his first public operation.", "Soon after Lister arrived at the GRI, a new surgical block was built and it was here that he conducted many of his trials of antisepsis.===Holmes System of Surgery===During this period between the end of his winter lecture course and his appointment, Lister's correspondence contained little of scientific interest.", "Finally, a letter to his father dated 2 August 1861 explained the reason.", "He has halted his experiments on coagulation to work on writing two chapters, \"Amputation\" and \"On Æsthetics\" (On anaesthetics) for a book by Timothy Holmes called ''System of Surgery'' that was published in four volumes in 1862.Chloroform was Lister's preferred anaesthetic.", "He wrote three paper's for Holmes in 1861, 1870 and 1882 chapters.", "The science of anaesthesia was in its infancy when Lister had first recommended chloroform to Syme in 1855 and had continued to use it until the 1880s.", "His sister Isabella Sophie had first described its use to him in 1848, when she had a tooth pulled.", "He had further clinical experience using it on three patients who had tumours of the jaw, without complications in 1854.He had classed it along with alcohol and opium as a \"specific irritant\" in \"On the early stages of imflammation\".", "Lister preferred it, as it was safer to use in artificial light than ether, it protected the heart and blood vessels and as Lister believed gave the patient \"mental tranquility\" as it was the safest.", "In the 1871 edition, he reported there had been no deaths in Edinburgh or Glasgow infirmaries from chloroform, during the period between 1861 and 1870.Lister described how his assistant applied the chloroform onto a simple handkerchief, as a mask while he watched the patients breathing.", "In 1870, he updated the chapter to state that he felt apprehension using chloroform on the \"aged and infirm\".", "In the same edition he recommended nitrous oxide for tooth extraction and the use of ether to avoid vomiting after abdominal surgery.", "In the winter of 1873, the English medical journals reported that sulphuric ether should be used instead but Watson Cheyne stated there had been no deaths from chloroform during winter 1873.In 1880, the British Medical Association recommended the synthetic gas ethidene dichloride for clinical trials.", "On 14 November 1881, Paul Bert had published the dose-response curve of chloroform but Lister believed that smaller doses would be sufficient to anaesthetize the patient.", "Starting in April 1882, Lister first conducted clinical research using ether and from July to November, lab experiments on chaffinches and then on himself and Agnes, to determine the correct dose.", "The 1882 chapter continued to recommend chloroform.The chapter on amputation was much more technical than the anaesthesia chapter, for example describing the ways of cutting the skin to produce flaps to close over the wound.", "In the first edition, Lister examined the history of amputation from Hippocrates to Thomas Pridgin Teale, William Hey, François Chopart, Nikolay Pirogov and Dominique Jean Larrey and the discovery of the tourniquet by Etienne Morel.", "In the first edition, Lister devoted 7 pages to dressings, but by the third edition only a single sentence to recommend a dry dressing as opposed to the more common water dressing, where it was thought that water excluded the air.", "By the third edition, Lister focused on describing three innovative surgical techniques.", "The first was a method for amputation through the thigh that he developed between 1858 and 1860 that was a modification of Henry Douglas Carden's technique for knee amputation.", "The thigh amputation was through the femoral condyles, in a circular fashion with a small posterior flap that enabled a neat scar.The second technique was an aortic tourniquet for controlling blood flow in the abdominal aorta.", "The vessels of the aorta were too tough to close properly and ligatures either damage the artery walls or caused premature death if left in too long.", "The third technique was a method of bloodless operation that he created in 1863-1864 by elevating a limb and quickly applying an india rubber tourniquet to stop limb circulation but it became unnecessary with the use of the Esmarch bandage.", "In 1859, he advocated for the use of silver wire sutures that that been invented by J. Marion Sims, but their use fell out of favour with the introduction of antiseptics.===Croonian Lecture===On 1 January 1863, Lister returned to the topic of coagulation when he presented the Croonian Lecture with the title \"On the coagulation of the blood\", although there was little that was new.", "The lecture was given at the invitation of the Royal Society and the Royal College of Physicians and was held in London.", "Lister opened the lecture by reconfirming the fallacious nature of the Ammonia theory, instead proposing that shed blood coagulates when the solid and fluid elements of the blood meet.", "Through experiments he confirmed that blood plasma (liquor sanguinis) alone lacks the ability to coagulate, but gains it when in contact with the red blood cell.", "Lister suggests that living tissues possess similar properties in relation to blood coagulation.", "He mentions the presence of coagulable fluid in the interstices of cellular tissue and describe instances of edema liquid coagulating after emission, possibly due to slight admixture of red blood cells.", "Lister highlighted the tendency of inflamed tissues to induce coagulation in their vicinity, suggesting that inflamed tissues temporarily lose their vital properties and behave like ordinary solids, leading to coagulation.", "He provided examples of inflamed arteries and veins exhibiting coagulation on their interior, similar to artificially deprived vessels.", "Lister then describes the difference between inflammatory exudations and oedema effusions, with inflamed tissues inducing coagulation while oedema effusions remain fluid.", "The increased pressure caused by accumulated red blood cells in inflamed capillaries is hypothesised to contribute to the loss of healthy condition in capillary walls, leading to coagulation.", "In the closing sections of the lecture, Lister relates his previous microscopic investigation, published in the Philosophical Transactions, which supported the view that tissues can be temporarily deprived of vital power under the action of irritants.", "He proposes that inflammatory congestion arises from the adhesiveness of red blood cells caused by the interaction with irritated tissues, similar to their behaviour outside the body when encountering ordinary solids.", "In finishing the lecture, Lister was satisfied that his previous conclusions on the nature of inflammation was independently confirmed through his research into blood coagulation.===On excision of the wrist for caries===Lister's most original work that he undertook during 1863 and the beginning of 1864 was the development of a surgical technique for the excision of caries from the wrist, i.e., the removal of diseased bone due to tuberculosis.", "The procedure consisted of the removal of the ends of the bones entering into an articulation instead of amputating the whole limb and was considered a recent development in \"conservative surgery\".", "Several surgeons had attempted the procedure.", "It was first performed by German surgeons Johann von Dietz in 1839 and in 1849, followed by British surgeon William Fergusson in 1851.While the development of techniques for excision of the elbow was largely successful, similar success for the excision of the wrist was elusive, so amputation was considered the most appropriate treatment even in 1860.The complicated technique that Lister developed was the removal of the tissue where the disease was likely to occur but in the process preserving those structures that were used to move the fingers and wrist.", "The technique was adopted by the profession and the only complaint from surgeons was the length of the operation at 90 minutes.", "Lister waited almost a year before publishing the paper in March 1865 in The Lancet.", "The paper presented 15 case histories.", "In summary, ten people were cured, two had hopes of achieving a cure, two died of causes independent of the operation and Lister considered one operation unsatisfactory, which was a failure rate of 13%.===Edinburgh position===In June 1864, the Professor of Systematic Surgery in Edinburgh James Miller, died.", "The Edinburgh chair was considered the most prestigious within the Scottish medical community and came with annual stipend of between £700-£800 per year.", "Syme and his friends suggested that Lister should apply as his candidature was all but assured.", "A number of reasons have been advanced on why Lister applied.", "In a letter to his father he said that he saw Glasgow as a stepping stone.", "There were a multitude of reasons either to stay or go.", "He was drawn to research, his friends were there and he found the routine nature in Glasgow, \"working in a corner\".", "There was also the fact that his tenure only lasted 10 years.", "Testimonials from Christison, Paget, Buchanan and Syme followed the application.", "By the end of June, Lister was convinced the position was his.", "However, the chair went with James Spence instead.", "Lister was disappointed and in social settings tended to solipsism in conversation, but by October his father, in a letter said that it was, \"very gratifying to learn thy complete reconcilement to remaining at Glasgow\".Before he received the disappointing news, Lister had been called back to Upton as his mother Isabella was on her deathbed.", "She died on 3 September 1864.His father was now living alone at Upton as the only daughter left at home had married in 1858.Communication with his children became of paramount importance to Joseph Jackson and he started to send Lister a letter every week, stating in October \"The thought that thou wilt look for letters from thee weekly, and the letters when they come, are alike gratifying to thy poor father.", ";Winter lecture courseOn 1 November, Lister began the winter lecture course that was divided into two divisions: Those conditions common with tissue and organs and those conditions of physiology.", "His first lectures were on blood, then nerves, then detailed special nerves which explained the process of inflammation.", "In introducing the subject, he stated that any injury that didn't cause death would result in inflammation with the familiar symptons of redness, swelling and pain.", "These symptons were indicative of \"inflammatory congestion\" that is the suspension of vital energy, which began with red corpuscles adhering together, that are caused by fibrin, which itself was caused by two substances in the blood, one in the blood cell and one in liquor sanguis (plasma).", "He described two types of inflammation, direct and indirect, direct by a noxious agent and indirect by \"sympathy\" which was an indication that Lister's frame of references was wholly inadequate.", "He then provided various examples and then examined various types, for example acute, latent or chronic.", "The following lectures were devoted to explaining how to alleviate the symptoms of inflammation, for example raising a limb to enable blood to flow easier, or reducing tension for example, by draining an abscess.", "The remarkable aspect of Lister's theory of inflammation was that while the details of the observations were correctly made, the theoretical structure used to explain the observations was completely wrong.", "Lister's error lay in his belief that inflammation was a \"unitary disease\", a single underlying disease when in effect it was a range of conditions.", "The second division of the lecturers focused on the heart, blood vessels, lymphatic system, bones, joints and nerves.", ";ChristmasLister and Agnes spent Christmas 1864 with Joseph Jackson at Upton.", "In January, Lister attended a quite unusual operation by Syme in Edinburgh, whereby a patient's tongue was removed.", "A month later, Lister received an interesting letter from Jackson on fees that indicated Lister's growing private practice that he began in 1861.His practice was unusual as it was solely dedicated to surgery, during a period when operations either took place at the doctor's surgey or at the patient's home.", "In March 1865, Lister along with the colleagues became involved in the case of the murderer Edward William Pritchard who was employed as a doctor in Glasgow.", "Prichard had broken his oath.", "In a letter to his father, Lister expressed his sincere hope that he would be hung.===Pasteur===Louis Pasteur in his laboratory.", "Painting by Albert Edelfelt in 1885At the end of 1864 or during the spring of 1865 (sources vary) while walking home with Thomas Anderson, the chemistry professor at Glasgow and discussing putrefaction, Anderson drew Lister's attention to the latest research of the French chemist Louis Pasteur, who had discovered living things that caused fermentation and putrefaction.", "At that time, Lister was not a wide reader of continental literature, began reading the weekly journal ''Comptes rendus hebdomadaires'' of the French Academy of Sciences through the years 1860-1863 where Pasteur discussed fermentation and putrefaction.The two papers that Anderson recommended to Lister was ''Sur les corpuscules organisés qui existent dans l'atmosphère, examen de la doctrine des générations spontanées'' 1861 (On the organized particles that exist in the atmosphere, examination of the doctrine of spontaneous generations).", "In this paper, Pasteur disproved the theory of spontaneous generation by proving the hypothesis that life in boiled infusions arose from spores.", "He also proved that particles in the air could be cultivated; and if they were introduced from the air, into a sterile liquid, they would reappear and multiply in the liquid.", "The second paper that Lister read that day was Pasteur's magnum opus, titled ''Examen du rôle attribué au gaz oxygène atmosphérique dans la destruction des matières animales et végétales après la mort'' 1863 (Examination of the role attributed to atmospheric oxygen gas in the destruction of animal and plant matter after death).", "published on 29 June 1863.The paper concluded that fermentation, putrefaction and slow combustion destroyed organic matter and these were necessary processes for life to exist.", "Pasteur learned that slow combustion was related to the anaerobic conditions that were present if microorganisms were present.Several other papers would directly influence Lister's work on microorganisms.", "The third paper was the ''Mémoire sur la fermentation appelée lactique (Extrait par l'auteur)'' (Memoir on the so-called lactic acid fermentation (Extracted by the author)) that was published in 1857 and describes the discovery of the microbe that is responsible for the process of fermentation in beer yeast.", "The fourth paper was the ''Memoire sur la Fermentation Alcoolique'' (Memoir on Alcoholic Fermentation) that was published in Annales de chimie et de physique in 1860.Pasteur described the living beings, microorganisms in yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae that were responsible for the effervescent change that lead to fermentation.", "The last paper by Pasteur was the ''Animalcules infusoires vivant sans gaz oxygène libre et déterminant des fermentations'', (Animal Infusoria Living in the Absence of Free Oxygen and their fermentations) The paper that was presented in 1861, was seminal in enabling Lister to understand the nature of sepsis, where the bodies response to infections leads to injury in the tissue and organs.", "Pasteur's research led him to believe the ferment that produced Butyric acid was a microbe that lived in the absence of oxygen.", "The last paper that Lister found important was \"Recherches sur la putréfaction\" (Research on putrefaction) that concluded stating \"...that putrefecation is determined by living ferments\".Lister was not the only surgeon who was interested in Pasteur's research.", "Thomas Spencer Wells, who was surgeon to Queen Victoria, had emphasised the significance of Pasteur's work at a meeting of the British Medical Association in 1864, stating \"By applying the knowledge for which we are indebted to Pasteur of the presence in the atmosphere of organic germs ... it is easy to understand that some germs find their most appropriate nutriment in the secretions from wounds, or in pus, and that they so modify it as to convert it into a poison when absorbed\".", "However, Wells did not have an experiment to demonstrate the germ theory and was unable to develop the techniques to put it into practice.===Discovery===The discovery of Pasteur's work was serendipitous, as he read them during the time that he was struggling to control post-surgical infections.", "Lister was one of the few surgeons who was able to accept Pasteur's conclusions without question.", "He accepted them as a simple explanation for a problem he had long experienced.", "He was now convinced that infection and suppuration of wounds must be due to entry into the wound of minute living airborne creatures.", "He recognised that contamination was the vector for infection, realising from the first that the surgeons hands, dressings and instruments would also be contaminated.", "However, Pasteur's work could only confirm the view, which Lister had always expressed that contamination came from the air.", "Lister did not realise that it was not the air but the vast number of different microbial life that was responsible.", "As Lister's work at that time was derived directly from Pasteur's work, Lister probably thought that infection of the wound was due to a single organism.", "He had no conception, nor indeed did anybody else of the vast number of types of germs that existed in nature.", "The realisation that occurred after reading the papers, spurred him to determine how the hands, dressings and instruments he used could be rid of these ubiquitous organisms and how the wound could be cleared of them.Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate microorganisms: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to chemical solutions.", "Lister was particularly interested in the efficacy of filtration and repeated many of Pasteur experiments in modified form for instruction in his class, but eventually excluded the first two techniques as they were not applicable for the treatment of wounds.Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds.===Carbolic acid===In 1834, Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge discovered phenol, also known as carbolic acid, which he derived in an impure form from coal tar.", "At that time, there was uncertainty as to the relationship of creosote – a chemical that had been used as a preservative on wood used for railway sleeper and ships since it protected the wood from rotting – and carbolic acid.", "Upon hearing that creosote had been used for treating sewage in Carlisle, Lister obtained a sample from Anderson.", "Known as \"German creosote\", it was a thick, smelly tarry substance.Lister's earliest experiments in antiseptic treatment were directed at treating compound fractures as these were often the most fatal forms of injury.On 21 March 1865, Lister began his first experiment with carbolic acid on a 22-year-old patient, Neil Kelly who had suffered a severe compound fracture of the leg.", "His treatment consisted of cleaning the wound of all blood clots then applying the undiluted carbolic acid by the use of forceps across the whole wound.", "A piece of lint soaked in the acid was then laid on the leg, overlapping the wound and fixed by an adhesive plaster.", "A sheet of thin block tin or sheet lead was placed to cover the lint, to prevent the antiseptic evaporating.", "This was further fixed with adhesive plaster and packing was used between the limb and the splints for the purpose of soaking up any blood or discharges.", "A crust formed that was not removed except to apply new antiseptic.", "While the treatment possessed many of the essential characteristics of the antiseptic dressings that Lister would subsequently introduce, it was a failure and suppuration began to occur, leading to the death of the patient.The disadvantages of the first primitive dressing consisting of lint soaked in carbolic acid, was soon apparent.", "The German creosote was also far from ideal as it was irritating to the skin causing ulceration and then suppuration that occasionally resulted in tissue necrosis.", "It was also almost insoluble in water.", "Lister began to look for another source of phenol.", "Lister discovered that Frederick Crace Calvert, an honorary chemistry professor from the Royal Manchester Institution was manufacturing small quantities of phenol at a much finer purity and managed to obtain some.", "The phenol was in the form of small white crystals which liquified at and was readily soluble in a ratio of 1:20 parts of water and to any extent soluble in oil.", "The watery solution could be used in a lotion of any strength and be used for disinfection of wounds while the solution in oil that served as a reservoir of antiseptic seemed likely to provide a suitable dressing.", "Lister began to experiment with the phenol and produced a new dressing made of a putty that consisted of carbonate of lime mixed with phenol mixed with boiled linseed oil in a ratio of 1:4 or 1:6." ], [ "Antiseptic system 1865–1867", "antiseptic surgical methods followed the publishing of Lister's ''Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery'' in 1867The ''Portrait of Dr. Samuel D. Gross''.", "The portrait of American surgeon Samuel Gross at work created by Thomas Eakins in 1875.Gross rejected Lister's methodology when Lister visited the International Medical Congress in Philadelphia in 1876.Gross is quoted as saying: \"Little if any faith is placed by any enlightened or experienced surgeon on this side of the Atlantic in the so-called carbolic acid treatment of Professor Lister\".", "Examination of the portrait reveals that the assistant is holding the surgical instrument by the blade instead of the handle, delivering germs directly into the wound.", "The assistants have dirt on their hands, and a family member is present at the operation, bringing more germs into the operation''The Agnew Clinic'' by Thomas Eakins in 1889.It details an operation by David Hayes Agnew, professor of surgery who was on the point of retiring, to the students of University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine.", "Examination of the portrait shows that the surgeons are now wearing surgical dress, the use of surgical drapes over the body is predominant and a nurse is present as it is an operation on a woman.", "Lister's work elicited a worldwide revolution in surgery in less than 25 years.===History=======Hospitalism====The history of antiseptic surgery in the years before 1847, was preventing or treating infection in accidental wounds, often received in battle.", "====1860's surgery and pathological theory====In the 1860s, Lister's assumptions about surgery and theory of pathology were similar to those of his contemporaries.===James Greenlees===On 12 August 1865, Lister achieved success for the first time when he used full-strength carbolic acid to disinfect a compound fracture.", "He applied a piece of lint dipped in carbolic acid solution onto the wound of an 11-year-old boy, James Greenlees, who had sustained a compound fracture after a cart wheel had passed over his left leg.", "After washing the wound with carbolic acid in linseed oil, a dressing of putty mixed with the acid was applied widely over the wound and a sheet of tin was then placed to cover the wound to protect it.", "The putty was used to ensure the acid wasn't washed out of the wound by blood or lymph fluid.", "The leg was then put in a splint and bandaged to hold the lot in place.", "After four days, he renewed the pad and discovered that no infection had developed.", "It was again dressed and left for 5 days.", "When the second dressing was removed, he found the skin around the wound was burnt.", "A dressing consisting of gauze soaked in a combination of 5% to 10% acid and olive oil was applied for a further four days.", "He then applied a water dressing to the wound until healing was complete.", "After a total of six weeks, Lister was amazed to discover that the boy's bones had fused back together, without suppuration.On 19 May 1866, the first patient to use the improved method was presented at Lister's accident ward with a compound fracture with extensive swelling and bruising.", "The patient was John Hainy, a 21-year-old casting moulder in an iron foundry, who was supervising a crane when a chain broke and a metal box, containing a sand mould for an iron pipe and weighing 12 hundredweight, fell from a height of four feet and landed obliquely on his left leg.", "Both of the leg bones were broken and a wound measuring by had bled profusely into the muscles and tissue of the leg.", "A secondary complication had occurred when air bubbles had mixed with the blood when the man was moved to the hospital.", "In such a case, the normal treatment would be amputation, but Lister decided to treat the wound with phenol.", "He squeezed the leg to remove as much air and blood as possible.", "Then he placed a piece of lint soaked in carbolic acid on the wound, covered by tin foil.", "A bloody crust formed over the wound, consisting of a scab that was free of bacteria.", "Lister saw for the first time how the scab was gradually converted into living tissue, even when new carbolic acid was being applied - something that was entirely new.", "Unfortunately Hainy developed bed sores that became gangrenous and these were treated with nitric acid to remove the necrotic flesh and carbolic acid to sterilize the wound.", "Hainy survived the injury.", "On 27 May, Lister wrote to his father expressing intense satisfaction, stating \"I tried the application of carbolic acid to the wound, to prevent decomposition of the blood and to prevent the fearful mischief of suppuration.", "It is now eight days since the accident and patient has been going exactly as though the fracture were a simple one.\"", "Two weeks later another letter followed, reporting \"The great swelling has almost entirely subsided, and the limb is becoming firm\".", "On 7 August 1866, Hainy was released from hospital.===On a new method of treating compound fracture, abscess===In the early months of 1867, Lister began writing up the compound fracture case histories of his experiments with carbolic acid into a new paper, in a first paper to describe his new technique of antiseptics.", "The paper titled \"On a New Method of treating Compound Fracture, Abscess, Etc., with Observations on the Conditions of Suppuration\" was published in The Lancet in 5 installments between March and July 1867 with the first installement appearing on the 10 March 1867.The paper is divided into two sections, the main portion dealing with compound fractures and a short note on the treatment of abscesses.Lister's theory of inflammation was used to provide the conceptual structure in the article.", "He stated that inflammation appeared immediately after a person was wounded and it was both necessary and dangerous.", "It was essentially a precursor to healing but at the same time, the fluids which flowed into the wound, were akin to dead tissue.", "Through the action of inflammation, putrefaction could occur.", "Lister then described tissue healing by granulation which he believed was the likely outcome in wounds in compound fractures.", "Lister believed that cells in granulated tissue were remarkably active and since they were alive, were immune to putrefaction.", "They were also immune to secondary inflammation as they lacked the sensory nerves.", "Lister then claimed that airborne putrefaction, \"a danger that was underated\", was proven by the scabs which appeared to protect small wounds from decomposition during wound healing.", "Lister then explained how putrefaction affected tissue, that often it appeared in less than 24 hours and had an associated smell.", "He described the source of putrefaction and described how the \"raw surface\" of the wound could putrify before the granulations formed or the liquids on the surface of the granulations putrified.", "The liquids that was produced were extremely acrid and acted on the sensory nerves to initiate indirect inflammation and fever.", "This in turn led to an increase in cell turnover and resultant cellular death, increasing the quantity of putrescent material in the wound.", "When indirect putrefaction occurred, sloughs were produced that resulted in suppuration.", "In the next section of the paper, Lister made his most famous declaration, namely that the decomposition of organic tissue was not caused by the gaseous components in the atmosphere but \"minute particles suspended in the air, which are the germs of various low forms of life, long since revealed by the microscope, and regarded as merely accidental concomitants of putrescence\" and had been identified by Pasteur as the \"essential cause\" of putrefaction.", "He described how the germs worked in the same manner as yeast that converts sugar to alcohol.", "Lister's germs were scavengers who lived on dead tissue and he didn't see them as being parasitic on living tissue.", "In that respect, Lister's paper is open to many interpretations but in the context of wounds, he believed that living tissue could resist germs.", "He never made the distinction as to whether germs were living beings for example in erysipelas, that entered the body or were a chemical agent.In the rest of the paper, Lister describes using Carbolic Acid, along with a description of how the acid forms a dense crust that protects the wound from the ingress of germs.", "He then describes the outcome of his experiments on 11 patients.", "Healing by granulation occurred in all cases except 7,10, 11 which didn't suppurate.", "Cases 1 and 9 did suppurate.", "Lister didn't regard pus as significant as it was not associated with inflammation or change in putrefaction.", "In essence, he had ''attained healing by granulation without inflammation'' in compound fracture cases.", "He believed that the elimination of suppuration wasn't a desirable therapuetic outcome, as a small amount of suppuration on a healthly granulation wasn't a cause for alarm.===Carcinoma of the breast ===In July 1867, Lister discovered that his sister Isabella Pim had breast cancer.", "At the time, Pim had visited Paget and Syme but had such an extensive carcinoma that both surgeons had advised against operating.", "Lister made the difficult decision to perform a radical mastectomy.", "He decided to consult Syme in Edinburgh and rehearsed the operation on a dead body.", "The procedure took place in his own house.", "The recovery went smoothly and although there was some suppuration in the wound, Listers use of antiseptics prevented putrefaction from occurring.", "The next day he wrote to his father, \"I may say the operation was done at least as well as if she was not my sister.", "But I do not wish to do such a thing again.===Antiseptic principle of the practice of surgery===Within a few days of the publishing of the last part of the previous paper, Syme asked Lister to attend the British Medical Association meeting in Dublin in 9 August 1867.Lister had some difficulty preparing a new paper, the seminal \"On the Antiseptic Principle in the Practice of Surgery-*\" which was Listers second paper on antiseptic surgery.", "It was later published in the British Medical Journal on 21 September 1867.Lister claimed that on basis of experiments on inflammation that the essential cause of suppuration in wounds was decomposition.", "Several aspects of this claim needs to be examined.", "Firstly, it was specific to wounds only, as Lister had other views about suppuration in other sites on the body.", "Secondly, he stipulated that decomposition was the \"essential\" cause of suppuration, i.e.", "it wasn't the only cause.", "Thirdly that decomposition was the cause of pus appearing in wounds.", "Lister's pronouncement is best described as that he had discovered the only important cause of suppuration in inflamed wounds is decomposition.", "Lister was specifically referring to the pathology of pus formation in inflamed tissue, the essential cause of harm in the practice of surgery.", "His appeal to the reader, in essence to surgical consensus \"To prevent the occurrence of suppuration, with all its attendant risks, was an object manifestly desirable\" refers to the surgeons dread of pus appearing in an inflamed wound.", "Lister then made a wholly inaccurate statement \"...oxygen, which was universally regarded as the agent by which putrefaction was effected.\"", "when compared against other sources.", "Lister introduced the work of Pasteur, claiming that decomposition may be avoided by a using a dressing that could destroy the minute organisms in the wound.", "Lister decided to formulate his new surgical technique into a general principle.", "He termed it the \"antiseptic principle\", thus linking its nomenclature with carbolic acid.", "His principle was ''that all the local inflammatory mischief and general febrile disturbance which follow severe injuries are due to the irritating and poisoning influence of decomposing blood or sloughs.''", "He was stating a \"great principle\" – not that decomposition was the cause of disease in wounds,– it was the only cause.In the paper, Lister instructed surgeons to continue with the treatment even when suppuration appeared.", "The reason for this was the carbolic acid induced suppuration but prevented decomposition, which was contrary to normal surgical treatment that saw suppuration as an indication that something was wrong, in Lister's case essentially that the antiseptic treatment had failed.", "He noted that he felt it necessary to affirm this position on \"pathalogical principles\" that granulation tissue had no inherent tendency to form pus but only did so when \"subjected to a preternatural tendency\".", "He explained that carbolic acid and decomposing substances were similar, i.e., they both caused suppuration by a chemical process but while carbolic acid only acted on the surface of the tissue to which it is applied, decomposition is a \"self-propagating and self-aggravating poison\".", "Decomposing tissue was a breeding ground for more decomposition that lead to putrefaction in the tissue surrounding it.Lister was arguing that the pus that formed by carbolic acid was acceptable as long as it wasn't accompanied with inflammation.", "In this respect, Listers approach to normal or abnormal healing by granulation were the same as the average surgeon of the period.", "Simply, that healthy healing didn't occur when inflammation was present.Lister paid particular significance to putrefaction, in the last part of the paper stating that decomposing wounds were the cause of disease in hospitals, which was not an uncommon belief amongst the surgical community.", "He described how the two large wards where he offered treatment were the unhealthiest in Glasgow and since the application of antiseptics, \"wounds and abscesses no longer poison the atmosphere with putrid exhalations\" leading to the wards completely changing their character.", "Not a single instance of pyaemia, hospital gangrene, or erysipelas had occurred in them, since the new regime of antiseptics had begun.", "However, Lister never explained how the \"putrid exhalations\" led to fever.===Illustrations of the antiseptic system of treatment in surgery===On 21 September 1867, Lister published again in a new paper \"Illustrations of the Antiseptic System of Treatment in Surgery\" for The Lancet, which was his third paper on antisepsis.In the paper, Lister summarised his earlier claims and added a significant new observation on the agent of putrefaction.", "He stated that the \"character of the decomposition in a given fermentable substance is detetermined by the nature of the organism that develops in it\".", "He suggested that the cause of fermentation in food was caused by yeasts and the cause of putrefaction were possibly ''Vibrios''.", "At the end of the paper, he stated that on the basis of his new antiseptic theory \"that a really trustworthy treatment for compound fractures and other severe contused wounds has been established for the first time, so far as I am aware, in the history of surgery\".", ";Sterility experimentIn October 1867, Lister decided to repeat Pasteur's experiment in a modified form, although the experiment was originally devised by the French chemist Chevreul.", "This was to support the germ theory and to disprove the theory that life arose from spontaneous generation.", "Lister procured four glass flasks into which he poured his own urine.", "Lister then washed the necks to remove any urine and modified three of them, by extending and drawing their necks into a narrow tube that was bent at an acute angles.", "The fourth had the neck cut short and left in a vertical position, but its diameter was reduced to a smaller size than the others.", "The flasks were then boiled and when the heat was withdrawn, air was allowed to rush into the flask to replace the condensed steam.", "The flasks were then left undisturbed in the same room, the ends of the necks, open to the air.", "Within four days a vegetative mould appeared in the fourth flask while the other three flasks remained clear.", "Lister would later use the flasks in demonnstrations.", "His dresser John Rudd Leeson described how Lister took the three flasks to London sitting on their knees, when they moved, in a specially reserved first class cabin to ensure they survived the journey.===First reception of antisepsis===Although Lister was so roundly honoured in later life, his ideas about the transmission of infection and the use of antiseptics were widely criticised in his early career.", "On 24 August 1867 within a month of Lister's publishing his first paper on antiseptics, the editor of ''The Lancet'' and Lister's nemesis James G. Wakley wrote an editorial crediting Pasteur for Lister's research and invited physicians to investigate Lister's claims and report their findings in journal.", ";Simpson's attackOn 21 September 1867, the Scottish obstetrician James Young Simpson, professor of medicine and midwifery at Edinburgh Uiveristy and discoverer of chloroform, published an editorial that attacked Lister in the ''Edinburgh Daily Review'', written under the pen name \"Chirurgicus\", a common practice to signal a personal attack.", "Simpson's motive for the attack was due to him trying to convince the medical community of the efficacy of his acupressure technique that used needles to halt arterial heamorrhage, which ran counter to Listers use of ligatures.", "The editorial letter was the first of many and began a tit for tat argument that was conducted in the press over months and eventually led to acceptance of antisepsis.Simpson claimed that Lister's last article was misleading and accused him of plagiarising the work of the French doctor and pharmacist Jules Lemaire.", "Lemaire had described carbolic acid as a constituent of coal tar in 1860 in \"Saponinated coal tar\" and after a long series of investigations had followed up with a book in 1863 \"De l'acide phénique, de son action sur les végétaux, les animaux, les ferments, les venins, les virus, les miasmes et de ses applications à l'industrie, à l'hygiène, aux sciences anatomiques et à la thérapeutique\" (Carbolic acid, its action on plants, animals, ferments, venoms, viruses, miasmas and its applications to industry, hygiene, anatomical sciences and therapy) with the second edition in 1865, where he described the antiseptic power of carbolic acid.", "While Lemaire was a believer in the germ theory and realised the causes of putrefaction, he had made no attempt to develop a process to exclude them from the wound.On 5 October 1867, Lister gave a robust reply to Simpson in a letter \"On the Use of Carbolic Acid\" in ''The Lancet'', denying he had heard of Lemaire's work and argued that work had made little impact on the medical profession.", "Lister went on to defend his work, stating::\"For my own part, I may say that, of all the gentlemen from Great Britain and both continents who have recently visited Glasgow, not one has ever expressed the slightest doubt that the system in question was entirely new; the novelty, I may remark, being, not the surgical use of carbolic acid (which I never claimed), but the methods of its employment with the view of protecting the reparatory processes from disturbance by external agency.", "\"It was two weeks before Lister managed to read Lemaire's book.", "He unsuccessfully searched Glasgow for a copy before finally discovering one in the library of Edinburgh University.", "On the 19 October, Lister wrote a follow-up letter to ''The Lancet'' and stated he didn't claim to be first physician to use carbolic acid and that he choose the acid due to its strength as an antiseptic.", "He also included a letter of support from a Carlisle medical student, Phillip Hair, who had studied in Paris.", "Hair stated he had seen no treatments there that were as effective as Lister's.", "Lister's response angered Simpson and two weeks later on 2 November 1867, published a bitter reply, \"Carbolic acid and its compounds in surgery\" in the Lancet, under his own name.", "Simpson reiterated his previous claims about Lemaire's and others' prior use of the acid, amongst them was James Spence who had used the acid to wash amputations but abandoned its use.", "He cited a report by Sampson Gamgee who visited Paris and reported that surgeons were using a solution of 100:1 of water to acid, while Lister recommended 40:1.In the last part of the letter, Simpson exposed his true motives when he compared his preferred technique of accupressure against Lister's use of ligatures.", "He used the work of William Pirrie, Professor of Surgery at Aberdeen University, who had used accupressure to stop pus formation during breast cancer operations, to illustrate his point, that there had been no deaths from pyaemia at the hospital, compared to the many death in Glasgow and Edinburgh.", "Simpson was acutely embarrassed when Pirrie replied a week later in the Lancet in a small article: \"On the Use of Carbolic Acid in Burns\", recommending its use for burn injuries and believing it proved effective in other treatments.", "Lister replied with a short note the 9 November to ask the reader to: \"to judge for themselves how far the present attack admits of justification, promising to publish additional articles on his antiseptic technique\".The first experimentalist surgeon to question the validity of airborne microorganisms was the surgeon and professor of medicine at Edinburgh, John Hughes Bennett.", "In January 1868, in a lecture for the Edinburgh Medical Journal, Bennett advanced an alternate theory in the article ''The Atmospheric Germ Theory'' that was in agreement with the theories of Félix Archimède Pouchet professor of natural history at the University of Rouen, who believed in spontaneous generation of life.", "Bennet described his own theory of molecular degeneration to explain how micro organisms transformed old tissue into new tissue by the action of molecules.", "Bennet taught that molecules instead of cells, were the foundational building blocks of tissue and that microorganisms could be spontaneously created from different combinations of molecules.", "In his view, each molecule had a specific function, i.e.", "certain molecules were destructive to tissue, while others constructed tissue.", "Diseases resulted from the physical properties of the air, for example the chemical composition of air or changes in temperature.", "Bennet believed that the germs that Pasteur's captured, couldn't be identified as organic organisms.", "The component of the dust that Pasteur captured, were also found in minerals and they were either lint, debris from clothing or vegetable or pieces of seeds.", "Bennet particularly disagreed about temperature.", "Pasteur stated that germs died when heated to 30 degrees above boiling and also from extreme cold.", "In the lecture, he referred to Pouchet's experiment that duplicated Pasteur's experiments, that refuted Pasteurs conclusions.", "Bennet didn't realise that Pasteur's proved his theory by both isolating the germs and stopping them reappearing.", "In his experiments, Bennett reported that he \"proved\" that germs generate spontaneously, so one could never create a germ-free environment.It was likely that Hughes Bennett never adequately sterilized his experimental apparatus correctly.", "On 8 November 1868, Lister gave a lecture on Germ theory, where he elaborated on the origin of germs, as a rebuttal of Bennett's theory.", "In 1869, at the meetings of the British Association at Leeds, Lister's ideas were mocked; and again, in 1873, the medical journal ''The Lancet'' warned the entire medical profession against his progressive ideas.", "However, Lister did have some supporters including Marcus Beck, a consultant surgeon at University College Hospital, who not only practiced Lister's antiseptic technique, but included it in the next edition of one of the main surgical textbooks of the time.Lister's use of carbolic acid proved problematic, and he eventually repudiated it for superior methods.", "The spray irritated eyes and respiratory tracts, and the soaked bandages were suspected of damaging tissue, so his teachings and methods were not always adopted in their entirety.", "Because his ideas were based on germ theory, which was in its infancy, their adoption was slow.", "General criticism of his methods was exacerbated by the fact that he found it hard to express himself adequately in writing, so they seemed complicated, unorganised, and impractical.Lister left Glasgow University in October 1869 and was succeeded by George Husband Baird MacLeod.", "Lister then returned to Edinburgh as successor to Syme as Professor of Surgery at the University of Edinburgh and continued to develop improved methods of antisepsis and asepsis.", "Amongst those he worked with there, who helped him and his work, was the senior apothecary and later MD, Alexander Gunn.", "Lister's fame had spread by then, and audiences of 400 often came to hear him lecture.", "As the germ theory of disease became more understood, it was realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from entering wounds in the first place.", "This led to the rise of aseptic surgery." ], [ "Edinburgh 1869–1877", "Micro-pipette used by Lister that dispensed a bacterialsolution diluted to contain an average of \"rather less than one bacterium\" per dropWhen Lister attended Edinburgh, he had two primary objectives.", "The first was perfect the design of his dressings, the second was to improve the reliability of antiseptics by applying the technique to ever wider class of operations.", "The cases he selected for this were the repair of bone deformaties along with the rewiring of fractures where the union was malformed while healing.In 1870, Lister published \"On the Effects of the Antiseptic System of Treatment upon the Salubrity of a Surgical Hospital\".Lister's meticulous nature became ever more apparent when he moved to work in Edinburgh and this is reflected in his casebooks for wards 4 and 5 at the infirmary.On 14 January 1871, Lister published his first details of ''Gauze and Spray'' in the British Medical Journal.In 1872 he was elected a member of the Aesculapian Club.===Sprays===Lister's carbolic steam spray apparatus, Hunterian Museum, GlasgowTherefore, Lister tested the results of spraying instruments, the surgical incisions, and dressings with a solution of carbolic acid.", "Lister found that the solution swabbed on wounds remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene." ], [ "London 1877–1900", "Lister spraying phenol over patient, 1882On 10 February 1877, Scottish surgeon, Sir William Fergusson Chair of Systematic Surgery at King's College Hospital, died.", "On 18 February, in reply to a tentative approach from a representative of Kings College, Lister stated that he would be willing to accept the Chair on the proviso that he could radically reform the teaching there.", "There was no doubt that Lister's mission was both evangelical and apostolic and this was his true purpose in moving to London.British surgeon John Wood was originally next in line and was elected to the chair.", "Wood was hostile to Lister obtaining the chair.", "On 8 March 1877, in a private letter to an associate, Lister contrasted their differing teaching methods and stated in no uncertain terms his opinion of Fergusson, \"The mere fact of Fergusson having held the clinical chair is surely a matter of no great moment\".", "In a comment to another colleague, Lister stated that his goal in taking the appointment was \"the thorough working of the antiseptic system with a view to its diffusion in the Metropolis\".", "At a memorial held by his students to persuade him to remain, Lister criticised London teaching.", "His impromptu speech was heard by a reporter, that ensured it was published in the London and Edinburgh newspapers.", "This jeopardised Lister's position, as word reached the governing council at King's College, who awarded the chair to John Wood, a few weeks later.However, negotiations were renewed in May and he was finally elected on 18 June 1877 to a newly created Chair of Clinical Surgery.", "The second Clinical Surgery Chair was created specifically for Lister, as the hospital feared the negative publicity that would have resulted had Lister not been elected.===Moving to Regents Park===On 11 September 1877, Joseph and Aggie moved to London and the couple found a house at 12 Park Crescent, Regent's Park.", "Lister began teaching on the first day of October.", "The hospital made it mandatory that all students should attend Lister's lecturers.", "Attendance was small compared to the four hundred who would regularly attend his classes in Edinburgh.", "Lister's conditions of employment were met, but he was only provided with 24 beds, instead of the 60 beds that he was used to in Edinburgh.", "Lister stipulated that he should be able to bring from Edinburgh four people who would constitute the core of his new staff at the hospital.", "These were Watson Cheyne who became his assistant surgeon, John Stewart, an anatomical artist and senior assistant, along with W. H. Dobie and James Altham who were Lister's dressers (surgical assistants who dressed wounds).", "There was considerable friction at Lister's first lecture, both from students who heckled him and staff.", "Even the nurses were hostile.", "This was clearly illustrated in October 1877 when a patient, Lizzie Thomas, who travelled from Edinburgh Royal Infirmary to be treated for a Psoas abscess, was not admitted due to not having the correct paperwork.", "Lister could hardly believe that such a lack of sympathy from imperious nurses could exist.", "More so, such a state of mind was a real danger to his patients, because his system depended on loyal staff to carry out the preparations for antiseptic surgery.===Introductory address===On 1 October 1877, Lister held the customary introductory address, in essence his inaugural lecture in London, with the subject, \"The nature of fermentation\".", "Lister described the fermentation of milk and explained how putrefaction was caused by fermentation of blood and, in the process, tried to prove that all fermentation was due to microorganisms.", "For his demonstration he used a series of test tubes containing milk that were loosely covered with glass caps.", "Although air had entered the test tubes and the milk had not decomposed demonstrated that air was responsible for fermentation.", "The experiment had two conclusions, first that unboiled milk had no tendency to ferment and secondly that an organism that Lister had isolated, Bacterium lactis was the cause of lactic acid fermentation.The address was badly received.", "In defence, John Stewart described it as: \"a brilliant and most hopeful beginning of what we regarded as a campaign in the enemy's country...", "There seemed to be a colossal apathy, an inconceivable indifference to the light which, to our minds, shone so brightly, a monstrous inertia to the force of new ideas.", "\"===Wiring of fractured patellas===In October 1877, Lister performed an operation on a patient, Francis Smith, that was not considered life-threatening.", "The open operation on a fractured patella, in front of 200 students, involved wiring the two fragments together and was likely the first case in which a healthy knee-joint was ever opened.In 1881 Lister was elected President of the Clinical Society of London.In October 1883, St Clair Thomson gathered together Lister's first seven patients who had knee operations for examination at the Medical Society of London meeting.He also developed a method of repairing kneecaps with metal wire and improved the technique of mastectomy.", "He was also known for being the first surgeon to use catgut ligatures, sutures, and rubber drains, and developing an aortic tourniquet.", "He also introduced a diluted spray of carbolic acid combined with its surgical use, however he abandoned the carbolic acid sprays in the late 1890s after he saw it provided no beneficial change in the outcomes of the surgeries performed with the carbolic acid spray.", "The only reported reactions were minor symptoms that did not affect the surgical outcome as a whole, like coughing, irritation of the eye, and minor tissue damage among his patients who were exposed to the carbolic acid sprays during the surgery." ], [ "Reception abroad (1870–1876)", "In 1869, Mathias Saxtorph from the University of Copenhagen visited Lister in Glasgow to adopt his methods.", "In July 1870, Saxtorph recognised Lister's technique as being effective in a letter to Lister where he stated:The Frederick Hospital, to which I am head surgeon is a very old building and I have 150 patients in the surgical wards.", "Foremerly, there used to be every year several cases of death from pyaemia, sometime, arising from the most trivial injuries.", "Now, I have had the satisfaction that not a single case of pyaemia has occurred since I came home last year, which result is certainly owing to the introduction of your antiseptic treatment.===Germany===The first use of Lister's method in Germany was by Karl Thiersch in Leipzig in 1867.Thiersch who practiced Lister's approach since its introduction, never published his results but taught Lister's methods to his students.", "His house surgeon Hermann Georg Joseph, tested it on 16 patients who had abscesses, with favourable results.", "Joseph wrote a thesis on his results proving the value of the Lister method, which was presented in Leipzig the following year.", "In January 1870, Heinrich Adolf von Bardeleben presented a paper to the Berlin Medical Society that described the results but provided no statistical evaluation of those results.The adoption of Listerism on the European continent was halted during the Franco-Prussian War, but it became the greatest opportunity to advance Lister's ideas.", "At the start of the war, Lister had written a pamphlet known as \"A Method of Antiseptic Treatment Applicable To Wounded Soldiers in the Present War\" that described a simplified technique of antiseptic that could be used on the battlefield and military hospital.", "The pamphlet was immediately translated into German, however it never made a material difference.By far the most important advocate for Lister's antiseptic system in Germany was the surgeon and Osteotomy specialist, Richard von Volkmann who taught at the University of Halle.", "In August 1870, he became surgeon-general during the Franco-Prussian War and was responsible for 12 army hospitals and 1442 beds.", "When he returned to his own hospital in the winter of 1871, he found large numbers of patients with infectious diseases throughout the ward.", "He wrote of the experience:The mortality after large amputations and complicated fractures grew year by year.", "In the summer of 1871, during my absence on the battlefield, the clinic was crowded by a large amount of injured.", "For eight months, in the winter 1871 to 1872, the numbers of blood poisoning and rose disease victims were so great, that I considered applying for a temporary closure of the facility.", "Without a morgue, the dead stayed in the cellar beneath the wardsIn 1872, Volkmann sent his assistant Max Schede to visit Lister at his clinic, to learn his new techniques.", "Once Schede returned in the autumn of 1872, Volkmann began to use Lister's new techniques.", "On 16 February 1873, in a letter to Theodor Billroth, Volkmann wrote:since autumn of last year (1872), I have been experimenting with Lister's method...", "Already, the first trials in the old 'contaminated' house, show wounds healing, uneventful, without fever and pus.In April 1874, Volkmann presented a lecture with the title: \"About antiseptic occlusive bandages and their influence on the healing process of wounds\" where he detailed the influence of Lister.", "The lecture became famous in Germany, to such an extent that Lister's antiseptics were established in Germany, faster than in any other developed country.", "At the German Congress of Surgery, the members were so enthused with the results of Lister's work, that they invited him to visit Germany and see first hand the results of his work.", "Lister decided to accept the invitation of a continental tour.In the spring of 1875, Lister along with Agnes, his sister-in-law and two nieces left Edinburgh.", "The group spent several weeks in a tour that began in Cannes in France, visited the several cities in Italy and a finished with a four-day visit to Venice.", "The first place in Germany that Lister visited was the \"Allgemeines Krankenhaus\" (general hospital) in Munich, which was run by Nussbaum.", "A celebratory dinner was held in Munich for Lister, with seventy guests.", "However, it was in Leipzig where Lister received his most glorious reception.", "A banquet was held with between three and four-hundred guests present, led by MC Karl Thiersch.", "Lister then visited Volkmann in Halle before visiting Berlin, where the group was entertained by Heinrich Adolf von Bardeleben, who worked at the Charité hospital and was one of the earliest adopters of antiseptics." ], [ "Later life", "Joseph Lister acclaims Louis Pasteur at Pasteur's Jubilee, Paris, 1892.Photograph after a painting by Jean-André RixensPortrait of Lister by Harry Herman Salomon from a photograph.", "Commissioned by Henry WelcomeIn December 1892, Lister attended the celebration in honour of the 70th birthday of Pasteur at the Sorbonne in Paris, The theatre, designed to hold 2500 people was crowded and included the university governing staff, ministers of state, ambassadors, the President of France Sadi Carnot and representatives from the Institut de France.", "At 10:30am, Pasteur entered beginning the ceremony.", "Lister, invited to give the address, received a great ovation when he stood up.", "In his speech he spoke about the debt that he and surgery owned to Pasteur.", "In a scene that was captured later by Jean-André Rixens, Pasteur strode forward and kissed Lister on both cheeks.", "In January 1896, Lister was present when Pasteur's body was laid in his tomb at the Pasteur Institute.In 1893, four days into their spring holiday in Rapallo, Italy, Agnes Lister died from acute pneumonia.", "While still responsible for the wards at Kings College Hospital, Lister's private practice ceased along with an appetite for experimental work.", "Social gatherings were severely curtailed.", "Studying and writing lost appeal for him and he sank into religious melancholy.", "On 31 July 1895, Lister retired from Kings College Hospital.", "Lister was presented with a portrait painted by Scottish artist John Henry Lorimer, in a small presentation, held in recognition of the affection and esteem that felt by his colleagues.Despite suffering a stroke, he still came into the public light from time to time.", "He had for several years been a Surgeon Extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and from March 1900 was appointed the Serjeant Surgeon to the Queen, thus becoming the senior surgeon in the Medical Household of the Royal Household of the sovereign.", "After her death the following year, he was re-appointed as such to her successor, King Edward VII.On 24 June 1902, with a 10-day history of appendicitis with a distinct mass on the right lower quadrant, Edward was operated on by Sir Frederick Treves two days before his scheduled coronation.", "Like all internal surgery at the time, the appendectomy needed by the King still posed an extremely high risk of death by post-operational infection, and surgeons did not dare operate without consulting Britain's leading surgical authority.", "Lister obligingly advised them in the latest antiseptic surgical methods (which they followed to the letter), and the King survived, later telling Lister, \"I know that if it had not been for you and your work, I wouldn't be sitting here today.", "\"In 1903, Lister left London to live in the coastal village of Walmer at Park House.=== Death ===Lord Lister died on 10 February 1912 at his country home at the age of 84.The first part of Lister's funeral was a large public service held at Westminster Abbey, which took place at 1.30pm on 16 February 1912.His body was moved from his house and taken to ''The Chapel of St.", "Faith'' and a wreath of orchids and lilies was placed by the German ambassador Count Paul Wolff Metternich on behalf of the German Emperor Wilhelm II.", "Before the start of the service, Frederick Bridge played the music of Henry Purcell, the ''funeral march'' by Chopin and Beethoven's ''Tres Aequili''.", "The body was then placed on a high catafalque, where his Order of Merit, Prussian Pour le Mérite and Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog were placed.", "It was then borne by several pallbearers including John William Strutt, Archibald Primrose, Rupert Guinness, Archibald Geikie, Donald MacAlister, Watson Cheyne, Godlee and Francis Mitchell Caird where the catafalque was conveyed to Hampstead Cemetery in London, reaching it at 4pm.", "Lister's body was then buried in a plot in the south-east corner of central chapel, attended by a small group of his family and friends.", "Many tributes from learned societies all over the world were published in ''The Times'' on that day.", "A memorial service was held in St Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh on the same day.", "Glasgow University held a memorial service in Bute Hall on 15 February 1912.A marble medallion of Lister was placed in the north transept of Westminster Abbey, that sits alongside four other noted men of science, Darwin, Stokes, Adams, and Watt." ], [ "Lister Memorial Fund", "Following his death, the Lord Lister Memorial Fund was established by the Royal Society as a public subscription to raise monies for the public good in honour of Lord Lister.", "It led to the founding of the Lister Medal, considered the most prestigious prize that can be awarded to a surgeon." ], [ "Awards and honours", "On 26 December 1883, Queen Victoria created Lister a baronet, of Park Crescent in the parish of St Marylebone in the county of Middlesex.In 1885, he was awarded the ''Pour le Mérite'', the highest Prussian order of merit.", "The order was restricted to 30 living Germans and as many foreigners.On 8 February 1897, he was further honoured when Her Majesty raised him to the peerage as Baron Lister, of Lyme Regis in the county of Dorset.In the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902 (the original day of King Edward VII's coronation), Lord Lister was appointed a privy counsellor and one of the original members of the new Order of Merit (OM).", "He received the order from the King on 8 August 1902, and was sworn a member of the Privy Council at Buckingham Palace on 11 August 1902.In December 1902, the King of Denmark bestowed upon Lister the Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog, an Order of chivalry that gave him more pleasure than any of his later honours.===Medals===Throughout his life, Lister was awarded a number of medals for his achievements.In May 1890, Lister was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh, that included the delivery of a short ''oration'' or lecture, that was held at the Synod Hall in Edinburgh.===Academic societies===Lister was a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of England between 1880 and 1888.In 1877, Lister was awarded the Cothenius Medal of the German Society of Naturalists.", "In 1886, he was elected vice president of the college, but declined the nomination for office of president, as he wished to devote his remaining time to further research.", "In 1887, Lister presented the Bradshaw lecture with a lecture titled \"On the Present Position of Antiseptic Treatment in Surgery\".", "In 1897, Lister was awarded the College Gold Medal, their highest honour.Lister was elected to the Royal Society in 1860.He served as a trustee on the Royal Society council between 1881 and 1883.Ten years later, in November 1893 Lister was elected for two years, to the position of foreign secretary of the society, succeeding the Scottish geologist Sir Archibald Geikie.", "In 1895, he was elected president of the Royal Society succeeding Lord Kelvin.", "He held the position until 1900.In March 1893, Lister received a telegram from Pasteur, Félix Guyon and Charles Bouchard that informed him he had been elected an associate of the Academie des Sciences.===Monuments and legacy===In 1903, the British Institute of Preventive Medicine was renamed Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine in honour of Lister.", "The building, along with another adjacent building, forms what is now the Lister Hospital in Chelsea, which opened in 1985.The building at Glasgow Royal Infirmary which houses the cytopathology, microbiology, and pathology departments was named in Lister's honour to recognise his work at the hospital.", "The Lister Hospital in Stevenage, Hertfordshire is named after him.Lister's name is one of 23 people featured on the frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine – although the committee which chose the names to include on the frieze did not provide documentation about why certain names were chosen and others were not.Lister is one of only two surgeons in the United Kingdom who have the honour of having a public monument in London, Lister and John Hunter.The statue of Lister, created by Thomas Brock in bronze in 1924, stands at the north end of Portland Place.", "There is a bronze statue of Lister, mounted on a granite base in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow that was sculpted by George Henry Paulin in 1924.It sits next to the statue of Lord Kelvin.The ''Discovery'' Expedition of 1901–1904 named the highest point in the Royal Society Range, Antarctica, Mount Lister.In 1879, Listerine antiseptic (developed as a surgical antiseptic but nowadays best known as a mouthwash) was named by its American inventor, Joseph Lawrence, to honour Lister.Microorganisms named in his honour include the pathogenic bacterial genus ''Listeria'' named by J. H. H. Pirie, typified by the food-borne pathogen ''Listeria monocytogenes'', as well as the slime mould genus ''Listerella'', first described by Eduard Adolf Wilhelm Jahn in 1906.Lister is depicted in the Academy Award-winning 1936 film ''The Story of Louis Pasteur'', by Halliwell Hobbes.", "In the film, Lister is one of the beleaguered microbiologist's most noted supporters in the otherwise largely hostile medical community, and is the key speaker in the ceremony in his honour.Two postage stamps were issued in September 1965 to honour Lister on the centenary of his antiseptic surgery at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary of Greenlees, the first ever recorded instance of such treatment." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Listerbuilding.jpg|Lister Building, Glasgow Royal InfirmaryFile:Lister Room, The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow, Scotland.JPG|Lister Room, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of GlasgowFile:Policlinico Umberto I, Rome; the tympanum sculptures Wellcome V0030919.jpg|Lister Frieze, Polyclinic Umberto I hospital in Rome.", "The tympanum sculptures show Lister operatingFile:Baron Lister of Lyme Regis .jpg|alt=Image of Lister's name on the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, in Keppel Street|Lister's name on the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, in Keppel StreetFile:CoastHouseDeal.jpg|Coast House, Deal, with its blue plaque to Lister.File:Joseph Lister's hearse.", "Photograph by Topical Press agency.", "Wellcome V0027889.jpg|Lister's hearse prior to his funeral service at Westminster AbbeyFile:Joseph Lister Memorial, London (2014).JPG|Lord Lister Memorial in Portland Place by Sir Thomas Brock in bronze, 1924File:Allgemeine Poliklinik – Lister, Vienna, 2019.jpg|Plaque commemorating Joseph Lister on the facade of the polyclinic in ViennaFile:LORD LISTER (1827-1912) SURGEON LIVED HERE.jpg|Plaque at 12 Park Crescent, Regent's Park, LondonFile:Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister (1827 – 1912) surgeon Wellcome V0003619.jpg|Photogravure plaque, Wellcome Institute, London" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Papers===*" ], [ "See also", "* Discoveries of anti-bacterial effects of penicillium moulds before Fleming* Joseph Sampson Gamgee* Listerine, a mouthwash named after Lister* Hector Charles Cameron* Watson Cheyne* Museum of Health Care* List of presidents of the Royal Society" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography=======Articles (journals and proceedings)====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * =====Joseph Lister=====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * =====Louis Pasteur=====* * * * * * ====Books and monographs====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * =====Joseph Lister=====Two quarto volumes of Lister's collected papers, that were prepared by Sir Hector Charles Cameron, Sir W. Watson Cheyne, Rickman J. Godlee, C. J. Martin and Dawson Williams:* * * ====Chapters and contributions====* ====Dictionaries and encyclopedias====* * * * ====Lectures and addresses====* * * * * ====Letters====* ====Medical registers====* * * * * ====Newspapers====* * * * * ====Theses====* * ====Websites====* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * The Lister Institute* Collection of portraits of Lister at the National Portrait Gallery, London* Statue of Sir Joseph Lister by Louis Linck at The International Museum of Surgical Science in Chicago" ] ]
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[ [ "Johann Homann" ], [ "Introduction", "Johann Homann'''Johann Baptist Homann''' (20 March 1664 – 1 July 1724) was a German geographer and cartographer, who also made maps of the Americas." ], [ "Life", "Homann was born in Oberkammlach near Kammlach in the Electorate of Bavaria.", "Although educated at a Jesuit school, and preparing for an ecclesiastical career, he eventually converted to Protestantism and from 1687 worked as a civil law notary in Nuremberg.", "He soon turned to engraving and cartography; in 1702 he founded his own publishing house.Homann acquired renown as a leading German cartographer, and in 1715 was appointed Imperial Geographer by Emperor Charles VI.", "Giving such privileges to individuals was an added right that the Holy Roman Emperor enjoyed.", "In the same year he was also named a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin.", "Of particular significance to cartography were the imperial printing privileges (Latin: ''privilegia impressoria'').", "These protected for a time the authors in all scientific fields such as printers, copper engravers, map makers and publishers.", "They were also very important as a recommendation for potential customers.In 1716 Homann published his masterpiece ''Grosser Atlas ueber die ganze Welt'' (Grand Atlas of all the World).", "Numerous maps were drawn up in cooperation with the engraver Christoph Weigel the Elder, who also published ''Siebmachers Wappenbuch''.Homann died in Nuremberg in 1724.He was succeeded by his son Johann Christoph (1703–1730).", "The company carried on upon his death as ''Homann heirs'' company, managed by Johann Michael Franz and Johann Georg Ebersberger.", "After subsequent changes in management the company folded in 1852.The company was known as \"Homann Erben\", \"Homanniani Heredes\", or \"Heritiers de Homann\" abroad.File:Virginia Marylandia et Carolina by Johann Baptist Homann.jpg|''Virginia Marylandia et Carolina'', c. 1714.File:1730 Homann Map of Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Baltics - Geographicus - Scandinavia-homann-1730.jpg|''Homann Map of Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Baltics'', dated around 1730.File:Homann Planiglobii Terrestris Cumutroq Hemisphaerio Caelesti Generalis Exhibitio 1707 UTA.jpg|''Planiglobii Terrestris Cum Utroque Hemisphærio Cælesti Generalis Exhibitio'', Nürnberg, 1707.File:Homann Amplissimae Regionis Mississipi c. 1720 UTA.jpg|''Amplissimae Regionis Mississipi'', circa 1720File:1725 Homann Map of the Caspian Sea and Kamchatka (as Yedso) - Geographicus - CaspianKamchatka-homann-1725.jpg|''Homann Map of the Caspian Sea and Kamchatka'', from 1725.File:Homann Schlarraffenlandes 1694 Cornell CUL PJM 1015 01.jpg|''Schlarraffenlandes'', 1694." ], [ "References", "* ''Auserlesene und allerneueste Landkarten: der Verlag Homann in Nürnberg 1702–1848: eine Ausstellung des Stadtarchivs Nürnberg und der Museen der Stadt Nürnberg mit Unterstützung der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin-Preussischer Kulturbesitz im Stadtmuseum Fembohaus vom 19.September bis 24.November 2002''.", "Hrsg.", "von Michael Diefenbacher, Markus Heinz und Ruth Bach-Damaskinos.", "Nürnberg: Tümmels, 2002.", "(''Ausstellungskatalog des Stadtarchivs Nürnberg'', Nr. 14).", "* Christian Sandler (1886, 1890, 1905, Reprints 2001–2002) (biography section considered outdated)" ], [ "External links", "* Maps of Homann in Denmark online from the ''Royal Danish Library''.", "* Different Views of the Major Cities in Persia by Johann Homann" ] ]
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[ [ "Jadavpur University" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jadavpur University''' (abbr.", "'''JU''') is a public state university with its main campus located in Jadavpur, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.", "It was established in 1906 as ''Bengal Technical Institute'' and was converted into Jadavpur University in 1955.As of 2023 NIRF rankings, Jadavpur University has been ranked 4th among universities, 10th among engineering institutes, and 13th overall in India." ], [ "History", "On 25 July 1906, Bengal Technical Institute was founded by Society for the Promotion of Technical Education at 92, Upper Circular Road.", "On 7 July 1910, the Society for the Promotion of Technical Education in Bengal was merged with the National Council of Education (NCE).", "The institute became College of Engineering and Technology, Bengal looked after by NCE.", "After Independence, on 24 December 1955, Jadavpur University was officially established by the Government of West Bengal with the concurrence of the Government of India." ], [ "Campuses", "===Main campus===Jadavpur University has its main campus located at Jadavpur on 60 Acres area.", "The campus contains major engineering, arts and science departments.The main campus have 7 auditoriums: H.L.", "Roy Auditorium, Triguna Sen Auditorium, K.P.", "Basu Memorial Hall, Vivekananda Hall, Anita Banerjee Memorial Hall and Gandhi Bhavan.", "The campus has an Open Air Theatre and an indoor stadium for recreational activities.", "The playground along with Aurobindo Bhaban in the backThe 6 Acres sports complex have badminton Court, tennis Court and playground for other organising sports like cricket and football.Additionally the university has an six canteens, amenities center, and guest house, cafeteria, health centre, gymnasium, Pwd centre and other facilities like banks, post office, book shops etc.===Salt Lake campus===Canteen in the Salt Lake campus===New Town campus===Jadavpur University Newtown campus is under construction.", "State-of-the-art facilities along with laboratories and a convention centre are planned on the 5 acre campus." ], [ "Organisation and administration", "===Affiliated institutes===In addition to being a unitary university, it has other institutes like the J D Birla Institute, and the Institute of Business Management affiliated to it, which operate out of independent campuses.", "While these institutes have their own independent curriculum as well as examination systems, the final degree is offered by Jadavpur University." ], [ "Academics", "===Departments and schools===+ '''Departments''' Faculty Departments '''Faculty of Arts''' '''Faculty of Engineering & Technology''' '''Faculty of Science''' To facilitate interdisciplinary learning and research in diverse fields, there are a number of schools.+ '''Schools''' Faculty Schools'''Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Law & Management'''In March 2011, Indian American scientist Manick Sorcar assisted in the opening of a laser animation lab under the School of Illumination Science, Engineering and Design.===Centre for Studies===To facilitate interdisciplinary learning and higher research in diverse fields, there are nearly fifty Centre for Studies.+'''Centre of Studies''' ===Library===The Central Library at Jadavpur campus occupies and houses 6,46,296 books, 80,700 bound volumes of journals, and 13000 theses and dissertations, 37,000 items of non-book materials such as reports pamphlets, maps and micro-forms and 1159 print and 1448 online journals.", "The library also has access to around 3000 online journals more through INFLIBNET and INDEST Consortia.", "In total, the University Library has access to around 11000 Journals.The library subscribes to 30 databases which include Scopus, Econlit etc.", "and also about 10000+ E-books (as of 2018).", "The Salt Lake campus has a library with 65,00 sq.", "ft. of space.===Notable works===Some of the major research ventures undertaken by these schools include the pioneering work done by the School of Environmental Studies in highlighting the presence of arsenic in groundwater in countries like India and Bangladesh and the development of the first alcohol based car by the School of Automobile Engineering." ], [ "Rankings and Accolades", "+ ''' NIRF Ranking comparison and improvements''' Ranking 2023 2022 2021 '''NIRF (Overall)''' '''13''' 12 14 '''NIRF (University)''' '''4''' 4 8 '''NIRF (Engineering)''' '''10''' 11 17 '''NIRF (Research)''' '''19'''13''' NIRF (Pharmacy)''''''18''' 18 -Jadavpur University was ranked 47th in the Times Higher Education-Thomson Reuters list of the 100 best universities in the BRICS and Emerging Economies, 2013.University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP) Research Laboratory ranked Jadavpur University 10th in India in its 2012-13 report considering academic indicators.National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies (NISTADS) of CSIR ranked Jadavpur University 4th among the top 50 Universities of the country based on h-index of publication." ], [ "Controversies", "===2014 Jadavpur University Protests===Students rally against the vice-chancellor during the 2014 Jadavpur University protestsIn 2014 a series of protests broke out in response to the alleged molestation of a female student and beating of a male student by 10 other students on 28 August 2014.Her family and ultimately the student body were unsatisfied by the response of the Vice Chancellor to the allegations.", "Protests began on 10 September.", "On 16 September students gheraoed several officials in their offices, demanding that the Vice Chancellor make a statement on the status of a fair probe.", "Police were summoned, and later that night the police allegedly attacked and beat the student demonstrators.", "30 to 40 students were injured; some had to be hospitalized.", "Reaction was nationwide, with supportive protests at multiple other cities including New Delhi, Hyderabad and Bangalore.", "On 20 September, Governor Keshari Nath Tripathi, who is also the chancellor of the university, met with student representatives and promised to conduct an impartial inquiry.", "However, students said they will continue to boycott classes until the Vice Chancellor resigns.On 26 September, a State Government inquiry panel submitted its report, confirming that the female student had indeed been sexually abused on 28 August 2014.On 26 September, police summoned two Jadavpur University students to come to the Lalbazar Police HQ for questioning at 4 pm on Friday.", "They were arrested at 6 pm.", "\"The arrests were made after evidence was found, prima facie, against the duo.", "Further investigation is on,\" said joint CP-crime Pallab Kanti Ghosh.", "Mr Ghosh also stated, \"(Two names) were arrested because we had enough evidence to prove that they were present at the spot and had carried out the crime as alleged in the victim's complaint.\"", "The duo were booked under Sections of 354 (assault or use of criminal force on a woman with the intent to outrage her modesty), 342 (wrongful confinement), 323 (voluntarily causing hurt) and 114 (abettor present when offence is committed) of the IPC.===2018 Scrapping Entrance Tests===JU got embroiled in controversy on 4 July 2018, when the executive council announced its decision to scrap entrance tests for six humanities subjects which was met with protests from the Jadavpur University Teacher's Association and the student unions along with other academics and university students due speculations that state education ministry had influenced this decision.===2023 ragging allegations===In August 2023, Swapnadip Kundu, a 17 year old freshman student studying an Honours course in Bengali fell from the balcony of the second floor of the Jadavpur University Hostel - either by suicide or by murder - after intense ragging.", "The Kolkata Police arrested several students and alumni who were suspected to have been involved.", "The incident left a deep impact on the general public, leading to an outcry.", "Media attention was also given to the need for strengthening security measures within the university, a suggestion that was vehemently opposed by certain sections of Jadavpur University's political circles.", "Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee, who was upset, directed the Higher Education Committee of West Bengal to form a team to investigate the incident.", "As the student happened to be a minor, the incident also was taken up by the West Bengal Commission for Protection of Child Rights (WBCPCR).", "Amidst the investigation, Jadavpur University students protested against ragging.", "The public scrutiny managed to bring to light some systemic issues with the university.", "Political circles like FAS, DSF, and WTI have opposed and staged protests against corrective measures, such as the installation of CCTV cameras on campus." ], [ "See also", "* List of Jadavpur University people* List of universities in India * Universities and colleges in India" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Jewel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jewel''' often refers to:*Gemstone*Jewellery'''Jewel''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Companies", "* Jewel-Osco, a U.S. grocery store chain* Jewel Food Stores (Australia), an Australian grocery store chain* Jewel Records (disambiguation), several record labels" ], [ "People", "* Jewel (given name)* Jewel (singer) (born Jewel Kilcher), American singer and actress* Jewel Burks Solomon, American tech entrepreneur and venture capitalist* Jewel De'Nyle (born 1976), American pornographic movie star, sometimes credited as \"Jewel\"* Jewel Staite (born 1982), Canadian actress in ''Firefly''" ], [ "Fictional characters", "* Jewel, a Dalmatian puppy with spots forming a necklace in ''101 Dalmatians''* Jewel, one of the main characters in the animated film ''Rio'' and its sequel ''Rio 2''* Jessica Jones, a superheroine in the Marvel Universe who uses the alias Jewel* Jewel the Beetle, a character from the IDW Publishing comic series ''Sonic the Hedgehog''* Jewel Bundren, male character in the novel ''As I Lay Dying'' by William Faulkner* Jewel Sparkles, a Lalaloopsy doll and character in the TV series" ], [ "Music", "* ''Jewel'' (Beni album), 2010* ''Jewel'' (Marcella Detroit album), 1994* \"Jewel\", a song by Ayumi Hamasaki on her 2006 album ''Secret''* \"Jewel\", a song by Blonde Redhead on their 1995 album ''La Mia Vita Violenta''* \"Jewel\", a song by Bradley Joseph on his 1997 album ''Rapture''* \"Jewel\", a song by T. Rex on their 1970 self-titled album" ], [ "Television and movies", "* ''Jewel'' (1915 film), an American silent drama film* ''Jewel'' (2001 film), a television film" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Jewel'', novel by Bret Lott* Jewel Changi Airport, an airport terminal complex in Singapore* Jewel Tower, a tower of the Palace of Westminster, in London, England* Fraternal jewels, the medals worn in both secular and religious fraternal organisations* Jewel beetles, the family Buprestidae* Jewel butterflies, various Lycaenidae* Jewel damselflies, the family Chlorocyphidae* Jewel bearing, a jewel-lined bearing commonly used in mechanical watches* KJUL, a radio station licensed to Moapa Valley, Nevada, which calls itself 104.7 the Jewel" ], [ "See also", "* Joule (disambiguation)*Jewell (disambiguation)*Jewells (disambiguation)*Jewels (disambiguation)* Juul (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "James L. Jones" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Logan Jones Jr.''' (born December 19, 1943) is a retired United States Marine Corps four-star general and consultant who served as the 21st United States National Security Advisor from 2009 to 2010.During his military career, he served as the 32nd Commandant of the Marine Corps from July 1999 to January 2003, and Commander, United States European Command and Supreme Allied Commander Europe from 2003 to 2006.Jones retired from the Marine Corps on February 1, 2007, after 40 years of service.After retiring from the Marine Corps, Jones remained involved in national security and foreign policy issues.", "In 2007, Jones served as chairman of the Congressional Independent Commission on the Security Forces of Iraq, which investigated the capabilities of the Iraqi police and armed forces.", "In November 2007, he was appointed by the U.S. Secretary of State as special envoy for Middle East security.", "He served as chairman of the Atlantic Council from June 2007 to January 2009, when he assumed the post of National Security Advisor which he held until November 2010.Jones owns the consulting firms Ironhand Security LLC and Jones Group International LLC.", "He has worked as a paid adviser to the Saudi government." ], [ "Early life and education", "Jones was born in Kansas City, Missouri, on December 19, 1943.He is the son of Charlotte Ann (née Ground) and James L. Jones Sr., a decorated Marine in World War II who was an officer in the Observer Group and the commanding officer of its successor, the Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion.", "Having spent his formative years in France, where he attended the American School of Paris, he returned to the United States, graduating from Groveton High School in Fairfax County, Virginia, then attended Georgetown University Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, from which he received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1966.Jones, who is tall, played forward on the 1963–64 Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball team." ], [ "Military career", "Jones visits Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego in January 2002, wearing an early version of the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform in woodland MARPATIn January 1967, Jones was commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps.", "Upon completion of The Basic School at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, in October 1967, he was ordered to South Vietnam, where he served as a platoon and company commander with Golf Company, 2nd Battalion, 3rd Marines.", "While overseas, he was promoted to first lieutenant in June 1968.Returning to the United States in December 1968, Jones was assigned to Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California, where he served as a company commander until May 1970.He then received orders to Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., for duties as a company commander, serving in this assignment until July 1973.While at this post, he was promoted to captain in December 1970.From July 1973 until June 1974, he was a student at the Amphibious Warfare School, Marine Corps University, Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia.In November 1974, Jones received orders to report to the 3rd Marine Division at Marine Corps Base Camp Smedley D. Butler, Okinawa, Japan, where he served as the commander of Company H, 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines, until December 1975.From January 1976 to August 1979, Jones served in the Officer Assignments Section at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. During this assignment, he was promoted to major in July 1977.Remaining in Washington, his next assignment was as the Marine Corps liaison officer to the United States Senate, where he served until July 1984.In this assignment, his first commander was John McCain, then a United States Navy captain.", "He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in September 1982.===Senior staff and command===Change of Command ceremony, January 13, 2003.SgtMajMC Alford McMichael (left) salutes as General Jones (center) relinquishes command to General Michael Hagee (right)Jones was selected to attend the National War College in Washington, D.C.", "Following graduation in June 1985, he was assigned to command the 3rd Battalion, 9th Marines, 1st Marine Division, at Camp Pendleton, California, from July 1985 to July 1987.In August 1987, Jones returned to Headquarters Marine Corps, where he served as senior aide to the Commandant of the Marine Corps.", "He was promoted to colonel in April 1988, and became the Military Secretary to the Commandant of the Marine Corps in February 1989.During August 1990, Jones was assigned as the commanding officer of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit (24th MEU) at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.During his tour with the 24th MEU, Jones participated in Operation Provide Comfort in Northern Iraq and Turkey.", "He was advanced to brigadier general on April 23, 1992.Jones was assigned to duties as deputy director, J-3, United States European Command in Stuttgart, Germany, on July 15, 1992.During this tour of duty, he was reassigned as chief of staff, Joint Task Force Provide Promise, for operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina and North Macedonia.Returning to the United States, Jones was advanced to the rank of major general in July 1994 and was assigned as commanding general, 2nd Marine Division, Marine Forces Atlantic, Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune.", "Jones next served as director, Expeditionary Warfare Division (N85), Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, during 1996, then as the deputy chief of staff for plans, policies, and operations, Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C.", "He was advanced to lieutenant general on July 18, 1996.His next assignment was as the military assistant to the Secretary of Defense.===Commandant===Jones examines an early MCCUU/MARPAT prototype during its testing phasesPaul D. Wolfowitz and Jones at press conference announcing Jones as EUCOM CommanderOn April 21, 1999, Jones was nominated for appointment to the grade of general and assignment as the 32nd Commandant of the Marine Corps.", "He was promoted to general on June 30, 1999, and assumed the post on July 1, 1999.He served as commandant until January 2003, turning over the reins to General Michael Hagee.Among other innovations during his tenure as Marine Corps commandant, Jones oversaw the Marine Corps' development of MARPAT camouflage uniforms, and the adoption of the Marine Corps Martial Arts Program.", "These replaced M81 Woodland uniforms and the LINE combat system, respectively.===Supreme Allied Commander Europe===Jones assumed duties as the commander of United States European Command (EUCOM) on January 16, 2003, and Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) the following day.", "He was the first Marine Corps general to serve as SACEUR/EUCOM commander.The Marine Corps had only recently begun to take on a larger share of high-level assignments in the Department of Defense.", "In December 2006, Jones was one of five serving Marine Corps four-star general officers who outranked the Commandant of the Marine Corps, General James T. Conway in terms of seniority and time in grade—the others being Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Peter Pace; former commandant General Michael Hagee; commander of United States Strategic Command General James E. Cartwright; and Assistant Commandant General Robert Magnus.As SACEUR, Jones led the Allied Command Operations (ACO), comprising NATO's military forces in Europe, from the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in Mons, Belgium.", "Jones relinquished command as SACEUR on December 7, 2006, and was succeeded by United States Army General John Craddock.", "Jones was reported to have declined an opportunity to succeed General John P. Abizaid as commander of United States Central Command.", "He retired from the Marine Corps on February 1, 2007.===Awards and decorations===Jones' personal decorations include (Foreign and non-U.S. personal and unit decorations are in order of precedence based on military guidelines and award date):22px22px22px22px22px22px22px22px22px18px18px18px18px106px18px18px18px18px18px18px18px18px18px27px140pxRow 1Defense Distinguished Service Medalw/ 3 bronze oak leaf clustersRow 2 Silver StarLegion of Meritw/ 4 award starsBronze Starw/ valor deviceCombat Action RibbonRow 3 Navy Presidential Unit CitationJoint Meritorious Unit Awardw/ 2 oak leaf clustersNavy Unit CommendationNavy Meritorious Unit Commendationw/ 4 service starsRow 4 National Intelligence Distinguished Service MedalNational Defense Service Medalw/ 2 service starsArmed Forces Expeditionary MedalVietnam Service Medalw/ 4 service starsRow 5 Southwest Asia Service Medal w/ 1 service starArmed Forces Service MedalHumanitarian Service MedalNavy Sea Service Deployment Ribbonw/ 3 service starsRow 6 Navy & Marine Corps Overseas Service Ribbonw/ 1 service starVietnam Gallantry Crossw/ bronze starLegion of Honor CommanderNational Order of Merit OfficierRow 7 Meritorious Service Cross, post-nominal: M.S.C.Military Order of Italy, CommanderOrder of the Cross of the Eagle, 1st ClassOrder of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas, Commander's Grand CrossRow 8 Military Order of Aviz, Grand CrossGreat Merit Cross - Grand Cross - Great Cross with Star and SashVietnam Gallantry Cross unit citationVietnam Civil Actions unit citationRow 9 NATO Meritorious Service MedalNATO Medal for Former YugoslaviaVietnam Campaign MedalKuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait)United States European Command Badge====Other recognition====In 2000, Jones received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement." ], [ "Post-military career", "===Business roles===Following his retirement from the military, Jones became president of the Institute for 21st Century Energy, an affiliate of the US Chamber of Commerce; he also served as chair of the board of directors of the Atlantic Council of the United States from June 2007 until January 2009, when he assumed the post of National Security Advisor.", "Jones also served as a member of the guiding coalition for the Project on National Security Reform, as well as chairman of the Independent Commission on the Iraqi Security Forces.", "He was a member of the board of directors of The Boeing Company from June 21, 2007, to December 15, 2008, serving on the company's Audit and Finance Committees.", "Jones was also a member of the board of directors of Cross Match Technologies, a privately held biometric solutions company, from October 2007 to January 2009.Jones was employed on the board of trustees of the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), a bipartisan think-tank, from 2007 to 2008, and then began serving again in 2011.He was a member of the board of directors of Chevron Corporation from May 28, 2008 to December 5, 2008, serving on the Board Nominating and Governance and Public Policy Committees.According to the first report since Jones re-entered government service in January 2009, Jones earned a salary and bonus of $900,000 from the US Chamber, as well as director fees of $330,000 from the Boeing Company and $290,000 from the Chevron Corporation.After leaving the Obama administration, Jones returned as a Fellow at the US Chamber in 2011.The board of directors of General Dynamics has elected Jones to be a director of the corporation, effective August 3, 2011.Also, on January 13, 2012, Jones joined Deloitte Consulting LLP as a senior adviser who will work with Federal and commercial consulting clients within Deloitte's Department of Defense and Intel segments.", "In early 2013, Jones joined OxiCool Inc's Advisory Board.Jones established the consulting firms Ironhand Security LLC and Jones Group International LLC.", "The firms have worked for foreign governments, including Saudi Arabia.", "After the murder of Jamal Khashoggi by the Saudi regime, Jones downplayed his firms' work with the Saudi government and said that the remaining contract with them was about to expire.", "However, Jones's firms subsequently expanded its partnership with the Saudi regime.", "By 2022, his firms had four contracts with the Saudi government and employed 53 Americans in Riyadh, eight of whom were retired generals and admirals.===Diplomatic roles===Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice asked Jones twice to be Deputy Secretary of State after Robert Zoellick resigned.", "He declined.On May 25, 2007, Congress created an Independent Commission on the Security Forces of Iraq to investigate for 120 days the capabilities of the Iraq armed forces and police.", "Jones served as chairman of that commission and reported on Congress on September 6, 2007, noting serious deficiencies in the Iraq Interior Ministry and in the Iraq National Police.Rice appointed Jones as a special envoy for Middle East security on November 28, 2007, to work with both Israelis and Palestinians on security issues.Jones serves as a Senior Fellow at the Bipartisan Policy Center (BPC), where he works on a variety of national security and energy-related issues.", "Jones is also a co-chair of BPC's Energy Project.Jones is an Advisory Board Member of Spirit of America, a 501(c)(3) organization that supports the safety and success of Americans serving abroad and the local people and partners they seek to help.===National Security Advisor===Jones shakes hands with President of Afghanistan Hamid Karzai.On December 1, 2008, President-elect Obama announced Jones as his selection for National Security Advisor.", "The National Security Advisor is appointed by the president without confirmation by the United States Senate.The selection surprised people because, as Michael Crowley reported, \"The two men didn't meet until Obama's foreign policy aide, Mark Lippert, arranged a 2005 sit-down, and, as of this October, Jones had only spoken to Obama twice\".", "Crowley speculated that Jones' record suggests he is \"someone who, unencumbered by strong ideological leanings, can evaluate ideas dispassionately whether they come from left or right\", and, \"This is probably why Obama picked him\".", "Jones was also picked because he is well respected and likely to possess the skills to navigate the other prestigious and powerful cabinet members.Interior of a VH-3D Sea King Marine One transporting President Obama and Gen JonesThough he did not know Gates especially well, both men shared long experience in the national security establishment (Gates was in the Air Force and previously headed the CIA).", "Jones and Clinton had a more direct connection from her tenure on the Senate Armed Services Committee.", "The two were said to have particularly clicked at a 2005 conference on security policy in Munich.", "Jones hosted a small private dinner that included Clinton and South Carolina Republican Senator Lindsey Graham, among others; at the end of the convivial evening, according to one person present, Jones followed Clinton out to her car to visit in private.Jones assumed the post when Obama was sworn into office on January 20, 2009.He announced his resignation as National Security Advisor on October 8, 2010, and was succeeded by Thomas E. Donilon.===Advocate for Iranian dissidents===In March 2013, Jones was quoted comparing the conditions for Iranians in a US camp in Iraq with the conditions of detention for captives held in the Guantanamo Bay detention camps.", "While addressing the Iranian American Cultural Society of Michigan, Jones said Guantanamo captives \"are treated far better\" than the Iranian internees.", "Jones criticized other aspects of the Obama administration's policy on Iran.", "''Foreign Policy'' magazine noted that Jones had not volunteered whether he had been paid for this speaking engagement.===Middle East consultancy===In March 2017, Jones reportedly began working as a paid consultant for the Ministry of Defense (Saudi Arabia).", "In 2019, he began working for the government of Libya, but stopped after a few months at the request of the State Department." ], [ "Personal life", "Former Secretary of Defense William Cohen, who hired Jones as his military assistant, said that Jones has a placid demeanor and a \"methodical approach to problems—he's able to view issues at both the strategic and tactical level\".Jones was also responsible for convincing country music artist Toby Keith that he should record and publish his popular concert hit \"Courtesy of the Red, White, & Blue (The Angry American)\"." ], [ "See also", "* James L. Jones Sr., decorated World War II Marine Corps officer, father of General James L. Jones Jr.* William K. Jones, decorated Marine Corps lieutenant general, served in combat in three wars; uncle of General James L. Jones" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "* * * * * ===Attribution===" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "James Lovelock" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Ephraim Lovelock''' (26 July 1919 – 26 July 2022) was an English independent scientist, environmentalist and futurist.", "He is best known for proposing the Gaia hypothesis, which postulates that the Earth functions as a self-regulating system.With a PhD in medicine, Lovelock began his career performing cryopreservation experiments on rodents, including successfully thawing frozen specimens.", "His methods were influential in the theories of cryonics (the cryopreservation of humans).", "He invented the electron capture detector and, using it, became the first to detect the widespread presence of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere.", "While designing scientific instruments for NASA, he developed the Gaia hypothesis.In the 2000s, he proposed a method of climate engineering to restore carbon dioxide–consuming algae.", "He was an outspoken member of Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy, asserting that fossil fuel interests have been behind opposition to nuclear energy, citing the effects of carbon dioxide as being harmful to the environment, and warning of global warming due to the greenhouse effect.", "He wrote several environmental science books based upon the Gaia hypothesis from the late 1970s.He also worked for MI5, the British security service, for decades.", "Bryan Appleyard, writing in ''The Sunday Times'', described him as \"basically Q in the James Bond films\"." ], [ "Early life and education", "James Lovelock was born in Letchworth Garden City to Tom Arthur Lovelock and his second wife Nellie.", "Nell, his mother, was born in Bermondsey and won a scholarship to a grammar school but was unable to take it up, and started work at thirteen in a pickle factory.", "She was described by Lovelock as a socialist and suffragist, who was also anti-vaccine, and did not allow Lovelock to receive his smallpox inoculation as a child.", "His father, Tom, was born in Fawley, Berkshire, had served six months hard labour for poaching in his teens, and was illiterate until attending technical college, later running a bookshop.", "Lovelock was brought up a Quaker and imbued with the notion that \"God is a still, small voice within rather than some mysterious old gentleman way out in the universe\", which he thought was a helpful way of thinking for inventors, but he would eventually end up as being non-religious.", "The family moved to London, where his dislike of authority made him, by his own account, an unhappy pupil at Strand School in Tulse Hill, south London.Lovelock could not at first afford to go to university, something which he believed helped prevent him from becoming overspecialised and aided the development of Gaia theory." ], [ "Career", "After leaving school Lovelock worked at a photography firm, attending Birkbeck College during the evenings, before being accepted to study chemistry at the University of Manchester, where he was a student of the Nobel Prize laureate professor Alexander R. Todd.", "Lovelock worked at a Quaker farm before a recommendation from his professor led to him taking up a Medical Research Council post, working on ways of shielding soldiers from burns.", "Lovelock refused to use the shaved and anaesthetised rabbits that were used as burn victims, and exposed his skin to heat radiation instead, an experience he describes as \"exquisitely painful\".", "His student status enabled temporary deferment of military service during the Second World War.", "Still, he registered as a conscientious objector.", "He later abandoned his conscientious objection in the light of Nazi atrocities and tried to enlist in the armed forces but was told that his medical research was too valuable for the enlistment to be approved.In 1948, Lovelock received a PhD degree in medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.", "He spent the next two decades working at London's National Institute for Medical Research.", "In the United States, he conducted research at Yale, Baylor College of Medicine, and Harvard University.In the mid-1950s, Lovelock experimented with the cryopreservation of rodents, determining that hamsters could be frozen and revived successfully.", "Hamsters were frozen with 60% of the water in the brain crystallised into ice with no adverse effects recorded.", "Other organs were shown to be susceptible to damage.A lifelong inventor, Lovelock created and developed many scientific instruments, some of which were designed for NASA in its planetary exploration program.", "While working as a NASA consultant, Lovelock developed the Gaia hypothesis, for which he is most widely known.In early 1961, Lovelock was engaged by NASA to develop sensitive instruments for the analysis of extraterrestrial atmospheres and planetary surfaces.", "The Viking program, which visited Mars in the late 1970s, was motivated in part to determine whether Mars supported life, and some of the sensors and experiments that were ultimately deployed aimed to resolve this issue.", "During work on a precursor of this program, Lovelock became interested in the composition of the Martian atmosphere, reasoning that many life forms on Mars would be obliged to make use of it (and, thus, alter it).", "However, the atmosphere was found to be in a stable condition close to its chemical equilibrium, with very little oxygen, methane, or hydrogen, but with an overwhelming abundance of carbon dioxide.", "To Lovelock, the stark contrast between the Martian atmosphere and chemically dynamic mixture of the Earth's biosphere was strongly indicative of the absence of life on Mars.", "However, when they were finally launched to Mars, the Viking probes still searched (unsuccessfully) for extant life there.", "Further experiments to search for life on Mars have been carried out by additional space probes, for instance, by NASA's Perseverance rover, which landed in 2021.Electron capture detector developed by Lovelock in the Science Museum, LondonLovelock invented the electron capture detector, which ultimately assisted in discoveries about the persistence of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and their role in stratospheric ozone depletion.", "After studying the operation of the Earth's sulphur cycle, Lovelock and his colleagues, Robert Jay Charlson, Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren developed the CLAW hypothesis as a possible example of biological control of the Earth's climate.Lovelock was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974.He served as the president of the Marine Biological Association (MBA) from 1986 to 1990 and was an Honorary Visiting Fellow of Green Templeton College, Oxford (formerly Green College, Oxford) from 1994.As an independent scientist, inventor, and author, Lovelock worked out of a barn-turned-laboratory he called his \"experimental station\" located in a wooded valley on the Devon–Cornwall border in South West England.In 1988 he made an extended appearance on the Channel 4 television programme ''After Dark'', alongside Heathcote Williams and Petra Kelly, among others.On 8 May 2012, he appeared on the Radio Four series ''The Life Scientific'', talking to Jim Al-Khalili about the Gaia hypothesis.", "On the programme, he mentioned how his ideas had been received by various people, including Jonathon Porritt.", "He also said how he had a claim for inventing the microwave oven.", "He later explained this claim in an interview with ''The Manchester Magazine''.", "Lovelock said that he did create an instrument during his time studying causes of damage to living cells and tissue, which had, according to him, \"almost everything you would expect in an ordinary microwave oven\".", "He invented the instrument to heat frozen hamsters in a way that caused less suffering to the animals, as opposed to the traditional way, which involved putting red-hot spoons on the animals' chests to heat them.", "He believed that, at the time, nobody had gone that far and made an embodiment of an actual microwave oven.", "However, he did not claim to have been the first person to have the idea of using microwaves for cooking.=== CFCs ===Reconstructed time-series of atmospheric concentrations of CFC-11After developing his electron capture detector, in the late 1960s, Lovelock was the first to detect the widespread presence of CFCs in the atmosphere.", "He found a concentration of 60 parts per trillion of CFC-11 over Ireland and, in a partially self-funded research expedition in 1972, went on to measure the concentration of CFC-11 from the northern hemisphere to the Antarctic aboard the research vessel .", "He found the gas in each of the 50 air samples that he collected but, not realising that the breakdown of CFCs in the stratosphere would release chlorine that posed a threat to the ozone layer, concluded that the level of CFCs constituted \"no conceivable hazard\".", "He later stated that he meant \"no conceivable toxic hazard\".However, the experiment did provide the first useful data on the ubiquitous presence of CFCs in the atmosphere.", "The damage caused to the ozone layer by the photolysis of CFCs was later discovered by Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina.", "After hearing a lecture on the subject of Lovelock's results, they embarked on research that resulted in the first published paper that suggested a link between stratospheric CFCs and ozone depletion in 1974 (for which Sherwood and Molina later shared the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Paul Crutzen).=== Gaia hypothesis ===Drawing from the research of Alfred C. Redfield and G. Evelyn Hutchinson, Lovelock first formulated the Gaia hypothesis in the 1960s resulting from his work for NASA concerned with detecting life on Mars and his work with Royal Dutch Shell.", "The hypothesis proposes that living and non-living parts of the Earth form a complex interacting system that can be thought of as a single organism.", "Named after the Greek goddess Gaia at the suggestion of novelist William Golding, the hypothesis postulates that the biosphere has a regulatory effect on the Earth's environment that acts to sustain life.While the hypothesis was readily accepted by many in the environmentalist community, it has not been widely accepted within the scientific community as a whole.", "Among its most prominent critics were the evolutionary biologists Richard Dawkins, Ford Doolittle, and Stephen Jay Gould, a convergence of opinion among a trio whose views on other scientific matters often diverged.", "These (and other) critics have questioned how natural selection operating on individual organisms can lead to the evolution of planetary-scale homeostasis.In response to this, Lovelock, together with Andrew Watson, published the computer model Daisyworld in 1983, which postulated a hypothetical planet orbiting a star whose radiant energy is slowly increasing or decreasing.", "In the non-biological case, the temperature of this planet simply tracks the energy received from the star.", "However, in the biological case, ecological competition between \"daisy\" species with different albedo values produces a homeostatic effect on global temperature.", "When energy received from the star is low, black daisies proliferate since they absorb a greater fraction of the heat, but when energy input is high, white daisies predominate since they reflect excess heat.", "As the white and black daisies have contrary effects on the planet's overall albedo and temperature, changes in their relative populations stabilise the planet's climate and keep the temperature within an optimal range despite fluctuations in energy from the star.", "Lovelock argued that Daisyworld, although a parable, illustrates how conventional natural selection operating on individual organisms can still produce planetary-scale homeostasis.Lovelock in 2005In Lovelock's 2006 book, ''The Revenge of Gaia'', he argued that the lack of respect humans have had for Gaia, through the damage done to rainforests and the reduction in planetary biodiversity, is testing Gaia's capacity to minimise the effects of the addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.", "This eliminates the planet's negative feedbacks and increases the likelihood of homeostatic positive feedback potential associated with runaway global warming.", "Similarly, the warming of the oceans is extending the oceanic thermocline layer of tropical oceans into the Arctic and Antarctic waters, preventing the rise of oceanic nutrients into the surface waters and eliminating the algal blooms of phytoplankton on which oceanic food chains depend.", "As phytoplankton and forests are the main ways in which Gaia draws down greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, taking it out of the atmosphere, the elimination of this environmental buffering will see, according to Lovelock, most of the Earth becoming uninhabitable for humans and other life-forms by the middle of this century, with a massive extension of tropical deserts.", "In 2012, Lovelock distanced himself from these conclusions, saying he had \"gone too far\" in describing the consequences of climate change over the next century in this book.In his 2009 book, ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia'', he rejected scientific models that disagree with the findings that sea levels are rising and Arctic ice is melting faster than the models predict.", "He suggested that we may already have passed the tipping point of terrestrial climate resilience into a permanently hot state.", "Given these conditions, Lovelock expected that human civilisation would be hard-pressed to survive.", "He expected the change to be similar to the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum when the temperature of the Arctic Ocean was 23 °C.=== Nuclear power ===Lovelock became concerned about the threat of global warming from the greenhouse effect.", "In 2004 he broke with many fellow environmentalists by stating that \"only nuclear power can now halt global warming\".", "In his view, nuclear energy is the only realistic alternative to fossil fuels that can both fulfil the large scale energy needs of humankind while also reducing greenhouse emissions.", "He was an open member of Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy.In 2005, against the backdrop of renewed UK government interest in nuclear power, Lovelock again publicly announced his support for nuclear energy, stating, \"I am a Green, and I entreat my friends in the movement to drop their wrongheaded objection to nuclear energy\".", "Although those interventions in the public debate on nuclear power were in the 21st century, his views on it were longstanding.", "In his 1988 book ''The Ages of Gaia'', he stated: In ''The Revenge of Gaia'' (2006), where he put forward the concept of sustainable retreat, Lovelock wrote: In 2019 Lovelock said he thought difficulties in getting nuclear power going again were due to propaganda, that \"the coal and oil business fight like mad to tell bad stories about nuclear\", and that \"the greens played along with it.", "There's bound to have been some corruption there – I'm sure that various green movements were paid some sums on the side to help with propaganda\".=== Climate ===Writing in the British newspaper ''The Independent'' in 2006, Lovelock argued that, as a result of global warming, \"billions of us will die and the few breeding pairs of people that survive will be in the Arctic where the climate remains tolerable\" by the end of the 21st century.", "The same year he suggested that \"we have to keep in mind the awesome pace of change and realise how little time is left to act, and then each community and nation must find the best use of the resources they have to sustain civilisation for as long as they can.\"", "He further predicted in 2007 that the temperature increase would leave much of the world's land uninhabitable and unsuitable for farming, with northerly migrations and new cities created in the Arctic; furthermore that much of Europe will have turned to desert and Britain will have become Europe's \"life-raft\" due to its stable temperature caused by being surrounded by the ocean.", "He was quoted in ''The Guardian'' in 2008 that 80% of humans will perish by 2100, and this climate change will last 100,000 years.In a 2010 interview with ''The Guardian'' newspaper, he said that democracy might have to be \"put on hold\" to prevent climate change.", "He continued:Statements from 2012 portrayed Lovelock as continuing his concern over global warming while at the same time criticising extremism and suggesting alternatives to oil, coal and the green solutions he did not support.In a 2012 interview aired on MSNBC, Lovelock stated that he had been \"alarmist\", using the words \"All right, I made a mistake,\" about the timing of climate change and noted the documentary ''An Inconvenient Truth'' and the book ''The Weather Makers'' as examples of the same kind of alarmism.", "Lovelock still believed the climate to be warming, although not at the rate of change he once thought; he admitted that he had been \"extrapolating too far.\"", "He believed that climate change is still happening, but it will be felt further in the future.", "Of the claims \"the science is settled\" on global warming, he stated: He criticised environmentalists for treating global warming like a religion.", "In this 2012 MSNBC article, Lovelock is quoted as saying: In a follow-up interview also in 2012, Lovelock stated his support for natural gas; he favoured fracking as a low-polluting alternative to coal.", "He opposed the concept of \"sustainable development\", where modern economies might be powered by wind turbines, calling it meaningless drivel.", "He kept a poster of a wind turbine to remind himself how much he detested them.In ''Novacene'' (2019), Lovelock proposed that benevolent superintelligence may take over and save the ecosystem and stated that the machines would need to keep organic life around to keep the planet's temperature habitable for electronic life.", "On the other hand, if instead life becomes entirely electronic, \"so be it: we played our part and newer, younger actors are already appearing on stage\".==== Ocean fertilisation ====In 2007, Lovelock and Chris Rapley proposed the construction of ocean pumps to pump water up from below the thermocline to \"fertilize algae in the surface waters and encourage them to bloom\".", "The basic idea was to accelerate the transfer of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the ocean by increasing primary production and enhancing the export of organic carbon (as marine snow) to the deep ocean.", "A scheme similar to that proposed by Lovelock and Rapley was later developed independently by a commercial company.The proposal attracted widespread media attention and criticism.", "Commenting on the proposal, Corinne Le Quéré, a University of East Anglia researcher, said \"It doesn't make sense.", "There is absolutely no evidence that climate engineering options work or even go in the right direction.", "I'm astonished that they published this.", "Before any geoengineering is put to work a massive amount of research is needed – research which will take 20 to 30 years\".", "Other researchers claimed that \"this scheme would bring water with high natural ''p'' levels (associated with the nutrients) back to the surface, potentially causing exhalation of \".", "Lovelock subsequently said that his proposal was intended to stimulate interest and that research would be the next step, and several research studies were published in the wake of the original proposal.", "However, these estimated that the scheme would require a huge number of pipes, and that the main effect of the pipes may be on the land rather than in the ocean.==== Sustainable retreat ====Sustainable retreat is a concept developed by Lovelock to define the necessary changes to human settlement and dwelling at the global scale to adapt to global warming and prevent its expected negative consequences on humans.Lovelock thought the time was past for sustainable development and that we had come to a time when development is no longer sustainable.", "Therefore, we needed to retreat.", "Lovelock stated the following to explain the concept:The concept of sustainable retreat emphasises a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs with lower levels or less environmentally harmful types of resources." ], [ "Prizes and other honours", "Lovelock was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974.His nomination reads: Lovelock was awarded a number of prestigious prizes, including the Tswett Medal for Chromatography (1975), the American Chemical Society Award in Chromatography (1980), the World Meteorological Organization Norbert Gerbier–MUMM Award (1988), the Dr A. H. Heineken Prize for Environmental Sciences (1990) and the Royal Geographical Society Discovery Lifetime award (2001).", "In 2006 he received the Wollaston Medal, the Geological Society of London's highest award, whose previous recipients include Charles Darwin.", "Lovelock was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for services to the study of the Science and Atmosphere in the 1990 New Year Honours and a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) for services to Global Environmental Science in the 2003 New Year Honours." ], [ "Honours", "=== Commonwealth honours === Country Date Appointment Post-nominal letters United Kingdom '''1990''' Commander of the Order of the British Empire CBE United Kingdom '''2003''' Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour CH=== Scholastic ===; University degrees Location Date School Degree England '''1941''' Victoria University of Manchester Bachelor of Science (BSc) in Chemistry England '''1948''' London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Medicine England '''1959''' University of London Doctor of Science (D.Sc.)", "in Biophysics; Chancellor, visitor, governor, rector and fellowships Location Date School Position US '''1954''' Harvard University Rockefeller Travelling Fellowship in Medicine US '''19581959''' Yale School of Medicine Visiting Scientist England '''1994''' Green Templeton College, Oxford Senior Visiting Research Fellow;Honorary degrees Location Date School Degree Status England '''1982''' University of East Anglia Doctor of Science (D.Sc.)", "England '''1988''' University of Exeter Doctor of Science (D.Sc.)", "England '''1988''' Plymouth Polytechnic Doctor of Science (D.Sc.)", "Sweden '''1991''' Stockholm University Doctor of Science (D.Sc.)", "Scotland '''1993''' University of Edinburgh Doctor of Science (D.Sc.)", "England '''18 May 1996''' University of Kent Doctor of Science (D.Sc.)", "US '''1997''' University of Colorado Boulder Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL) === Memberships and fellowships === Location Date Organisation Position United Kingdom '''1974''' Royal Society Fellow (FRS) United Kingdom '''19861990''' Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom President United Kingdom '''2014''' Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom Honorary Fellow (Hon FMBA)" ], [ "Personal life", "Lovelock married Helen Hyslop in 1942.They had four children and remained married until her death in 1989 from multiple sclerosis.", "He first met his second wife, Sandy, at the age of 69.Lovelock stated of their relationship: \"...you would find the life of me and my wife Sandy to be an unusually happy one in simple beautiful but unpretentious surroundings.", "\"Lovelock turned 100 in July 2019.He died at his home in Abbotsbury, Dorset, on his 103rd birthday in 2022, of complications related to a fall." ], [ "Portraits", "''Environment Triptych'' (2008)In March 2012, the National Portrait Gallery unveiled a new portrait of Lovelock by British artist Michael Gaskell, which was completed in 2011.The collection also has two photographic portraits by Nick Sinclair (1993) and Paul Tozer (1994).", "The archive of the Royal Society of Arts has a 2009 image taken by Anne-Katrin Purkiss.", "Lovelock agreed to sit for sculptor Jon Edgar in Devon during 2007, as part of the ''Environment Triptych'' (2008) along with heads of Mary Midgley and Richard Mabey.", "A bronze head is in the collection of the sitter, and the terracotta is in the artist's archive." ], [ "Published works", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "See also", "* Gaianism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* James Lovelock tells his life story at Web of Stories* Listen to an oral history interview with James Lovelock, recorded for An Oral History of British Science at the British Library* * * * by the Polish band Łąki Łan about the Gaia hypothesis and Lovelock'''Interviews'''* Lovelock at the ''Guardian''* Lovelock at the BBC* Dr. Lovelock Lectures on ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia'', presented by ''Corporate Knights'', 26 May 2009* Audio: James Lovelock in conversation on the BBC World Service discussion show, ''The Forum'', 1 March 2009* ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia'' (Lovelock in conversation with Tim Radford), RSA ''Vision'' webcast, 23 February 2009* Audio interview from ''Ideas'' ('' How to think about science''), CBC.ca, 2 January 2008* ''Climate Change on the Living Earth'' (public lecture by Lovelock), Royal Society, 29 October 2007* The Prophet of Climate Change, Jeff Goodell, ''Rolling Stone'', 17 October 2007* Radio interview with James Lovelock, KQED San Francisco, 13 September 2006* Reflections on meeting James Lovelock and a recent interview with him, Creel Commission, 26 August 2005* (Lovelock interviewed on using microwaves in cryobiology research to resuscitate frozen hamsters in the 1950s), Tom Scott, 17 May 2021" ] ]
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[ [ "John Akii-Bua" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Akii-Bua''' (3 December 1949 – 20 June 1997) was a Ugandan hurdler and the first Olympic champion from his country Uganda and Africa at large.", "In 1986, he was a recipient of the Silver Olympic Order." ], [ "Biography", "Akii-Bua was raised in a family of 43 children from one father and his eight wives.", "Akii-Bua started his athletic career as a short-distance hurdler, but failed to qualify for the 1968 Olympics.", "Coached by British-born athletics coach Malcolm Arnold, he was introduced to the 400 meter hurdles.", "After finishing fourth in the 1970 Commonwealth Games and running the fastest time of 1971, he was not a big favourite for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, having limited competitive experience.", "Nevertheless, he won the final there, setting a world record time of 47.82 seconds despite running on the inside lane.", "He missed the 1976 Olympics and a showdown with United States rival Edwin Moses because of the boycott by Uganda and other African nations.As a police officer, Akii-Bua was promoted by Ugandan president Idi Amin and given a house as a reward for his athletic prowess.", "When the Amin regime was collapsing, he fled to Kenya with his family, fearful that he would be seen as a collaborator; this was more likely because he was a member of the Langi tribe, many of whom were persecuted by Amin, whereas Akii-Bua was cited by Amin as an example of a Langi who was doing well.", "However, in Kenya he was put into a refugee camp.", "From there, he was freed by his shoe-manufacturer Puma and lived in Germany working for Puma for 3–4 years.", "He represented Uganda once again at the 1980 Summer Olympics.", "Later he returned to Uganda and became a coach.Akii-Bua died a widower, at the age of 47, survived by eleven children.", "He was given a state funeral.", "His nephew is international footballer David Obua, and his brother Lawrence Ogwang competed in the long jump and triple jump at the 1956 Olympics.The phrase \"''akii-buas''\" has come to colloquially mean \"runs\" in Uganda." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Profile" ] ]
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[ [ "Joachim von Ribbentrop" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ulrich Friedrich-Wilhelm Joachim von Ribbentrop''' (; 30 April 1893 – 16 October 1946) was a German politician and diplomat who served as Minister of Foreign Affairs of Nazi Germany from 1938 to 1945.Ribbentrop first came to Adolf Hitler's notice as a well-travelled businessman with more knowledge of the outside world than most senior Nazis and as a perceived authority on foreign affairs.", "He offered his house Schloss Fuschl for the secret meetings in January 1933 that resulted in Hitler's appointment as Chancellor of Germany.", "He became a close confidant of Hitler, to the disgust of some party members, who thought him superficial and lacking in talent.", "He was appointed ambassador to the Court of St James's, the royal court of the United Kingdom, in 1936 and then Foreign Minister of Germany in February 1938.Before World War II, he played a key role in brokering the Pact of Steel (an alliance with Fascist Italy) and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (the Nazi–Soviet non-aggression pact).", "He favoured retaining good relations with the Soviets, and opposed the invasion of the Soviet Union.", "In late 1941, due to American aid to Britain and the increasingly frequent \"incidents\" in the North Atlantic between U-boats and American warships guarding convoys to Britain, Ribbentrop worked for the failure of the Japanese-American talks in Washington and for Japan to attack the United States.", "He did his utmost to support a declaration of war on the United States after the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "From 1941 onwards, Ribbentrop's influence declined.Arrested in June 1945, Ribbentrop was convicted and sentenced to death at the Nuremberg trials for his role in starting World War II in Europe and enabling the Holocaust.", "On 16 October 1946, he became the first of the Nuremberg defendants to be executed by hanging." ], [ "Early life", "Joachim von Ribbentrop was born in Wesel, Rhenish Prussia, to Richard Ulrich Friedrich Joachim Ribbentrop, a career army officer, and his wife Johanne Sophie Hertwig.", "From 1904 to 1908, Ribbentrop took French courses at Lycée Fabert in Metz, the German Empire's most powerful fortress.", "A former teacher later recalled Ribbentrop \"was the most stupid in his class, full of vanity and very pushy\".", "His father was cashiered from the Prussian Army in 1908 for repeatedly disparaging Kaiser Wilhelm II for his alleged homosexuality, and the Ribbentrop family was often short of money.For the next 18 months, the family moved to Arosa, Switzerland, where the children continued to be taught by French and English private tutors, and Ribbentrop spent his free time skiing and mountaineering.", "Following the stay in Arosa, Ribbentrop was sent to Britain for a year to improve his knowledge of English.", "Fluent in both French and English, young Ribbentrop lived at various times in Grenoble, France and London, before travelling to Canada in 1910.He worked for the Molsons Bank on Stanley Street in Montreal, and then for the engineering firm M. P. and J. T. Davis on the Quebec Bridge reconstruction.", "He was also employed by the National Transcontinental Railway, which constructed a line from Moncton to Winnipeg.", "He worked as a journalist in New York City and Boston but returned to Germany to recover from tuberculosis.", "He returned to Canada and set up a small business in Ottawa importing German wine and champagne.", "In 1914, he competed for Ottawa's famous Minto ice-skating team and participated in the Ellis Memorial Trophy tournament in Boston in February.When the First World War began later in 1914, Ribbentrop left Canada, which, as part of the British Empire, was at war with Germany, and found temporary sanctuary in the neutral United States.", "On 15 August 1914, he sailed from Hoboken, New Jersey on the Holland-America ship ''Potsdam'', bound for Rotterdam, and on his return to Germany enlisted in the Prussian 12th Hussar Regiment.Ribbentrop served first on the Eastern Front, and was then transferred to the Western Front.", "He earned a commission and was awarded the Iron Cross.", "In 1918, 1st Lieutenant Ribbentrop was stationed in Istanbul as a staff officer.", "During his time in Turkey, he became a friend of another staff officer, Franz von Papen.In 1919, Ribbentrop met Anna Elisabeth Henkell (\"Annelies\" to her friends), the daughter of a wealthy Wiesbaden wine producer.", "They were married on 5 July 1920, and Ribbentrop began to travel throughout Europe as a wine salesman.", "He and Annelies had five children together.", "In 1925, his aunt, Gertrud von Ribbentrop, adopted him, which allowed him to add the nobiliary particle ''von'' to his name." ], [ "Early career", "In 1928, Ribbentrop was introduced to Adolf Hitler as a businessman with foreign connections who \"gets the same price for German champagne as others get for French champagne\".", "Wolf-Heinrich Graf von Helldorff, with whom Ribbentrop had served in the 12th Torgau Hussars in the First World War, arranged the introduction.", "Ribbentrop and his wife joined the Nazi Party on 1 May 1932.Ribbentrop began his political career by offering to be a secret emissary between Chancellor of Germany Franz von Papen, his old wartime friend, and Hitler.", "His offer was initially refused.", "Six months later, however, Hitler and Papen accepted his help.Their change of heart occurred after General Kurt von Schleicher ousted Papen in December 1932.This led to a complex set of intrigues in which Papen and various friends of president Paul von Hindenburg negotiated with Hitler to oust Schleicher.", "On 22 January 1933, State Secretary Otto Meissner and Hindenburg's son Oskar met Hitler, Hermann Göring, and Wilhelm Frick at Ribbentrop's home in Berlin's exclusive Dahlem district.", "Over dinner, Papen made the fateful concession that if Schleicher's government were to fall, he would abandon his demand for the Chancellorship and instead use his influence with President Hindenburg to ensure Hitler got the Chancellorship.Ribbentrop was not popular with the Nazi Party's ''Alte Kämpfer'' (Old Fighters); they nearly all disliked him.", "British historian Laurence Rees described Ribbentrop as \"the Nazi almost all the other leading Nazis hated\".", "Joseph Goebbels expressed a common view when he confided to his diary that \"Von Ribbentrop bought his name, he married his money and he swindled his way into office\".", "Ribbentrop was among the few who could meet with Hitler at any time without an appointment, however, unlike Goebbels or Göring.During most of the Weimar Republic era, Ribbentrop was apolitical and displayed no antisemitic prejudices.", "A visitor to a party Ribbentrop threw in 1928 recorded that Ribbentrop had no political views beyond a vague admiration for Gustav Stresemann, fear of Communism, and a wish to restore the monarchy.", "Several Berlin Jewish businessmen who did business with Ribbentrop in the 1920s and knew him well later expressed astonishment at the vicious antisemitism he later displayed in the Nazi era, saying that they did not see any indications he had held such views.", "As a partner in his father-in-law's champagne firm, Ribbentrop did business with Jewish bankers and organised the Impegroma Importing Company (\"Import und Export großer Marken\") with Jewish financing." ], [ "Early diplomatic career", "===Background===Ribbentrop became Hitler's favourite foreign-policy adviser, partly by dint of his familiarity with the world outside Germany but also by flattery and sycophancy.", "One German diplomat later recalled, \"Ribbentrop didn't understand anything about foreign policy.", "His sole wish was to please Hitler\".", "In particular, Ribbentrop acquired the habit of listening carefully to what Hitler was saying, memorizing his pet ideas and then later presenting Hitler's ideas as his own, a practice that much impressed Hitler as proving Ribbentrop was an ideal Nazi diplomat.", "Ribbentrop quickly learned that Hitler always favoured the most radical solution to any problem and accordingly tendered his advice in that direction as a Ribbentrop aide recalled:When Hitler said \"Grey\", Ribbentrop said \"Black, black, black\".", "He always said it three times more, and he was always more radical.", "I listened to what Hitler said one day when Ribbentrop wasn't present: \"With Ribbentrop it is so easy, he is always so radical.", "Meanwhile, all the other people I have, they come here, they have problems, they are afraid, they think we should take care and then I have to blow them up, to get strong.", "And Ribbentrop was blowing up the whole day and I had to do nothing.", "I had to break – much better!", "\"Another factor that aided Ribbentrop's rise was Hitler's distrust of and disdain for Germany's professional diplomats.", "He suspected that they did not entirely support his revolution.", "However, the Foreign Office diplomats loyally served the government and rarely gave Hitler grounds for criticism.", "The Foreign Office diplomats were ultranationalist, authoritarian and antisemitic.", "As a result, there was enough overlap in values between both groups to allow most of them to work comfortably for the Nazis.", "Nonetheless, Hitler never quite trusted the Foreign Office and was on the lookout for someone to carry out his foreign policy goals.===Undermining Versailles===The Nazis and Germany's professional diplomats shared a goal in destroying the Treaty of Versailles and restoring Germany as a great power.", "In October 1933, German Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath presented a note at the World Disarmament Conference announcing that it was unfair that Germany should remain disarmed by Part V of the Versailles treaty and demanded for the other powers to disarm to Germany's level or to rescind Part V and allow Germany ''Gleichberechtigung'' (\"equality of armaments\").", "When France rejected Neurath's note, Germany stormed out of the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference.", "It all but announced its intention of unilaterally violating Part V. Consequently, there were several calls in France for a preventive war to put an end to the Nazi regime while Germany was still more-or-less disarmed.However, in November, Ribbentrop arranged a meeting between Hitler and the French journalist Fernand de Brinon, who wrote for the newspaper ''Le Matin''.", "During the meeting, Hitler stressed what he claimed to be his love of peace and his friendship towards France.", "Hitler's meeting with Brinon had a huge effect on French public opinion and helped to put an end to the calls for a preventive war.", "It convinced many in France that Hitler was a man of peace, who wanted to do away only with Part V of the Versailles Treaty.===Special Commissioner for Disarmament===In 1934, Hitler named Ribbentrop Special Commissioner for Disarmament.", "In his early years, Hitler's goal in foreign affairs was to persuade the world that he wished to reduce the defence budget by making idealistic but very vague disarmament offers (in the 1930s, disarmament described arms limitation agreements).", "At the same time, the Germans always resisted making concrete arms-limitations proposals, and they went ahead with increased military spending on grounds that other powers would not take up German arms-limitation offers.", "Ribbentrop was tasked with ensuring that the world remained convinced that Germany sincerely wanted an arms-limitation treaty, but he ensured that no such treaty was ever developed.On 17 April 1934, French Foreign Minister Louis Barthou issued the so-called \"Barthou note\", which led to concerns on the part of Hitler that the French would ask for sanctions against Germany for violating Part V of the Versailles treaty.", "Ribbentrop volunteered to stop the rumoured sanctions and visited London and Rome.", "During his visits, Ribbentrop met with British Foreign Secretary Sir John Simon and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and asked them to postpone the next meeting of the Bureau of Disarmament in exchange for which Ribbentrop offered nothing in return other than promising better relations with Berlin.", "The meeting of the Bureau of Disarmament went ahead as scheduled, but because no sanctions were sought against Germany, Ribbentrop could claim a success.====Dienststelle Ribbentrop====In August 1934, Ribbentrop founded an organization linked to the Nazi Party called the ''Büro Ribbentrop'' (later renamed the ''Dienststelle Ribbentrop'').", "It functioned as an alternative foreign ministry.", "The ''Dienststelle Ribbentrop'', which had its offices directly across from the Foreign Office's building on the Wilhelmstrasse in Berlin, had in its membership a collection of ''Hitlerjugend'' alumni, dissatisfied businessmen, former reporters, and ambitious Nazi Party members, all of whom tried to conduct a foreign policy independent of and often contrary to the official Foreign Office.", "The Dienststelle served as an informal tool for the implementation of the foreign policy of Hitler, consciously bypassing the traditional foreign policy institutions and diplomatic channels of the German Foreign Office.", "However, the Dienststelle also competed with other Nazi party units active in the area of foreign policy, such as the foreign organization of the Nazis (NSDAP/AO) led by Ernst Bohle and Nazi Party office of foreign affairs (APA) led by Alfred Rosenberg.", "With the appointment of Ribbentrop to the Minister of Foreign Affairs in February 1938, the Dienststelle itself lost its importance, and about a third of the staff of the office followed Ribbentrop to the Foreign Office.Ribbentrop engaged in diplomacy on his own, such as when he visited France and met Foreign Minister Louis Barthou.", "During their meeting, Ribbentrop suggested for Barthou to meet Hitler at once to sign a Franco-German non-aggression pact.", "Ribbentrop wanted to buy time to complete German rearmament by removing preventive war as a French policy option.", "The Barthou-Ribbentrop meeting infuriated Konstantin von Neurath, since the Foreign Office had not been informed.Although the ''Dienststelle Ribbentrop'' was concerned with German relations in every part of the world, it emphasised Anglo-German relations, as Ribbentrop knew that Hitler favoured an alliance with Britain.", "As such, Ribbentrop greatly worked during his early diplomatic career to realize Hitler's dream of an anti-Soviet Anglo-German alliance.", "Ribbentrop made frequent trips to Britain, and upon his return he always reported to Hitler that most British people longed for an alliance with Germany.", "In November 1934, Ribbentrop met George Bernard Shaw, Sir Austen Chamberlain, Lord Cecil and Lord Lothian.", "On the basis of Lord Lothian's praise for the natural friendship between Germany and Britain, Ribbentrop informed Hitler that all elements of British society wished for closer ties with Germany.", "His report delighted Hitler, causing him to remark that Ribbentrop was the only person who told him \"the truth about the world abroad\".", "Because the Foreign Office's diplomats were not so sunny in their appraisal of the prospects for an alliance, Ribbentrop's influence with Hitler increased.", "Ribbentrop's personality, with his disdain for diplomatic niceties, meshed with what Hitler felt should be the relentless dynamism of a revolutionary regime.====Ambassador-plenipotentiary at large====Hitler rewarded Ribbentrop by appointing him ''Reich'' Minister Ambassador-Plenipotentiary at Large.", "In that capacity, Ribbentrop negotiated the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) in 1935 and the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936.====Anglo-German Naval Agreement====Neurath did not think it possible to achieve the Anglo-German Naval Agreement.", "To discredit his rival, he appointed Ribbentrop head of the delegation sent to London to negotiate it.", "Once the talks began, Ribbentrop issued an ultimatum to Sir John Simon, informing him that if Germany's terms were not accepted in their entirety, the German delegation would go home.", "Simon was angry with that demand, and walked out of the talks.", "However, to everyone's surprise, the next day the British accepted Ribbentrop's demands, and the AGNA was signed in London on 18 June 1935 by Ribbentrop and Sir Samuel Hoare, the new British Foreign Secretary.", "The diplomatic success did much to increase Ribbentrop's prestige with Hitler, who called the day the AGNA was signed \"the happiest day in my life\".", "He believed it marked the beginning of an Anglo-German alliance, and ordered celebrations throughout Germany to mark the event.Immediately after the AGNA was signed, Ribbentrop followed up with the next step that was intended to create the Anglo-German alliance, the ''Gleichschaltung'' (co-ordination) of all societies demanding the restoration of Germany's former colonies in Africa.", "On 3 July 1935, it was announced that Ribbentrop would head the efforts to recover Germany's former African colonies.", "Hitler and Ribbentrop believed that demanding colonial restoration would pressure the British into making an alliance with the ''Reich'' on German terms.", "However, there was a difference between Ribbentrop and Hitler: Ribbentrop sincerely wished to recover the former German colonies, but for Hitler, colonial demands were just a negotiating tactic.", "Germany would renounce its demands in exchange for a British alliance.====Anti-Comintern Pact====Ribbentrop and the Japanese ambassador to Germany, Kintomo Mushakoji, sign the Anti-Comintern Pact on 25 November 1936The Anti-Comintern Pact in November 1936 marked an important change in German foreign policy.", "The Foreign Office had traditionally favoured a policy of friendship with the Republic of China, and an informal Sino-German alliance had emerged by the late 1920s.", "Neurath very much believed in maintaining Germany's good relations with China and mistrusted the Empire of Japan.", "Ribbentrop was opposed to the Foreign Office's pro-China orientation and instead favoured an alliance with Japan.", "To that end, Ribbentrop often worked closely with General Hiroshi Ōshima, who served first as the Japanese military attaché and then as ambassador in Berlin, to strengthen German-Japanese ties, despite furious opposition from the Wehrmacht and the Foreign Office, which preferred closer Sino-German ties.The origins of the Anti-Comintern Pact went back to mid-1935, when in an effort to square the circle between seeking a ''rapprochement'' with Japan and Germany's traditional alliance with China, Ribbentrop and Ōshima devised the idea of an anticommunist alliance as a way to bind China, Japan and Germany together.", "However, when the Chinese made it clear that they had no interest in such an alliance (especially given that the Japanese regarded Chinese adhesion to the proposed pact as way of subordinating China to Japan), both Neurath and War Minister Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg persuaded Hitler to shelve the proposed treaty to avoid damaging Germany's good relations with China.", "Ribbentrop, who valued Japanese friendship far more than that of the Chinese, argued that Germany and Japan should sign the pact without Chinese participation.", "By November 1936, a revival of interest in a German-Japanese pact in both Tokyo and Berlin led to the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact in Berlin.", "When the Pact was signed, invitations were sent to Italy, China, Britain and Poland to join.", "However, of the invited powers, only the Italians would ultimately sign.", "The Anti-Comintern Pact marked the beginning of the shift on Germany's part from China's ally to Japan's ally.====Veterans' exchanges====In 1935, Ribbentrop arranged for a series of much-publicised visits of First World War veterans to Britain, France and Germany.", "Ribbentrop persuaded the Royal British Legion and many French veterans' groups to send delegations to Germany to meet German veterans as the best way to promote peace.", "At the same time, Ribbentrop arranged for members of the ''Frontkämpferbund'', the official German World War I veterans' group, to visit Britain and France to meet veterans there.", "The veterans' visits and attendant promises of \"never again\" did much to improve the \"New Germany's\" image in Britain and France.", "In July 1935, Brigadier Sir Francis Featherstone-Godley led the British Legion's delegation to Germany.", "The Prince of Wales, the Legion's patron, made a much-publicized speech at the Legion's annual conference in June 1935 that stated that he could think of no better group of men than those of the Legion to visit and carry the message of peace to Germany and that he hoped that Britain and Germany would never fight again.", "As for the contradiction between German rearmament and his message of peace, Ribbentrop argued to whoever would listen that the German people had been \"humiliated\" by the Versailles Treaty, Germany wanted peace above all and German violations of Versailles were part of an effort to restore Germany's \"self-respect\".", "By the 1930s, much of British opinion had been convinced that the treaty was monstrously unfair and unjust to Germany, so as a result, many in Britain, such as Thomas Jones, Deputy Secretary to the Cabinet, were very open to Ribbentrop's message that European peace would be restored if only the Treaty of Versailles could be done away with." ], [ "Ambassador to the United Kingdom", "In August 1936, Hitler appointed Ribbentrop ambassador to the United Kingdom with orders to negotiate an Anglo-German alliance.", "Ribbentrop arrived to take up his position in October 1936, formally presenting his credentials to King Edward VIII on 30 October.", "Ribbentrop's time in London was marked by an endless series of social gaffes and blunders that worsened his already-poor relations with the British Foreign Office.Invited to stay as a house guest of the 7th Marquess of Londonderry at Wynyard Hall in County Durham, in November 1936, he was taken to a service in Durham Cathedral, and the hymn ''Glorious Things of Thee Are Spoken'' was announced.", "As the organ played the opening bars, identical to the German national anthem, Ribbentrop gave the Nazi salute and had to be restrained by his host.At his wife's suggestion, Ribbentrop hired the Berlin interior decorator Martin Luther to assist with his move to London and help realise the design of the new German embassy that Ribbentrop had built there (he felt that the existing embassy was insufficiently grand).", "Luther proved to be a master intriguer and became Ribbentrop's favorite hatchet man.Ribbentrop did not understand the limited role in government exercised by 20th-century British monarchs.", "He thought that King Edward VIII, Emperor of India, could dictate British foreign policy if he wanted.", "He convinced Hitler that he had Edward's support, but that was as much a delusion as his belief that he had impressed British society.", "In fact, Ribbentrop often displayed a fundamental misunderstanding of British politics and society.", "During the abdication crisis in December 1936, Ribbentrop reported to Berlin that it had been precipitated by an anti-German Jewish-Masonic-reactionary conspiracy to depose Edward, whom Ribbentrop represented as a staunch friend of Germany, and that civil war would soon break out in Britain between supporters of Edward and those of Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin.", "Ribbentrop's civil war predictions were greeted with incredulity by the British people who heard them.", "Duke Carl Alexander of Württemberg had told the Federal Bureau of Investigation that Wallis Simpson, Edward's lover and a suspected Nazi sympathizer, had slept with Ribbentrop in London in 1936; had remained in constant contact with him; and had continued to leak secrets.Ribbentrop had a habit of summoning tailors from the best British firms, making them wait for hours and then sending them away without seeing him but with instructions to return the next day, only to repeat the process.", "That did immense damage to his reputation in British high society, as London's tailors retaliated by telling all their well-off clients that Ribbentrop was impossible to deal with.", "In an interview, his secretary Reinhard Spitzy stated, \"He Ribbentrop behaved very stupidly and very pompously and the British don't like pompous people\".", "In the same interview, Spitzy called Ribbentrop \"pompous, conceited and not too intelligent\" and stated he was an utterly insufferable man to work for.In addition, Ribbentrop chose to spend as little time as possible in London to stay close to Hitler, which irritated the British Foreign Office immensely, as Ribbentrop's frequent absences prevented the handling of many routine diplomatic matters.", "(''Punch'' referred to him as the ''\"Wandering Aryan\"'' for his frequent trips home.)", "As Ribbentrop alienated more and more people in Britain, ''Reichsmarschall'' Hermann Göring warned Hitler that Ribbentrop was a \"stupid ass\".", "Hitler dismissed Göring's concerns: \"But after all, he knows quite a lot of important people in England.\"", "That remark led Göring to reply \"''Mein Führer'', that may be right, but the bad thing is, they know ''him''\".In February 1937, Ribbentrop committed a notable social gaffe by unexpectedly greeting George VI with the \"German greeting\", a stiff-armed Nazi salute: the gesture nearly knocked over the King, who was walking forward to shake Ribbentrop's hand at the time.", "Ribbentrop further compounded the damage to his image and caused a minor crisis in Anglo-German relations by insisting that henceforward all German diplomats were to greet heads of state by giving and receiving the stiff-arm fascist salute.", "The crisis was resolved when Neurath pointed out to Hitler that under Ribbentrop's rule, if the Soviet ambassador were to give the Communist clenched-fist salute, Hitler would be obliged to return it.", "On Neurath's advice, Hitler disavowed Ribbentrop's demand that King George receive and give the \"German greeting\".Most of Ribbentrop's time was spent demanding that Britain either sign the Anti-Comintern Pact or return the former German colonies in Africa.", "However, he also devoted considerable time to courting what he called the \"men of influence\" as the best way to achieve an Anglo-German alliance.", "He believed that the British aristocracy comprised some sort of secret society that ruled from behind the scenes, and that if he could befriend enough members of Britain's \"secret government\" he could bring about the alliance.", "Almost all of the initially-favourable reports Ribbentrop provided to Berlin about the alliance's prospects were based on friendly remarks about the \"New Germany\" that came from British aristocrats such as Lord Londonderry and Lord Lothian.", "The rather cool reception that Ribbentrop received from British Cabinet ministers and senior bureaucrats did not make much of an impression on him at first.", "This British governmental view, summarised by Robert, Viscount Cranborne, Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, was that Ribbentrop always was a second-rate man.In 1935, Sir Eric Phipps, the British Ambassador to Germany, complained to London about Ribbentrop's British associates in the Anglo-German Fellowship.", "He felt that they created \"false German hopes as in regards to British friendship and caused a reaction against it in England, where public opinion is very naturally hostile to the Nazi regime and its methods\".", "In September 1937, the British Consul in Munich, writing about the group that Ribbentrop had brought to the Nuremberg Rally, reported that there were some \"serious persons of standing among them\" but that an equal number of Ribbentrop's British contingent were \"eccentrics and few, if any, could be called representatives of serious English thought, either political or social, while they most certainly lacked any political or social influence in England\".", "In June 1937, when Lord Mount Temple, the Chairman of the Anglo-German Fellowship, asked to see Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain after meeting Hitler in a visit arranged by Ribbentrop, Robert Vansittart, the British Foreign Office's Permanent Under-Secretary of State, wrote a memo stating that:The P.M. Prime Minister should certainly not see Lord Mount Temple – nor should the Secretary of State.", "We really must put a stop to this eternal butting in of amateurs – and Lord Mount Temple is a particularly silly one.", "These activities – which are practically confined to Germany – render impossible the task of diplomacy.After Vansittart's memo, members of the Anglo-German Fellowship ceased to see Cabinet ministers after they went on Ribbentrop-arranged trips to Germany.In February 1937, before a meeting with the Lord Privy Seal, Lord Halifax, Ribbentrop suggested to Hitler that Germany, Italy and Japan begin a worldwide propaganda campaign with the aim of forcing Britain to return the former German colonies in Africa.", "Hitler turned down the idea, but nonetheless during his meeting with Lord Halifax, Ribbentrop spent much of the meeting demanding that Britain sign an alliance with Germany and return the former German colonies.", "The German historian Klaus Hildebrand noted that as early as the Ribbentrop–Halifax meeting the differing foreign policy views of Hitler and Ribbentrop were starting to emerge, with Ribbentrop more interested in restoring the pre-1914 German ''Imperium'' in Africa than the conquest of Eastern Europe.", "Following the lead of Andreas Hillgruber, who argued that Hitler had a ''Stufenplan'' (stage by stage plan) for world conquest, Hildebrand argued that Ribbentrop may not have fully understood what Hitler's ''Stufenplan'' was or that in pressing so hard for colonial restoration, he was trying to score a personal success that might improve his standing with Hitler.", "In March 1937, Ribbentrop attracted much adverse comment in the British press when he gave a speech at the Leipzig Trade Fair in Leipzig in which he declared that German economic prosperity would be satisfied \"through the restoration of the former German colonial possessions, or by means of the German people's own strength.\"", "The implied threat that if colonial restoration did not occur, the Germans would take back their former colonies by force attracted a great deal of hostile commentary on the inappropriateness of an ambassador threatening his host country in such a manner.Ribbentrop's negotiating style, a mix of bullying bluster and icy coldness coupled with lengthy monologues praising Hitler, alienated many.", "The American historian Gordon A. Craig once observed that of all the voluminous memoir literature of the diplomatic scene of 1930s Europe, there are only two positive references to Ribbentrop.", "Of the two references, General Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg, the German military attaché in London, commented that Ribbentrop had been a brave soldier in World War I, and the wife of the Italian Ambassador to Germany, Elisabetta Cerruti, called Ribbentrop \"one of the most diverting of the Nazis\".", "In both cases, the praise was limited, with Cerruti going on to write that only in Nazi Germany was it possible for someone as superficial as Ribbentrop to rise to be a minister of foreign affairs, and Geyr von Schweppenburg called Ribbentrop an absolute disaster as ambassador in London.", "The British historian/television producer Laurence Rees noted for his 1997 series ''The Nazis: A Warning from History'' that every single person interviewed for the series who knew Ribbentrop expressed a passionate hatred for him.", "One German diplomat, Herbert Richter, called Ribbentrop \"lazy and worthless\", while another, Manfred von Schröder, was quoted as saying Ribbentrop was \"vain and ambitious\".", "Rees concluded, \"No other Nazi was so hated by his colleagues\".In November 1937, Ribbentrop was placed in a highly-embarrassing situation since his forceful advocacy of the return of the former German colonies led British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden and French Foreign Minister Yvon Delbos to offer to open talks on returning the former German colonies in return for which the Germans would make binding commitments to respect their borders in Central and Eastern Europe.", "Since Hitler was not interested in obtaining the former colonies, especially if the price was a brake on expansion into Eastern Europe, Ribbentrop was forced to turn down the Anglo-French offer that he had largely brought about.", "Immediately after turning down the Anglo-French offer on colonial restoration, Ribbentrop, for reasons of pure malice, ordered the ''Reichskolonialbund'' to increase the agitation for the former German colonies, a move that exasperated both the Foreign Office and the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.As the Italian Foreign Minister, Count Galeazzo Ciano, noted in his diary in late 1937, Ribbentrop had come to hate Britain with all the \"fury of a woman scorned\".", "Ribbentrop and Hitler, for that matter, never understood that British foreign policy aimed at the appeasement of Germany, not an alliance with it.When Ribbentrop traveled to Rome in November 1937 to oversee Italy's adhesion to the Anti-Comintern Pact, he made clear to his hosts that the pact was really directed against Britain.", "As Ciano noted in his diary, the Anti-Comintern Pact was \"anti-Communist in theory, but in fact unmistakably anti-British\".", "Believing himself to be in a state of disgrace with Hitler over his failure to achieve the British alliance, Ribbentrop spent December 1937 in a state of depression and, together with his wife, wrote two lengthy documents for Hitler that denounced Britain.", "In the first report to Hitler, which was presented on 2 January 1938, Ribbentrop stated that \"England is our most dangerous enemy\".", "In the same report, Ribbentrop advised Hitler to abandon the idea of a British alliance and instead embrace the idea of an alliance of Germany, Japan and Italy to destroy the British Empire.Ribbentrop wrote in his \"Memorandum for the ''Führer''\" that \"a change in the status quo in the East to Germany's advantage can only be accomplished by force\" and that the best way to achieve it was to build a global anti-British alliance system.", "Besides converting the Anti-Comintern Pact into an anti-British military alliance, Ribbentrop argued that German foreign policy should work to \"winning over all states whose interests conform directly or indirectly to ours.\"", "By the last statement, Ribbentrop clearly implied that the Soviet Union should be included in the anti-British alliance system he had proposed." ], [ "Foreign Minister of the ''Reich''", "Ribbentrop as ''SS-Gruppenführer'', 1938In early 1938, Hitler asserted his control of the military-foreign policy apparatus, in part by sacking Neurath.", "On 4 February 1938, Ribbentrop succeeded Neurath as Foreign Minister.", "Ribbentrop's appointment has generally been seen as an indication that German foreign policy was moving in a more radical direction.", "In contrast to Neurath's cautious and less bellicose nature, Ribbentrop unequivocally supported war in 1938 and 1939.Ribbentrop's time as Foreign Minister can be divided into three periods.", "In the first, from 1938 to 1939, he tried to persuade other states to align themselves with Germany for the coming war.", "In the second, from 1939 to 1943, Ribbentrop attempted to persuade other states to enter the war on Germany's side or at least to maintain pro-German neutrality.", "He was also involved in Operation Willi, an attempt to convince the former King Edward VIII to lobby his brother, now the king, on behalf of Germany.", "Many historians have suggested that Hitler was prepared to reinstate the Duke of Windsor as king in the hope of establishing a fascist Britain.", "If Edward would agree to work openly with Nazi Germany, he would be given financial assistance and would hopefully come to be a \"compliant\" king.", "Reportedly, 50 million Swiss francs were set aside for that purpose.", "The plan was never realised.In the final phase, from 1943 to 1945, he had the task of trying to keep Germany's allies from leaving her side.", "During the course of all three periods, Ribbentrop frequently met leaders and diplomats from Italy, Japan, Romania, Spain, Bulgaria, and Hungary.", "During all of that time, Ribbentrop feuded with various other Nazi leaders.", "As time went by, Ribbentrop started to oust the Foreign Office's old diplomats from their senior positions and replace them with men from the ''Dienststelle''.", "As early as 1938, 32% of the offices in the Foreign Ministry were held by men who previously served in the ''Dienststelle''.One of Ribbentrop's first acts as Foreign Minister was to achieve a total volte-face in Germany's Far Eastern policies.", "Ribbentrop was instrumental in February 1938 in persuading Hitler to recognize the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo and to renounce German claims upon its former colonies in the Pacific, which were now held by Japan.", "By April 1938, Ribbentrop had ended all German arms shipments to China and had all of the German Army officers serving with the Kuomintang government of Chiang Kai-shek recalled, with the threat that the families of the officers in China would be sent to concentration camps if the officers did not return to Germany immediately.", "In return, the Germans received little thanks from the Japanese, who refused to allow any new German businesses to be set up in the part of China they had occupied and continued with their policy of attempting to exclude all existing German and all other Western businesses from Japanese-occupied China.", "At the same time, the end of the informal Sino-German alliance led Chiang to terminate all concessions and contracts held by German companies in Kuomintang China.===Munich Agreement and Czechoslovakia's destruction===The French Premier Édouard Daladier (centre) with Ribbentrop at the Munich Summit, 1938Ernst von Weizsäcker, the State Secretary from 1938 to 1943, opposed the general trend in German foreign policy towards attacking the First Czechoslovak Republic and feared that it might cause a general war that Germany would lose.", "Weizsäcker had no moral objections to the idea of destroying Czechoslovakia but opposed only the timing of the attack.", "He favoured the idea of a \"chemical\" destruction of Czechoslovakia in which Germany, Hungary and Poland would close their frontiers to destabilise Czechoslovakia economically.", "He strongly disliked Ribbentrop's idea of a \"mechanical\" destruction of Czechoslovakia by war, which he saw as too risky.", "However, despite all of their reservations and fears about Ribbentrop, whom they saw as recklessly seeking to plunge Germany into a general war before the ''Reich'' was ready, neither Weizsäcker nor any of the other professional diplomats were prepared to confront their chief.Neville Chamberlain with Ribbentrop at the Munich Summit, 1938Before the Anglo-German summit at Berchtesgaden on 15 September 1938, the British Ambassador, Sir Nevile Henderson, and Weizsäcker worked out a private arrangement for Hitler and Chamberlain to meet with no advisers present as a way of excluding the ultrahawkish Ribbentrop from attending the talks.", "Hitler's interpreter, Paul Schmidt, later recalled that it was \"felt that our Foreign Minister would prove a disturbing element\" at the Berchtesgaden summit.", "In a moment of pique at his exclusion from the Chamberlain-Hitler meeting, Ribbentrop refused to hand over Schmidt's notes of the summit to Chamberlain, a move that caused much annoyance on the British side.", "Ribbentrop spent the last weeks of September 1938 looking forward very much to the German-Czechoslovak war that he expected to break out on 1 October 1938.Ribbentrop regarded the Munich Agreement as a diplomatic defeat for Germany, as it deprived Germany of the opportunity to wage the war to destroy Czechoslovakia that Ribbentrop wanted to see.", "The Sudetenland issue, which was the ostensible subject of the German-Czechoslovak dispute, had been a pretext for German aggression.", "During the Munich Conference, Ribbentrop spent much of his time brooding unhappily in the corners.", "Ribbentrop told the head of Hitler's Press Office, Fritz Hesse, that the Munich Agreement was \"first-class stupidity.... All it means is that we have to fight the English in a year, when they will be better armed....", "It would have been much better if war had come now\".", "Like Hitler, Ribbentrop was determined that in the next crisis, Germany would not have its professed demands met in another Munich-type summit and that the next crisis to be caused by Germany would result in the war that Chamberlain had \"cheated\" the Germans out of at Munich.Ernst von Weizsäcker, the Secretary of State at the German Foreign Office, 1938–1943In the aftermath of Munich, Hitler was in a violently anti-British mood caused in part by his rage over being \"cheated\" out of the war to \"annihilate\" Czechoslovakia that he very much wanted to have in 1938 and in part by his realisation that Britain would neither ally itself nor stand aside in regard to Germany's ambition to dominate Europe.", "As a consequence, Britain was considered after Munich to be the main enemy of the ''Reich'', and as a result, the influence of ardently Anglophobic Ribbentrop correspondingly rose with Hitler.Partly for economic reasons, and partly out of fury over being \"cheated\" out of war in 1938, Hitler decided to destroy the rump state of Czecho-Slovakia, as Czechoslovakia had been renamed in October 1938, early in 1939.Ribbentrop played an important role in setting in motion the crisis that was to result in the end of Czecho-Slovakia by ordering German diplomats in Bratislava to contact Father Jozef Tiso, the premier of the Slovak regional government, and pressure him to declare independence from Prague.", "When Tiso proved reluctant to do so on the grounds that the autonomy that had existed since October 1938 was sufficient for him and that to completely sever links with the Czechs would leave Slovakia open to being annexed by Hungary, Ribbentrop had the German embassy in Budapest contact the regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy.", "Horthy was advised that the Germans might be open to having more of Hungary restored to its former borders and that the Hungarians should best start concentrating troops on their northern border at once if they were serious about changing their frontiers.", "Upon hearing of the Hungarian mobilization, Tiso was presented with the choice of either declaring independence, with the understanding that the new state would be in the German sphere of influence, or seeing all of Slovakia absorbed into Hungary.", "As a result, Tiso had the Slovak regional government issue a declaration of independence on 14 March 1939; the ensuing crisis in Czech-Slovak relations was used as a pretext to summon Czecho-Slovak President Emil Hácha to Berlin over his \"failure\" to keep order in his country.", "On the night of 14–15 March 1939, Ribbentrop played a key role in the German annexation of the Czech part of Czecho-Slovakia by bullying Hácha into transforming his country into a German protectorate at a meeting in the Reich Chancellery in Berlin.", "On 15 March 1939, German troops occupied the Czech areas of Czecho-Slovakia, which then became the ''Reich'' Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.On 20 March 1939, Ribbentrop summoned Lithuanian Foreign Minister Juozas Urbšys to Berlin and informed him that if a Lithuanian plenipotentiary did not arrive at once to negotiate to turn over the Memelland to Germany the Luftwaffe would raze Kaunas to the ground.", "As a result of Ribbentrop's ultimatum on 23 March, the Lithuanians agreed to return Memel (modern Klaipėda, Lithuania) to Germany.In March 1939, Ribbentrop assigned the largely ethnically Ukrainian Sub-Carpathian Ruthenia region of Czecho-Slovakia, which had just proclaimed its independence as the Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine, to Hungary, which then proceeded to annex it after a short war.", "This was significant as there had been many fears in the Soviet Union in the 1930s that the Germans would use Ukrainian nationalism as a tool to break up the Soviet Union.", "The establishment of an autonomous Ukrainian region in Czecho-Slovakia in October 1938 had prompted a major Soviet media campaign against its existence on the grounds that this was part of a Western plot to support separatism in Soviet Ukraine.", "By allowing the Hungarians to destroy Europe's only Ukrainian state, Ribbentrop had signified that Germany was not interested, at least for now, in sponsoring Ukrainian nationalism.", "That, in turn, helped to improve German-Soviet relations by demonstrating that German foreign policy was now primarily anti-Western rather than anti-Soviet.===French-German Non-Aggression pact, December 1938===In December 1938, during Ribbentrop's visit to Paris to sign the largely-meaningless French-German Non-Aggression pact, he had conversations with French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet, which Ribbentrop later claimed included a promise that France would recognize all of Eastern Europe as Germany's exclusive sphere of influence.===German threat to Poland and British guarantee===Initially, Germany hoped to transform Poland into a satellite state, with Ribbentrop and Japanese military attache Hiroshi Ōshima trying to convince Poland to join the Anti-Comintern Pact.", "By March 1939, German demands had been rejected by the Poles three times, which led Hitler to decide, with enthusiastic support from Ribbentrop, upon the destruction of Poland as the main German foreign policy goal of 1939.On 21 March 1939, Hitler first went public with his demand that Danzig rejoin the ''Reich'' and for \"extra-territorial\" roads across the Polish Corridor.", "That marked a significant escalation of the German pressure on Poland, which had been confined to private meetings between German and Polish diplomats.", "The same day, on 21 March 1939, Ribbentrop presented a set of demands to the Polish Ambassador Józef Lipski about Poland allowing the Free City of Danzig to return to Germany in such violent and extreme language that it led to the Poles to fear their country was on the verge of an immediate German attack.", "Ribbentrop had used such extreme language, particularly his remark that if Germany had a different policy towards the Soviet Union then Poland would cease to exist, that it led to the Poles ordering partial mobilisation and placing their armed forces on the highest state of alert on 23 March 1939.In a protest note at Ribbentrop's behaviour, Poland's Foreign Minister Józef Beck reminded him that Poland was an independent country and not some sort of German protectorate that Ribbentrop could bully at will.", "Ribbentrop, in turn, sent out instructions to the German Ambassador in Warsaw, Count Hans-Adolf von Moltke, that if Poland agreed to the German demands, Germany would ensure that Poland could partition Slovakia with Hungary and be ensured of German support for annexing Ukraine.", "If the Poles rejected his offer, Poland would be considered an enemy of the ''Reich''.", "On 26 March, in an extremely-stormy meeting with the Polish Ambassador Józef Lipski, Ribbentrop accused the Poles of attempting to bully Germany by their partial mobilisation and violently attacked them for offering consideration only of the German demand about the \"extra-territorial\" roads.", "The meeting ended with Ribbentrop screaming that if Poland invaded the Free City of Danzig, Germany would go to war to destroy Poland.", "When the news of Ribbentrop's remarks was leaked to the Polish press, despite Beck's order to the censors on 27 March, it caused anti-German riots in Poland with the local Nazi Party headquarters in the mixed town of Lininco destroyed by a mob.", "On 28 March, Beck told Moltke that any attempt to change the status of Danzig unilaterally would be regarded by Poland as a ''casus belli''.", "Though the Germans were not planning an attack on Poland in March 1939, Ribbentrop's bullying behaviour towards the Poles destroyed any faint chance Poland allowing Danzig to return to Germany.The German occupation of the Czech areas of Czecho-Slovakia on 15 March, in total contravention of the Munich Agreement, which had been signed less than six months before, infuriated British and French public opinion and lost Germany any sympathy.", "Such was the state of public fury that it appeared possible for several days afterwards that the Chamberlain government might fall because of a backbench rebellion.", "Even Ribbentrop's standard line that Germany was only reacting to an unjust Versailles treaty and wanted peace with everyone, which had worked so well in the past, failed to carry weight.", "Reflecting the changed mood, Conservative MP Duff Cooper wrote in a letter to ''The Times'':Some of us are getting rather tired of the sanctimonious attitude which seeks to take upon our shoulders the blame for every crime committed in Europe.", "If Germany had been left stronger in 1919 she would sooner have been in a position to do what she is doing today.Moreover, the British government had genuinely believed in the German claim that it was only the Sudetenland that concerned it and that Germany was not seeking to dominate Europe.", "By occupying the Czech parts of Czecho-Slovakia, Germany lost all credibility for its claim to be only righting the alleged wrongs of Versailles.Shortly afterwards, false reports spread in mid-March 1939 by the Romanian minister in London, Virgil Tilea, that his country was on the verge of an immediate German attack, led to a dramatic U-turn in the British policy of resisting commitments in Eastern Europe.", "Ribbentrop truthfully denied that Germany was going to invade Romania.", "But his denials were expressed in almost identical language to the denials that he had issued in early March, when he had denied that anything was being planned against the Czechs; thus they actually increased the \"Romanian war scare\" of March 1939.From the British point of view, it was regarded as highly desirable to keep Romania and its oil out of German hands.", "Since Germany itself had hardly any sources of oil, the ability of the Royal Navy to impose a blockade represented a British trump card to deter and, if necessary, win a war.", "If Germany were to occupy oil-rich Romania, that would undercut all of the British strategic assumptions on Germany's need to import oil from the Americas.", "Since Poland was regarded as the East European state with the most powerful army, Poland had to be tied to Britain as the best way of ensuring Polish support for Romania; it was the obvious ''quid pro quo'' that Britain would have to do something for Polish security if the Poles were to be induced to do something for Romanian security.On 31 March 1939, Chamberlain announced before the House of Commons the British \"guarantee\" of Poland, which committed Britain to go to war to defend Polish independence, though pointedly the \"guarantee\" excluded Polish frontiers.", "As a result of the \"guarantee\" of Poland, Hitler began to speak with increasing frequency of a British \"encirclement\" policy, which he used as the excuse for denouncing, in a speech before the ''Reichstag'' on 28 April 1939, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the Non-Aggression Pact with Poland.===Turkey===In late March, Ribbentrop had the German ''chargé d'affaires'' in Turkey, Hans Kroll, start pressuring Turkey into an alliance with Germany.", "The Turks assured Kroll that they had no objection to Germany making the Balkans its economic sphere of influence but would regard any move to make the Balkans into a sphere of German political influence as most unwelcome.In April 1939, when Ribbentrop announced at a secret meeting of the senior staff of the Foreign Office that Germany was ending talks with Poland and was instead going to destroy it in an operation late that year, the news was greeted joyfully by those present.", "Anti-Polish feelings had long been rampant in the agency and so, in marked contrast to their cool attitude about attacking Czechoslovakia in 1938, diplomats such as Weizsäcker were highly enthusiastic about the prospect of war with Poland in 1939.Professional diplomats such as Weizsäcker who had never accepted the legitimacy of Poland, which they saw as an \"abomination\" created by the Versailles Treaty, were wholehearted in their support of a war to wipe Poland off the map.", "The degree of unity within the German government with both the diplomats and the military united in their support of Hitler's anti-Polish policy, which stood in contrast to their views the previous year about destroying Czechoslovakia, very much encouraged Hitler and Ribbentrop with their chosen course of action.In April 1939, Ribbentrop received intelligence that Britain and Turkey were negotiating an alliance intended to keep Germany out of the Balkans.", "On 23 April 1939, Turkish Foreign Minister Şükrü Saracoğlu told the British ambassador of Turkish fears of Italian claims of the Mediterranean as ''Mare Nostrum'' and German control of the Balkans, and he suggested an Anglo-Soviet-Turkish alliance as the best way of countering the Axis.", "As the Germans had broken the Turkish diplomatic codes, Ribbentrop was well aware as he warned in a circular to German embassies that Anglo-Turkish talks had gone much further \"than what the Turks would care to tell us\".", "Ribbentrop appointed Franz von Papen Germany's ambassador in Turkey with instructions to win it to an alliance with Germany.", "Ribbentrop had been attempting to appoint Papen as an ambassador to Turkey since April 1938.His first attempt ended in failure when Turkish President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who remembered Papen well with considerable distaste from World War I, refused to accept him as ambassador and complained in private the nomination of Papen must have been meant as some sort of sick German joke.", "The German embassy in Ankara had been vacant ever since the retirement of the previous ambassador Friedrich von Keller in November 1938, and Ribbentrop was able to get the Turks to accept Papen as ambassador only when Saracoğlu complained to Kroll in April 1939 about when the Germans were ever going to send a new ambassador.", "Papen's attempt to address Turkish fears of Italian expansionism by getting Ribbentrop to have Count Galeazzo Ciano promise the Turks that they had nothing to fear from Italy backfired when the Turks found the Italo-German effort to have been patronising and insulting.Instead of focusing on talking to the Turks, Ribbentrop and Papen became entangled in a feud over Papen's demand to bypass Ribbentrop and to send his dispatches straight to Hitler.", "As a former chancellor, Papen had been granted the privilege of bypassing the Foreign Minister while he was ambassador to Austria.", "Ribbentrop's friendship with Papen, which went back to 1918, ended over that issue.", "At the same time, Ribbentrop took to shouting at the Turkish Ambassador in Berlin, Mehemet Hamdi Arpag, as part of the effort to win Turkey over as a German ally.", "Ribbentrop believed that Turks were so stupid that one had to shout at them to make them understand.", "One of the consequences of Ribbentrop's heavyhanded behaviour was the signing of the Anglo-Turkish alliance on 12 May 1939.From early 1939 onwards, Ribbentrop had become the leading advocate within the German government of reaching an understanding with the Soviet Union as the best way of pursuing both the short-term anti-Polish and long-term anti-British foreign policy goals.", "Ribbentrop first seems to have considered the idea of a pact with the Soviet Union after an unsuccessful visit to Warsaw in January 1939, when the Poles again refused Ribbentrop's demands about Danzig, the \"extra-territorial\" roads across the Polish Corridor and the Anti-Comintern Pact.", "During the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact negotiations, Ribbentrop was overjoyed by a report from his ambassador in Moscow, Count Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg, of a speech by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin before the 18th Party Congress in March 1939 that was strongly anti-Western, which Schulenburg reported meant that the Soviet Union might be seeking an accord with Germany.", "Ribbentrop followed up Schulenburg's report by sending Dr. Julius Schnurre of the Foreign Office's trade department to negotiate a German-Soviet economic agreement.", "At the same time, Ribbentrop's efforts to convert the Anti-Comintern Pact into an anti-British alliance met with considerable hostility from the Japanese in late 1938 and early 1939, but with the Italians, Ribbentrop enjoyed some apparent success.", "Because of Japanese opposition to participation in an anti-British alliance, Ribbentrop decided to settle for a bilateral German-Italian anti-British treaty.", "Ribbentrop's efforts were crowned with success with the signing of the Pact of Steel in May 1939, but it was accomplished only by falsely assuring Mussolini that there would be no war for the next three years.===Pact with Soviet Union and outbreak of World War II===Stalin and Ribbentrop at the signing of the Non-Aggression Pact, 23 August 1939Ribbentrop played a key role in the conclusion of a Soviet-German non-aggression pact, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, in 1939 and in the diplomatic action surrounding the attack on Poland.", "In public, Ribbentrop expressed great fury at the Polish refusal to allow for Danzig's return to the ''Reich'' or to grant Polish permission for the \"extra-territorial\" highways, but since the matters were intended after March 1939 to be only a pretext for German aggression, Ribbentrop always refused privately to allow for any talks between German and Polish diplomats about those matters.", "Ribbentrop feared that if German–Polish talks took place, there was the danger that the Poles might back down and agree to the German demands, as the Czechoslovaks had done in 1938 under Anglo-French pressure, depriving the Germans of their excuse for aggression.", "To block German–Polish diplomatic talks further, Ribbentrop had the German Ambassador to Poland, Count Hans-Adolf von Moltke, recalled, and he refused to see the Polish ambassador, Józef Lipski.", "On 25 May 1939, Ribbentrop sent a secret message to Moscow to tell the Soviet Foreign Commissar, Vyacheslav Molotov, that if Germany attacked Poland \"Russia's special interests would be taken into consideration\".Throughout 1939, Hitler always privately referred to Britain as his main opponent but portrayed the coming destruction of Poland as a necessary prelude to any war with Britain.", "Ribbentrop informed Hitler that any war with Poland would last for only 24 hours and that the British would be so stunned with this display of German power that they would not honour their commitments.", "Along the same lines, Ribbentrop told Ciano on 5 May 1939, \"It is certain that within a few months not one Frenchman nor a single Englishman will go to war for Poland\".Ribbentrop supported his analysis of the situation by showing Hitler only the diplomatic dispatches that supported his view that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland.", "In that, Ribbentrop was particularly supported by the German Ambassador in London, Herbert von Dirksen, who reported that Chamberlain knew \"the social structure of Britain, even the conception of the British Empire, would not survive the chaos of even a victorious war\" and so would back down over Poland.", "Furthermore, Ribbentrop had the German embassy in London provide translations from pro-appeasement newspapers such as the ''Daily Mail'' and the ''Daily Express'' for Hitler's benefit, which had the effect of making it seem that British public opinion was more strongly against going to war for Poland than it actually was.", "The British historian Victor Rothwell wrote that the newspapers used by Ribbentrop to provide his press summaries for Hitler were out of touch not only with British public opinion but also with British government policy in regard to Poland.", "The press summaries Ribbentrop provided were particularly important, as Ribbentrop had managed to convince Hitler that the British government secretly controlled the British press, and just as in Germany, nothing appeared in the British press that the British government did not want to appear.", "Furthermore, the Germans had broken the British diplomatic codes and were reading the messages between the Foreign Office in London to and from the Embassy in Warsaw.", "The decrypts showed that there was much tension in Anglo-Polish relations, with the British pressuring the Poles to allow Danzig to rejoin the ''Reich'' and the Poles staunchly resisting all efforts to pressure them into concessions to Germany.", "On the basis of such decrypts, Hitler and Ribbentrop believed that the British were bluffing with their warnings that they would go to war to defend Polish independence.", "In mid-1939, Ribbentrop sabotaged all efforts at a peaceful solution to the Danzig dispute, leading the American historian Gerhard Weinberg to comment that \"perhaps Chamberlain's haggard appearance did him more credit than Ribbentrop's beaming smile\", as the countdown to a war that would kill tens of millions inexorably gathered pace.Neville Chamberlain's European Policy in 1939 was based upon creating a \"peace front\" of alliances linking Western and Eastern European states to serve as a \"tripwire\" meant to deter any act of German aggression.", "The new \"containment\" strategy adopted in March 1939 was to give firm warnings to Berlin, increase the pace of British re-armament and attempt to form an interlocking network of alliances that would block German aggression anywhere in Europe by creating such a formidable deterrence to aggression that Hitler could not rationally choose that option.", "Underlying the basis of the \"containment\" of Germany were the so-called \"X documents\", provided by Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, in 1938–1939.They suggested that the German economy, under the strain of massive military spending, was on the verge of collapse and led British policy-makers to the conclusion that if Hitler could be deterred from war and that if his regime was \"contained\" long enough, the German economy would collapse, and, with it, presumably the Nazi regime.", "At the same time, British policymakers were afraid that if Hitler were \"contained\" and faced with a collapsing economy, he would commit a desperate \"mad dog act\" of aggression as a way of lashing out.", "Hence, emphasis was put on pressuring the Poles to allow the return of Danzig to Germany as a way of resolving the crisis peacefully by allowing Hitler to back down without him losing face.", "As part of a dual strategy to avoid war via deterrence and appeasement of Germany, British leaders warned that they would go to war if Germany attacked Poland, but at the same time, they tried to avoid war by holding unofficial talks with would-be peacemakers such as the British newspaper proprietor Lord Kemsley, the Swedish businessman Axel Wenner-Gren and another Swedish businessman Birger Dahlerus, who attempted to work out the basis for a peaceful return of Danzig.In May 1939, as part of his efforts to bully Turkey into joining the Axis, Ribbentrop had arranged for the cancellation of the delivery of 60 heavy howitzers from the Škoda Works, which the Turks had paid for in advance.", "The German refusal either to deliver the artillery pieces or refund the 125 million ''Reichsmarks'' that the Turks had paid for them was to be a major strain on German-Turkish relations in 1939 and had the effect of causing Turkey's politically powerful army to resist Ribbentrop's entreaties to join the Axis.", "As part of the fierce diplomatic competition in Ankara in the first half of 1939 between von Papen and French Ambassador René Massigli with British Ambassador, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen to win the allegiance of Turkey to either the Axis or the Allies, Ribbentrop suffered a major reversal in July 1939 when Massigli was able to arrange for major French arms shipments to Turkey on credit to replace the weapons that the Germans had refused to deliver to the Turks.In June 1939, Franco-German relations were strained when the head of the French section of the ''Dienststelle Ribbentrop'', Otto Abetz, was expelled from France following allegations that he had bribed two French newspaper editors to print pro-German articles.", "Ribbentrop was enraged by Abetz's expulsion and attacked Count Johannes von Welczeck, the German Ambassador in Paris, over his failure to have the French readmit him.", "In July 1939, Ribbentrop's claims about an alleged statement of December 1938 made by French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet were to lead to a lengthy war of words via a series of letters to the French newspapers between Ribbentrop and Bonnet over precisely what Bonnet had said to Ribbentrop.On 11 August 1939, Ribbentrop met the Italian Foreign Minister, Count Galeazzo Ciano, and the Italian Ambassador to Germany, Count Bernardo Attolico, in Salzburg.", "During that meeting, both Ciano and Attolico were horrified to learn from Ribbentrop that Germany planned to attack Poland and that the Danzig issue was just a pretext for aggression.", "When Ciano asked if there was anything Italy could do to broker a Polish-German settlement that would avert a war, he was told by Ribbentrop, \"We want war!\"", "Ribbentrop expressed his firmly held belief that neither Britain nor France would go to war for Poland, but if that occurred, he fully expected the Italians to honour the terms of the Pact of Steel, which was both an offensive and defensive treaty, and to declare war not only on Poland but on the Western powers if necessary.", "Ribbentrop told his Italian guests that \"the localisation of the conflict is certain\" and \"the probability of victory is infinite\".", "Ribbentrop brushed away Ciano's fears of a general war.", "He claimed, \"France and England cannot intervene because they are insufficiently prepared militarily and because they have no means of injuring Germany\".", "Ciano complained furiously that Ribbentrop had violated his promise given earlier that year, when Italy signed the Pact of Steel, that there would be no war for the next three years.", "Ciano said that it was absurd to believe that the ''Reich'' could attack Poland without triggering a wider war and that now the Italians were left with the choice of going to war when they needed three more years to rearm or being forced into the humiliation of having to violate the terms of the Pact of Steel by declaring neutrality, which would make the Italians appear cowardly.", "Ciano complained in his diary that his arguments \"had no effect\" on Ribbentrop, who simply refused to believe any information that did not fit in with his preconceived notions.", "Despite Ciano's efforts to persuade Ribbentrop to put off the attack on Poland until 1942 to allow the Italians time to get ready for war, Ribbentrop was adamant that Germany had no interest in a diplomatic solution of the Danzig question but wanted a war to wipe Poland off the map.", "The Salzburg meeting marked the moment when Ciano's dislike of Ribbentrop was transformed into outright hatred and of the beginning of his disillusionment with the pro-German foreign policy that he had championed.On 21 August 1939, Hitler received a message from Stalin: \"The Soviet Government has instructed me to say they agree to Herr von Ribbentrop's arrival on 23 August\".", "The same day, Hitler ordered German mobilisation.", "The extent that Hitler was influenced by Ribbentrop's advice can be seen in Hitler's orders for a limited mobilisation against Poland alone.", "Weizsäcker recorded in his diary throughout the first half of 1939 repeated statements from Hitler that any German–Polish war would be a localized conflict and that there was no danger of a general war if the Soviet Union could be persuaded to stay neutral.", "Hitler believed that British policy was based upon securing Soviet support for Poland, which led him to perform a diplomatic U-turn and support Ribbentrop's policy of rapprochement with the Soviet Union as the best way of ensuring a local war.", "That was especially the case as decrypts showed the British military attaché to Poland arguing that Britain could not save Poland in the event of a German attack and that only Soviet support offered the prospect of Poland holding out.Ribbentrop during the signing of the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship in Moscow, 1939The signing of the Non-Aggression Pact in Moscow on 23 August 1939 was the crowning achievement of Ribbentrop's career.", "He flew to Moscow, where, over the course of a thirteen-hour visit, Ribbentrop signed both the Non-Aggression Pact and the secret protocols, which partitioned much of Eastern Europe between the Soviets and the Germans.", "Ribbentrop had expected to see only the Soviet Foreign Commissar Vyacheslav Molotov and was most surprised to be holding talks with Joseph Stalin himself.", "During his trip to Moscow, Ribbentrop's talks with Stalin and Molotov proceeded very cordially and efficiently with the exception of the question of Latvia, which Hitler had instructed Ribbentrop to try to claim for Germany.", "Ribbentrop had been instructed to claim the Daugava as the future boundary between the Greater Germanic Reich and the Soviet Union, but had also been ordered to grant extensive concessions to Stalin.", "When Stalin claimed Latvia for the Soviet Union, Ribbentrop was forced to telephone Berlin for permission from Hitler to concede Latvia to the Soviets.", "After finishing his talks with Stalin and Molotov, Ribbentrop, at a dinner with the Soviet leaders, launched into a lengthy diatribe against the British Empire, with frequent interjections of approval from Stalin, and exchanged toasts with Stalin in honour of German-Soviet friendship.", "For a brief moment in August 1939, Ribbentrop convinced Hitler that the Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union would cause the fall of the Chamberlain government and lead to a new British government that would abandon the Poles to their fate.", "Ribbentrop argued that with Soviet economic support, especially in the form of oil, Germany was now immune to the effects of a British naval blockade and so the British would never take on Germany.", "On 23 August 1939, at a secret meeting of the ''Reich'''s top military leadership at the Berghof, Hitler argued that neither Britain nor France would go to war for Poland without the Soviet Union, and fixed \"X-Day\", the date for the invasion of Poland, for 26 August.", "Hitler added, \"My only fear is that at the last moment some ''Schweinehund'' will make a proposal for mediation\".", "Unlike Hitler, who saw the Non-Aggression Pact as merely a pragmatic device forced on him by circumstances, the refusal of Britain or Poland to play the roles that Hitler had allocated to them, Ribbentrop regarded the Non-Aggression Pact as integral to his anti-British policy.The signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 23 August 1939 not only won Germany an informal alliance with the Soviet Union but also neutralized Anglo-French attempts to win Turkey to the \"peace front\".", "The Turks always believed that it was essential to have the Soviet Union as an ally to counter Germany, and the signing of the pact undercut completely the assumptions behind Turkish security policy.", "The Anglo-French effort to include the Balkans into the \"peace front\" had always rested on the assumption that the cornerstone of the \"peace front\" in the Balkans was to be Turkey, the regional superpower.", "Because the Balkans were rich in raw materials such as iron, zinc and oil, which could help Germany survive a British blockade, it was viewed as highly important by the Allies to keep German influence in the Balkans to a minimum.", "That was the principal motivation behind efforts to link British promises to support Turkey in the event of an Italian attack, in exchange for Turkish promises to help defend Romania from a German attack.", "British and French leaders believed that the deterrent value of the \"peace front\" could be increased if Turkey were a member, and the Turkish Straits were open to Allied ships.", "That would allow the Allies to send troops and supplies to Romania over the Black Sea and through Romania to Poland.On 25 August 1939, Ribbentrop's influence with Hitler wavered for a moment when the news reached Berlin of the ratification of the Anglo-Polish military alliance and a personal message from Mussolini that told Hitler that Italy would dishonour the Pact of Steel if Germany attacked Poland.", "This was especially damaging to Ribbentrop, as he always assured Hitler, \"Italy's attitude is determined by the Rome-Berlin Axis\".", "As a result of the message from Rome and the ratification of the Anglo-Polish treaty, Hitler cancelled the invasion of Poland planned for 26 August but ordered it held back until 1 September to give Germany some time to break up the unfavourable international alignment.", "Though Ribbentrop continued to argue that Britain and France were bluffing, both he and Hitler were prepared, as a last resort, to risk a general war by invading Poland.", "Because of Ribbentrop's firmly-held views that Britain was Germany's most dangerous enemy and that an Anglo-German war was inevitable, it scarcely mattered to him when his much-desired war with Britain came.", "The Greek historian Aristotle Kaillis wrote that it was Ribbentrop's influence with Hitler and his insistence that the Western powers would fail to go to war for Poland that was the most important reason that Hitler did not cancel ''Fall Weiß'', the German invasion of Poland, altogether, instead of only postponing \"X-day\" for six days.", "Ribbentrop told Hitler that his sources showed that Britain would not be militarily prepared to take on Germany at the earliest until 1940 or more probably 1941, so that meant that the British were bluffing.", "Even if the British were serious in their warnings of war, Ribbentrop took the view that since a war with Britain was inevitable, the risk of a war with Britain was acceptable and so he argued that Germany should not shy away from such challenges.On 27 August 1939, Chamberlain sent a letter to Hitler that was intended to counteract reports Chamberlain had heard from intelligence sources in Berlin that Ribbentrop had convinced Hitler that the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact would ensure that Britain would abandon Poland.", "In his letter, Chamberlain wrote:Ribbentrop told Hitler that Chamberlain's letter was just a bluff and urged his master to call it.The British Ambassador to Germany, Sir Nevile Henderson, in 1937.Though Henderson was a leading supporter of appeasement, his relations with Ribbentrop were extremely poor throughout his ambassadorship.", "On the night of 30–31 August 1939, he and Ribbentrop almost came to blows.On the night of 30–31 August 1939, Ribbentrop had an extremely heated exchange with British Ambassador Sir Nevile Henderson, who objected to Ribbentrop's demand, given at about midnight, that if a Polish plenipotentiary did not arrive in Berlin that night to discuss the German \"final offer\", the responsibility for the outbreak of war would not rest on the ''Reich''.", "Henderson stated that the terms of the German \"final offer\" were very reasonable but argued that Ribbentrop's time limit for Polish acceptance of the \"final offer\" was most unreasonable, and he also demanded to know why Ribbentrop insisted upon seeing a special Polish plenipotentiary and could not present the \"final offer\" to Ambassador Józef Lipski or provide a written copy of the \"final offer\".", "The Henderson–Ribbentrop meeting became so tense that the two men almost came to blows.", "The American historian Gerhard Weinberg described the Henderson–Ribbentrop meeting:When Joachim von Ribbentrop refused to give a copy of the German demands to the British Ambassador Henderson at midnight of 30–31 August 1939, the two almost came to blows.", "Ambassador Henderson, who had long advocated concessions to Germany, recognized that here was a deliberately conceived alibi the German government had prepared for a war it was determined to start.", "No wonder Henderson was angry; von Ribbentrop on the other hand could see war ahead and went home beaming.As intended by Ribbentrop, the narrow time limit for acceptance of the \"final offer\" made it impossible for the British government to contact the Polish government in time about the German offer, let alone for the Poles to arrange for a Polish plenipotentiary envoy to arrive in Berlin that night, thereby allowing Ribbentrop to claim that the Poles had rejected the German \"final offer\".", "As it was, a special meeting of the British cabinet called to consider the \"final offer\" and declined to pass on the message to Warsaw under the grounds that it was not a serious proposal on the part of Berlin.", "The \"rejection\" of the German proposal was one of the pretexts used for the German aggression against Poland on 1 September 1939.The British historian D.C. Watt wrote, \"Two hours later, Berlin Radio broadcast the sixteen points, adding that Poland had rejected them.", "Thanks to Ribbentrop, they had never even seen them\".", "On 31 August, Ribbentrop met with Ambassador Attolico to tell him that Poland's \"rejection\" of the \"generous\" German 16-point peace plan meant that Germany had no interest in Mussolini's offer to call a conference about the status of Danzig.", "Besides the Polish \"rejection\" of the German \"final offer\", the aggression against Poland was justified with the Gleiwitz incident and other SS-staged incidents on the German–Polish border.As soon as the news broke in the morning of 1 September 1939 that Germany had invaded Poland, Mussolini launched another desperate peace mediation plan intended to stop the German–Polish war from becoming a world war.", "Mussolini's motives were in no way altruistic.", "Instead, he was motivated entirely by a wish to escape the self-imposed trap of the Pact of Steel, which obliged Italy to go to war while the country was entirely unprepared.", "If he suffered the humiliation of having to declare neutrality, it would make him appear cowardly.", "French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet, acting on his own initiative, told the Italian Ambassador to France, Baron Raffaele Guariglia, that France had accepted Mussolini's peace plan.", "Bonnet had Havas issue a statement at midnight on 1 September: \"The French government has today, as have several other Governments, received an Italian proposal looking to the resolution of Europe's difficulties.", "After due consideration, the French government has given a 'positive response'\".", "Though the French and the Italians were serious about Mussolini's peace plan, which called for an immediate ceasefire and a four-power conference in the manner of the Munich conference of 1938 to consider Poland's borders, British Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax stated that unless the Germans withdrew from Poland immediately, Britain would not attend the proposed conference.", "Ribbentrop finally scuttled Mussolini's peace plan by stating that Germany had no interest in a ceasefire, a withdrawal from Poland or attending the proposed peace conference.On the morning of 3 September 1939, Chamberlain followed through with his threat of a British declaration of war if Germany attacked Poland, a visibly-shocked Hitler asked Ribbentrop \"Now what?", "\", a question to which Ribbentrop had no answer except to state that there would be a \"similar message\" forthcoming from French Ambassador Robert Coulondre, who arrived later that afternoon to present the French declaration of war.", "Weizsäcker later recalled, \"On 3 Sept., when the British and French declared war, Hitler was surprised, after all, and was to begin with, at a loss\".", "The British historian Richard Overy wrote that what Hitler thought he was starting in September 1939 was only a local war between Germany and Poland and that his decision to do so was largely based on a vast underestimate of the risks of a general war.", "In effect, Ribbentrop's influence made Hitler go to war in 1939 with the country he wanted as his ally, the United Kingdom, as his enemy and the country he wanted as his enemy, the Soviet Union, as his ally.After the outbreak of World War II, Ribbentrop spent most of the Polish campaign travelling with Hitler.", "On 27 September 1939, Ribbentrop made a second visit to Moscow.", "There, at meetings with the Soviet Foreign Commissar Vyacheslav Molotov and Joseph Stalin, he was forced to agree to revising the Secret Protocols of the Non-Aggression Pact in the Soviet Union's favour, most notably agreeing to Stalin's demand for Lithuania to go to the Soviet Union.", "The imposition of the British blockade had made the ''Reich'' highly dependent upon Soviet economic support, which placed Stalin in a strong negotiating position with Ribbentrop.", "On 1 March 1940, Ribbentrop received Sumner Welles, the American Under-Secretary of State, who was on a peace mission for US President Franklin Roosevelt, and did his best to abuse his American guest.", "Welles asked Ribbentrop under what terms Germany might be willing to negotiate a compromise peace, before the Phoney War became a real war.", "Ribbentrop told Welles that only a total German victory \"could give us the peace we want\".", "Welles reported to Roosevelt that Ribbentrop had a \"completely closed and very stupid mind\".", "On 10 March 1940, Ribbentrop visited Rome to meet with Mussolini, who promised him that Italy would soon enter the war.", "For his one-day Italian trip, Ribbentrop was accompanied by a staff of thirty-five, including a gymnastics coach, a masseur, a doctor, two hairdressers and various legal and economic experts from the Foreign Office.", "After the Italo-German summit at the Brenner Pass on 18 March 1940, which was attended by Hitler and Mussolini, Count Ciano wrote in his diary: \"Everyone in Rome dislikes Ribbentrop\".", "On 7 May 1940, Ribbentrop founded a new section of the Foreign Office, the ''Abteilung Deutschland'' (Department of Internal German Affairs), under Martin Luther, to which was assigned the responsibility for all antisemitic affairs.", "On 10 May 1940, Ribbentrop summoned the Dutch, Belgian and Luxembourg ambassadors to present them with notes justifying the German invasion of their countries several hours after the Germans had invaded those nations.", "Much to Ribbentrop's fury, someone leaked the plans for the German invasion to the Dutch embassy in Berlin, which led Ribbentrop to devote the next several months to an investigation aimed at identifying the leaker.", "The investigation tore apart the agency, as colleagues were encouraged to denounce each other, and was ultimately unsuccessful.In early June 1940, when Mussolini informed Hitler that he would finally enter the war on 10 June 1940, Hitler was most dismissive, in private calling Mussolini a cowardly opportunist who broke the terms of the Pact of Steel in September 1939 when the going looked rough, and was entering the war in June 1940 only after it was clear that France was beaten and it appeared that Britain would soon make peace.", "Ribbentrop shared Hitler's assessment of the Italians but welcomed Italy coming into war.", "In part, that seemed to affirm the importance of the Pact of Steel, which Ribbentrop had negotiated, and in addition, with Italy now an ally, the Foreign Office had more to do.", "Ribbentrop championed the so-called Madagascar Plan in June 1940 to deport all of Europe's Jews to Madagascar after the presumed imminent defeat of Britain.===Relations with wartime allies===Ribbentrop, a Francophile, argued that Germany should allow Vichy France a limited degree of independence within a binding Franco-German partnership.", "To that end, Ribbentrop appointed a colleague from the ''Dienststelle'', Otto Abetz, as Ambassador to France with instructions to promote the political career of Pierre Laval, whom Ribbentrop had decided to be the French politician most favourable to Germany.", "The Foreign Office's influence in France varied, as there were many other agencies competing for power there.", "But in general, from late 1943 to mid-1944, the Foreign Office was second only to the SS in terms of power in France.From the latter half of 1937, Ribbentrop had championed the idea of an alliance between Germany, Italy, and Japan that would partition the British Empire among them.", "After signing the Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact, Ribbentrop expanded on this idea for an Axis alliance to include the Soviet Union to form a Eurasian bloc that would destroy maritime states such as Britain.", "The German historian Klaus Hildebrand argued that besides Hitler's foreign policy programme, there were three other factions within the Nazi Party who had alternative foreign policy programmes, whom Hildebrand designated the agrarians, the revolutionary socialists, and the Wilhelmine Imperialists.", "Another German diplomatic historian, Wolfgang Michalka argued that there was a fourth alternative to the Nazi foreign policy programme, and that was Ribbentrop's concept of a Eurasian bloc comprising the four totalitarian states of Germany, the Soviet Union, Italy and Japan.", "Unlike the other factions, Ribbentrop's foreign policy programme was the only one that Hitler allowed to be executed during the years 1939–41, though it was more due to the temporary bankruptcy of Hitler's own foreign policy programme that he had laid down in ''Mein Kampf'' and ''Zweites Buch'' following the failure to achieve an alliance with Britain, than to a genuine change of mind.", "Ribbentrop's foreign policy conceptions differed from Hitler's in that Ribbentrop's concept of international relations owed more to the traditional Wilhelmine ''Machtpolitik'' than to Hitler's racist and Social Darwinist vision of different \"races\" locked in a merciless and endless struggle over ''Lebensraum''.", "The different foreign-policy conceptions held by Hitler and Ribbentrop were illustrated in their reaction to the Fall of Singapore in 1942: Ribbentrop wanted this great British defeat to be a day of celebration in Germany, whereas Hitler forbade any celebrations on the grounds that Singapore represented a sad day for the principles of white supremacy.", "Another area of difference was Ribbentrop's obsessive hatred for Britain – which he saw as the main enemy – and view of the Soviet Union as an important ally in the anti-British struggle.", "Hitler saw the alliance with the Soviet Union as only tactical, and was nowhere as anti-British as his Foreign Minister.In August 1940, Ribbentrop oversaw the Second Vienna Award, which saw about 40% of the Transylvania region of Romania returned to Hungary.", "The decision to award so much of Romania to the Hungarians was Hitler's, as Ribbentrop himself spent most of the Vienna conference loudly attacking the Hungarian delegation for their coolness towards attacking Czechoslovakia in 1938 and then demanding more than their fair share of the spoils.", "When Ribbentrop finally got around to announcing his decision, the Hungarian delegation, which had expected Ribbentrop to rule in favour of Romania, broke out in cheers, while the Romanian foreign minister Mihail Manoilescu fainted.In late 1940, Ribbentrop made a sustained but unsuccessful effort to have Francoist Spain enter the war on the Axis side.", "During his talks with the Spanish foreign minister, Ramón Serrano Suñer, Ribbentrop affronted Suñer with his tactless behaviour, especially his suggestion that Spain cede the Canary Islands to Germany.", "An angry Suñer replied that he would rather see the Canaries sink into the Atlantic than cede an inch of Spanish territory.", "An area in which Ribbentrop enjoyed more success arose in September 1940, when he had the Far Eastern agent of the ''Dienststelle Ribbentrop'', Heinrich Georg Stahmer, start negotiations with the Japanese foreign minister, Yōsuke Matsuoka, for an anti-American alliance.", "The result of these talks was the signing in Berlin on 27 September 1940 of the Tripartite Pact by Ribbentrop, Count Ciano, and Japanese Ambassador Saburō Kurusu.In October 1940, ''Gauleiters'' Josef Bürckel and Robert Wagner oversaw the near total expulsion of the Jews into the unoccupied zone libre of Vichy France; they deported them not only from the parts of Alsace-Lorraine that had been annexed to the ''Reich'', but also from their ''Gaue'' as well.", "Ribbentrop treated in a \"most dilatory fashion\" the ensuing complaints by the Vichy French government over the expulsions.In November 1940, during the visit of the Soviet Foreign Commissar Vyacheslav Molotov to Berlin, Ribbentrop tried hard to get the Soviet Union to sign the Tripartite Pact.", "Ribbentrop argued that the Soviets and Germans shared a common enemy in the form of the British Empire, and as such, it was in the best interests of the Kremlin to enter the war on the Axis side.", "He proposed that, after the defeat of Britain, they could carve up the territory in the following way: the Soviet Union would have India and the Middle East, Italy the Mediterranean area, Japan the British possessions in the Far East (presuming of course that Japan would enter the war), and Germany would take central Africa and Britain.", "Molotov was open to the idea of the Soviet Union entering the war on the Axis side, but demanded as the price of entry into the war that Germany recognise Finland, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Hungary and Yugoslavia as within the exclusive Soviet sphere of influence.", "Ribbentrop's efforts to persuade Molotov to abandon his demands about Europe as the price of a Soviet alliance with Germany were entirely unsuccessful.", "After Molotov left Berlin, the Soviet Union indicated that it wished to sign the Tripartite Pact and enter the war on the Axis side.", "Though Ribbentrop was all for taking Stalin's offer, Hitler by this point had decided that he wanted to attack the Soviet Union.", "The German–Soviet Axis talks led nowhere.Funk, Krosigk, Goebbels, Ribbentrop and Neurath during a Reichstag session, 1941As World War II continued, Ribbentrop's once-friendly relations with the SS became increasingly strained.", "In January 1941, the nadir of the relations between the SS and the Foreign Office was reached when the Iron Guard attempted a coup in Romania.", "Ribbentrop supported Marshal Ion Antonescu's government and Heinrich Himmler supported the Iron Guard.", "In the aftermath of the failed coup in Bucharest, the Foreign Office assembled evidence that the SD had backed the coup, which led Ribbentrop to restrict sharply the powers of the SD police attachés.", "Since October 1939 they had operated largely independently of the German embassies at which they had been stationed.", "In early 1941, Ribbentrop appointed an assemblage of SA men to German embassies in eastern Europe, with Manfred Freiherr von Killinger dispatched to Romania, Siegfried Kasche to Croatia, Adolf-Heinz Beckerle to Bulgaria, Dietrich von Jagow to Hungary, and Hans Ludin to Slovakia.", "The major qualifications of all these men, none of whom had previously held a diplomatic position before, were that they were close friends of Luther and helped to enable a split in the SS (the traditional rivalry between the SS and SA was still running strong).In March 1941, Japan's Foreign Minister Yōsuke Matsuoka, a Germanophile, visited Berlin.", "On 29 March 1941, during a conversation with Matsuoka, Ribbentrop, as instructed by Hitler, told the Japanese nothing about the upcoming Operation Barbarossa, as Hitler believed that he could defeat the Soviet Union on his own and preferred that the Japanese attack Britain instead.", "Hitler did not wish for any information that might lead the Japanese into attacking the Soviet Union to reach their ears.", "Ribbentrop tried to convince Matsuoka to urge the government in Tokyo to attack the great British naval base at Singapore, claiming the Royal Navy was too weak to retaliate due to its involvement in the Battle of the Atlantic.", "Matsuoka responded that preparations to occupy Singapore were under way.Poglavnik Ante Pavelić (left) of the Independent State of Croatia and Ribbentrop in Salzburg, 6 June 1941In late 1940 and early 1941, Ribbentrop strongly pressured the Kingdom of Yugoslavia to sign the Tripartite Pact, despite advice from the German Legation in Belgrade that such an action would probably lead to the overthrow of Crown Prince Paul, the Yugoslav Regent.", "Ribbentrop's intention was to gain transit rights through the country that would allow the Germans to invade Greece.", "On 25 March 1941, Yugoslavia reluctantly signed the Tripartite Pact; the next day the Yugoslav military overthrew Prince Paul in a bloodless coup.", "When Hitler ordered the invasion of Yugoslavia, Ribbentrop was opposed, because he thought the Foreign Office was likely to be excluded from ruling occupied Yugoslavia.", "As Hitler was displeased with Ribbentrop over his opposition to the invasion, the minister took to his bed for the next couple of days.", "When Ribbentrop recovered, he sought a chance to increase his agency's influence by giving Croatia independence.", "Ribbentrop chose the Ustaše to rule Croatia.", "He had Edmund Veesenmayer successfully conclude talks in April 1941 with General Slavko Kvaternik of the Ustaše on having his party rule Croatia after the German invasion.", "Reflecting his displeasure with the German Legation in Belgrade, which had advised against pushing Yugoslavia to sign the Tripartite Pact, Ribbentrop refused to have the German Legation withdrawn in advance before Germany bombed Belgrade on 6 April 1941.The staff was left to survive the fire-bombing as best it could.Ribbentrop liked and admired Joseph Stalin and was opposed to the attack on the Soviet Union in 1941.He passed a word to a Soviet diplomat: \"Please tell Stalin I was against this war, and that I know it will bring great misfortune to Germany.\"", "When it came to time for Ribbentrop to present the German declaration of war on 22 June 1941 to the Soviet Ambassador, General Vladimir Dekanozov, the interpreter Paul Schmidt described the scene:When Dekanozov finally appeared, Ribbentrop read out a short statement saying that the Reich had been forced into \"military countermeasures\" because of an alleged Soviet plan to attack Germany in July 1941.Ribbentrop did not present a declaration of war to General Dekanozov, confining himself to reading the statement about Germany being forced to take \"military countermeasures\".Ribbentrop (left) with Marshal Ion Antonescu, in 1943Despite his opposition to Operation Barbarossa and a preference to concentrate against Britain, Ribbentrop began a sustained effort on 28 June 1941, without consulting Hitler, to have Japan attack the Soviet Union.", "But Ribbentrop's motives in seeking to have Japan enter the war were more anti-British than anti-Soviet.", "On 10 July 1941 Ribbentrop ordered General Eugen Ott, the German Ambassador to Japan to:As part of his efforts to bring Japan into Barbarossa, on 1 July 1941, Ribbentrop had Germany break off diplomatic relations with Chiang Kai-shek and recognized the Japanese-puppet government of Wang Jingwei as China's legitimate rulers.", "Ribbentrop hoped that recognizing Wang would be seen as a coup that might add to the prestige of the pro-German Japanese Foreign Minister Yōsuke Matsuoka, who was opposed to opening American-Japanese talks.", "Despite Ribbentrop's best efforts, Matsuoka was sacked as foreign minister later in July 1941, and the Japanese-American talks began.After the war, Ribbentrop was found to have had culpability in the Holocaust based on his efforts to persuade the leaders of Nazi puppet states and other Axis powers to deport Jews to the Nazi extermination camps.", "In August 1941, when the question of whether to deport foreign Jews living in Germany arose, Ribbentrop argued against deportation as a way of maximizing the Foreign Office's influence.", "To deport foreign Jews living in the Reich, Ribbentrop had Luther negotiate agreements with the governments of Romania, Slovakia and Croatia to allow Jews holding citizenship of those states to be deported.", "In September 1941, the Reich Plenipotentiary for Nazi-occupied Serbia, Felix Benzler, reported to Ribbentrop that the SS had arrested 8,000 Serbian Jews, whom they were planning to execute en masse.", "He asked for permission to try to stop the massacre.", "Ribbentrop assigned the question to Luther, who ordered Benzler to co-operate fully in the massacre.In late 1941, Ribbentrop worked for the failure of the Japanese-American talks in Washington and for Japan to attack the United States.", "In October 1941 Ribbentrop ordered Eugen Ott, the German ambassador to Japan, to start applying pressure on the Japanese to attack the Americans as soon as possible.", "Ribbentrop argued to Hitler that a war between the United States and Germany was inevitable given the extent of American aid to Britain and the increasingly frequent \"incidents\" in the North Atlantic between U-boats and American warships guarding convoys to Britain.", "He said that having such a war start with a Japanese attack on the United States was the best way to begin it.", "Ribbentrop told Hitler that because of his four years in Canada and the United States before 1914, he was an expert on all things American; he thought that the United States was not a serious military power.", "On 4 December 1941, the Japanese Ambassador General Hiroshi Ōshima told Ribbentrop that Japan was on the verge of war with the United States.", "In turn, Ribbentrop promised that Germany would join the war against the Americans.", "On 7 December 1941, Ribbentrop was jubilant at the news of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and did his utmost to support a declaration of war on the United States.", "He delivered the official declaration to the American ''Chargé d'Affaires'' Leland B. Morris on 11 December 1941.In early 1942, following American entry into war, the United States successfully pressured all of the Latin American states, except for Argentina and Chile, to declare war on Germany.", "Ribbentrop considered the acceptance of declarations of war from small states such as Costa Rica and Ecuador to be deeply humiliating, and he refused to see any of the Latin American ambassadors.", "He had Weizsäcker accept their declarations of war instead.In April 1942, as part of a diplomatic counterpart to Case Blue, a military operation in southern Russia, Ribbentrop assembled a collection of anti-Soviet émigrés from the Caucasus in the Hotel Adlon in Berlin with the intention to have them declared leaders of governments-in-exile.", "From Ribbentrop's point of view, this had the dual benefit of ensuring popular support for the German Army as it advanced into the Caucasus and of ensuring that it was the Foreign Office that ruled the Caucasus once the Germans occupied the area.", "Alfred Rosenberg, the German Minister of the East, saw this as an intrusion into his area of authority, and told Hitler that the émigrés at the Hotel Adlon were \"a nest of Allied agents\".", "To Ribbentrop's disappointment, Hitler sided with Rosenberg.Despite the often fierce rivalry with the SS, the Foreign Office played a key role in arranging the deportations of Jews to the death camps from France (1942–44), Hungary (1944–45), Slovakia, Italy (after 1943), and the Balkans.", "Ribbentrop assigned all of the Holocaust-related work to Martin Luther, an old crony from the ''Dienststelle'' who represented the Foreign Ministry at the Wannsee Conference.", "In 1942, Ambassador Otto Abetz secured the deportation of 25,000 French Jews, and Ambassador Hans Ludin secured the deportation of 50,000 Slovak Jews to the death camps.", "Only once, in August 1942, did Ribbentrop try to restrict the deportations, but only because of jurisdictional disputes with the SS.", "Ribbentrop halted deportations from Romania and Croatia; in the case of the former, he was insulted because the SS were negotiating with the Romanians directly, and in the case of the latter, he learned that the SS and Luther had pressured the Italians in their zone of occupation to deport their Jews without first informing Ribbentrop.", "He had required being kept updated on all developments in Italo-German relations.", "In September 1942, after a meeting with Hitler, who was unhappy with his foreign minister's actions, Ribbentrop changed course and ordered the deportations to be resumed immediately.In November 1942, following Operation Torch (the British-American invasion of North Africa), Ribbentrop met French Chief of the Government Pierre Laval in Munich.", "He presented Laval with an ultimatum for Germany's occupation of the French unoccupied zone and Tunisia.", "Ribbentrop tried unsuccessfully to arrange for the Vichy French Armistice Army in North Africa to be formally placed under German command.", "In December 1942, he met the Italian Foreign Minister Count Galeazzo Ciano, who carried Mussolini's request urging the Germans to go on the defensive in the Soviet Union in order to focus on attacking North Africa.", "Ribbentrop joined Hitler in belittling Italy's war effort.", "During the same meeting in East Prussia with Count Ciano, Pierre Laval arrived.", "He quickly agreed to Hitler's and Ribbentrop's demands that he place French police under the command of more radical antisemites and transport hundreds of thousands of French workers to labour in Germany's war industry.Another low point in Ribbentrop's relations with the SS occurred in February 1943, when the SD backed a Luther-led internal ''putsch'' to oust Ribbentrop as foreign minister.", "Luther had become estranged from Ribbentrop because the latter's wife treated the former as a household servant.", "She pushed her husband into ordering an investigation into allegations of corruption on Luther's part.", "Luther's ''putsch'' failed largely because Himmler decided that a foreign ministry headed by Luther would be a more dangerous opponent than the current one under Ribbentrop.", "At the last minute, he withdrew his support from Luther.", "In the aftermath of the ''putsch'', Luther was sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp.In April 1943, during a summit meeting with Hungary's Regent Miklós Horthy, Ribbentrop strongly pressed the Hungarians to deport their Jewish population to the death camps, but was unsuccessful.", "During their meeting, Ribbentrop declared \"the Jews must either be exterminated or taken to the concentration camps.", "There is no other possibility\".===Declining influence===Ribbentrop's detention report and mugshotsAs the war went on, Ribbentrop's influence waned.", "Because most of the world was at war with Germany, the Foreign Ministry's importance diminished as the value of diplomacy became limited.", "By January 1944, Germany had diplomatic relations only with Argentina, Ireland, Vichy France, the Italian Social Republic in Italy, Occupied Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Croatia, Bulgaria, Switzerland, the Holy See, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Thailand, Japan, and the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and the Wang Jingwei regime in China.", "Later that year, Argentina and Turkey severed ties with Germany; Romania and Bulgaria joined the Allies and Finland made a separate peace with the Soviet Union and declared war on Germany.Hitler found Ribbentrop increasingly tiresome and started to avoid him.", "The Foreign Minister's pleas for permission to seek peace with at least some of Germany's enemies—the Soviet Union in particular—played a role in their estrangement.", "As his influence declined, Ribbentrop spent his time feuding with other Nazi leaders over control of antisemitic policies to curry Hitler's favour.Ribbentrop suffered a major blow when many old Foreign Office diplomats participated in the 20 July 1944 ''putsch'' and assassination attempt on Hitler.", "Ribbentrop had not known of the plot, but the participation of so many current and former Foreign Ministry members reflected badly on him.", "Hitler felt that Ribbentrop's \"bloated administration\" prevented him from keeping proper tabs on his diplomats' activities.", "Ribbentrop worked closely with the SS, with which he had reconciled, to purge the Foreign Office of those involved in the ''putsch''.", "In the hours immediately following the assassination attempt on Hitler, Ribbentrop, Göring, Dönitz, and Mussolini were having tea with Hitler in Rastenberg when Dönitz began to rail against the failures of the Luftwaffe.", "Göring immediately turned the direction of the conversation to Ribbentrop, and the bankruptcy of Germany's foreign policy.", "\"You dirty little champagne salesman!", "Shut your mouth!\"", "Göring shouted, threatening to smack Ribbentrop with his marshal's baton.", "But Ribbentrop refused to remain silent at this disrespect.", "\"I am still the Foreign Minister,\" he shouted, \"and my name is ''von'' Ribbentrop!", "\"On 20 April 1945, Ribbentrop attended Hitler's 56th birthday party in Berlin.", "Three days later, Ribbentrop attempted to meet Hitler, but was rejected with the explanation the Führer had more important things to do.===Arrest===After Hitler's suicide, Ribbentrop attempted to find a role under the new president, Karl Dönitz, but was rebuffed.", "He went into hiding under an assumed name (Herr Reiser) in the port city of Hamburg.", "On 14 June, after Germany's surrender, Ribbentrop was arrested by Sergeant Jacques Goffinet, a French citizen who had joined the 5th Special Air Service, the Belgian SAS, and was working with the British Army near Hamburg.", "He was found with a rambling letter addressed to the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill criticizing British foreign policy for anti-German sentiments, and blaming Britain's failure to ally with Germany before the war for the Soviet occupation of eastern Germany and the advancement of Bolshevism into central Europe.Ribbentrop in his cell at Nuremberg after the trials had concluded." ], [ "Trial and execution", "Ribbentrop was a defendant at the Nuremberg trials.", "The Allies' International Military Tribunal convicted him on four counts: crimes against peace, deliberately planning a war of aggression, committing war crimes, and crimes against humanity.", "According to the judgment, Ribbentrop was actively involved in planning the Anschluss, as well as the invasions of Czechoslovakia and Poland.", "He was also deeply involved in the \"final solution\"; as early as 1942 he had ordered German diplomats in Axis countries to hasten the process of sending Jews to death camps in the east.", "He supported the lynching of Allied airmen shot down over Germany, and helped to cover up the 1945 murder of Major-General Gustave Mesny, a French officer being held as a prisoner of war.", "He was held directly responsible for atrocities which took place in Denmark and Vichy France, since the top officials in those two occupied countries reported to him.", "Ribbentrop claimed that Hitler made all the important decisions himself, and that he had been deceived by Hitler's repeated claims of only wanting peace.", "The Tribunal rejected this argument, saying that given how closely involved Ribbentrop was with the execution of the war, \"he could not have remained unaware of the aggressive nature of Hitler's actions.\"", "Even in prison, Ribbentrop still remained loyal to Hitler: \"Even with all I know, if in this cell Hitler should come to me and say 'do this!", "', I would still do it.", "\"17 October 1946 newsreel of Nuremberg trials sentencingRibbentrop's body after his executionGustave Gilbert, an American Army psychologist, was allowed to examine the Nazi leaders who stood trial.", "Among other tests, he administered a German version of the Wechsler–Bellevue IQ test.", "Ribbentrop scored 129, the 10th highest among the Nazi leaders tested.", "At one point during the trial, a US Army interpreter asked Ernst ''Freiherr'' von Weizsäcker how Hitler could have promoted Ribbentrop to high office.", "Von Weizsäcker responded, \"Hitler never noticed Ribbentrop's babbling because Hitler always did all the talking.", "\"On 16 October 1946, Ribbentrop became the first of those sentenced to death at Nuremberg to be hanged, after Göring committed suicide just before his scheduled execution.", "The hangman was U.S. Master Sergeant John C. Woods.", "Ribbentrop was escorted up the 13 steps of the gallows and asked if he had any final words.", "He said: \"God protect Germany.", "God have mercy on my soul.", "My final wish is that Germany should recover her unity and that, for the sake of peace, there should be understanding between East and West.", "I wish peace to the world.\"", "Nuremberg Prison Commandant Burton C. Andrus later recalled that Ribbentrop turned to the prison's Lutheran chaplain, Henry F. Gerecke, immediately before the hood was placed over his head and then he whispered, \"I'll see you again.\"", "Due to his execution being botched, it took 14 minutes for Ribbentrop to die.", "His body, like those of the other nine executed men and of the suicide Hermann Göring, was cremated at Ostfriedhof (Munich) and his ashes were scattered in the river Isar." ], [ "In popular culture", "In ''Famous Last Words'', a novel by Timothy Findley, Ribbentrop conspires with the Duke of Windsor, to kill Hitler, take over the Nazi Party and Europe.", "The Robert Harris novel ''Fatherland'' (1992) explores an alternate history where the Nazis won the war, and Ribbentrop is still the foreign minister in 1964.In Philip Roth's alternative history ''The Plot Against America,'' Charles Lindbergh wins the presidential election of 1940 and allies the United States with Nazi Germany, Ribbentrop visits the White House as part of the two countries' new friendship.", "In Guy Walters' ''The Leader'' (2003), Oswald Mosley becomes Prime Minister in 1937, allying the United Kingdom with the Axis Powers, Ribbentrop is seen talking to Diana Mitford, in London after the creation of the new alliance.", "In Harry Turtledove's ''Worldwar: Striking the Balance'' (1996)imagining an alien invasion of Earth during World War II, Ribbentrop represents Nazi Germany in negotiation of an armistice between the Allied and Axis powers." ], [ "Film portrayals", "Ribbentrop has been portrayed by the following actors in film, television and theatre productions:*Henry Daniell in the 1943 United States propaganda film ''Mission to Moscow''*Graham Chapman in the 1970 television sketch comedy series ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''*Henryk Borowski in the 1971 Polish film ''Epilogue at Nürnberg''*Geoffrey Toone in the 1973 British television production ''The Death of Adolf Hitler''*Robert Hardy in the 1974 television production ''The Gathering Storm''*Kosti Klemelä in the 1978 Finnish television production ''Sodan ja rauhan miehet''*Demeter Bitenc in the 1979 Yugoslavian television production ''Slom''*Frederick Jaeger in the 1981 British television production ''Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years''*Anton Diffring in the 1983 United States television production ''The Winds of War''*Hans-Dieter Asner in the 1985 television production ''Mussolini and I''*Richard Kane in the 1985 US/Yugoslavian television production ''Mussolini: The Untold Story''*John Woodvine in the 1989 British television production ''Countdown to War''*Wolf Kahler in the 1993 Merchant-Ivory film ''The Remains of the Day''*Benoît Girard in the 2000 Canadian/US TV production ''Nuremberg''*Bernd-Uwe Reppenhagen in the 2004 Indian production ''Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose: The Forgotten Hero''*Ivaylo Geraskov in the 2006 British television docudrama ''Nuremberg: Nazis on Trial''*Edward Baker-Duly in the 2010 BBC Wales/Masterpiece TV production ''Upstairs, Downstairs''*Holger Handtke in the 2011 film ''Hotel Lux''*Orest Ludwig in the 2020 mini-series ''The Plot Against America''" ], [ "Honours", "During his life, Ribbentrop received many orders, decorations and medals.", "His role as chief diplomat of the Reich meant he was a natural recipient for diplomatic honours given out by various nations.", "It is theorised that many of the honours bestowed on Ribbentrop, were actually intended for Hitler.", "The Führer however famously only ever wore at most his WWI Iron Cross 1st Class, his wound badge and his NSDAP Party badge.", "Hitler refused to accept any foreign decorations and so it is thought that many of the Decorations conferred on Ribbentrop were intended for Hitler.Ribbentrop's full collection of Honours were famously recovered and sold off after the war.", "Ribbentrop himself took great care to make sure his decorations and other valuable items were kept safe and easily accessible for his eventual escape after the defeat of Nazi Germany.", "Shortly before the end of the war, Ribbentrop hid his decorations and other valuables on the second floor of the Hotel Krone in Umhausen, Tyrol, Austria.", "Ribbentrop intended to recover them and other valuables before his eventual escape into Switzerland.", "On 5 May 1945, the 44th Infantry Division entered Umhausen.", "Shortly after, a Captain in the Division; Howard Goldsmith, entered the Hotel Krone intending to stay the night, something he and his men were greatly looking forward to after months of sleeping rough in the winter of the Alpine region.", "The proprietor of the hotel however, refused the men entry and made it clear that under no circumstances were the men to enter the second floor.", "The men pushed past the hotel owner and curiously went up to the second floor, where they uncovered trunks filled with clothing and personal items, confidential government documents and looted art from across occupied Europe.", "Also in the room was a chest which Captain Goldsmith discovered was filled with Ribbentrop's personal orders and decorations.", "The rules pertaining to discoveries of this kind were clear.", "Official and sensitive documents were to be passed on to the relevant authorities, while looted art was to be handed over to the monuments men for restitution.", "Personal items however were considered legitimate war souvenirs and after asking for permission, Goldsmith was allowed to keep the items.", "He had Ribbentrop's decorations shipped back to his home in College Station, Texas.", "Upon arriving back home he had the items appraised and found that the value at that time was around $40,000 (1945 U.S.", "Dollars).", "For years afterwards they were exhibited across the United States, and a few years later the collection was broken up and sold.+CountryRibbonHonour33x33pxNazi Germany73x73pxSpecial Class (Sonderstufe) Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle (Ribbentrop was the only recipient)33x33pxNazi Germany73x73pxGrand Cross of the German Red Cross Decoration30x30pxKingdom of Italy73x73pxSupreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation30x30pxSaxe-Coburg and Gotha73x73pxGrand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order (Awarded by the pro-Nazi former Duke of Saxe-Coburg Gotha; Charles Edward)33x33pxKingdom of Bulgaria73x73pxOrder of Saints Cyril and Methodius 33x33pxKingdom of Bulgaria66x66pxGrand Cross with Collar of the Order of St. Alexander29x29pxEmpire of Japan73x73pxGrand Cross of the Order of the Rising Sun with Pawlonia Leaves30x30pxKingdom of Egypt73x73pxGrand Cross of the Order of Ismail30x30pxKingdom of Romania67x67pxGrand Cross with Collar of the Order of Carol I30x30pxKingdom of Romania73x73pxGrand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania26x26pxDenmark73x73pxGrand Cross Special Class for Chiefs of State with the star in diamonds of the Order of the Dannebrog30x30pxSlovak Republic63x63pxGrand Cross of the Order of Prince Pribina30x30pxIndependent State of Croatia73x73pxGrand Cross of the Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir30x30pxSpanish State73x73pxGrand Cross with Collar of the Imperial Order of the Yoke and Arrows 32x32pxKingdom of Hungary73x73pxGrand Cross of the Order of St. Stephen of Hungary32x32pxKingdom of Hungary73x73pxSpecial Class of the Grand Cross of the Hungarian Order of Merit with added distinction of the Holy Crown32x32pxKingdom of Hungary73x73pxGrand Cross with Swords of the Order of the Holy Crown33x33pxFinland 73x73pxGrand Cross with Collar of the Finnish Order of the White Rose30x30pxGerman Empire 73x73px1914 Iron Cross 2nd Class30x30pxSaxe-Weimar-Eisenach73x73px4th Class of the Order of the White Falcon33x33pxGrand Duchy of Oldenburg73x73pxFriedrich-August-Kreuz 2nd Class30x30pxHamburg73x73pxHanseatic Cross33x33pxNazi Germany73x73px1914-1918 Honour Cross for Combatants33x33pxNazi Germany74x74pxAustrian Anchluss Annexation medal 33x33pxNazi Germany74x74pxSudetenland Annexation medal30x30pxFree City of Danzig73x73pxDanzig Cross 1st Class30x30pxOttoman Empire73x73pxTurkish War Medal (Gallipoli Star)" ], [ "See also", "*Otto Abetz: German Ambassador to Vichy France (1940–1944)*Rudolf Buttmann: German Ambassador to the Vatican (1920–1943)*Hans-Heinrich Dieckhoff: German Ambassador to the United States of America (1937–1938) and Spain (1943–1945)*Herbert von Dirksen: German Ambassador to the Soviet Union (1928–1933), Japan (1933–1938), and the United Kingdom (1938–1939)*Glossary of Nazi Germany*Fritz Grobba: German Ambassador to Iraq (1932–1939, 1941) and Saudi Arabia (1938–1939)*Ulrich von Hassell: German Ambassador to Italy (1932–1938)*Eduard Hempel: German Ambassador to Ireland (1937–1945)*Walther Hewel: German diplomat*Leopold von Hoesch: German Ambassador to France (1923–1932) and the United Kingdom (1932–1936)*Manfred Freiherr von Killinger: German Ambassador to the Slovak Republic (1940) and Romania (1940–1944)*List of Nazi Party leaders and officials*Hans Luther: German Ambassador to the United States of America (1933–1937)*Eugen Ott: German Ambassador to Japan (1938–1942)*List SS-Obergruppenführer*Heinrich Georg Stahmer: German Ambassador to Japan (1942–1945)*Hans Thomsen: German diplomat*Diego von Bergen: German Ambassador to the Vatican (1915–1918, 1920–1943)*Franz von Papen: German Ambassador to Austria (1934–1938) and Turkey (1939–1944)*Cecil von Renthe-Fink: German Ambassador to Denmark (1940–1942)*Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg: German Ambassador to the Soviet Union (1934–1941)*Ernst von Weizsäcker: German Ambassador to the Vatican (1943–1945)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bloch, Michael.", "''Ribbentrop''.", "New York: Crown Publishing, 1992..* Browning, Christopher R. ''The Final Solution and the German Foreign Office: A Study of Referat D III of Abteilung Deutschland, 1940–43''.", "New York: Holmes & Meier, 1978..* Craig, Gordon.", "\"The German Foreign Office from Neurath to Ribbentrop\" in Gordon A. Craig and Felix Gilbert (eds.)", "''The Diplomats 1919–39''.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953, pp. 406–436.", "* Hildebrand, Klaus.", "''The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich'', Anthony Fothergill (trans.).", "London: Batsford, 1973..* Hillgruber, Andreas.", "''Germany and the Two World Wars'', William C. Kirby (trans.).", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981..* ''The Third Reich''.", "Leitz, Christian (ed.", "), Oxford: Blackwell, 1999, .", "Articles:**Jacobsen, Hans-Adolf.", "\"The Structure of Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933–45\" pp. 49–94.", "* Kaillis, Aristotle.", "''Fascist Ideology'', London: Routledge, 2000 .", "* Lukes, Igor, and Erik Goldstein (eds.).", "''The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II''.", "London: Frank Cass Inc, 1999..* * Messerschmidt, Manfred \"Foreign Policy and Preparation for War\" from ''Germany and the Second World War'', Wilhelm Deist, Hans-Erich Vokmann & Wolfram Wette (eds.", "), Vol.", "I, Clarendon Press: Oxford, United Kingdom, 1990.", "* Michalka, Wolfgang.", "\"From Anti-Comintern Pact to the Euro-Asiatic Bloc: Ribbentrop's Alternative Concept to Hitler's Foreign Policy Programme\".", "In H. W. Koch (ed.", "), ''Aspects of the Third Reich''.", "London: Macmillan 1985, pp. 267–284..", "* * Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich.", "''Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941'' (Columbia University Press, 1997).", "* Oursler Jr., Fulton.", "\"Secret Treason\", ''American Heritage'', 42 (8) (1991).", "* * Rees, Laurence ''The Nazis: A Warning from History'', New York: New Press, 1997 .", "* Rothwell, Victor.", "''The Origins of the Second World War'', Manchester University Press: Manchester, United Kingdom, 2001 .", "* Shirer, William L. (1960).", "''The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 1959.", "* Snyder, Louis.", "''Encyclopedia of the Third Reich''.", "New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976..* Turner, Henry Ashby.", "''Hitler's Thirty Days To Power: January 1933''.", "Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1996..* Waddington, Geoffrey.", "\"'An Idyllic and Unruffled Atmosphere of Complete Anglo–German Misunderstanding': Aspects of the Operation of the ''Dienststelle Ribbentrop'' in Great Britain 1934–1939\".", "''History'', Volume 82, 1997, pp. 44–74.", "* Watt, D. C. ''How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938–1939''.", "London: Heinemann, 1989..* * * * Weitz, John (1992).", "''Hitler's Diplomat: The Life And Times Of Joachim von Ribbentrop'', New York: Ticknor and Fields.", ".", "* Wheeler-Bennett, John (1967).", "''The Nemesis of Power'', London: Macmillan.", "* Windsor, Wallis (1956).", "''The Heart has its Reasons: The Memoirs of the Duchess of Windsor'', Bath: Chivers Press." ], [ "Further reading", "*Blandford, Edmund.", "''SSIntelligence'' (2000).", "*Fest, Joachim C., and Bullock, Michael (trans.)", "\"Joachim von Ribbentrop and the Degradation of Diplomacy\" in ''The Face of the Third Reich'' New York: Penguin, 1979 (orig.", "published in German in 1963), pp. 265–282..", "* Loving Jr, Rush.", "''Fat Boy and the Champagne Salesman: Göring, Ribbentrop, and the Nazi Invasion of Poland'' (Indiana University Press, 2022).", "* Mitrovits, Miklós.", "\"Background to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.\"", "''Central European Horizons''1.1 (2020) pp 17–32.online* Rich, Norman.", "''Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion'' Vol.", "1.", "(WW Norton, 1973).", "* Rich, Norman.", "''Hitler's war aims: The establishment of the new order'' vol 2 (WW Norton, 1974)" ], [ "External links", "* The Trial of German Major War Criminals, access date 1 July 2006.", "*, in German" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John, King of England" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John''' (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216) was King of England from 1199 until his death in 1216.He lost the Duchy of Normandy and most of his other French lands to King Philip II of France, resulting in the collapse of the Angevin Empire and contributing to the subsequent growth in power of the French Capetian dynasty during the 13th century.", "The baronial revolt at the end of John's reign led to the sealing of Magna Carta, a document considered an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom.John was the youngest son of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine.", "He was nicknamed '''John Lackland''' (Norman French: ''Jean sans Terre '') because he was not expected to inherit significant lands.", "He became Henry's favourite child following the failed revolt of 1173–1174 by his brothers Henry the Young King, Richard, and Geoffrey against the King.", "John was appointed Lord of Ireland in 1177 and given lands in England and on the continent.", "He unsuccessfully attempted a rebellion against the royal administrators of his brother, King Richard, while Richard was participating in the Third Crusade, but he was proclaimed king after Richard died in 1199.He came to an agreement with Philip II of France to recognise John's possession of the continental Angevin lands at the peace treaty of Le Goulet in 1200.When war with France broke out again in 1202, John achieved early victories, but shortages of military resources and his treatment of Norman, Breton, and Anjou nobles resulted in the collapse of his empire in northern France in 1204.He spent much of the next decade attempting to regain these lands, raising huge revenues, reforming his armed forces and rebuilding continental alliances.", "His judicial reforms had a lasting effect on the English common law system, as well as providing an additional source of revenue.", "An argument with Pope Innocent III led to John's excommunication in 1209, a dispute he finally settled in 1213.John's attempt to defeat Philip in 1214 failed because of the French victory over John's allies at the Battle of Bouvines.", "When he returned to England, John faced a rebellion by many of his barons, who were unhappy with his fiscal policies and his treatment of many of England's most powerful nobles.", "Magna Carta was drafted as a peace treaty between John and the barons, and agreed in 1215.However, neither side complied with its conditions and civil war broke out shortly afterwards, with the barons aided by Louis VIII of France.", "It soon descended into a stalemate.", "John died of dysentery contracted while on campaign in eastern England during late 1216; supporters of his son Henry III went on to achieve victory over Louis and the rebel barons the following year.Contemporary chroniclers were mostly critical of John's performance as king, and his reign has since been the subject of significant debate and periodic revision by historians from the 16th century onwards.", "Historian Jim Bradbury has summarised the current historical opinion of John's positive qualities, observing that John is today usually considered a \"hard-working administrator, an able man, an able general\".", "Nonetheless, modern historians agree that he also had many faults as king, including what historian Ralph Turner describes as \"distasteful, even dangerous personality traits\", such as pettiness, spitefulness, and cruelty.", "These negative qualities provided extensive material for fiction writers in the Victorian era, and John remains a recurring character within Western popular culture, primarily as a villain in Robin Hood folklore." ], [ "Early life (1166–1189)", "===Childhood and the Angevin inheritance===John was born on 24 December 1166.His father, King Henry II of England, had inherited significant territories along the Atlantic seaboard — Anjou, Normandy and England — and expanded his empire by conquering Brittany.", "John's mother was Eleanor, the powerful duchess of Aquitaine, who had a tenuous claim to Toulouse and Auvergne in southern France and was the former wife of King Louis VII of France.", "The territories of Henry and Eleanor formed the Angevin Empire, named after Henry's paternal title as Count of Anjou and, more specifically, its seat in Angers.", "The Empire, however, was inherently fragile: although all the lands owed allegiance to Henry, the disparate parts each had their own histories, traditions and governance structures.", "As one moved south through Anjou and Aquitaine, the extent of Henry's power in the provinces diminished considerably, scarcely resembling the modern concept of an empire at all.", "Some of the traditional ties between parts of the empire such as Normandy and England were slowly dissolving over time.", "The future of the empire upon Henry's eventual death was not secure: although the custom of primogeniture, under which an eldest son would inherit all his father's lands, was slowly becoming more widespread across Europe, it was less popular amongst the Norman kings of England.", "Most believed that Henry would divide the empire, giving each son a substantial portion, and hoping that his children would continue to work together as allies after his death.", "To complicate matters, much of the Angevin empire was held by Henry only as a vassal of the king of France of the rival line of the House of Capet.", "Henry had often allied himself with the Holy Roman Emperor against France, making the feudal relationship even more challenging.Shortly after his birth, John was passed from Eleanor into the care of a wet nurse, a traditional practice for medieval noble families.", "Eleanor then left for Poitiers, the capital of Aquitaine, and sent John and his sister Joan north to Fontevrault Abbey.", "This may have been done with the aim of steering her youngest son, with no obvious inheritance, towards a future ecclesiastical career.", "Eleanor spent the next few years conspiring against Henry and neither parent played a part in John's very early life.", "John was probably, like his brothers, assigned a ''magister'' whilst he was at Fontevrault, a teacher charged with his early education and with managing the servants of his immediate household; John was later taught by Ranulf de Glanvill, a leading English administrator.", "John spent some time as a member of the household of his eldest living brother Henry the Young King, where he probably received instruction in hunting and military skills.John grew up to be around tall, relatively short, with a \"powerful, barrel-chested body\" and dark red hair; he looked to contemporaries like an inhabitant of Poitou.", "John enjoyed reading and, unusually for the period, built up a travelling library of books.", "He enjoyed gambling, in particular at backgammon, and was an enthusiastic hunter, even by medieval standards.", "He liked music, although not songs.", "John would become a \"connoisseur of jewels\", building up a large collection, and became famous for his opulent clothes and also, according to French chroniclers, for his fondness for bad wine.", "As John grew up, he became known for sometimes being \"genial, witty, generous and hospitable\"; at other moments, he could be jealous, over-sensitive and prone to fits of rage, \"biting and gnawing his fingers\" in anger.===Early life===Henry II and Eleanor, holding courtDuring John's early years, Henry attempted to resolve the question of his succession.", "Henry the Young King had been crowned King of England in 1170, but was not given any formal powers by his father; he was also promised Normandy and Anjou as part of his future inheritance.", "His brother Richard was to be appointed the count of Poitou with control of Aquitaine, whilst his brother Geoffrey was to become the duke of Brittany.", "At this time it seemed unlikely that John would ever inherit substantial lands, and he was jokingly nicknamed \"Lackland\" by his father.Henry II wanted to secure the southern borders of Aquitaine and decided to betroth his youngest son to Alais, the daughter and heiress of Humbert III of Savoy.", "As part of this agreement John was promised the future inheritance of Savoy, Piedmont, Maurienne, and the other possessions of Count Humbert.", "For his part in the potential marriage alliance, Henry II transferred the castles of Chinon, Loudun and Mirebeau into John's name; as John was only five years old his father would continue to control them for practical purposes.", "Henry the Young King was unimpressed by this; although he had yet to be granted control of any castles in his new kingdom, these were effectively his future property and had been given away without consultation.", "Alais made the trip over the Alps and joined Henry II's court, but she died before marrying John, which left the prince once again without an inheritance.In 1173 John's elder brothers, backed by Eleanor, rose in revolt against Henry in the short-lived rebellion of 1173 to 1174.Growing irritated with his subordinate position to Henry II and increasingly worried that John might be given additional lands and castles at his expense, Henry the Young King travelled to Paris and allied himself with Louis VII.", "Eleanor, irritated by her husband's persistent interference in Aquitaine, encouraged Richard and Geoffrey to join their brother Henry in Paris.", "Henry II triumphed over the coalition of his sons, but was generous to them in the peace settlement agreed at Montlouis.", "Henry the Young King was allowed to travel widely in Europe with his own household of knights, Richard was given Aquitaine back, and Geoffrey was allowed to return to Brittany; only Eleanor was imprisoned for her role in the revolt.John had spent the conflict travelling alongside his father, and was given widespread possessions across the Angevin empire as part of the Montlouis settlement; from then onwards, most observers regarded John as Henry II's favourite child, although he was the furthest removed in terms of the royal succession.", "Henry II began to find more lands for John, mostly at various nobles' expense.", "In 1175 he appropriated the estates of the late Earl of Cornwall and gave them to John.", "The following year, Henry disinherited the sisters of Isabella of Gloucester, contrary to legal custom, and betrothed John to the now extremely wealthy Isabella.", "In 1177, at the Council of Oxford, Henry dismissed William FitzAldelm as the Lord of Ireland and replaced him with the ten-year-old John.Henry II and his legitimate children, left to right: William, Henry, Richard, Matilda, Geoffrey, Eleanor, Joan and JohnHenry the Young King fought a short war with his brother Richard in 1183 over the status of England, Normandy and Aquitaine.", "Henry II moved in support of Richard, and Henry the Young King died from dysentery at the end of the campaign.", "With his primary heir dead, Henry rearranged the plans for the succession: Richard was to be made King of England, albeit without any actual power until the death of his father; Geoffrey would retain Brittany; and John would now become the Duke of Aquitaine in place of Richard.", "Richard refused to give up Aquitaine; Henry II was furious and ordered John, with help from Geoffrey, to march south and retake the duchy by force.", "The two attacked the capital of Poitiers, and Richard responded by attacking Brittany.", "The war ended in stalemate and a tense family reconciliation in England at the end of 1184.In 1185 John made his first visit to Ireland, accompanied by 300 knights and a team of administrators.", "Henry had tried to have John officially proclaimed King of Ireland, but Pope Lucius III would not agree.", "John's first period of rule in Ireland was not a success.", "Ireland had only recently been conquered by Anglo-Norman forces, and tensions were still rife between Henry II, the new settlers and the existing inhabitants.", "John infamously offended the local Irish rulers by making fun of their unfashionable long beards, failed to make allies amongst the Anglo-Norman settlers, began to lose ground militarily against the Irish and finally returned to England later in the year, blaming the viceroy, Hugh de Lacy, for the fiasco.The problems amongst John's wider family continued to grow.", "His elder brother Geoffrey died during a tournament in 1186, leaving a posthumous son, Arthur, and an elder daughter, Eleanor.", "Geoffrey's death brought John slightly closer to the throne of England.", "The uncertainty about what would happen after Henry's death continued to grow; Richard was keen to join a new crusade and remained concerned that whilst he was away Henry would appoint John his formal successor.Richard began discussions about a potential alliance with Philip II in Paris during 1187, and the next year Richard gave homage to Philip in exchange for support for a war against Henry.", "Richard and Philip fought a joint campaign against Henry, and by the summer of 1189 the king made peace, promising Richard the succession.", "John initially remained loyal to his father, but changed sides once it appeared that Richard would win.", "Henry died shortly afterwards." ], [ "Richard's reign (1189–1199)", "Richard I (left) and Philip II Augustus at Acre during the Third CrusadeWhen Richard became king in September 1189, he had already declared his intention of joining the Third Crusade.", "He set about raising the huge sums of money required for this expedition through the sale of lands, titles and appointments, and attempted to ensure that he would not face a revolt while away from his empire.", "John was made Count of Mortain, was married to the wealthy Isabella of Gloucester, and was given valuable lands in Lancaster and the counties of Cornwall, Derby, Devon, Dorset, Nottingham and Somerset, all with the aim of buying his loyalty to Richard whilst the King was on crusade.", "Richard retained royal control of key castles in these counties, thereby preventing John from accumulating too much military and political power.", "The King named his four-year-old nephew Arthur as his heir.", "In return, John promised not to visit England for the next three years, thereby in theory giving Richard adequate time to conduct a successful crusade and return from the Levant without fear of John seizing power.", "Richard left political authority in England—the post of justiciar—jointly in the hands of Bishop Hugh de Puiset and William de Mandeville, 3rd Earl of Essex, and made William Longchamp, the Bishop of Ely, his chancellor.", "Mandeville immediately died, and Longchamp took over as joint justiciar with Puiset, which would prove a less than satisfactory partnership.", "Eleanor, the queen mother, convinced Richard to allow John into England in his absence.The political situation in England rapidly began to deteriorate.", "Longchamp refused to work with Puiset and became unpopular with the English nobility and clergy.", "John exploited this unpopularity to set himself up as an alternative ruler with his own royal court, complete with his own justiciar, chancellor and other royal posts, and was happy to be portrayed as an alternative regent, and possibly the next king.", "Armed conflict broke out between John and Longchamp, and by October 1191 Longchamp was isolated in the Tower of London with John in control of the city of London, thanks to promises John had made to the citizens in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive.", "At this point Walter of Coutances, the Archbishop of Rouen, returned to England, having been sent by Richard to restore order.", "John's position was undermined by Walter's relative popularity and by the news that Richard had married whilst in Cyprus, which presented the possibility that Richard would have legitimate children and heirs.stag huntThe political turmoil continued.", "John began to explore an alliance with King Philip II of France, who had returned from the crusade in late 1191.John hoped to acquire Normandy, Anjou and the other lands in France held by Richard in exchange for allying himself with Philip.", "John was persuaded not to pursue an alliance by his mother.", "Longchamp, who had left England after Walter's intervention, now returned, and argued that he had been wrongly removed as justiciar.", "John intervened, suppressing Longchamp's claims in return for promises of support from the royal administration, including a reaffirmation of his position as heir to the throne.", "When Richard still did not return from the crusade, John began to assert that his brother was dead or otherwise permanently lost.", "Richard had in fact been captured shortly before Christmas 1192, while en route to England, by Duke Leopold V of Austria and was handed over to Emperor Henry VI, who held him for ransom.", "John seized the opportunity and went to Paris, where he formed an alliance with Philip.", "He agreed to set aside his wife, Isabella of Gloucester, and marry Philip's sister, Alys, in exchange for Philip's support.", "Fighting broke out in England between forces loyal to Richard and those being gathered by John.", "John's military position was weak and he agreed to a truce; in early 1194 the King finally returned to England, and John's remaining forces surrendered.", "John retreated to Normandy, where Richard finally found him later that year.", "Richard declared that John—despite being 27 years old—was merely \"a child who has had evil counsellors\" and forgave him, but removed his lands with the exception of Ireland.For the remaining years of Richard's reign, John supported his brother on the continent, apparently loyally.", "Richard's policy on the continent was to attempt to regain through steady, limited campaigns the castles he had lost to Philip II whilst on crusade.", "He allied himself with the leaders of Flanders, Boulogne and the Holy Roman Empire to apply pressure on Philip from Germany.", "In 1195 John successfully conducted a sudden attack and siege of Évreux castle, and subsequently managed the defences of Normandy against Philip.", "The following year, John seized the town of Gamaches and led a raiding party within of Paris, capturing the Bishop of Beauvais.", "In return for this service, Richard withdrew his (ill-will) towards John, restored him to the county of Gloucestershire and made him again the Count of Mortain." ], [ "Early reign (1199–1204)", "===Accession to the throne, 1199===The donjon of Château Gaillard; the loss of the castle would prove devastating for John's military position in NormandyAfter Richard's death on 6 April 1199 there were two potential claimants to the Angevin throne: John, whose claim rested on being the sole surviving son of Henry II, and young Arthur I of Brittany, who held a claim as the son of John's elder brother Geoffrey.", "Richard appears to have started to recognise John as his heir presumptive in the final years before his death, but the matter was not clear-cut and medieval law gave little guidance as to how the competing claims should be decided.", "With Norman law favouring John as the only surviving son of Henry II and Angevin law favouring Arthur as the only son of Henry's elder son, the matter rapidly became an open conflict.", "John was supported by the bulk of the English and Norman nobility and was crowned at Westminster Abbey, backed by his mother, Eleanor.", "Arthur was supported by the majority of the Breton, Maine and Anjou nobles and received the support of Philip II, who remained committed to breaking up the Angevin territories on the continent.", "With Arthur's army pressing up the Loire Valley towards Angers and Philip's forces moving down the valley towards Tours, John's continental empire was in danger of being cut in two.Warfare in Normandy at the time was shaped by the defensive potential of castles and the increasing costs of conducting campaigns.", "The Norman frontiers had limited natural defences but were heavily reinforced with castles, such as Château Gaillard, at strategic points, built and maintained at considerable expense.", "It was difficult for a commander to advance far into fresh territory without having secured his lines of communication by capturing these fortifications, which slowed the progress of any attack.", "Armies of the period could be formed from either feudal or mercenary forces.", "Feudal levies could be raised only for a fixed length of time before they returned home, forcing an end to a campaign; mercenary forces, often called Brabançons after the Duchy of Brabant but actually recruited from across northern Europe, could operate all year long and provide a commander with more strategic options to pursue a campaign, but cost much more than equivalent feudal forces.", "As a result, commanders of the period were increasingly drawing on larger numbers of mercenaries.After his coronation, John moved south into France with military forces and adopted a defensive posture along the eastern and southern Normandy borders.", "Both sides paused for desultory negotiations before the war recommenced; John's position was now stronger, thanks to confirmation that the counts Baldwin IX of Flanders and Renaud of Boulogne had renewed the anti-French alliances they had previously agreed to with Richard.", "The powerful Anjou nobleman William des Roches was persuaded to switch sides from Arthur to John; suddenly the balance seemed to be tipping away from Philip and Arthur in favour of John.", "Neither side was keen to continue the conflict, and following a papal truce the two leaders met in January 1200 to negotiate possible terms for peace.", "From John's perspective, what then followed represented an opportunity to stabilise control over his continental possessions and produce a lasting peace with Philip in Paris.", "John and Philip negotiated the May 1200 Treaty of Le Goulet; by this treaty, Philip recognised John as the rightful heir to Richard in respect to his French possessions, temporarily abandoning the wider claims of his client, Arthur.", "John, in turn, abandoned Richard's former policy of containing Philip through alliances with Flanders and Boulogne, and accepted Philip's right as the legitimate feudal overlord of John's lands in France.", "John's policy earned him the disrespectful title of \"John Softsword\" from some English chroniclers, who contrasted his behaviour with his more aggressive brother, Richard.===Second marriage and consequences, 1200–1202===The effigy of Isabella of Angoulême, John's second wife, in Fontevraud Abbey in FranceThe new peace would last only two years; war recommenced in the aftermath of John's decision in August 1200 to marry Isabella of Angoulême.", "In order to remarry, John first needed to abandon his wife Isabella, Countess of Gloucester; the King accomplished this by arguing that he had failed to get the necessary papal dispensation to marry the Countess in the first place—as a cousin, John could not have legally wedded her without this.", "It remains unclear why John chose to marry Isabella of Angoulême.", "Contemporary chroniclers argued that John had fallen deeply in love with her, and John may have been motivated by desire for an apparently beautiful, if rather young, girl (Isabella of Angoulême was either 12 or 14 at the time of their marriage).", "On the other hand, the Angoumois lands that came with her were strategically vital to John: by marrying Isabella, John was acquiring a key land route between Poitou and Gascony, which significantly strengthened his grip on Aquitaine.Isabella, however, was already engaged to Hugh IX of Lusignan, an important member of a key Poitou noble family and brother of Raoul I, Count of Eu, who possessed lands along the sensitive eastern Normandy border.", "Just as John stood to benefit strategically from marrying Isabella, so the marriage threatened the interests of the Lusignans, whose own lands currently provided the key route for royal goods and troops across Aquitaine.", "Rather than negotiating some form of compensation, John treated Hugh \"with contempt\"; this resulted in a Lusignan uprising that was promptly crushed by John, who also intervened to suppress Raoul in Normandy.Although John was the Count of Poitou and therefore the rightful feudal lord over the Lusignans, they could legitimately appeal John's actions in France to his own feudal lord, Philip.", "Hugh did exactly this in 1201 and Philip summoned John to attend court in Paris in 1202, citing the Le Goulet treaty to strengthen his case.", "John was unwilling to weaken his authority in western France in this way.", "He argued that he need not attend Philip's court because of his special status as the Duke of Normandy, who was exempt by feudal tradition from being called to the French court.", "Philip argued that he was summoning John not as the Duke of Normandy, but as the Count of Poitou, which carried no such special status.", "When John still refused to come, Philip declared John in breach of his feudal responsibilities, reassigned all of John's lands that fell under the French crown to Arthur—with the exception of Normandy, which he took back for himself—and began a fresh war against John.===Loss of Normandy, 1202–1204===John's successful 1202 campaign, which culminated in the victory of the battle of Mirebeau; red arrows indicate the movement of John's forces, blue those of Philip II's forces and light blue those of Philip's Breton and Lusignan alliesJohn initially adopted a defensive posture similar to that of 1199: avoiding open battle and carefully defending his key castles.", "John's operations became more chaotic as the campaign progressed, and Philip began to make steady progress in the east.", "John became aware in July that Arthur's forces were threatening his mother, Eleanor, at Mirebeau Castle.", "Accompanied by William de Roches, his seneschal in Anjou, he swung his mercenary army rapidly south to protect her.", "His forces caught Arthur by surprise and captured the entire rebel leadership at the battle of Mirebeau.", "With his southern flank weakening, Philip was forced to withdraw in the east and turn south himself to contain John's army.John's position in France was considerably strengthened by the victory at Mirebeau, but John's treatment of his new prisoners and of his ally, William de Roches, quickly undermined these gains.", "De Roches was a powerful Anjou noble, but John largely ignored him, causing considerable offence, whilst the King kept the rebel leaders in such bad conditions that twenty-two of them died.", "At this time most of the regional nobility were closely linked through kinship, and this behaviour towards their relatives was regarded as unacceptable.", "William de Roches and others of John's regional allies in Anjou and Brittany deserted him in favour of Philip, and Brittany rose in revolt.", "John's financial situation was tenuous, once factors such as the comparative military costs of materiel and soldiers were taken into account.", "While Philip enjoyed a considerable, although not overwhelming, advantage of resources over John.Further desertions of John's local allies at the beginning of 1203 steadily reduced his freedom to manoeuvre in the region.", "He attempted to convince Pope Innocent III to intervene in the conflict, but Innocent's efforts were unsuccessful.", "As the situation became worse for John, he appears to have decided to have Arthur killed, with the aim of removing a potential rival and to undermine the rebel forces in Brittany.", "Arthur had initially been imprisoned at Falaise and was then moved to Rouen.", "After this, Arthur's fate remains uncertain, but modern historians believe he was murdered by John.", "The annals of Margam Abbey suggest that \"John had captured Arthur and kept him alive in prison for some time in the castle of Rouen ... when John was drunk he slew Arthur with his own hand and tying a heavy stone to the body cast it into the Seine.\"", "Rumours of the manner of Arthur's death further reduced support for John across the region.", "Arthur's sister, Eleanor, who had also been captured at Mirebeau, was kept imprisoned by John for many years, albeit in relatively good conditions.Phillip II's successful invasion of Normandy in 1204; blue arrows indicate the movement of Philip II's forces and light blue Philip's Breton alliesIn late 1203, John attempted to relieve Château Gaillard, which although besieged by Philip was guarding the eastern flank of Normandy.", "John attempted a synchronised operation involving land-based and water-borne forces, considered by most historians today to have been imaginative in conception, but overly complex for forces of the period to have carried out successfully.", "John's relief operation was blocked by Philip's forces, and John turned back to Brittany in an attempt to draw Philip away from eastern Normandy.", "John successfully devastated much of Brittany, but did not deflect Philip's main thrust into the east of Normandy.", "Opinions vary amongst historians as to the military skill shown by John during this campaign, with most recent historians arguing that his performance was passable, although not impressive.John's situation began to deteriorate rapidly.", "The eastern border region of Normandy had been extensively cultivated by Philip and his predecessors for several years, whilst Angevin authority in the south had been undermined by Richard's giving away of various key castles some years before.", "His use of mercenaries in the central regions had rapidly eaten away his remaining support in this area too, which set the stage for a sudden collapse of Angevin power.", "John retreated back across the Channel in December, sending orders for the establishment of a fresh defensive line to the west of Chateau Gaillard.", "In March 1204, Gaillard fell.", "John's mother Eleanor died the following month.", "This was not just a personal blow for John, but threatened to unravel the widespread Angevin alliances across the far south of France.", "Philip moved south around the new defensive line and struck upwards at the heart of the Duchy, now facing little resistance.", "By August, Philip had taken Normandy and advanced south to occupy Anjou and Poitou as well.", "John's only remaining possession on the Continent was now the Duchy of Aquitaine." ], [ "John as king", "===Kingship and royal administration===A pipe roll, part of the increasingly sophisticated system of royal governance at the turn of the 13th centuryThe nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain.", "John's predecessors had ruled using the principle of (\"force and will\"), taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law.", "Both Henry II and Richard had argued that kings possessed a quality of \"divine majesty\"; John continued this trend and claimed an \"almost imperial status\" for himself as ruler.", "During the 12th century, there were contrary opinions expressed about the nature of kingship, and many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, and take counsel of the leading members of the realm.", "There was as yet no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so.", "Despite his claim to unique authority within England, John would sometimes justify his actions on the basis that he had taken council with the barons.", "Modern historians remain divided as to whether John suffered from a case of \"royal schizophrenia\" in his approach to government, or if his actions merely reflected the complex model of Angevin kingship in the early 13th century.John inherited a sophisticated system of administration in England, with a range of royal agents answering to the Royal Household: the Chancery kept written records and communications; the Treasury and the Exchequer dealt with income and expenditure respectively; and various judges were deployed to deliver justice around the kingdom.", "Thanks to the efforts of men like Hubert Walter, this trend towards improved record keeping continued into his reign.", "Like previous kings, John managed a peripatetic court that travelled around the kingdom, dealing with both local and national matters as he went.", "John was very active in the administration of England and was involved in every aspect of government.", "In part he was following in the tradition of Henry I and Henry II, but by the 13th century the volume of administrative work had greatly increased, which put much more pressure on a king who wished to rule in this style.", "John was in England for much longer periods than his predecessors, which made his rule more personal than that of previous kings, particularly in previously ignored areas such as the north.The administration of justice was of particular importance to John.", "Several new processes had been introduced to English law under Henry II, including ''novel disseisin'' and ''mort d'ancestor''.", "These processes meant the royal courts had a more significant role in local law cases, which had previously been dealt with only by regional or local lords.", "John increased the professionalism of local sergeants and bailiffs, and extended the system of coroners first introduced by Hubert Walter in 1194, creating a new class of borough coroners.", "The King worked extremely hard to ensure that this system operated well, through judges he had appointed, by fostering legal specialists and expertise, and by intervening in cases himself.", "He continued to try relatively minor cases, even during military crises.", "Viewed positively, Lewis Warren considers that John discharged \"his royal duty of providing justice ... with a zeal and a tirelessness to which the English common law is greatly endebted\".", "Seen more critically, John may have been motivated by the potential of the royal legal process to raise fees, rather than a desire to deliver simple justice; his legal system also applied only to free men, rather than to all of the population.", "Nonetheless, these changes were popular with many free tenants, who acquired a more reliable legal system that could bypass the barons, against whom such cases were often brought.", "John's reforms were less popular with the barons themselves, especially as they remained subject to arbitrary and frequently vindictive royal justice.===Economy===A silver King John penny, amongst the first struck in DublinOne of John's principal challenges was acquiring the large sums of money needed for his proposed campaigns to reclaim Normandy.", "The Angevin kings had three main sources of income available to them, namely revenue from their personal lands, or ''demesne''; money raised through their rights as a feudal lord; and revenue from taxation.", "Revenue from the royal demesne was inflexible and had been diminishing slowly since the Norman conquest.", "Matters were not helped by Richard's sale of many royal properties in 1189, and taxation played a much smaller role in royal income than in later centuries.", "English kings had widespread feudal rights which could be used to generate income, including the scutage system, in which feudal military service was avoided by a cash payment to the King.", "He derived income from fines, court fees and the sale of charters and other privileges.", "John intensified his efforts to maximise all possible sources of income, to the extent that he has been described as \"avaricious, miserly, extortionate and moneyminded\".", "He also used revenue generation as a way of exerting political control over the barons: debts owed to the crown by the King's favoured supporters might be forgiven; collection of those owed by enemies was more stringently enforced.A silver King John pennyThe result was a sequence of innovative but unpopular financial measures.", "John levied scutage payments eleven times in his seventeen years as king, as compared to eleven times in total during the reign of the preceding three monarchs.", "In many cases these were levied in the absence of any actual military campaign, which ran counter to the original idea that scutage was an alternative to actual military service.", "John maximised his right to demand relief payments when estates and castles were inherited, sometimes charging enormous sums, beyond barons' abilities to pay.", "Building on the successful sale of sheriff appointments in 1194, the King initiated a new round of appointments, with the new incumbents making back their investment through increased fines and penalties, particularly in the forests.", "Another innovation of Richard's, increased charges levied on widows who wished to remain single, was expanded under John.", "John continued to sell charters for new towns, including the planned town of Liverpool, and charters were sold for markets across the kingdom and in Gascony.", "The King introduced new taxes and extended existing ones.", "The Jews, who held a vulnerable position in medieval England, protected only by the King, were subject to huge taxes; £44,000 was extracted from the community by the tallage of 1210; much of it was passed on to the Christian debtors of Jewish moneylenders.", "John created a new tax on income and movable goods in 1207—effectively a version of a modern income tax—that produced £60,000; he created a new set of import and export duties payable directly to the Crown.", "He found that these measures enabled him to raise further resources through the confiscation of the lands of barons who could not pay or refused to pay.At the start of John's reign there was a sudden change in prices, as bad harvests and high demand for food resulted in much higher prices for grain and animals.", "This inflationary pressure was to continue for the rest of the 13th century and had long-term economic consequences for England.", "The resulting social pressures were complicated by bursts of deflation that resulted from John's military campaigns.", "It was usual at the time for the King to collect taxes in silver, which was then re-minted into new coins; these coins would then be put in barrels and sent to royal castles around the country, to be used to hire mercenaries or to meet other costs.", "At those times when John was preparing for campaigns in Normandy, for example, huge quantities of silver had to be withdrawn from the economy and stored for months, which unintentionally resulted in periods during which silver coins were simply hard to come by, commercial credit difficult to acquire and deflationary pressure placed on the economy.", "The result was political unrest across the country.", "John attempted to address some of the problems with the English currency in 1204 and 1205 by carrying out a radical overhaul of the coinage, improving its quality and consistency.===Royal household and ===King John presenting a church, painted c. 1250–1259 by Matthew Paris in his John's royal household was based around several groups of followers.", "One group was the , his immediate friends and knights who travelled around the country with him.", "They also played an important role in organising and leading military campaigns.", "Another section of royal followers were the ; these were the senior officials and agents of the King and were essential to his day-to-day rule.", "Being a member of these inner circles brought huge advantages, as it was easier to gain favours from the King, file lawsuits, marry a wealthy heiress or have one's debts remitted.", "By the time of Henry II, these posts were increasingly being filled by \"new men\" from outside the normal ranks of the barons.", "This intensified under John's rule, with many lesser nobles arriving from the continent to take up positions at court; many were mercenary leaders from Poitou.", "These men included soldiers who would become infamous in England for their uncivilised behaviour, including Falkes de Breauté, Gérard d'Athée, Engelard de Cigogné, and Philip Marc.", "Many barons perceived the King's household as what Ralph Turner has characterised as a \"narrow clique enjoying royal favour at barons' expense\" staffed by men of lesser status.This trend for the King to rely on his own men at the expense of the barons was exacerbated by the tradition of Angevin royal (\"anger and ill-will\") and John's own personality.", "From Henry II onwards, had come to describe the right of the King to express his anger and displeasure at particular barons or clergy, building on the Norman concept of —royal ill-will.", "In the Norman period, suffering the King's ill-will meant difficulties in obtaining grants, honours or petitions; Henry II had infamously expressed his fury and ill-will towards Thomas Becket, which ultimately resulted in Becket's death.", "John now had the additional ability to \"cripple his vassals\" on a significant scale using his new economic and judicial measures, which made the threat of royal anger all the more serious.John was deeply suspicious of the barons, particularly those with sufficient power and wealth to potentially challenge him.", "Numerous barons were subjected to his , even including the famous knight William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, normally held up as a model of utter loyalty.", "The most infamous case, which went beyond anything considered acceptable at the time, was that of the powerful William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber, who held lands in Ireland.", "De Braose was subjected to punitive demands for money, and when he refused to pay a huge sum of 40,000 marks (equivalent to £26,666 at the time), his wife, Maud, and one of their sons were imprisoned by John, which resulted in their deaths.", "De Braose died in exile in 1211, and his grandsons remained in prison until 1218.John's suspicions and jealousies meant that he rarely enjoyed good relationships with even the leading loyalist barons.===Personal life===Henry, Richard, Isabella, Eleanor and JoanJohn's personal life greatly affected his reign.", "Contemporary chroniclers state that John was sinfully lustful and lacking in piety.", "It was common for kings and nobles of the period to keep mistresses, but chroniclers complained that John's mistresses were married noblewomen, which was considered unacceptable.", "John had at least five children with mistresses during his first marriage, and two of those mistresses are known to have been noblewomen.", "John's sexual behaviour after his second marriage is less clear, however.", "None of his known illegitimate children were born after he remarried, and there is no actual documentary proof of adultery after that point, although John certainly had female friends amongst the court throughout the period.", "The specific accusations made against John during the baronial revolts are now generally considered to have been invented for the purposes of justifying the revolt; nonetheless, most of John's contemporaries seem to have held a poor opinion of his sexual behaviour.The character of John's relationship with his second wife, Isabella of Angoulême, is unclear.", "John married Isabella whilst she was relatively young—her exact date of birth is uncertain, and estimates place her between at most 15 and more probably towards nine years old at the time of her marriage.", "Even by the standards of the time, she was married whilst very young.", "John did not provide a great deal of money for his wife's household and did not pass on much of the revenue from her lands, to the extent that historian Nicholas Vincent has described him as being \"downright mean\" towards Isabella.", "Vincent concluded that the marriage was not a particularly \"amicable\" one.", "Other aspects of their marriage suggest a closer, more positive relationship.", "Chroniclers recorded that John had a \"mad infatuation\" with Isabella, and certainly the King and Queen had conjugal relations between at least 1207 and 1215; they had five children.", "In contrast to Vincent, historian William Chester Jordan concludes that the pair were a \"companionable couple\" who had a successful marriage by the standards of the day.John's lack of religious conviction has been noted by contemporary chroniclers and later historians, with some suspecting that he was at best impious, or even atheistic, a very serious issue at the time.", "Contemporary chroniclers catalogued his various anti-religious habits at length, including his failure to take communion, his blasphemous remarks, and his witty but scandalous jokes about church doctrine, including jokes about the implausibility of the Resurrection of Jesus.", "They commented on the paucity of John's charitable donations to the Church.", "Historian Frank McLynn argues that John's early years at Fontevrault, combined with his relatively advanced education, may have turned him against the church.", "Other historians have been more cautious in interpreting this material, noting that chroniclers also reported his personal interest in the life of St Wulfstan and his friendships with several senior clerics, most especially with Hugh of Lincoln, who was later declared a saint.", "Financial records show a normal royal household engaged in the usual feasts and pious observances—albeit with many records showing John's offerings to the poor to atone for routinely breaking church rules and guidance.", "The historian Lewis Warren has argued that the chronicler accounts were subject to considerable bias and the King was \"at least conventionally devout\", citing his pilgrimages and interest in religious scripture and commentaries." ], [ "Later reign (1204–1214)", "===Continental policy===An early-13th-century drawing by Matthew Paris showing contemporary warfare, including the use of castles, crossbowmen and mounted knightsDuring the remainder of his reign, John focused on trying to retake Normandy.", "The available evidence suggests that he did not regard the loss of the Duchy as a permanent shift in Capetian power.", "Strategically, John faced several challenges: England itself had to be secured against possible French invasion, the sea-routes to Bordeaux needed to be secured following the loss of the land route to Aquitaine, and his remaining possessions in Aquitaine needed to be secured following the death of his mother, Eleanor, in April 1204.John's preferred plan was to use Poitou as a base of operations, advance up the Loire Valley to threaten Paris, pin down the French forces and break Philip's internal lines of communication before landing a maritime force in the Duchy itself.", "Ideally, this plan would benefit from the opening of a second front on Philip's eastern frontiers with Flanders and Boulogne—effectively a re-creation of Richard's old strategy of applying pressure from Germany.", "All of this would require a great deal of money and soldiers.John spent much of 1205 securing England against a potential French invasion.", "As an emergency measure, he recreated a version of Henry II's Assize of Arms of 1181, with each shire creating a structure to mobilise local levies.", "When the threat of invasion faded, John formed a large military force in England intended for Poitou, and a large fleet with soldiers under his own command intended for Normandy.", "To achieve this, John reformed the English feudal contribution to his campaigns, creating a more flexible system under which only one knight in ten would actually be mobilised, but would be financially supported by the other nine; knights would serve for an indefinite period.", "John built up a strong team of engineers for siege warfare and a substantial force of professional crossbowmen.", "The King was supported by a team of leading barons with military expertise, including William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, William the Marshal, Roger de Lacy and, until he fell from favour, the marcher lord William de Braose.John had already begun to improve his Channel forces before the loss of Normandy and he rapidly built up further maritime capabilities after its collapse.", "Most of these ships were placed along the Cinque Ports, but Portsmouth was also enlarged.", "By the end of 1204 he had around 50 large galleys available; another 54 vessels were built between 1209 and 1212.William of Wrotham was appointed \"keeper of the galleys\", effectively John's chief admiral.", "Wrotham was responsible for fusing John's galleys, the ships of the Cinque Ports and pressed merchant vessels into a single operational fleet.", "John adopted recent improvements in ship design, including new large transport ships called ''buisses'' and removable forecastles for use in combat.Baronial unrest in England prevented the departure of the planned 1205 expedition, and only a smaller force under William Longespée deployed to Poitou.", "In 1206 John departed for Poitou himself, but was forced to divert south to counter a threat to Gascony from Alfonso VIII of Castile.", "After a successful campaign against Alfonso, John headed north again, taking the city of Angers.", "Philip moved south to meet John; the year's campaigning ended in stalemate and a two-year truce was made between the two rulers.During the truce of 1206–1208, John focused on building up his financial and military resources in preparation for another attempt to recapture Normandy.", "John used some of this money to pay for new alliances on Philip's eastern frontiers, where the growth in Capetian power was beginning to concern France's neighbours.", "By 1212 John had successfully concluded alliances with his nephew Otto IV, a contender for the crown of Holy Roman Emperor in Germany, as well as with the counts Renaud of Boulogne and Ferdinand of Flanders.", "The invasion plans for 1212 were postponed because of fresh English baronial unrest about service in Poitou.", "Philip seized the initiative in 1213, sending his elder son, Louis, to invade Flanders with the intention of next launching an invasion of England.", "John was forced to postpone his own invasion plans to counter this threat.", "He launched his new fleet to attack the French at the harbour of Damme.", "The attack was a success, destroying Philip's vessels and any chances of an invasion of England that year.", "John hoped to exploit this advantage by invading himself late in 1213, but baronial discontent again delayed his invasion plans until early 1214, in what was his final Continental campaign.===Scotland, Ireland and Wales===A 13th-century depiction of John with two hunting dogsIn the late 12th and early 13th centuries the border and political relationship between England and Scotland was disputed, with the kings of Scotland claiming parts of what is now northern England.", "John's father, Henry II, had forced William the Lion to swear fealty to him at the Treaty of Falaise in 1174.This had been rescinded by Richard I in exchange for financial compensation in 1189, but the relationship remained uneasy.", "John began his reign by reasserting his sovereignty over the disputed northern counties.", "He refused William's request for the earldom of Northumbria, but did not intervene in Scotland itself and focused on his continental problems.", "The two kings maintained a friendly relationship, meeting in 1206 and 1207, until it was rumoured in 1209 that William was intending to ally himself with Philip II of France.", "John invaded Scotland and forced William to sign the Treaty of Norham, which gave John control of William's daughters and required a payment of £10,000.This effectively crippled William's power north of the border, and by 1212 John had to intervene militarily to support William against his internal rivals.", "John made no efforts to reinvigorate the Treaty of Falaise, though, and William and his son Alexander II of Scotland in turn remained independent kings, supported by, but not owing fealty to, John.John remained Lord of Ireland throughout his reign.", "He drew on the country for resources to fight his war with Philip on the continent.", "Conflict continued in Ireland between the Anglo-Norman settlers and the indigenous Irish chieftains, with John manipulating both groups to expand his wealth and power in the country.", "During Richard's rule, John had successfully increased the size of his lands in Ireland, and he continued this policy as king.", "In 1210 the King crossed into Ireland with a large army to crush a rebellion by the Anglo-Norman lords; he reasserted his control of the country and used a new charter to order compliance with English laws and customs in Ireland.", "John stopped short of trying to actively enforce this charter on the native Irish kingdoms, but historian David Carpenter suspects that he might have done so, had the baronial conflict in England not intervened.", "Simmering tensions remained with the native Irish leaders even after John left for England.Royal power in Wales was unevenly applied, with the country divided between the marcher lords along the borders, royal territories in Pembrokeshire and the more independent native Welsh lords of North Wales.", "John took a close interest in Wales and knew the country well, visiting every year between 1204 and 1211 and marrying his illegitimate daughter, Joan, to the Welsh prince Llywelyn the Great.", "The King used the marcher lords and the native Welsh to increase his own territory and power, striking a sequence of increasingly precise deals backed by royal military power with the Welsh rulers.", "A major royal expedition to enforce these agreements occurred in 1211, after Llywelyn attempted to exploit the instability caused by the removal of William de Braose, through the Welsh uprising of 1211.John's invasion, striking into the Welsh heartlands, was a military success.", "Llywelyn came to terms that included an expansion of John's power across much of Wales, albeit only temporarily.===Dispute with the Pope and excommunication===Pope Innocent III, who excommunicated John in 1209When the Archbishop of Canterbury, Hubert Walter, died on 13 July 1205, John became involved in a dispute with Pope Innocent III that would lead to the King's excommunication.", "The Norman and Angevin kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power over the church within their territories.", "From the 1040s onwards, however, successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasised the importance of the Church being \"governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the centre\" and established \"its own sphere of authority and jurisdiction, separate from and independent of that of the lay ruler\", in the words of historian Richard Huscroft.", "After the 1140s, these principles had been largely accepted within the English Church, albeit with an element of concern about centralising authority in Rome.", "These changes brought the customary rights of lay rulers such as John over ecclesiastical appointments into question.", "Pope Innocent was, according to historian Ralph Turner, an \"ambitious and aggressive\" religious leader, insistent on his rights and responsibilities within the church.John wanted John de Gray, the Bishop of Norwich and one of his own supporters, to be appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, but the cathedral chapter for Canterbury Cathedral claimed the exclusive right to elect the Archbishop.", "They favoured Reginald, the chapter's sub-prior.", "To complicate matters, the bishops of the province of Canterbury also claimed the right to appoint the next archbishop.", "The chapter secretly elected Reginald and he travelled to Rome to be confirmed; the bishops challenged the appointment and the matter was taken before Innocent.", "John forced the Canterbury chapter to change their support to John de Gray, and a messenger was sent to Rome to inform the papacy of the new decision.", "Innocent disavowed both Reginald and John de Gray, and instead appointed his own candidate, Stephen Langton.", "John refused Innocent's request that he consent to Langton's appointment, but the Pope consecrated Langton anyway in June 1207.John was incensed about what he perceived as an abrogation of his customary right as monarch to influence the election.", "He complained both about the choice of Langton as an individual, as John felt he was overly influenced by the Capetian court in Paris, and about the process as a whole.", "He barred Langton from entering England and seized the lands of the archbishopric and other papal possessions.", "Innocent set a commission in place to try to convince John to change his mind, but to no avail.", "Innocent then placed an interdict on England in March 1208, prohibiting clergy from conducting religious services, with the exception of baptisms for the young, and confessions and absolutions for the dying.Rochester Castle in Kent, one of the many properties owned by the disputed archbishopric of Canterbury, and an important fortification in the final years of John's reignJohn treated the interdict as \"the equivalent of a papal declaration of war\".", "He responded by attempting to punish Innocent personally and to drive a wedge between those English clergy that might support him and those allying themselves firmly with the authorities in Rome.", "John seized the lands of those clergy unwilling to conduct services, as well as those estates linked to Innocent himself; he arrested the illicit concubines that many clerics kept during the period, releasing them only after the payment of fines; he seized the lands of members of the church who had fled England, and he promised protection for those clergy willing to remain loyal to him.", "In many cases, individual institutions were able to negotiate terms for managing their own properties and keeping the produce of their estates.", "By 1209 the situation showed no signs of resolution, and Innocent threatened to excommunicate John if he did not acquiesce to Langton's appointment.", "When this threat failed, Innocent excommunicated the King in November 1209.Although theoretically a significant blow to John's legitimacy, this did not appear to worry the King greatly.", "Two of John's close allies, Emperor Otto IV and Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, had already suffered the same punishment themselves, and the significance of excommunication had been somewhat devalued.", "John simply tightened his existing measures and accrued significant sums from the income of vacant sees and abbeys: one 1213 estimate, for example, suggested the church had lost an estimated 100,000 marks (equivalent to £66,666 at the time) to John.", "Official figures suggest that around 14% of annual income from the English church was being appropriated by John each year.Innocent gave some dispensations as the crisis progressed.", "Monastic communities were allowed to celebrate Mass in private from 1209 onwards, and late in 1212 the Holy Viaticum for the dying was authorised.", "The rules on burials and lay access to churches appear to have been steadily circumvented, at least unofficially.", "Although the interdict was a burden to much of the population, it did not result in rebellion against John.", "By 1213, though, John was increasingly worried about the threat of French invasion.", "Some contemporary chroniclers suggested that in January Philip II of France had been charged with deposing John on behalf of the papacy, although it appears that Innocent merely prepared secret letters in case Innocent needed to claim the credit if Philip did successfully invade England.Under mounting political pressure, John finally negotiated terms for a reconciliation, and the papal terms for submission were accepted in the presence of the papal legate Pandulf Verraccio in May 1213 at the Templar Church at Dover.", "As part of the deal, John offered to surrender the Kingdom of England to the papacy for a feudal service of 1,000 marks (equivalent to £666 at the time) annually: 700 marks (£466) for England and 300 marks (£200) for Ireland, as well as recompensing the Church for revenue lost during the crisis.", "The agreement was formalised in the , or Golden Bull.", "This resolution produced mixed responses.", "Although some chroniclers felt that John had been humiliated by the sequence of events, there was little public reaction.", "Innocent benefited from the resolution of his long-standing English problem, but John probably gained more, as Innocent became a firm supporter of John for the rest of his reign, backing him in both domestic and continental policy issues.", "Innocent immediately turned against Philip, calling upon him to reject plans to invade England and to sue for peace.", "John paid some of the compensation money he had promised the Church, but he ceased making payments in late 1214, leaving two-thirds of the sum unpaid; Innocent appears to have conveniently forgotten this debt for the good of the wider relationship." ], [ "Failure in France and the First Barons' War (1215–1216)", "The French victory at the battle of Bouvines doomed John's plan to retake Normandy in 1214 and led to the First Barons' War.===Tensions and discontent===Tensions between John and the barons had been growing for several years, as demonstrated by the 1212 plot against the King.", "Many of the disaffected barons came from the north of England; that faction was often labelled by contemporaries and historians as \"the Northerners\".", "The northern barons rarely had any personal stake in the conflict in France, and many of them owed large sums of money to John; the revolt has been characterised as \"a rebellion of the king's debtors\".", "Many of John's military household joined the rebels, particularly amongst those that John had appointed to administrative roles across England; their local links and loyalties outweighed their personal loyalty to John.", "Tension also grew across North Wales, where opposition to the 1211 treaty between John and Llywelyn was turning into open conflict.", "For some the appointment of Peter des Roches as justiciar was an important factor, as he was considered an \"abrasive foreigner\" by many of the barons.", "The failure of John's French military campaign in 1214 was probably the final straw that precipitated the baronial uprising during John's final years as king; James Holt describes the path to civil war as \"direct, short and unavoidable\" following the defeat at Bouvines.===Failure of the 1214 French campaign===In 1214 John began his final campaign to reclaim Normandy from Philip.", "He was optimistic, as he had successfully built up alliances with the Emperor Otto, Renaud of Boulogne and Ferdinand of Flanders; he was enjoying papal favour; and he had successfully built up substantial funds to pay for the deployment of his experienced army.", "Nonetheless, when John left for Poitou in February 1214, many barons refused to provide military service; mercenary knights had to fill the gaps.", "John's plan was to split Philip's forces by pushing north-east from Poitou towards Paris, whilst Otto, Renaud and Ferdinand, supported by William Longespée, marched south-west from Flanders.The first part of the campaign went well, with John outmanoeuvring the forces under the command of Prince Louis and retaking the county of Anjou by the end of June.", "John besieged the castle of Roche-au-Moine, a key stronghold, forcing Louis to give battle against John's larger army.", "The local Angevin nobles refused to advance with John; left at something of a disadvantage, John retreated back to La Rochelle.", "Shortly afterwards, King Philip won the hard-fought battle of Bouvines in the north against Otto and John's other allies, bringing an end to John's hopes of retaking Normandy.", "A peace agreement was signed in which John returned Anjou to Philip and paid him compensation; the truce was intended to last for six years.", "John arrived back in England in October.===Pre-war tensions and Magna Carta===One of four surviving original copies of Magna Carta, agreed by John and the barons in 1215.British Library, London.Within a few months of John's return, rebel barons in the north and east of England were organising resistance to his rule.", "John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms and sponsored discussions in Oxford between his agents and the rebels during the spring.", "He appears to have been playing for time until Pope Innocent III could send letters giving him explicit papal support.", "This was particularly important for John, as a way of pressuring the barons but also as a way of controlling Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury.", "In the meantime, John began to recruit fresh mercenary forces from Poitou, although some were later sent back to avoid giving the impression that John was escalating the conflict.", "The King announced his intent to become a crusader, a move which gave him additional political protection under church law.Letters of support from the Pope arrived in April but by then the rebel barons had organised.", "They congregated at Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John, appointing Robert fitz Walter as their military leader.", "This self-proclaimed \"Army of God\" marched on London, taking the capital as well as Lincoln and Exeter.", "John's efforts to appear moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful, but once the rebels held London they attracted a fresh wave of defectors from John's royalist faction.", "John instructed Langton to organise peace talks with the rebel barons.John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, near Windsor Castle, on 15 June 1215.Langton's efforts at mediation created a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement; it was later renamed Magna Carta, or \"Great Charter\".", "The charter went beyond simply addressing specific baronial complaints, and formed a wider proposal for political reform, albeit one focusing on the rights of free men, not serfs and unfree labour.", "It promised the protection of church rights, protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, new taxation only with baronial consent and limitations on scutage and other feudal payments.", "A council of twenty-five barons would be created to monitor and ensure John's future adherence to the charter, whilst the rebel army would stand down and London would be surrendered to the King.Neither John nor the rebel barons seriously attempted to implement the peace accord.", "The rebel barons suspected that the proposed baronial council would be unacceptable to John and that he would challenge the legality of the charter; they packed the baronial council with their own hardliners and refused to demobilise their forces or surrender London as agreed.", "Despite his promises to the contrary, John appealed to Innocent for help, observing that the charter compromised the Pope's rights under the 1213 agreement that had appointed him John's feudal lord.", "Innocent obliged; he declared the charter \"not only shameful and demeaning, but illegal and unjust\" and excommunicated the rebel barons.", "The failure of the agreement led rapidly to the First Barons' War.===War with the barons===John's campaign from September 1215 to March 1216The rebels made the first move in the war, seizing the strategic Rochester Castle, owned by Langton but left almost unguarded by the archbishop.", "John was well prepared for a conflict.", "He had stockpiled money to pay for mercenaries and ensured the support of the powerful marcher lords with their own feudal forces, such as William Marshal and Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester.", "The rebels lacked the engineering expertise or heavy equipment necessary to assault the network of royal castles that cut off the northern rebel barons from those in the south.", "John's strategy was to isolate the rebel barons in London, protect his own supply lines to his key source of mercenaries in Flanders, prevent the French from landing in the south-east, and then win the war through slow attrition.", "John put off dealing with the badly deteriorating situation in North Wales, where Llywelyn the Great was leading a rebellion against the 1211 settlement.John's campaign started well.", "In November John retook Rochester Castle from rebel baron William d'Aubigny in a sophisticated assault.", "One chronicler had not seen \"a siege so hard pressed or so strongly resisted\", whilst historian Reginald Brown describes it as \"one of the greatest siege operations in England up to that time\".", "Having regained the south-east John split his forces, sending William Longespée to retake the north side of London and East Anglia, whilst John himself headed north via Nottingham to attack the estates of the northern barons.", "Both operations were successful and the majority of the remaining rebels were pinned down in London.", "In January 1216 John marched against Alexander II of Scotland, who had allied himself with the rebel cause.", "John took back Alexander's possessions in northern England in a rapid campaign and pushed up towards Edinburgh over a ten-day period.The rebel barons responded by inviting the French prince Louis to lead them: Louis had a claim to the English throne by virtue of his marriage to Blanche of Castile, a granddaughter of Henry II.", "Philip may have provided him with private support but refused to openly support Louis, who was excommunicated by Innocent for taking part in the war against John.", "Louis' planned arrival in England presented a significant problem for John, as the prince would bring with him naval vessels and siege engines essential to the rebel cause.", "Once John contained Alexander in Scotland, he marched south to deal with the challenge of the coming invasion.Prince Louis intended to land in the south of England in May 1216, and John assembled a naval force to intercept him.", "Unfortunately for John, his fleet was dispersed by bad storms and Louis landed unopposed in Kent.", "John hesitated and decided not to attack Louis immediately, either due to the risks of open battle or over concerns about the loyalty of his own men.", "Louis and the rebel barons advanced west and John retreated, spending the summer reorganising his defences across the rest of the kingdom.", "John saw several of his military household desert to the rebels, including his half-brother, William Longespée.", "By the end of the summer the rebels had regained the south-east of England and parts of the north." ], [ "Death", "King John's tomb in Worcester CathedralIn September 1216, John began a fresh, vigorous attack.", "He marched from the Cotswolds, feigned an offensive to relieve the besieged Windsor Castle, and attacked eastwards around London to Cambridge to separate the rebel-held areas of Lincolnshire and East Anglia.", "From there he travelled north to relieve the rebel siege at Lincoln and back east to Lynn, probably to order further supplies from the continent.", "In Lynn, John contracted dysentery, which would ultimately prove fatal.", "Meanwhile, Alexander II invaded northern England again, taking Carlisle in August and then marching south to give homage to Prince Louis for his English possessions; John narrowly missed intercepting Alexander along the way.", "Tensions between Louis and the English barons began to increase, prompting a wave of desertions, including William Marshal's son William and William Longespée, who both returned to John's faction.=== Crown Jewels ===John returned west but is said to have lost much of his baggage train along the way.", "Roger of Wendover provides the most graphic account of this, suggesting that the King's belongings, including the English Crown Jewels, were lost as he crossed one of the tidal estuaries which empties into the Wash, being sucked in by quicksand and whirlpools.", "Accounts of the incident vary considerably between the various chroniclers and the exact location of the incident has never been confirmed; the losses may have involved only a few of his pack-horses.", "Modern historians assert that by October 1216 John faced a \"stalemate\", \"a military situation uncompromised by defeat\".John's illness grew worse and by the time he reached Newark Castle, Nottinghamshire, he was unable to travel any farther; he died on the night of 18/19 October.", "Numerous—probably fictitious—accounts circulated soon after his death that he had been killed by poisoned ale, poisoned plums or a \"surfeit of peaches\".", "His body was escorted south by a company of mercenaries and he was buried in Worcester Cathedral in front of the altar of St Wulfstan.", "A new sarcophagus with an effigy was made for him in 1232, in which his remains now rest.In his will, John ordered that his niece Eleanor, who might have had a claim to the throne of his successor, Henry III, never be released from prison." ], [ "Legacy", "Angevin and Capetian holdings in France.", "Blue: French royal domains, Yellow: Church lordships, Red: Fiefs held by the king of England in vassalage from the French crown, Green: other fiefs held on behalf of the French crownIn the aftermath of John's death, William Marshal was declared the protector of the nine-year-old Henry III.", "The civil war continued until royalist victories at the battles of Lincoln and Dover in 1217.Louis gave up his claim to the English throne and signed the Treaty of Lambeth.", "The failed Magna Carta agreement was resuscitated by Marshal's administration and reissued in an edited form in 1217 as a basis for future government.", "Henry III continued his attempts to reclaim Normandy and Anjou until 1259, but John's continental losses and the consequent growth of Capetian power in the 13th century proved to mark a \"turning point in European history\".John's first wife, Isabella, Countess of Gloucester, was released from imprisonment in 1214; she remarried twice, and died in 1217.John's second wife, Isabella of Angoulême, left England for Angoulême soon after the king's death; she became a powerful regional leader, but largely abandoned the children she had had by John.", "Their eldest son, Henry III, ruled as King of England for the majority of the 13th century.", "Their other son, Richard of Cornwall, became a noted European leader and ultimately the King of the Romans in the Holy Roman Empire.", "Their daughter Joan became Queen of Scotland on her marriage to Alexander II.", "Another daughter, Isabella, was Holy Roman Empress as the wife of Emperor Frederick II.", "The youngest daughter, Eleanor, married William Marshal's son, also called William, and later the famous English rebel Simon de Montfort.", "By various mistresses John had eight, possibly nine, sons—Richard, Oliver, John, Geoffrey, Henry, Osbert Gifford, Eudes, Bartholomew and probably Philip—and two or three daughters—Joan, Maud and probably Isabel.", "Of these, Joan became the most famous, marrying Prince Llywelyn the Great of Wales.===Historiography===A self-portrait of Matthew Paris, one of the first historians of John's reignHistorical interpretations of John have been subject to considerable change over the centuries.", "Medieval chroniclers provided the first contemporary, or near contemporary, histories of John's reign.", "One group of chroniclers wrote early in John's life, or around the time of his accession, including Richard of Devizes, William of Newburgh, Roger of Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto.", "These historians were generally unsympathetic to John's behaviour under Richard's rule, but slightly more positive towards the very earliest years of John's reign.", "Reliable accounts of the middle and later parts of John's reign are more limited, with Gervase of Canterbury and Ralph of Coggeshall writing the main accounts; neither of them were positive about John's performance as king.", "Much of John's later, negative reputation was established by two chroniclers writing after his death, Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris, the latter claiming that John attempted conversion to Islam in exchange for military aid from the Almohad ruler Muhammad al-Nasir—a story modern historians consider untrue.In the 16th century political and religious changes altered the attitude of historians towards John.", "Tudor historians were generally favourably inclined towards the King, focusing on his opposition to the Papacy and his promotion of the special rights and prerogatives of a king.", "Revisionist histories written by John Foxe, William Tyndale and Robert Barnes portrayed John as an early Protestant hero, and Foxe included the King in his ''Book of Martyrs''.", "John Speed's ''Historie of Great Britaine'' in 1632 praised John's \"great renown\" as a king; he blamed the bias of medieval chroniclers for the King's poor reputation.John Foxe's ''Book of Martyrs'', officially titled ''Acts and Monuments'', which took a positive view of John's reignBy the Victorian period in the 19th century, historians were more inclined to draw on the judgements of the chroniclers and to focus on John's moral personality.", "Kate Norgate, for example, argued that John's downfall had been due not to his failure in war or strategy, but due to his \"almost superhuman wickedness\", whilst James Ramsay blamed John's family background and his cruel personality for his downfall.", "Historians in the \"Whiggish\" tradition, focusing on documents such as the Domesday Book and Magna Carta, trace a progressive and universalist course of political and economic development in England over the medieval period.", "These historians were often inclined to see John's reign, and his signing of Magna Carta in particular, as a positive step in the constitutional development of England, despite the flaws of the King himself.", "Winston Churchill, for example, argued that \"when the long tally is added, it will be seen that the British nation and the English-speaking world owe far more to the vices of John than to the labours of virtuous sovereigns\".In the 1940s, new interpretations of John's reign began to emerge, based on research into the record evidence of his reign, such as pipe rolls, charters, court documents and similar primary records.", "Notably, an essay by Vivian Galbraith in 1945 proposed a \"new approach\" to understanding the ruler.", "The use of recorded evidence was combined with an increased scepticism about two of the most colourful chroniclers of John's reign, Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris.", "In many cases the detail provided by these chroniclers, both writing after John's death, was challenged by modern historians.", "Interpretations of Magna Carta and the role of the rebel barons in 1215 have been significantly revised: although the charter's symbolic, constitutional value for later generations is unquestionable, in the context of John's reign most historians now consider it a failed peace agreement between \"partisan\" factions.", "There has been increasing debate about the nature of John's Irish policies.", "Specialists in Irish medieval history, such as Sean Duffy, have challenged the conventional narrative established by Lewis Warren, suggesting that Ireland was less stable by 1216 than was previously supposed.Most historians today, including John's recent biographers Ralph Turner and Lewis Warren, argue that John was an unsuccessful monarch, but note that his failings were exaggerated by 12th- and 13th-century chroniclers.", "Jim Bradbury notes the current consensus that John was a \"hard-working administrator, an able man, an able general\", albeit, as Turner suggests, with \"distasteful, even dangerous personality traits\", including pettiness, spitefulness and cruelty.", "John Gillingham, author of a major biography of Richard I, follows this line too, although he considers John a less effective general than do Turner or Warren, and describes him \"one of the worst kings ever to rule England\".", "Bradbury takes a moderate line, but suggests that in recent years modern historians have been overly lenient towards John's numerous faults.", "Popular historian Frank McLynn maintains a counter-revisionist perspective on John, arguing that the King's modern reputation amongst historians is \"bizarre\", and that as a monarch John \"fails almost all those tests that can be legitimately set\".", "According to C. Warren Hollister, \"The dramatic ambivalence of his personality, the passions that he stirred among his own contemporaries, the very magnitude of his failures, have made him an object of endless fascination to historians and biographers.", "\"===Popular representations===Shakespeare's play ''The Life and Death of King John''Popular representations of John first began to emerge during the Tudor period, mirroring the revisionist histories of the time.", "The anonymous play ''The Troublesome Reign of King John'' portrayed the King as a \"proto-Protestant martyr\", similar to that shown in John Bale's morality play ''Kynge Johan'', in which John attempts to save England from the \"evil agents of the Roman Church\".", "By contrast, Shakespeare's ''King John'', a relatively anti-Catholic play that draws on ''The Troublesome Reign'' for its source material, offers a more \"balanced, dual view of a complex monarch as both a proto-Protestant victim of Rome's machinations and as a weak, selfishly motivated ruler\".", "Anthony Munday's play ''The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington'' portrays many of John's negative traits, but adopts a positive interpretation of the King's stand against the Roman Catholic Church, in line with the contemporary views of the Tudor monarchs.", "By the middle of the 17th century, plays such as Robert Davenport's ''King John and Matilda'', although based largely on the earlier Elizabethan works, were transferring the role of Protestant champion to the barons and focusing more on the tyrannical aspects of John's behaviour.Nineteenth-century fictional depictions of John were heavily influenced by Sir Walter Scott's historical romance, ''Ivanhoe'', which presented \"an almost totally unfavourable picture\" of the King; the work drew on 19th-century histories of the period and on Shakespeare's play.", "Scott's work influenced the late-19th-century children's writer Howard Pyle's book ''The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood'', which in turn established John as the principal villain within the traditional Robin Hood narrative.", "During the 20th century, John was normally depicted in fictional books and films alongside Robin Hood.", "Sam De Grasse's role as John in the black-and-white 1922 film version shows John committing numerous atrocities and acts of torture.", "Claude Rains played John in the 1938 colour version alongside Errol Flynn, starting a trend for films to depict John as an \"effeminate ... arrogant and cowardly stay-at-home\".", "The character of John acts either to highlight the virtues of King Richard, or contrasts with the Sheriff of Nottingham, who is usually the \"swashbuckling villain\" opposing Robin.", "An extreme version of this trend can be seen in the 1973 Disney cartoon version, for example, which depicts John, voiced by Peter Ustinov, as a \"cowardly, thumbsucking lion\".", "Popular works that depict John beyond the Robin Hood legends, such as James Goldman's play and later film, ''The Lion in Winter'', set in 1183, commonly present him as an \"effete weakling\", in this instance contrasted with the more masculine Henry II, or as a tyrant, as in A.", "A. Milne's poem for children, \"King John's Christmas\"." ], [ "Issue", "John and Isabella of Angoulême had five children:# Henry III, King of England (1 October 1207 – 16 November 1272)# Richard, King of the Romans (5 January 1209 – 2 April 1272)# Joan, Queen of Scotland (22 July 1210 – 4 March 1238)# Isabella, Holy Roman Empress (1214 – 1 December 1241)# Eleanor, Countess of Pembroke (1215 – 13 April 1275)John had several mistresses, including one named Suzanne.", "His known illegitimate children are:# Richard FitzRoy ( – June 1246), whose mother was Adela, John's first cousin# Joan, Lady of Wales ( – February 1237), also known by her Welsh name of Siwan# John (fl.", "1201), who became a clerk# Geoffrey (died 1205), held the honour of Perche# Oliver fitz Regis (bef.", "1199 – 1218/1219), whose mother was Hawise, sister of Fulk FitzWarin# Osbert Giffard" ], [ "Genealogical table" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * in * * in * in * *: in * * *: * *: *: * * in * in *: * * * in * in * * * * * in * * *: *: in * * in * * * * *: *: in *: * * * * * * * * * * * * in * * * in * *: * * * * in * * * in * * * * in * * in *" ], [ "External links", "* John Lackland at the official website of the British monarchy*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jule Styne" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jule Styne''' ( ; born '''Julius Kerwin Stein'''; December 31, 1905 – September 20, 1994) was an English-American songwriter and composer widely known for a series of Broadway musicals, including several famous frequently-revived shows that also became successful films: ''Gypsy,'' ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes,'' and ''Funny Girl.''" ], [ "Early life", "Styne was born to a Jewish family in London, England.", "His parents, Anna Kertman and Isadore Stein, were emigrants from Ukraine, the Russian Empire, and ran a small grocery.", "Even before his family left Britain, he did impressions on the stage of well-known singers, including Harry Lauder, who saw him perform and advised him to take up the piano.", "At the age of eight, he moved with his family to Chicago, where he began taking piano lessons.", "He proved to be a prodigy and performed with the Chicago, St. Louis, and Detroit Symphonies before he was ten years old." ], [ "Career", "Before Styne attended Chicago Musical College, he had already attracted the attention of another teenager, Mike Todd, later a successful film producer, who commissioned him to write a song for a musical act that he was creating.", "It was the first of over 1,500 published songs Styne composed in his career.", "His first hit, \"Sunday\", was written in 1926.In 1929, Styne was playing with the Ben Pollack band.Styne was a vocal coach for 20th Century Fox until Darryl F. Zanuck fired him because vocal coaching was \"a luxury, and we're cutting out those luxuries.\"", "Zanuck told him he should write songs because \"that's forever.\"", "Styne established his own dance band, which got him noticed in Hollywood, where he was championed by Frank Sinatra and began a collaboration with lyricist Sammy Cahn.", "He and Cahn wrote many songs for the movies, including \"It's Been a Long, Long Time\" (No.", "1 for three weeks for Harry James and His Orchestra in 1945), \"Five Minutes More\", and the Oscar-winning title song for ''Three Coins in the Fountain'' (1954).", "Ten of his songs were Oscar-nominated, many of them written with Cahn, including \"I've Heard That Song Before\" (No.", "1 for 13 weeks for Harry James and His Orchestra in 1943), \"I'll Walk Alone\", \"It's Magic\" (a No.", "2 hit for Doris Day in 1948), and \"I Fall In Love Too Easily\".", "He collaborated with Leo Robin on the score for the 1955 musical film ''My Sister Eileen.", "''In 1947, Styne wrote his first score for a Broadway musical, ''High Button Shoes,'' with Cahn, and over the next several decades wrote the scores for many Broadway shows, most notably ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes,'' ''Peter Pan'' (additional music), ''Bells Are Ringing,'' ''Gypsy,'' ''Do Re Mi,'' ''Funny Girl,'' ''Lorelei,'' ''Sugar'' (with a story based on the movie ''Some Like It Hot,'' but all new music), and the Tony-winning ''Hallelujah, Baby!.", "''Styne wrote original music for the short-lived themed amusement park Freedomland U.S.A. that opened on June 19, 1960.His collaborators included Sammy Cahn, Leo Robin, Betty Comden and Adolph Green, Stephen Sondheim, Bob Hilliard, and Bob Merrill.", "He wrote career-altering Broadway scores for a wide variety of major stars, including Phil Silvers, Carol Channing, Mary Martin, Judy Holliday, Ethel Merman, and an up-and-coming Barbra Streisand.He was the subject of ''This Is Your Life'' for British television in 1978 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews in New York's Time Square.Styne died of heart failure in New York City at the age of 88.His archiveincluding original hand-written compositions, letters, and production materialsis housed at the Harry Ransom Center." ], [ "Awards", "Styne was elected to the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1972 and the American Theatre Hall of Fame in 1981, and he was a recipient of a Drama Desk Special Award and the Kennedy Center Honors in 1990.Additionally, Styne won the 1955 Oscar for Best Music, Original Song for \"Three Coins in the Fountain\", and \"Hallelujah, Baby!\"", "won the 1968 Tony Award for Best Original Score." ], [ "Songs", "A selection of the many songs that Styne wrote:* \"The Christmas Waltz\"* \"Conchita Marquita Lolita Pepita Rosita Juanita Lopez\"* \"Don't Rain on My Parade\" (from ''Funny Girl'')* \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\" (from ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'')* \"Everything's Coming Up Roses\" (from ''Gypsy'')* \"Every Street's a Boulevard in Old New York\" (from ''Hazel Flagg'')* \"Fiddle Dee Dee\"* \"Guess I'll Hang My Tears Out to Dry\"* \"How Do You Speak to an Angel\"* \"I Don't Want to Walk Without You\"* \"I Fall in Love Too Easily\" (from ''Anchors Aweigh'')* \"I Still Get Jealous\" (High Button Shoes)* \"I'll Walk Alone\"* \"It's Been a Long, Long Time\"* \"It's Magic\" (from ''Romance on the High Seas'')* \"It's You or No One\"* \"I've Heard That Song Before\"* \"Just in Time\" (from ''Bells Are Ringing'')* \"Let Me Entertain You\" (from ''Gypsy'')* \"Let It Snow!", "Let It Snow!", "Let It Snow!", "\"* \"Long Before I Knew You\"* \"Make Someone Happy\" (from ''Do Re Mi'')* \"Money Burns a Hole in My Pocket\" (from ''Living It Up'')* \"Neverland\"* \"Papa, Wont You Dance with Me?", "\"* \"The Party's Over\" (from ''Bells Are Ringing'')* \"People\" (from ''Funny Girl'')* \"Pico and Sepulveda\"* \"Saturday Night (Is the Loneliest Night of the Week)\" sung by Frank Sinatra* \"Small World\", from ''Gypsy'', which became a moderate hit when sung by Johnny Mathis in 1959* \"Sunday\" with Ned Miller* \"The Things We Did Last Summer\"* \"Time After Time\" (from ''It Happened in Brooklyn'')* \"Three Coins in the Fountain\", Oscar-winning song from the film of the same name* \"Together (Wherever We Go)\" (from ''Gypsy'')* \"Winter Was Warm\" (from ''Mr.", "Magoo's Christmas Carol'')===Credits===* ''Ice Capades of 1943'' (1942) – Styne contributed one song* ''Glad to See You!''", "(1944) – closed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, during tryout* ''High Button Shoes'' (1947)* ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'' (1949)* ''Michael Todd's Peep Show'' (1950) – Styne contributed 2 numbers* ''Two on the Aisle'' (1951)* ''Hazel Flagg'' (1953)* ''Peter Pan'' (1954) (additional music)* ''My Sister Eileen'' (1955)* ''Bells Are Ringing'' (1956)* ''Say, Darling'' (1958)* ''A Party with Betty Comden and Adolph Green'' (1958)* ''First Impressions'' (1959) (produced by)* ''Gypsy'' (1959)* ''Do Re Mi'' (1960)* ''Subways Are for Sleeping'' (1961)* ''Mr.", "Magoo's Christmas Carol'' (1962)* ''Arturo Ui'' (1963) – Styne contributed incidental music to this Bertolt Brecht play* ''Funny Girl'' (1964)* ''Wonderworld'' (1964) – lyrics by Styne's son, Stanley* ''Fade Out – Fade In'' (1964)* ''Something More!''", "(1964) – directed by Styne* ''The Dangerous Christmas of Red Riding Hood'' (1965)* ''Hallelujah, Baby!''", "(1967)* ''Darling of the Day'' (1968)* ''Look to the Lilies'' (1970)* ''The Night the Animals Talked'' (1970)* ''Prettybelle'' (1971) – closed in Boston* ''Sugar'' (1972) (revised as ''Some Like It Hot: The Musical'' for a 2002–03 national US tour starring Tony Curtis as Osgood Fielding, Jr.)* ''Lorelei'' (1974) – essentially a sequel/revival of ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes''* ''Hellzapoppin'!''", "(1976) – closed in Baltimore during pre-Broadway tryout* ''Side by Side by Sondheim'' (1976)* ''Bar Mitzvah Boy'' (1978)* ''One Night Stand'' (1980) – closed during preview period* ''Pieces of Eight'' (1985)* ''The Red Shoes'' (1993)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Suskin, Steven (1986).", "''Show Tunes 1905-1985: The Songs, Shows and Careers of Broadway's Major Composers'', New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1986.", "* Suskin, Steven (2009).", "''The Sound of Broadway Music'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.", "* Taylor, Theodore.", "''Jule: The Story of Composer Jule Styne'', New York: Random House, 1979." ], [ "External links", "* * Jule Styne Papers at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin* * * * Jule Styne at the Kennedy Center" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Julia Roberts" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Julia Fiona Roberts''' (born October 28, 1967) is an American actress.", "Known for her leading roles in films encompassing a variety of genres, she has received multiple accolades, including an Academy Award, a British Academy Film Award, and three Golden Globe Awards.", "The films in which she has starred have collectively grossed over $3.9 billion globally, making her one of Hollywood's most bankable stars.", "After an early breakthrough with appearances in ''Mystic Pizza'' (1988) and ''Steel Magnolias'' (1989), Roberts established herself as a leading actress when she headlined the top-grossing romantic comedy ''Pretty Woman'' (1990).", "She starred in numerous commercially successful films throughout the 1990s, including the romantic comedies ''My Best Friend's Wedding'' (1997), ''Notting Hill'' (1999) and ''Runaway Bride'' (1999).", "She won the Academy Award for Best Actress for playing the title role in the biographical drama ''Erin Brockovich'' (2000).", "Roberts achieved further film success in the following decades with ''Ocean's Eleven'' (2001), ''Ocean's Twelve'' (2004), ''Charlie Wilson's War'' (2007), ''Valentine's Day'' (2010), ''Eat Pray Love'' (2010), ''August: Osage County'' (2013), ''Wonder'' (2017), ''Ticket to Paradise'' (2022), and '' Leave the World Behind'' (2023).", "Roberts also received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for the HBO television film ''The Normal Heart'' (2014), had her first regular television role in the first season of the Amazon Prime Video psychological thriller series ''Homecoming'' (2018), and portrayed Martha Mitchell in the Starz political limited series ''Gaslit'' (2022).", "In addition to acting, Roberts runs the production company Red Om Films, through which she has served as an executive producer for various projects she has starred in, as well as for the first four films of the ''American Girl'' franchise (2004–2008).", "She has acted as the global ambassador for Lancôme since 2009.She was the world's highest-paid actress throughout the majority of the 1990s and the first half of the 2000s.", "She received a then-unprecedented fees of $20 million and $25 million for her roles in ''Erin Brockovich'' (2000) and ''Mona Lisa Smile'' (2003), respectively.", ", Roberts' net worth was estimated to be $250 million.", "''People'' magazine has named her the most beautiful woman in the world a record five times." ], [ "Early life and family", "Roberts was born on October 28, 1967, in Smyrna, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta, to Betty Lou Bredemus and Walter Grady Roberts.", "She is of English, Scottish, Irish, Welsh, German, and Swedish descent.", "Her father was a Baptist, her mother a Catholic, and she was raised Catholic.", "Her older brother Eric Roberts (born 1956), from whom she was estranged for several years until 2004, older sister Lisa Roberts Gillan (born 1965), and niece Emma Roberts, are also actors.", "She also had a younger half-sister named Nancy Motes.Roberts's parents, one-time actors and playwrights, met while performing in theatrical productions for the United States Armed Forces.", "They later co-founded the Atlanta Actors and Writers Workshop in Atlanta, off Juniper Street in Midtown.", "They ran a children's acting school in Decatur, Georgia, while they were expecting Julia.", "The children of Coretta and Martin Luther King Jr. attended the school; Walter Roberts served as acting coach for their daughter, Yolanda.", "In gratitude for his service running the only racially integrated theater troupe in the region and due to the Roberts' financial difficulties, Coretta King paid the Roberts's hospital bill when Julia was born.Roberts' parents married in 1955.Her mother filed for divorce in 1971; the divorce was finalized in early 1972.From 1972, Roberts lived in Smyrna, Georgia, where she attended Fitzhugh Lee Elementary School, Griffin Middle School, and Campbell High School.", "In 1972, her mother married Michael Motes, who was abusive and often unemployed; Roberts despised him.", "The couple had a daughter, Nancy, who died at 37 on February 9, 2014, of an apparent drug overdose.", "The marriage ended in 1983, with Betty Lou divorcing Motes on cruelty grounds; she had stated that marrying him was the biggest mistake of her life.", "Roberts's own father died of cancer when she was ten.Roberts wanted to be a veterinarian as a child.", "She played the clarinet in her school band.", "After graduating from Smyrna's Campbell High School, she attended Georgia State University but did not graduate.", "She later headed to New York City to pursue a career in acting.", "Once there, she signed with the Click Modeling Agency and enrolled in acting classes." ], [ "Career", "===1980s===Following her first television appearance as a juvenile rape victim in the first season of the series ''Crime Story'', with Dennis Farina, in the episode \"The Survivor\", broadcast on February 13, 1987, Roberts made her big screen debut with an appearance in the dramedy ''Satisfaction'' (1988), alongside Liam Neeson and Justine Bateman, as a band member looking for a summer gig.", "(She had filmed a small role in 1987 opposite her brother Eric, in ''Blood Red'', though she only had two words of dialogue, and it was not released until 1989.)", "In 1988, Roberts had a role in the fourth-season finale of ''Miami Vice'' and her first critical success with moviegoers came with the independent romantic comedy ''Mystic Pizza'', in which she played a Portuguese-American teenage girl working as a waitress at a pizza parlor.", "Roger Ebert found Roberts to be a \"major beauty with a fierce energy\" and observed that the film \"may someday become known for the movie stars it showcased back before they became stars.", "All of the young actors in this movie have genuine gifts\".", "In ''Steel Magnolias'' (1989), a film adaptation of Robert Harling's 1987 play of the same name, Roberts starred as a young bride with diabetes, alongside Sally Field, Dolly Parton, Shirley MacLaine and Daryl Hannah.", "The filmmakers were looking at both Laura Dern and Winona Ryder when the casting director insisted they see Roberts, who was then filming ''Mystic Pizza''.", "Harling stated: \"She walked into the room and that smile lit everything up and I said 'that's my sister', so she joined the party and she was magnificent\".", "Director Herbert Ross was notoriously tough on newcomer Roberts, with Sally Field admitting that he \"went after Julia with a vengeance.", "This was pretty much her first big film\".", "Nevertheless, the film was a critical and commercial darling when it was released, and Roberts received both her first Academy Award nomination (as Best Supporting Actress) and first Golden Globe Award win (Best Supporting Actress) Motion Picture for her performance.===1990s===Catapulting on her 1989 Academy Award nomination, Roberts gained further notice from worldwide audiences when she starred with Richard Gere in the Cinderella–Pygmalionesque story, ''Pretty Woman'', in 1990, playing an assertive freelance hooker with a heart of gold.", "Roberts won the role after Michelle Pfeiffer, Molly Ringwald, Meg Ryan, Jennifer Jason Leigh, Karen Allen, and Daryl Hannah (her co-star in ''Steel Magnolias'') turned it down.", "The role also earned her a second Oscar nomination, this time as Best Actress, and second Golden Globe Award win, as Best Actress – Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy).", "She was paid $300,000 for the part.", "''Pretty Woman'' saw the highest number of ticket sales in the U.S. ever for a romantic comedy, and made $463.4million worldwide.", "The red dress Roberts wore in the film has been considered one of the most famous gowns in cinema.Roberts at the 1990 Deauville American Film FestivalHer next film release following ''Pretty Woman'' was Joel Schumacher's supernatural thriller ''Flatliners'' (also 1990), in which Roberts starred as one of five students conducting clandestine experiments that produce near-death experiences.", "The production was met with a polarized critical reception, but made a profit at the box office and has since been considered a cult film.", "In 1991, Roberts played a battered wife attempting to begin a new life in Iowa in the thriller ''Sleeping with the Enemy'', a winged, six-inch-tall tomboyish Tinkerbell in Steven Spielberg's fantasy film ''Hook'' and an outgoing yet cautious nurse in her second collaboration with director Joel Schumacher, the romance drama ''Dying Young''.", "Although negative reviews greeted her 1991 outings, ''Sleeping with the Enemy'' grossed $175 million, ''Hook'' $300.9 million and ''Dying Young'' $82.3 million globally.Roberts took a two-year hiatus from the screen, during which she made appeared in no films other than a cameo appearance in Robert Altman's ''The Player'' (1992).", "In early 1993, she was the subject of a ''People'' magazine cover story asking, \"What Happened to Julia Roberts?\".", "Roberts starred with Denzel Washington in the thriller ''The Pelican Brief'' (1993), based on John Grisham's 1992 novel of the same name.", "In it, she played a young law student who uncovers a conspiracy, putting herself and others in danger.", "The film was a commercial success, grossing $195.2 million worldwide.", "None of her next film releases —''I Love Trouble'' (1994), ''Prêt-à-Porter'' (1994) and ''Something to Talk About'' (1995)— were particularly well received by critics nor big box office draws.", "In 1996, she guest-starred in the second season of ''Friends'' (episode 13, \"The One After the Superbowl\"), and appeared with Liam Neeson in the historical drama ''Michael Collins'', portraying Kitty Kiernan, the fiancée of the assassinated Irish revolutionary leader.", "Stephen Frears' ''Mary Reilly'', her other 1996 film, was a critical and commercial failure.By the late 1990s, Roberts enjoyed renewed success in the romantic comedy genre.", "In P. J. Hogan's ''My Best Friend's Wedding'' (1997), she starred opposite Dermot Mulroney, Cameron Diaz and Rupert Everett, as a food critic who realizes she's in love with her best friend and tries to win him back after he decides to marry someone else.", "Considered to be one of the best romantic comedies of all time, Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 73% based on 59 reviews, with the critical consensus reading, \"Thanks to a charming performance from Julia Roberts and a subversive spin on the genre, ''My Best Friend's Wedding'' is a refreshingly entertaining romantic comedy.\"", "The film was a global box-office hit, earning $299.3 million.", "In her next film, Richard Donner's political thriller ''Conspiracy Theory'' (1997), Roberts starred with Mel Gibson as a Justice Department attorney.", "Mick LaSalle of ''San Francisco Chronicle'' stated: \"When all else fails, there are still the stars to look at—Roberts, who actually manages to do some fine acting, and Gibson, whose likability must be a sturdy thing indeed.\"", "The film, nevertheless, grossed a respectable $137 million.", "In 1998, Roberts appeared on the television series ''Sesame Street'' opposite the character Elmo, and starred in the drama ''Stepmom'', alongside Susan Sarandon, revolving around the complicated relationship between a terminally-ill mother and the future stepmother of her children.", "While reviews were mixed-to-positive, the film made $159.7 million worldwide.Roberts paired with Hugh Grant for ''Notting Hill'' (1999), portraying a famous actress who falls in love with a struggling book store owner.", "The film displaced ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' as the biggest British hit in the history of cinema, with earnings equalling $363million worldwide.", "An exemplar of modern romantic comedies in mainstream culture, the film was also received well by critics.", "CNN reviewer Paul Clinton called Roberts \"the queen of the romantic comedy whose reign continues\", and remarked: \"''Notting Hill'' stands alone as another funny and heartwarming story about love against all odds.\"", "In 1999, she also reunited with Richard Gere and Garry Marshall for ''Runaway Bride'', in which she played a woman who has left a string of fiancés at the altar.", "Despite mixed reviews, ''Runaway Bride'' was another financial success, grossing $309.4million around the globe.", "Roberts was a guest star in \"Empire\", a Season 9 episode of the television series ''Law & Order'', with regular cast member Benjamin Bratt, who at the time, was her boyfriend.", "Her performance earned her a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series.===2000s===Roberts became the first actress to be paid $20 million for a film, when she took on the role of real-life environmental activist Erin Brockovich in her fight against the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) of California, in ''Erin Brockovich'' (2000).", "Peter Travers of ''Rolling Stone'' wrote, \"Roberts shows the emotional toll on Erin as she tries to stay responsible to her children and to a job that has provided her with a first taste of self-esteem\", while ''Entertainment Weekly'' critic Owen Gleiberman felt that it was a \"delight to watch Roberts, with her flirtatious sparkle and undertow of melancholy\".", "''Erin Brockovich'' made $256.3 million worldwide, and earned Roberts the Academy Award for Best Actress, among numerous other accolades.", "In 2000, she also became the first actress to make ''The Hollywood Reporter''s list of the 50 most influential women in show business since the list had begun in 1992, and her Shoelace Productions company received a deal with Joe Roth.Her first film following ''Erin Brockovich'' was the road gangster comedy ''The Mexican'' (2001), giving her a chance to work with long-time friend Brad Pitt.", "The film's script was originally intended to be filmed as an independent production without major motion picture stars, but Roberts and Pitt, who had for some time been looking for a project they could do together, learned about it and decided to sign on.", "Though advertised as a typical romantic comedy star vehicle, the film does not focus solely on the actors' relationship and the two shared relatively little screen time together.", "''The Mexican'' earned $66.8 million in North America.", "In Joe Roth's romantic comedy ''America's Sweethearts'' (2001), Roberts starred as the once-overweight sister and assistant of a Hollywood actress, along with Billy Crystal, John Cusack, and Catherine Zeta-Jones.", "Critics felt that despite its famous cast, the production lacked \"sympathetic characters\" and was \"only funny in spurts.\"", "A commercial success, it grossed over $138 million worldwide, however.", "In her last film released in 2001, Roberts teamed with ''Erin Brockovich'' director Steven Soderbergh for ''Ocean's Eleven'', a remake of the 1960 film of the same name, featuring an ensemble cast including George Clooney, Brad Pitt, and Matt Damon.", "Roberts played Tess Ocean, the ex-wife of leader Danny Ocean (Clooney), originally played by Angie Dickinson.", "A success with critics and at the box office alike, ''Ocean's Eleven'' became the fifth highest-grossing film of the year with a total of $450 million worldwide.Roberts in 2002Roberts received a record $25 million, the highest ever earned by an actress at that time, to portray a forward-thinking art history professor at Wellesley College in 1953, in Mike Newell's drama ''Mona Lisa Smile''.", "The film garnered largely lukewarm reviews by critics, who found it \"predictable and safe\", but made over $141 million in theaters.", "In 2004, Roberts replaced Cate Blanchett in the role of an American photographer for Mike Nichols's film ''Closer'', a romantic drama written by Patrick Marber, based on his award-winning 1997 play of the same name, co-starring Jude Law, Natalie Portman and Clive Owen.", "She next reprised the role of Tess Ocean in ''Ocean's Twelve'', which was deliberately much more unconventional than the first film, epitomized by a sequence in which Roberts's character impersonates the real-life Julia Roberts, due to what the film's characters believe is their strong resemblance.", "Though less well reviewed than ''Eleven'', the film became another major success at the box office, with a gross of $363 million worldwide.", "In 2005, she was featured in the music video for the single \"Dreamgirl\" by the Dave Matthews Band.", "It was her first music video appearance.", "Roberts appeared in ''The Hollywood Reporter'''s list of the 10 highest-paid actresses every year from 2002 (when the magazine began compiling its list) to 2005.In 2006, Roberts voiced a nurse ant in ''The Ant Bully'' and a barn spider in ''Charlotte's Web''.", "She made her Broadway debut on April 19, 2006, as Nan in a revival of Richard Greenberg's 1997 play ''Three Days of Rain'' opposite Bradley Cooper and Paul Rudd.", "Although the play grossed nearly $1million in ticket sales during its first week and was a commercial success throughout its limited run, her performance drew criticism.", "Ben Brantley of ''The New York Times'' described Roberts as being fraught with \"self-consciousness (especially in the first act) and only glancingly acquainted with the two characters she plays.\"", "Brantley also criticized the overall production, writing that \"it's almost impossible to discern its artistic virtues from this wooden and splintered interpretation, directed by Joe Mantello.\"", "Writing in the ''New York Post'', Clive Barnes declared, \"Hated the play.", "To be sadly honest, even hated her.", "At least I liked the rain—even if three days of it can seem an eternity.\"", "In Mike Nichols' biographical drama ''Charlie Wilson's War'' (2007), Roberts starred as socialite Joanne Herring, the love interest of Democratic Texas Congressman Charles Wilson, opposite Tom Hanks and Philip Seymour Hoffman.", "The film received considerable acclaim, made $119.5 million worldwide, and earned Roberts her sixth Golden Globe nomination.The independent drama ''Fireflies in the Garden'', in which Roberts played a mother whose death sets the story in motion, was screened at the 2008 Berlin International Film Festival before being shown in European cinemas—it did not get a North American release until 2011.Roberts played a CIA agent collaborating with another spy to carry out a complicated con, opposite Clive Owen, in the comic thriller ''Duplicity'' (2009).", "Despite mixed reviews and moderate box office returns, critic A. O. Scott praised her performance: \"Ms. Roberts has almost entirely left behind the coltish, America's-sweetheart mannerisms, except when she uses them strategically, to disarm or confuse.", "... She is, at 41, unmistakably in her prime\".", "She received her seventh Golden Globe nomination for her role.===2010s===Roberts at the French premiere of ''Eat Pray Love'' in 2010In 2010, Roberts played a U.S. Army captain on a one-day leave, as part of a large ensemble cast, in the romantic comedy ''Valentine's Day'', and starred as an author finding herself following a divorce in the film adaptation of ''Eat Pray Love''.", "While she received $3 million up front against 3 percent of the gross for her six-minute role in ''Valentine's Day'', ''Eat Pray Love'' had the highest debut at the box office for Roberts in a top-billed role since ''America's Sweethearts''.", "She appeared as the teacher of a middle-aged man returning to education in the romantic comedy ''Larry Crowne'', opposite Tom Hanks, who also served as the director.", "The film was poorly received by critics and audiences, although Roberts's comedic performance was praised.", "In ''Mirror Mirror'' (2012), the Tarsem Singh adaptation of ''Snow White'', Roberts portrayed Queen Clementianna, Snow White's evil stepmother, opposite Lily Collins.", "Peter Travers of ''Rolling Stone'' felt that she tried \"way too hard\" in her role, while Katey Rich of ''Cinema Blend'' observed that she \"takes relish in her wicked portrayal but could have gone even further with it\".", "''Mirror Mirror'' made $183 million globally.In 2013, Roberts starred alongside Meryl Streep and Ewan McGregor in the black comedy drama ''August: Osage County'', about a dysfunctional family that re-unites into the familial house when their patriarch suddenly disappears.", "Her performance earned her nominations for the Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, Critics' Choice Award, and Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, amongst other accolades.", "It was her fourth Academy Award nomination.", "In 2014, Roberts starred as Dr. Emma Brookner, a character based on Dr. Linda Laubenstein, in the television adaptation of Larry Kramer's AIDS-era play, ''The Normal Heart'', which aired on HBO; the film was critically acclaimed and ''Vanity Fair'', in its review, wrote: \"Roberts, meanwhile, hums with righteous, ''Erin Brokovich''-ian anger.", "Between this and ''August: Osage County'', she's carving out a nice new niche for herself, playing brittle women who show their love and concern through explosive temper\".", "Her role garnered her a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie.", "Roberts narrated \"Women in Hollywood\", an episode of the second season of ''Makers: Women Who Make America'', in 2014, and appeared in Givenchy's spring–summer campaign in 2015.She starred as a grieving mother opposite Nicole Kidman and Chiwetel Ejiofor in ''Secret in Their Eyes'' (2015), a remake of the 2009 Argentine film of the same name, both based on the novel ''La pregunta de sus ojos'' by author Eduardo Sacheri.", "Unlike the original film, the American version received negative reviews and failed to find an audience.", "Donald Clarke of ''Irish Times'' concluded that a \"sound job\" by the cast \"can't quite shake the whiff of compromise that hangs around the project\".", "In 2016, Roberts reunited with Garry Marshall and reportedly received a $3 million fee for a four-day shoot, playing an accomplished author who gave her child for adoption, in the romantic comedy ''Mother's Day'', which had a lackluster critical and commercial response.", "Her next film release was Jodie Foster's thriller ''Money Monster'', in which she starred as a television director, alongside George Clooney and Jack O'Connell.", "Sandra Hall of ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' stated: \"It may be Hollywood melodrama but it's top of the range, giving Clooney and Roberts every opportunity to demonstrate the value of star power.\"", "The film made a respectable $93.3 million worldwide.Homecoming'' at the 2018 Toronto International Film FestivalIn ''Wonder'' (2017), the film adaptation of the 2012 novel of the same name by R. J. Palacio, Roberts played the mother of a boy with Treacher Collins syndrome.", "''The Times'' felt that she \"lifts every one of her scenes in ''Wonder'' to near-sublime places\".", "With a worldwide gross of $305.9 million, ''Wonder'' emerged as one of Roberts's most widely seen films.", "In 2017, she also voiced a motherly Smurf leader in the animated film ''Smurfs: The Lost Village''.", "Roberts portrayed the mother of a troubled young man in Peter Hedges's drama ''Ben Is Back'' (2018).", "Shaun Kitchener of ''Daily Express'' remarked: \"Roberts is often the best, or one of the best, things about any film she's in —and ''Ben Is Back'' is no different\".", "The role of a caseworker at a secret government facility, in the first season of the psychological thriller series ''Homecoming'', was Roberts' first regular television project.", "The series, which premiered on Amazon Video in November 2018, garnered acclaim from critics, who concluded it was an \"impressive small-screen debut\" for Roberts that \"balances its haunting mystery with a frenetic sensibility that grips and doesn't let go.\"", "She received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress in a Television Series – Drama.===2020s===Roberts reunited with George Clooney for the romantic comedy ''Ticket to Paradise'', which was released by Universal Pictures on October 21, 2022.She also played Martha Mitchell, a controversial figure throughout the Watergate scandal, in the political thriller television series ''Gaslit'', based on the first season of the podcast ''Slow Burn'' by Leon Neyfakh.Roberts also starred as Amanda Sandford in the 2023 film ''Leave the World Behind'', appearing alongside Ethan Hawke and Mahershala Ali.", "The movie is an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Rumaan Alam.", "The film is produced by Barack and Michelle Obama's company, Higher Ground Productions." ], [ "Other ventures", "===Philanthropy===Roberts has contributed to UNICEF as well as other charitable organizations.", "Her six-day visit to Port-au-Prince, Haiti in 1995, as she said, \"to educate myself\", was expected to trigger an outburst of donations —$10 million in aid was sought at the time— by UNICEF officials.", "In 2006, she became a spokeswoman for Earth Biofuels as well as chair of the company's newly formed advisory board promoting the use of renewable fuels.", "In 2013, she was part of a Gucci campaign, \"Chime for Change\", that aims to spread female empowerment.In 2000, Roberts narrated a documentary about Rett syndrome, a neurodevelopmental disorder, designed to help raise public awareness about the disease, and in 2014, she was the voice of Mother Nature in a short film for the Conservation International campaign ''Nature Is Speaking'', intended to raise awareness about climate change.===Production company===Roberts runs the production company Red Om Films (Red Om is \"Moder\" spelled backwards, after her husband's last name) with her sister, Lisa Roberts Gillan, and Marisa Yeres Gill.", "Through Red Om, Roberts has served as an executive producer for various projects she has starred in such as ''Eat Pray Love'' and ''Homecoming'', as well as for the first four films of the ''American Girl'' film series (based on the ''American Girl'' line of dolls), released between 2004 and 2008.===Endorsements===In 2006, Roberts signed an endorsement deal with fashion label Gianfranco Ferre, valued at $6 million.", "She was photographed by Mario Testino in Los Angeles for the brand's advertising campaign, which was distributed in Europe, Asia and Australia.", "Since 2009, Roberts has acted as Lancôme's global ambassador, a role in which she has been involved in the development and promotion of the brand's range of cosmetics and beauty products.", "She initially signed a five-year extension with the company for $50 million in 2010.Roberts starred as the global face of Chopard's Happy Sport and Happy Diamonds collections campaigns since 2021 and then Chopard had announced her as its Global Brand Ambassador in 2023." ], [ "Personal life", "===Ancestry===On a 2023 episode of ''Finding Your Roots'', Roberts learned that the surname of her biological paternal great-great-grandfather was actually Mitchell, not Roberts.Roberts also learned her ancestors owned slaves: \"You have to figure, if you are from the South, you're on one side of it or the other.", "It just seems very typical of that time, unfortunately.", "... You can't turn your back on history, even when you become a part of it in a way that doesn't align with your personal compass.", "\"Roberts is a distant cousin of fellow actor Edward Norton.===Relationships and family===Roberts had romantic relationships with actors Jason Patric, Liam Neeson, Kiefer Sutherland, Dylan McDermott, and Matthew Perry.", "She was briefly engaged to Sutherland; they broke up shortly before their scheduled wedding on June 14, 1991.According to Roberts, it had been canceled long before \"days before the wedding\" as the press claimed at the time, and that it was a mutual decision.", "On June 25, 1993, she married country singer Lyle Lovett; the wedding took place at St. James Lutheran Church in Marion, Indiana.", "They separated in March 1995 and subsequently divorced.", "From 1998 to 2001, Roberts dated actor Benjamin Bratt.Roberts and her husband, cameraman Daniel Moder, met on the set of her film ''The Mexican'' in 2000 while she was still dating Bratt.", "At the time, Moder was married to Vera Steimberg.", "There were accusations of husband stealing.", "He filed for divorce a little over a year later, and after it was finalized, he and Roberts wed on July 4, 2002, at her ranch in Taos, New Mexico.", "Together, they have three children: twins, a daughter and a son, born in November 2004, and another son born in June 2007.===Religious beliefs===In 2010, Roberts said she was Hindu, having converted for \"spiritual satisfaction\".", "Roberts is a devotee of the guru Neem Karoli Baba (Maharaj-ji), a picture of whom drew Roberts to Hinduism.In September 2009, Swami Daram Dev of Ashram Hari Mandir in Pataudi, where Roberts was shooting ''Eat Pray Love'', gave her children new names after Hindu gods: Lakshmi for Hazel, Ganesh for Phinnaeus and Krishna Balram for Henry." ], [ "Filmography and accolades", "Roberts' films that have earned the most at the box office, , include:Roberts has received four Academy Award nominations, winning for Best Actress at the 73rd Academy Awards, for her titular portrayal in ''Erin Brockovich'', which additionally earned her a Golden Globe, a BAFTA Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award.", "She won Golden Globe Awards for her performances in ''Steel Magnolias'' and ''Pretty Woman'', and as of 2019, has garnered eight nominations.", "Roberts received two Primetime Emmy Awards nominations, one for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, for her guest-role on ''Law & Order'', and the other for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Television Movie, for her performance in ''The Normal Heart''." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Mark Bego.", "''Julia Roberts: America's Sweetheart'' (New York: AMI Books, 2003).", ".", "* Paul Donnelley.", "''Julia Roberts Confidential: The Unauthorised Biography'' (London: Virgin, 2003).", ".", "* James Spada.", "''Julia: Her Life'' (New York: St Martin's Press, 2004).", "* Frank Sanello.", "''Julia Roberts: Pretty Superstar'' (Edinburgh: Mainstream 2010).", "." ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Sealy Hospital" ], [ "Introduction", "__NOTOC__'''John Sealy Hospital''' is a hospital that is a part of the University of Texas Medical Branch complex in Galveston, Texas, United States." ], [ "History", "Sealy opened on January 10, 1890.It was founded by the widow and brother of one of the richest citizens of Texas, John Sealy after his death.", "Accompanied by the John Sealy Hospital Training School for Nurses, which was opened two months after the hospital, the foundation became the primary teaching facility of University of Texas Medical Branch opened in October 1891.In 1922, John Sealy's children, John Sealy, II and Jennie Sealy Smith established the Sealy & Smith Foundation for the hospital.", "This enabled construction of several new facilities, including the Rebecca Sealy Nurses' home.A second John Sealy Hospital was built in 1954 to replace the 1890 building.", "Today it is known as the John Sealy Annex and houses administrative and support services.The current John Sealy Hospital was completed in 1978 at a cost of $32.5 million and was funded in full by the Sealy & Smith Foundation.", "The 12-story hospital includes single-patient rooms and specialized intensive care units.", "Other features include the Acute Care for Elders Unit, or ACE Unit and a Level I Trauma Center, one of only three in the entire Greater Houston area.The Sealy & Smith Foundation has contributed over $600 million to UTMB since its inception." ], [ "Hurricane Ike", "Hurricane Ike forced the closing of UTMB temporarily.", "John Sealy Hospital and its trauma center have reopened, with renovations being undertaken in damaged areas." ], [ "See also", "* List of Texas Medical Center institutions* List of hospitals in Texas* Rebecca Sealy Hospital" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* John Sealy Hospital History" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John the Evangelist" ], [ "Introduction", "''' John the Evangelist''' is the name traditionally given to the author of the Gospel of John.", "Christians have traditionally identified him with John the Apostle, John of Patmos, and John the Presbyter, although this has been disputed by most modern scholars." ], [ "Identity", "Print of John the EvangelistThe exact identity of John – and the extent to which his identification with John the Apostle, John of Patmos and John the Presbyter is historical – is disputed between Christian tradition and scholars.The Gospel of John refers to an otherwise unnamed \"disciple whom Jesus loved\", who \"bore witness to and wrote\" the Gospel's message.", "The author of the Gospel of John seemed interested in maintaining the internal anonymity of the author's identity, although interpreting the Gospel in the light of the Synoptic Gospels and considering that the author names (and therefore is not claiming to be) Peter, and that James was martyred as early as AD 44, Christian tradition has widely believed that the author was the Apostle John, though modern scholars believe the work to be pseudepigrapha.Christian tradition says that John the Evangelist was John the Apostle.", "John, Peter and James the Just were the ''three pillars'' of the Jerusalem church after Jesus' death.", "He was one of the original twelve apostles and is thought to be the only one to escape martyrdom.", "It had been believed that he was exiled (around AD 95) to the Aegean island of Patmos, where he wrote the Book of Revelation.", "However, some attribute the authorship of Revelation to another man, called John the Presbyter, or to other writers of the late first century AD.", "Bauckham argues that the early Christians identified John the Evangelist with John the Presbyter." ], [ "Authorship of the Johannine works", "The authorship of the Johannine works has been debated by scholars since at least the 2nd century AD.", "The main debate centers on who authored the writings, and which of the writings, if any, can be ascribed to a common author.Eastern Orthodox tradition attributes all of the Johannine books to John the Apostle.In the 6th century, the argued that Second and Third Epistle of John have a separate author known as \"John, a priest\" (see John the Presbyter).", "Historical critics, like H.P.V.", "Nunn, as well as non-Christians Reza Aslan and Bart Ehrman, reject the view that John the Apostle authored any of these works.Most modern scholars believe that the apostle John wrote none of these works, although some, such as J.A.T.", "Robinson, F. F. Bruce, Leon Morris, and Martin Hengel, hold the apostle to be behind at least some, in particular the gospel.There may have been a single author for the gospel and the three epistles.", "Some scholars conclude the author of the epistles was different from that of the gospel, although all four works originated from the same community.", "The gospel and epistles traditionally and plausibly came from Ephesus, , although some scholars argue for an origin in Syria.In the case of the Book Revelation, most modern scholars agree that it was written by a separate author, John of Patmos, with some parts possibly dating to Nero's reign in the early 60s." ], [ "Feast day", "The feast day of Saint John in the Catholic Church, Anglican Communion, and the Lutheran Calendar, is on 27 December, the third day of Christmastide.", "In the Tridentine calendar he was commemorated also on each of the following days up to and including 3 January, the Octave of the 27 December feast.", "This Octave was abolished by Pope Pius XII in 1955.The traditional liturgical color is white.Freemasons celebrate this feast day, dating back to the 18th century when the Feast Day was used for the installation of Grand Masters." ], [ "In art", "John is traditionally depicted in one of two distinct ways: either as an aged man with a white or gray beard, or alternatively as a beardless youth.", "The first way of depicting him was more common in Byzantine art, where it was possibly influenced by antique depictions of Socrates; the second was more common in the art of Medieval Western Europe and can be dated back as far as 4th-century Rome.In medieval works of painting, sculpture and literature, Saint John is often presented in an androgynous or feminized manner.", "Historians have related such portrayals to the circumstances of the believers for whom they were intended.", "For instance, John's feminine features are argued to have helped to make him more relatable to women.", "Likewise, Sarah McNamer argues that because of John's androgynous status, he could function as an 'image of a third or mixed gender' and 'a crucial figure with whom to identify' for male believers who sought to cultivate an attitude of affective piety, a highly emotional style of devotion that, in late-medieval culture, was thought to be poorly compatible with masculinity.Legends from the \"Acts of John\" contributed much to medieval iconography; it is the source of the idea that John became an apostle at a young age.", "One of John's familiar attributes is the chalice, often with a snake emerging from it.", "According to one legend from the Acts of John, John was challenged to drink a cup of poison to demonstrate the power of his faith, and thanks to God's aid the poison was rendered harmless.", "The chalice can also be interpreted with reference to the Last Supper, or to the words of Christ to John and James: \"My chalice indeed you shall drink.\"", "According to the 1910 ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', some authorities believe that this symbol was not adopted until the 13th century.", "There was also a legend that John was at some stage boiled in oil and miraculously preserved.", "Another common attribute is a book or a scroll, in reference to his writings.", "John the Evangelist is symbolically represented by an eagle, one of the creatures envisioned by Ezekiel (1:10) and in the Book of Revelation (4:7)." ], [ "Gallery", "File: Joan_de_Joanes_-_St_John_the_Evangelist_-_WGA12061.jpg|''St.", "John the Evangelist'' by Joan de Joanes (1507–1579), oil on panelFile:Zampieri St John Evangelist.jpg|''Saint John the Evangelist'' by Domenichino (1621–29)File:1490 Gleismüller Johannes auf Patmos anagoria.JPG|''Saint John the Evangelist on Patmos'', 1490File:Piero di Cosimo (Piero di Lorenzo) - St. John the Evangelist, c. 1500.jpg|Piero di Cosimo, ''Saint John the Evangelist'', oil on panel, 1504–6, Honolulu Museum of Art File:El Greco, The Vision of Saint John (1608-1614).jpg |''The Vision of Saint John'' (1608–1614), by El GrecoFile:Simone Cantarini - São João Batista em Meditação.jpg|''Saint John the Evangelist in meditation'' by Simone Cantarini(1612–1648), BolognaFile:Sts-john-and-bartholomew-with-donor-dosso-dossi.jpg|''Saints John and Bartholomew'', by Dosso DossiFile:Enniscorthy St. Aidan's Cathedral East Aisle Second Window Evangelist John Detail 2009 09 28.jpg|Stained glass window in St. Aidan's Cathedral, IrelandFile:Cano - San Juan.jpg|''Saint John and the Poisoned Cup'' by Alonzo CanoSpain (1635–1637)File:GRM Inv.", "J-3182.jpg|''Saint John and the eagle'' by Vladimir Borovikovsky in Kazan Cathedral, Saint PetersburgFile:KellsFol291vPortJohn.jpg|A portrait from the Book of Kells, c. 800File:El Greco 034.jpg|''Saint John and the cup'' by El GrecoFile:St-johns-seminary-st-john.jpg|Statue of ''John the Evangelist'' outside St. John's Seminary, BostonFile:De Grey Hours f.26.v St. John the Evangelist.png|St John the Evangelist depicted in a 14th-century manuscript in the Flemish style File:San Juan Evangelista, por Francisco Pacheco.jpg|''St John the Evangelist'', by Francisco Pacheco (1608, Museo del Prado)File:Prochorus and St John Miniature, 1224.jpg|Prochorus and St John depicted in Xoranasat's gospel manuscript in 1224.Armenian manuscript." ], [ "See also", "* Eagle of Saint John* Luke the Evangelist* Mark the Evangelist* Matthew the Evangelist* St. John the Evangelist Church" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"Saint John the Apostle.\"", "''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.", "* Answers.com* St. John the Evangelist at the Christian Iconography web site* Caxton's translations of the ''Golden Legend''s two chapters on St. John: Of St. John the Evangelist and The History of St. John Port Latin" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jack Kirby" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jack Kirby''' (born '''Jacob Kurtzberg'''; August 28, 1917 – February 6, 1994) was an American comic book artist, widely regarded as one of the medium's major innovators and one of its most prolific and influential creators.", "He grew up in New York City and learned to draw cartoon figures by tracing characters from comic strips and editorial cartoons.", "He entered the nascent comics industry in the 1930s, drawing various comics features under different pen names, including '''Jack Curtiss''', before ultimately settling on Jack Kirby.", "In 1940, he and writer-editor Joe Simon created the highly successful superhero character Captain America for Timely Comics, predecessor of Marvel Comics.", "During the 1940s, Kirby regularly teamed with Simon, creating numerous characters for that company and for National Comics Publications, later to become DC Comics.After serving in the European Theater in World War II, Kirby produced work for DC Comics, Harvey Comics, Hillman Periodicals and other publishers.", "At Crestwood Publications, he and Simon created the genre of romance comics and later founded their own short-lived comic company, Mainline Publications.", "Kirby was involved in Timely's 1950s iteration, Atlas Comics, which in the next decade became Marvel.", "There, in the 1960s, Kirby cocreated many of the company's major characters, including Ant-Man, the Avengers, the Black Panther, the Fantastic Four, the Hulk, Iron Man, the Silver Surfer, Thor, and the X-Men, among numerous others.", "Kirby's titles garnered high sales and critical acclaim, but in 1970, feeling he had been treated unfairly, largely in the realm of authorship credit and creators' rights, Kirby left the company for rival DC.At DC, Kirby created his Fourth World saga which spanned several comics titles.", "While these series proved commercially unsuccessful and were canceled, the Fourth World's New Gods have continued as a significant part of the DC Universe.", "Kirby returned to Marvel briefly in the mid-to-late 1970s, then ventured into television animation and independent comics.", "In his later years, Kirby, who has been called \"the William Blake of comics\", began receiving great recognition in the mainstream press for his career accomplishments, and in 1987 he was one of the three inaugural inductees of the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame.", "In 2017, Kirby was posthumously named a Disney Legend for his creations not only in the field of publishing, but also because those creations formed the basis for The Walt Disney Company's financially and critically successful media franchise, the Marvel Cinematic Universe.Kirby was married to Rosalind Goldstein in 1942.They had four children and remained married until his death from heart failure in 1994, at the age of 76.The Jack Kirby Awards and Jack Kirby Hall of Fame were named in his honor, and he is known as \"'''The King'''\" among comics fans for his many influential contributions to the medium." ], [ "Early life (1917–1935)", "Jack Kirby was born Jacob Kurtzberg on August 28, 1917, at 147 Essex Street on the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City, where he was raised.", "His parents, Rose (Bernstein) and Benjamin Kurtzberg, were Austrian-Jewish immigrants, and his father earned a living as a garment factory worker.", "Kirby grew up in the Lower East Side neighborhood of New York City.", "Among his close friends was Leon Klinghoffer, who grew up in the same neighborhood, and who in 1985 was shot, killed and thrown overboard from the cruise ship ''Achille Lauro'' by Palestinian Liberation Front hijackers.", "In his youth, Kirby desired to escape his neighborhood.", "He liked to draw, and sought out places he could learn more about art.", "Essentially self-taught, Kirby cited among his influences the comic strip artists Milton Caniff, Hal Foster, and Alex Raymond, as well as such editorial cartoonists as C. H. Sykes, \"Ding\" Darling, and Rollin Kirby.", "He was rejected by the Educational Alliance because he drew \"too fast with charcoal\", according to Kirby.", "He later found an outlet for his skills by drawing cartoons for the newspaper of the Boys Brotherhood Republic, a \"miniature city\" on East 3rd Street where street kids ran their own government.At age 14, Kirby enrolled at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, leaving after a week.", "\"I wasn't the kind of student that Pratt was looking for.", "They wanted people who would work on something forever.", "I didn't want to work on any project forever.", "I intended to get things done\"." ], [ "Career", "===Entry into comics (1936–1940)===''Captain America Comics'' #1 (cover-dated March 1941).", "Cover art by Kirby and Joe Simon.Kirby joined the Lincoln Newspaper Syndicate in 1936, working there on newspaper comic strips and on single-panel advice cartoons such as ''Your Health Comes First'' (under the pseudonym '''Jack Curtiss''').", "He remained until late 1939, when he began working for the theatrical animation company Fleischer Studios as an inbetweener (an artist who fills in the action between major-movement frames) on ''Popeye'' cartoons at the same time in 1935.He left the studio before the Fleischer strike in 1937.", "\"I went from Lincoln to Fleischer,\" he recalled.", "\"From Fleischer I had to get out in a hurry because I couldn't take that kind of thing,\" describing it as \"a factory in a sense, like my father's factory.", "They were manufacturing pictures.", "\"Around that time, the American comic book industry was booming.", "Kirby began writing and drawing for the comic book packager Eisner & Iger, one of a handful of firms creating comics on demand for publishers.", "Through that company, Kirby did what he remembered as his first comic book work, for ''Wild Boy Magazine''.", "This included such strips as the science fiction adventure \"The Diary of Dr. Hayward\" (under the pseudonym '''Curt Davis'''), the Western crimefighter feature \"Wilton of the West\" (as '''Fred Sande'''), the swashbuckler adventure \"The Count of Monte Cristo\" (again as Jack Curtiss), and the humor features \"Abdul Jones\" (as '''Ted Grey''') and \"Socko the Seadog\" (as '''Teddy'''), all variously for ''Jumbo Comics'' and other Eisner-Iger clients.", "He first used the surname Kirby as the pseudonymous '''Lance Kirby''' in two \"Lone Rider\" Western stories in Eastern Color Printing's ''Famous Funnies'' #63–64 (Oct.–Nov.", "1939).", "He ultimately settled on the pen name Jack Kirby because it reminded him of actor James Cagney.", "However, he took offense to those who suggested he changed his name in order to hide his Jewish heritage.===Partnership with Joe Simon===Kirby moved on to comic-book publisher and newspaper syndicator Fox Feature Syndicate, earning a then-reasonable $15-a-week salary.", "He began to explore superhero narrative with the comic strip ''The Blue Beetle'', published from January to March 1940, starring a character created by the pseudonymous Charles Nicholas, a house name that Kirby retained for the three-month-long strip.", "During this time, Kirby met and began collaborating with cartoonist and Fox editor Joe Simon, who in addition to his staff work continued to freelance.", "Simon recalled in 1988, \"I loved Jack's work and the first time I saw it I couldn't believe what I was seeing.", "He asked if we could do some freelance work together.", "I was delighted and I took him over to my little office.", "We worked from the second issue of Blue Bolt through ... about 25 years.", "\"After leaving Fox and collaborating on the premiere issue of Fawcett Comics' ''Captain Marvel Adventures'' (March 1941), the first solo title for the previously introduced superhero, and for which Kirby was told to mimic creator C.C.", "Beck's drawing style, the duo were hired on staff at pulp magazine publisher Martin Goodman's Timely Comics (later to become Marvel Comics).", "There Simon and Kirby created the patriotic superhero Captain America in late 1940.Simon, who became the company's editor, with Kirby as art director, said he negotiated with Goodman to give the duo 25 percent of the profits from the feature.", "The first issue of ''Captain America Comics'', released in early 1941, sold out in days, and the second issue's print run was set at over a million copies.", "The title's success established the team as a notable creative force in the industry.", "After the first issue was published, Simon asked Kirby to join the Timely staff as the company's art director.With the success of the Captain America character, Simon said he felt that Goodman was not paying the pair the promised percentage of profits, and so sought work for the two of them at National Comics Publications (later renamed DC Comics).", "Kirby and Simon negotiated a deal that would pay them a combined $500 a week, as opposed to the $75 and $85 they respectively earned at Timely.", "The pair feared Goodman would not pay them if he found they were moving to National, but many people knew of their plan, including Timely editorial assistant Stan Lee.", "When Goodman eventually discovered it, he told Simon and Kirby to leave after finishing work on ''Captain America Comics'' #10.Kirby was bitterly convinced it was specifically Lee who betrayed them, ignoring Simon's willingness to give him the benefit of the doubt.Kirby and Simon spent their first weeks at National trying to devise new characters while the company sought how best to utilize the pair.", "After a few failed editor-assigned ghosting assignments, National's Jack Liebowitz told them to \"just do what you want\".", "The pair then revamped the Sandman feature in ''Adventure Comics'' and created the superhero Manhunter.", "In July 1942 they began the ''Boy Commandos'' feature.", "The ongoing \"kid gang\" series of the same name, launched later that same year, was the creative team's first National feature to graduate into its own title.", "It sold over a million copies a month, becoming National's third best-selling title.", "They scored a hit with the homefront kid-gang team, the Newsboy Legion, featuring in ''Star-Spangled Comics''.", "In 2010, DC Comics writer and executive Paul Levitz observed that \"Like Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, the creative team of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby was a mark of quality and a proven track record.", "\"====World War II (1943–1945)====Kirby in the U.S. Army during World War IIWith World War II underway, Liebowitz expected that Simon and Kirby would be drafted, so he asked the artists to create an inventory of material to be published in their absence.", "The pair hired writers, inkers, letterers, and colorists in order to create a year's worth of material.", "Kirby was drafted into the U.S. Army on June 7, 1943.After basic training at Camp Stewart, near Savannah, Georgia, he was assigned to Company F of the 11th Infantry Regiment.", "He landed on Omaha Beach in Normandy on August 23, 1944, months after D-Day, although Kirby's reminiscences would place his arrival just 10 days after.", "Kirby recalled that a lieutenant, learning that comics artist Kirby was in his command, made him a scout who would advance into towns and draw reconnaissance maps and pictures, an extremely dangerous duty.====Postwar career (1946–1955)====Simon.After the war, Simon arranged work for Kirby and himself at Harvey Comics, where, through the early 1950s, the duo created such titles as the kid-gang adventure ''Boy Explorers Comics'', the kid-gang Western ''Boys' Ranch'', the superhero comic ''Stuntman'', and, in vogue with the fad for 3-D movies, ''Captain 3-D''.", "Simon and Kirby additionally freelanced for Hillman Periodicals (the crime-fiction comic ''Real Clue Crime'') and for Crestwood Publications (''Justice Traps the Guilty'').The team found its greatest success in the postwar period by creating romance comics.", "Simon, inspired by Macfadden Publications' romantic-confession magazine ''True Story'', transplanted the idea to comic books and with Kirby created a first-issue mock-up of ''Young Romance''.", "Showing it to Crestwood general manager Maurice Rosenfeld, Simon asked for 50% of the comic's profits.", "Crestwood publishers Teddy Epstein and Mike Bleier agreed, stipulating that the creators would take no money up front.", "''Young Romance'' #1 (cover-date Oct. 1947) \"became Jack and Joe's biggest hit in years\".", "The pioneering title sold a staggering 92% of its print run, inspiring Crestwood to increase the print run by the third issue to triple the initial number of copies.", "Initially published bimonthly, ''Young Romance'' quickly became a monthly title and produced the spin-off ''Young Love''—together the two titles sold two million copies per month, according to Simon—later joined by ''Young Brides'' and ''In Love'', the latter \"featuring full-length romance stories\".", "''Young Romance'' spawned dozens of imitators from publishers such as Timely, Fawcett, Quality, and Fox Feature Syndicate.", "Despite the glut, the Simon and Kirby romance titles continued to sell millions of copies a month.Bitter that Timely Comics' 1950s iteration, Atlas Comics, had relaunched Captain America in a new series in 1954, Kirby and Simon created ''Fighting American''.", "Simon recalled, \"We thought we'd show them how to do Captain America\".", "While the comic book initially portrayed the protagonist as an anti-Communist dramatic hero, Simon and Kirby turned the series into a superhero satire with the second issue, in the aftermath of the Army-McCarthy hearings and the public backlash against the Red-baiting U.S.", "Senator Joseph McCarthy.===After Simon (1956–1957)===At the urging of a Crestwood salesman, Kirby and Simon launched their own comics company, Mainline Publications, securing a distribution deal with Leader News in late 1953 or early 1954, subletting space from their friend Al Harvey's Harvey Publications at 1860 Broadway.", "Mainline, which existed from 1954 to 1955, published four titles: the Western ''Bullseye: Western Scout''; the war comic ''Foxhole'' because EC Comics and Atlas Comics were having success with war comics, but promoting theirs as being written and drawn by actual veterans; ''In Love'' because their earlier romance comic ''Young Love'' was still being widely imitated; and the crime comic ''Police Trap'', which claimed to be based on genuine accounts by law-enforcement officials.", "After the duo rearranged and republished artwork from an old Crestwood story in ''In Love'', Crestwood refused to pay the team, who sought an audit of Crestwood's finances.", "Upon review, the pair's attorneys stated the company owed them $130,000 for work done over the past seven years.", "Crestwood paid them $10,000 in addition to their recent delayed payments.", "The partnership between Kirby and Simon had become strained.", "Simon left the industry for a career in advertising, while Kirby continued to freelance.", "\"He wanted to do other things and I stuck with comics,\" Kirby recalled in 1971.", "\"It was fine.", "There was no reason to continue the partnership and we parted friends.", "\"At this point in the mid-1950s, Kirby made a temporary return to the former Timely Comics, now known as Atlas Comics, the direct predecessor of Marvel Comics.", "Inker Frank Giacoia had approached editor-in-chief Stan Lee for work and suggested he could \"get Kirby back here to pencil some stuff.", "While freelancing for National Comics Publications, the future DC Comics, Kirby drew 20 stories for Atlas from 1956 to 1957: Beginning with the five-page \"Mine Field\" in ''Battleground'' #14 (Nov. 1956), Kirby penciled and in some cases inked (with his wife, Roz) and wrote stories of the Western hero Black Rider, the Fu Manchu-like Yellow Claw, and more.", "But in 1957, distribution troubles caused the \"Atlas implosion\" that resulted in several series being dropped and no new material being assigned for many months.", "It would be the following year before Kirby returned to the nascent Marvel.For DC around this time, Kirby co-created with writers Dick and Dave Wood the non-superpowered adventuring quartet the Challengers of the Unknown in ''Showcase'' #6 (Feb. 1957), while contributing to such anthologies as ''House of Mystery''.", "During 30 months freelancing for DC, Kirby drew slightly more than 600 pages, which included 11 six-page Green Arrow stories in ''World's Finest Comics'' and ''Adventure Comics'' that, in a rarity, Kirby inked himself.", "Kirby recast the archer as a science-fiction hero, moving him away from his Batman-formula roots, but, in the process, alienating Green Arrow co-creator Mort Weisinger.He began drawing ''Sky Masters of the Space Force,'' a newspaper comic strip, written by the Wood brothers and initially inked by the unrelated Wally Wood.", "Kirby left National Comics Publications due largely to a contractual dispute in which editor Jack Schiff, who had been involved in getting Kirby and the Wood brothers the ''Sky Masters'' contract, claimed he was due royalties from Kirby's share of the strip's profits.", "Schiff successfully sued Kirby.", "Some DC editors had criticized him over art details, such as not drawing \"the shoelaces on a cavalryman's boots\" and showing a Native American \"mounting his horse from the wrong side.", "\"===Marvel Comics in the Silver Age (1958–1970)===Several months later, after his split with DC, Kirby began freelancing regularly for Atlas despite harboring negative sentiments about Stan Lee (the cousin of Timely publisher Martin Goodman's wife), who Kirby had always found annoying on top of his aforementioned betrayal he suspected in the 1940s.", "Because of the poor page rates, Kirby would spend 12 to 14 hours daily at his drawing table at home, producing four to five pages of artwork a day.", "His first published work at Atlas was the cover of and the seven-page story \"I Discovered the Secret of the Flying Saucers\" in ''Strange Worlds'' #1 (Dec. 1958).", "Initially with Christopher Rule as his regular inker, and later Dick Ayers, Kirby drew across all genres, from romance comics to war comics to crime comics to Western comics, but made his mark primarily with a series of supernatural-fantasy and science fiction stories featuring giant, drive-in movie-style monsters with names like Groot, the Thing from Planet X; Grottu, King of the Insects; and Fin Fang Foom for the company's many anthology series, such as ''Amazing Adventures,'' ''Strange Tales,'' ''Tales to Astonish,'' ''Tales of Suspense,'' and ''World of Fantasy.''", "His bizarre designs of powerful, unearthly creatures proved a hit with readers.", "Additionally, he freelanced for Archie Comics around this time, reuniting briefly with Joe Simon to help develop the series ''The Fly'' and ''The Double Life of Private Strong''.", "Additionally, Kirby drew some issues of ''Classics Illustrated''.It was at Marvel that Kirby hit his stride once again in superhero comics, beginning with ''The Fantastic Four'' #1 (Nov. 1961), which, some have observed, shares many elements of Kirby's ''Challengers of the Unknown''.", "The landmark series became a hit that revolutionized the industry with its comparative naturalism and, eventually, a cosmic purview informed by Kirby's seemingly boundless imaginationone well-matched with the consciousness-expanding youth culture of the 1960s.", "For almost a decade, Kirby provided Marvel's house style, creating many of the Marvel characters and designing their visual motifs.", "At the editor-in-chief's request, he often provided new-to-Marvel artists \"breakdown\" layouts, over which they would pencil in order to become acquainted with the Marvel look.", "As artist Gil Kane described:Highlights of Kirby's tenure also include the Hulk, Thor, the X-Men and Magneto, Doctor Doom, Uatu the Watcher, Ego the Living Planet, the Inhumans and their hidden city of Attilan, and the Black Panther, comics' first black superhero, and his Afrofuturist nation, Wakanda.", "Kirby initially was assigned to pencil the first Spider-Man story, but when he showed Lee the first six pages, Lee recalled, \"I ''hated'' the way he was doing it!", "Not that he did it badly—it just wasn't the character I wanted; it was too heroic\".", "Lee then turned to Steve Ditko to draw the story that would appear in ''Amazing Fantasy'' #15, for which Kirby nonetheless penciled the cover.", "Lee and Kirby gathered several of their newly created characters together into the team title ''The Avengers'' and would bring back old characters from the 1940s such as the Sub-Mariner and Captain America.", "In later years, Lee and Kirby would contest who deserved credit for such creations as ''The Fantastic Four''.Fantastic Four'' #72 (March 1968).", "Cover art by Kirby and Joe Sinnott, illustrating Kirby Krackle.The story frequently cited as Lee and Kirby's finest achievement is \"The Galactus Trilogy\" in ''Fantastic Four'' #48–50 (March–May 1966), chronicling the arrival of Galactus, a cosmic giant who wanted to devour the planet, and his herald, the Silver Surfer.", "''Fantastic Four'' #48 was chosen as #24 in the 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time poll of Marvel's readers in 2001.Editor Robert Greenberger wrote in his introduction to the story that \"As the fourth year of the ''Fantastic Four'' came to a close, Stan Lee and Jack Kirby seemed to be only warming up.", "In retrospect, it was perhaps the most fertile period of any monthly title during the Marvel Age.\"", "Comics historian Les Daniels noted that \"the mystical and metaphysical elements that took over the saga were perfectly suited to the tastes of young readers in the 1960s\", and Lee soon discovered that the story was a favorite on college campuses.", "Kirby continued to expand the medium's boundaries, devising photo-collage covers and interiors, developing new drawing techniques such as the method for depicting energy fields now known as \"Kirby Krackle\", and other experiments.In 1968 and 1969, Joe Simon was involved in litigation with Marvel Comics over the ownership of Captain America, initiated by Marvel after Simon registered the copyright renewal for Captain America in his own name.", "According to Simon, Kirby agreed to support the company in the litigation and, as part of a deal Kirby made with publisher Martin Goodman, signed over to Marvel any rights he might have had to the character.At this same time, Kirby grew increasingly dissatisfied with working at Marvel, for reasons Kirby biographer Mark Evanier has suggested include resentment over Lee's media prominence, a lack of full creative control, anger over breaches of perceived promises by publisher Martin Goodman, and frustration over Marvel's failure to credit him specifically for his story plotting and for his character creations and co-creations.", "He began to both write and draw some secondary features for Marvel, such as \"The Inhumans\" in ''Amazing Adventures'' volume two, as well as horror stories for the anthology title ''Chamber of Darkness,'' and received full credit for doing so; but in 1970, Kirby was presented with a contract that included unfavorable terms such as a prohibition against legal retaliation.", "When Kirby objected, the management refused to negotiate any contract changes, bluntly dismissing his contribution to Marvel's success since they considered Lee solely responsible.", "Kirby, although he was earning $35,000 a year freelancing for the company (adjusted for inflation, the equivalent of almost $234,000 in 2021), subsequently left Marvel in 1970 for rival DC Comics, under editorial director Carmine Infantino.===DC Comics and the Fourth World saga (1971–1975)===''The New Gods''#1 (March 1971) Cover art by Kirby and Don Heck.Kirby spent nearly two years negotiating a deal to move to DC Comics, where in late 1970 he signed a three-year contract with an option for two additional years.", "He produced a series of interlinked titles under the blanket sobriquet \"The Fourth World\", which included a trilogy of new titles — ''New Gods,'' ''Mister Miracle,'' and ''The Forever People'' — as well as the extant ''Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen.''", "Kirby picked the latter book because the series was without a stable creative team and he did not want to cost anyone a job.The three books Kirby originated dealt with aspects of mythology he had previously touched upon in ''Thor''.", "''The New Gods'' would establish this new mythos, while in ''The Forever People'' Kirby would attempt to mythologize the lives of the young people he observed around him.", "The third book, ''Mister Miracle'' was more of a personal myth.", "The title character was an escape artist, which Mark Evanier suggests Kirby channeled his feelings of constraint into.", "Mister Miracle's wife was based in character on Kirby's wife Roz, and he even caricatured Stan Lee within the pages of the book as Funky Flashman, a depiction Lee found hurtful while Kirby tried to downplay the insult when confronted about it by Lee's protege, Roy Thomas, who was similarly insulted with Flashman's sidekick, Houseroy.The central villain of the Fourth World series, Darkseid, and some of the Fourth World concepts, appeared in ''Jimmy Olsen'' before the launch of the other Fourth World books, giving the new titles greater exposure to potential buyers.", "The Superman figures and Jimmy Olsen faces drawn by Kirby were redrawn by Al Plastino, and later by Murphy Anderson.", "Les Daniels observed in 1995 that \"Kirby's mix of slang and myth, science fiction and the Bible, made for a heady brew, but the scope of his vision has endured.\"", "In 2007, comics writer Grant Morrison commented that \"Kirby's dramas were staged across Jungian vistas of raw symbol and storm ...", "The Fourth World saga crackles with the voltage of Jack Kirby's boundless imagination let loose onto paper.", "\"In addition to his artistic efforts, Kirby proposed a variety of new formats for comics such as planning to collect his published Fourth World stories into square-bound books, a format that would later be called the trade paperback, which would eventually become standard practice in the industry.", "However, Infantino and company were not receptive and Kirby's proposals only went as far as producing the one-shot black-and-white magazines ''Spirit World'' and ''In the Days of the Mob'' in 1971.Kirby later produced other DC series such as ''OMAC'', ''Kamandi'', ''The Demon'', and ''Kobra'', and worked on such extant features as \"The Losers\" in ''Our Fighting Forces''.", "Together with former partner Joe Simon for one last time, he worked on a new incarnation of the Sandman.", "Kirby produced three issues of the ''1st Issue Special'' anthology series and created Atlas the Great, a new Manhunter, and the Dingbats of Danger Street.Kirby's production assistant of the time, Mark Evanier, recounted that DC's policies of the era were not in sync with Kirby's creative impulses, and that he was often forced to work on characters and projects he did not like.", "Meanwhile, some artists at DC did not want Kirby there, as he threatened their positions in the company; they also had bad blood from previous competition with Marvel and legal problems with him.", "Since he was working from California, they were able to undermine his work through redesigns in the New York office.===Return to Marvel (1976–1978)===At the comic book convention Marvelcon '75, in 1975, Stan Lee used a Fantastic Four panel discussion to announce that Kirby was returning to Marvel after having left in 1970 to work for DC Comics.", "Lee wrote in his monthly column, \"Stan Lee's Soapbox\", \"I mentioned that I had a special announcement to make.", "As I started telling about Jack's return, to a totally incredulous audience, everyone's head started to snap around as Kirby himself came waltzin' down the aisle to join us on the rostrum!", "You can imagine how it felt clownin' around with the co-creator of most of Marvel's greatest strips once more.", "\"Back at Marvel, Kirby both wrote and drew the monthly ''Captain America'' series as well as the ''Captain America's Bicentennial Battles'' one-shot in the oversized treasury format.", "He created the series ''The Eternals'', which featured a race of inscrutable alien giants, the Celestials, whose behind-the-scenes intervention in primordial humanity would eventually become a core element of Marvel Universe continuity.", "He produced an adaptation and expansion of the film ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', as well as an abortive attempt to do the same for the classic television series ''The Prisoner''.", "He wrote and drew ''Black Panther'' and drew numerous covers across the line.Kirby's other Marvel creations in this period include Machine Man and Devil Dinosaur.", "Kirby's final comics collaboration with Stan Lee, ''The Silver Surfer: The Ultimate Cosmic Experience'', was published in 1978 as part of the Marvel Fireside Books series and is considered Marvel's first graphic novel.===Film and animation (1979–1980)===Still dissatisfied with Marvel's treatment of him, and with an offer of employment from Hanna-Barbera, aided by the fact that he lived close in the same city Kirby left Marvel to work in animation.", "In that field for Ruby-Spears Productions he did designs for ''Turbo Teen'', ''Thundarr the Barbarian'' and other animated series for television.", "In addition to a superior pay to his comics work, Kirby enjoyed excellent relations with the staff, especially with the younger artists who typically credited him as their inspiration.", "He worked on ''The New Fantastic Four'' animated series, reuniting him with scriptwriter Stan Lee and they kept their relations sufficiently cordial on a professional level.", "He illustrated an adaptation of the Walt Disney movie ''The Black Hole'' for ''Walt Disney's Treasury of Classic Tales'' syndicated comic strip in 1979–80.In 1979, Kirby drew concept art for film producer Barry Geller's script treatment adapting Roger Zelazny's science fiction novel, ''Lord of Light'', for which Geller had purchased the rights.", "In collaboration, Geller commissioned Kirby to draw set designs that would be used as architectural renderings for a Colorado theme park to be called Science Fiction Land; Geller announced his plans at a November press conference attended by Kirby, former American football star Rosey Grier, writer Ray Bradbury, and others.", "While the film did not come to fruition, Kirby's drawings were used for the CIA's \"Canadian Caper\", in which some members of the U.S. embassy in Tehran, Iran, who had avoided capture in the Iran hostage crisis, were able to escape the country posing as members of a movie location-scouting crew.===Final years (1981–1994)===Topps Comics' ''Bombast'' #1 (April 1993).", "Cover art by Kirby.In the early 1980s, Kirby and Pacific Comics, a new, non-newsstand comic-book publisher, made one of the industry's earliest deals for creator-owned series, resulting in ''Captain Victory and the Galactic Rangers'', and the six-issue miniseries ''Silver Star'' (later collected in hardcover format in 2007).", "This, together with similar actions by other independent comics publishers as Eclipse Comics (where Kirby co-created the character Destroyer Duck in a benefit comic-book series published to help Steve Gerber fight a legal case against Marvel), helped establish a precedent to end the monopoly of the work-for-hire system, wherein comics creators, even freelancers, had owned no rights to characters they created.In 1983 Richard Kyle commissioned Kirby to create a 10-page autobiographical strip, \"Street Code\", which became one of the last works published in Kirby's lifetime.", "It was published in 1990, in the second issue of Kyle's revival of ''Argosy''.", "Kirby continued to do periodic work for DC Comics during the 1980s, including a brief revival of his \"Fourth World\" saga in the 1984 and 1985 ''Super Powers'' miniseries and the 1985 graphic novel ''The Hunger Dogs''.", "DC executives Jenette Kahn and Paul Levitz had Kirby re-design the Fourth World characters for the ''Super Powers'' toyline as a way of entitling him to royalties for several of his DC creations.", "In 1985, Kirby and Gil Kane helped to create the concept and designs for the Ruby-Spears animated television series ''The Centurions''.", "A comic-book series based on the show was published by DC and a toy line produced by Kenner.In the twilight of his life, Kirby spent a great deal of time sparring with Marvel executives over the ownership rights of his original page boards.", "At Marvel, many of these pages owned by the company (due to outdated and legally dubious copyright claims) were given away as promotional gifts to Marvel clients or simply stolen from company warehouses.", "After the passage of the Copyright Act of 1976, which greatly expanded artist copyright capabilities, comics publishers began to return original art to creators, but in Marvel's case only if they signed a release reaffirming Marvel's ownership of the copyright.", "In 1985, Marvel issued a release that demanded Kirby affirm that his art was created for hire, allowing Marvel to retain copyright in perpetuity, in addition to demanding that Kirby forego all future royalties.", "Marvel offered him 88 pages of his art (less than 1% of his total output) if he signed the agreement, but reserved the right to reclaim the art if Kirby violated the deal.", "After Kirby publicly slammed Marvel, calling the company thugs and claiming they were arbitrarily holding his creations, Marvel finally returned (after two years of deliberations) approximately 1,900 or 2,100 pages of the estimated 10,000 to 13,000 Kirby drew for the company.For the producer Charles Band, Jack Kirby made concept art for the films ''Doctor Mortalis'' and ''Mindmaster'', which would later be released as ''Doctor Mordrid'' (1992) and ''Mandroid'' (1993), respectively.", "''Doctor Mordrid'' began as a planned adaptation of the Marvel Comics character Dr.", "Strange, but Band's option expired.For Topps Comics, founded in 1993, Kirby retained ownership of characters used in multiple series of what the company dubbed \"The Kirbyverse\".", "These titles were derived mainly from designs and concepts Kirby had kept in his files, some intended initially for the by-then-defunct Pacific Comics, and then licensed to Topps for what became the \"Jack Kirby's Secret City Saga\" mythos.", "''Phantom Force'' was the last comic book Kirby worked on before his death.", "The story was co-written by Kirby with Michael Thibodeaux and Richard French, based on an eight-page pitch for an unused Bruce Lee comic in 1978.Issues #1 and 2 were published by Image Comics with various Image artists inking over Kirby's pencils.", "Issue #0 and issues #3–8 were published by Genesis West, with Kirby providing pencils for issues #0 and 4.Thibodeaux provided the art for the remaining issues of the series after Kirby died." ], [ "Personal life and death", "In the early 1940s, Kirby and his family moved to Brooklyn.", "There, Kirby met Rosalind \"Roz\" Goldstein, who lived in the same apartment building.", "The pair began dating soon afterward.", "Kirby proposed to Goldstein on her 18th birthday, and the two became engaged.", "They married on May 23, 1942.The couple had four children together: Susan (b. December 6, 1945), Neal (b.", "May 1948), Barbara (b. November 1952), and Lisa (b. September 1960).After being drafted into the U.S. Army and serving in the European Theater in World War II, Kirby corresponded with his wife regularly by v-mail, with Roz sending daily letters while she worked in a lingerie shop and lived with her mother at 2820 Brighton 7th Street in Brooklyn.", "During the winter of 1944, Kirby suffered severe frostbite and was taken to a hospital in London for recovery.", "Doctors considered amputating Kirby's legs, which had turned black, but he eventually recovered and was able to walk again.", "He returned to the United States in January 1945, assigned to Camp Butner in North Carolina, where he spent the last six months of his service as part of the motor pool.", "Kirby was honorably discharged as a private first class on July 20, 1945, having received a Combat Infantryman Badge, a European/African/Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with a bronze Battle Star.In 1949, Kirby bought a house for his family in Mineola, New York, on Long Island.", "This would be the family's home for the next 20 years, with Kirby working out of a basement studio just wide, which the family referred to jocularly as \"The Dungeon\".", "He moved the family to Southern California in early 1969, both to live in a drier climate for the sake of daughter Lisa's health, and to be closer to the Hollywood studios Kirby believed might provide work.In an interview, Kirby's granddaughter Jillian Kirby said Kirby was a \"liberal Democrat\".", "Kirby held anti-communist views, once saying that \"I was against the reds.", "I became a witch hunter.", "My enemies were the commies — I called them commies.", "In fact, Granny Goodness was a commie, Doubleheader was a commie.", "\"On February 6, 1994, aged 76, Kirby died of heart failure in his Thousand Oaks, California home.", "He was buried at Valley Oaks Memorial Park in Westlake Village, California." ], [ "Artistic style and achievements", "Brent Staples wrote in the ''New York Times'':Jack Kirby has been referred to as the \"superhero of style\", his artwork described by John Carlin in ''Masters of American Comics'' as \"deliberately primitive and bombastic\", and elsewhere has been compared to Cubist, Futurist, Primitivist and outsider art.", "His contributions to the comic book form, including the many characters he created or co-created and the many genres he worked on have led to him being referred to as the definitive comic book artist.", "Given the number of places Kirby's artwork can now be found, the toys based on his designs, and the success of the movies based upon his work, Charles Hatfield and Ben Saunders declare him \"one of the chief architects of the American imagination.\"", "He was regarded as a hard working artist, and it has been calculated that he drew at least 20,318 pages of published art and a further 1,385 covers in his career.", "He published 1,158 pages in 1962 alone.", "Kirby defined comics in two periods.", "His work in the early 1940s with Joe Simon on the Captain America strip, and then his superhero comics of the 1960s with Stan Lee at Marvel Comics and on his own at DC Comics.", "Kirby also created stories in almost every genre of comics, from the autobiographical ''Street Code'' to the apocalyptic science fiction fantasy of Kamandi.===Narrative approach to comics===Like many of his contemporaries, Kirby was hugely indebted to Milton Caniff, Hal Foster and Alex Raymond, who codified many of the tropes of narrative art in adventure comic strips.", "It has also been suggested that Kirby drew from Burne Hogarth, whose dynamic figure work may have informed the way Kirby drew figures; \"his ferocious bounding, and grotesquely articulated figures seem directly descended from Hogarth's dynamically contorted forms.\"", "His style drew on these influences, all major artists at the time Kirby was learning his craft, with Caniff, Foster and Raymond between them imparting to the sequential adventure comic strip a highly illustrative approach based on realizing the setting to a very high degree.", "Where Kirby diverged from these influences, and where his style impacted on the formation of comic book art, was in his move away from an illustrated approach to one that was more dynamic.", "Kirby's artistic style was one that captured energy and motion within the image, synergizing with the text and helping to serve the narrative.", "In contrast, successors to the illustrative approach, such as Gil Kane, found their work eventually reach an impasse.", "The art would illustrate, but in lacking movement caused the reader to contemplate the art as much as the written word.", "Later artists such as Bryan Hitch and Alex Ross combined the Kirby and Kane approaches, using highly realistic backgrounds contrasted with dynamic characters to create what became known as a widescreen approach to comics.Kirby's dynamism and energy served to push the reader through the story where an illustrative, detailed approach would cause the eye to linger.", "His reduction of the presentation of a given scene down to one that represents the semblance of movement has led Kirby to be described as cinematic in his style.", "Having worked at Fleischer Studios before coming to comics, Kirby had a grounding in animation techniques for producing motion.", "He also realized that comic books were not subject to the same constraints as the newspaper strip.", "While other comic book artists recreated the layouts that format used, Kirby swiftly utilized the space a whole comic book page created.", "As Ron Goulart describes, \"(h)e broke up the pages in new ways and introduced splash panels that stretched across two pages.\"", "Kirby himself described the creation of his dynamic style as a reaction both to the cinema and to the urge to create and compete: \"I found myself competing with the movie camera.", "I had to compete with the camera.", "I felt like John Henry ...", "I tore my characters out of the panels.", "I made them jump all over the page.", "I tried to make that cohesive so that it would be easier to read ...", "I had to get my characters in extreme positions, and in doing so I created an extreme style which was recognizable by everybody.", "\"===Style===''Fantastic Four'' #51 (June 1966) p. 14.Collage and pencilled figure by Jack Kirby, inks by Joe Sinnott, letters by Artie Simek, dialogue by Stan Lee, illustrating Kirby's use of collageIn the early 1940s Kirby would at times disregard panel borders.", "A character would be drawn in one panel, but their shoulder and arm would extend outside the border, into the gutter and sometimes on top of a nearby panel.", "A character may be punched out of one panel, feet being in the original panel and body in the next.", "Panels themselves would overlap, and Kirby would find new ways to arrange panels on a comic book page.", "His figures were depicted as lithe and graceful, although Kirby would place them thrusting from the page towards the reader.", "The late 1940s and 1950s saw Kirby move away from superhero comics and, working with Joe Simon, try his hand at a number of genres.", "Kirby and Simon created the romance comics genre, and working in this as well as the war, Western and crime genres saw Kirby's style change.", "He left behind the diverse panel framing and layouts.", "The nature of these genres enabled him to channel the energy into the posing and blocking of characters, forcing the drama into the constraints of the panel.When Kirby and Stan Lee came together at Marvel Comics, his art developed again.", "His characters and representations became more abstract, less anatomically correct.", "He would place figures across three planes of a panel's depth to suggest three dimensions.", "His backgrounds would be less detailed where he did not want the eye to be drawn.", "His figures would move actively along diagonals, and he utilized foreshortening to make a character appear to recede more deeply into the panel, so that they appeared to move towards the reader, off the page.", "During the 1960s Kirby also developed a talent for creating collages, initially utilizing them within the pages of ''The Fantastic Four''.", "He introduced the Negative Zone as a place within the Marvel Universe that would only be illustrated via collage.", "However, the reproduction within the published comics of the collages, coupled with the low page rate he was being paid and the time they took to develop saw their use discarded.", "Kirby would later return to the use of collage in his Fourth World work at DC Comics.", "Here he used them most often in the pages of ''Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen''.Kirby's style in the late 1960s was regarded so highly by Stan Lee that he instituted it as Marvel's house style.", "Lee would instruct other artists to draw more like Jack, and would also assign them books to work on using Kirby's breakdowns of the story so that they could more closely hew to Kirby's style.", "Over time, Kirby's style has become so well known that imitations, homages and pastiche are referred to as Kirbyesque.Kirby Krackle, also referred to as Kirby Dots, is Kirby's artistic convention of depicting the effect of energy.", "Within the drawing, a field of black, pseudo-fractal images is used to represent negative space around unspecified kinds of energy.", "Kirby Krackles are typically used in illustrations of explosions, smoke, the blasts from ray guns, \"cosmic\" energy, and outer space phenomena.", "The advanced technology Kirby drew, from the Afrofuturistic state of Wakanda through the Mother Boxes of the New Gods to the spaceships and design of the Celestials is gathered together under the collective term \"Kirby Tech\".", "John Paul Leon has described it as \"It's tech; it's mechanical even if it's alien, but it's drawn in such an organic way that you don't question it.", "It's just an extension of his world.", "I'm not sure who else you could say did that.\"", "Kirby's depiction of technology is linked by Charles Hatfield to Leo Marx's idea of the technological sublime, specifically utilizing Edmund Burke's definition of the Sublime.", "Using this definition, Kirby's view and depiction of technology is that of it as something to be feared.===Working method===The Demon'' #1 DC Comics (September 1972)Unlike many of his contemporaries, Kirby did not use preliminary sketches, rough work or layouts.", "He would instead start with the blank board and draw the story onto the page from top to bottom, start to finish.", "Many artists, including Carmine Infantino, Gil Kane and Jim Steranko have remarked on the unusual nature of his method.", "Kirby would rarely erase while working; the art, and therefore the story, would flow from him almost fully formed.", "Kirby's pencils had a reputation for being detailed, to the point that they were difficult to ink.", "Will Eisner remembers even in the early years that Kirby's pencils were \"tight\".", "Working for Eisner, Kirby initially inked with a pen, not confident enough in his ability to use the Japanese brushes Lou Fine and Eisner preferred.", "By the time Kirby worked with Joe Simon, Kirby had taught himself to use a brush, and would on occasion ink over inked work where he felt it was needed.Due to the amount of work Kirby produced, it was rare for him to ink his own work.", "Instead the pencilled pages were sent on to an inker; different inkers left their own stylistic stamp on the published version.", "As Kirby noted, individual inkers were suited to different genres.", "Harry Mendryk has suggested that for a period in the 1950s, Kirby inked himself due to other work drying up.", "By the late 1960s, Kirby preferred to pencil, feeling that \"inking in itself is a separate kind of art.\"", "Stan Lee recalls Kirby not really being too interested in who inked him: \"I cared much more about who inked Kirby than Kirby did ... Kirby never seemed to care who inked him ...", "I think Kirby felt his style was so strong that it just didn't matter who inked him\".", "Chic Stone, an inker of Kirby's during the 1960s at Marvel, recalled \"(T)he two best inkers for Jack were Mike Royer and Steve Rude.", "Both truly maintained the integrity of Jack's pencils.", "\"The size of the art board made a difference to Kirby's style.", "During the late 1960s the industry shrunk the size of the art board artists used.", "Prior to 1967, art boards were around 14 x 21 inches, being reproduced at 7 x 10 inches.", "After 1967 the size of the board shrunk to 10 x 15.This affected the way Kirby drew.", "Gil Kane noted that \"the amount of space around the figures became less and less ...", "The figures became bigger and bigger, and they couldn't be contained by a single panel or even a single page\".", "Professor Craig Fischer asserts Kirby at first \"hated\" the new size.", "Fischer argues that it took Kirby around 18 months to negotiate a way of working at the smaller size.", "Initially he retreated to a less detailed, close up style, as seen in ''Fantastic Four'' #68.In adjusting to the new size, Kirby began utilizing depth to bring the pages to life, increasing his use of foreshortening.", "By the time Kirby had moved to DC, he started to incorporate the use of two-page spreads into his art more.", "These spreads helped define the mood of the story, and came to define Kirby's late era work.===Exhibitions and original art===Kirby's art has been exhibited as part of the Masters of American Comics joint exhibition by The Hammer Museum and Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles from November 2005 to March 2006.In 2015 Charles Hatfield curated the \"Comic Book Apocalypse\" exhibition at the California State University, Northridge Art Galleries.", "The exhibition focused on Kirby's work from 1965 onward.", "In 2018 \"A Jack Kirby Odyssey\" was organized by Tom Kraft.", "The exhibition displayed photocopies of unpublished Kirby pencils for stories intended for publication in the ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' comic book adaptation series as well as reproductions of the published work.", "In 1994 The Cartoon Art Trust organized an exhibition inLondon of Kirby art, \"Jack Kirby: The King of Comic Books\", in the wake of Kirby's death.", "In 2010 Dan Nadel and Paul Gravett curated \"Jack Kirby: The House That Jack Built\", a retrospective of Kirby's career from 1942 to 1985.The exhibition was part of the Fumetto International Comics Festival held in Lucerne, Switzerland.Kirby's original art regularly sells at auction, with Heritage Auctions listing the cover of ''Tales of Suspense'' #84, inked by Frank Giacoia as realizing a price of $167,300 in a February 2014 auction.", "A large portion of Kirby's art remains unaccounted for.", "Work created around World War II would have been reused or pulped due to paper shortages.", "DC Comics had a policy of destroying original art in the 1950s.", "Marvel Comics would also destroy art, up until 1960, when it stored artwork prior to a policy which saw art returned to the artist.", "In Kirby's case, it's reported he was returned roughly 2,100 pieces of the estimated 10,000 pages drawn.", "The whereabouts of these missing pages are unknown, although some do turn up for sale, provenance unknown." ], [ "Kirby's estate", "===Subsequent releases===Kirby in the 1980sLisa Kirby announced in early 2006 that she and co-writer Steve Robertson, with artist Mike Thibodeaux, planned to publish via the Marvel Comics Icon imprint a six-issue limited series, ''Jack Kirby's Galactic Bounty Hunters'', featuring characters and concepts created by her father for ''Captain Victory''.", "The series, scripted by Lisa Kirby, Robertson, Thibodeaux, and Richard French, with pencil art by Jack Kirby and Thibodeaux, and inking by Scott Hanna and Karl Kesel primarily, ran an initial five issues (Sept. 2006–Jan.", "2007) and then a later final issue (Sept. 2007).Marvel posthumously published a \"lost\" Kirby/Lee ''Fantastic Four'' story, ''Fantastic Four: The Lost Adventure'' (April 2008), with unused pages Kirby had originally drawn for a story that was partially published in ''Fantastic Four'' #108 (March 1971).In 2011, Dynamite Entertainment published ''Kirby: Genesis'', an eight-issue miniseries by writer Kurt Busiek and artists Jack Herbert and Alex Ross, featuring Kirby-owned characters previously published by Pacific Comics and Topps Comics.===Copyright dispute===On September 16, 2009, Kirby's four children served notices of termination to The Walt Disney Studios, 20th Century Fox, Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures, and Sony Pictures to attempt to gain control of various Silver Age Marvel characters.", "Marvel sought to invalidate those claims.", "In mid-March 2010 Kirby's children \"sued Marvel to terminate copyrights and gain profits from Kirby's comic creations.\"", "In July 2011, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York issued a summary judgment in favor of Marvel, which was affirmed in August 2013 by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.", "The Kirby children filed a petition on March 21, 2014, for a review of the case by the Supreme Court of the United States, but a settlement was reached on September 26, 2014, and the family requested that the petition be dismissed.", "While the settlement has left uncertain the legal right to works governed by the Copyright Act of 1909 created before the Copyright Act of 1976 came into force, the Kirby children's attorney, Marc Toberoff, said (in 2014) that the issue of creators' rights to reclaim the work done as independent contractors remains, and other potential claims have yet to become ripe." ], [ "Legacy", "Grave stone for Rosalind \"Roz\" KirbyGrave stone for Jack Kirby* Glen David Gold wrote in ''Masters of American Comics'' that, \"Kirby elevates all of us into a realm where we fly among the beating wings of the immortal and the omnipotent, the gods and the monsters, so that we, dreamers all, can play host to the demons of creation, can become our own myths.", "* Michael Chabon, in his afterword to his Pulitzer Prize-winning novel ''The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay'', a fictional account of two early comics pioneers, wrote, \"I want to acknowledge the deep debt I owe in this and everything else I've ever written to the work of the late Jack Kirby, the King of Comics.", "\"* Director James Cameron said Kirby inspired the look of his film ''Aliens'', calling it \"not intentional in the sense I sat down and looked at all my favorite comics and studied them for this film, but, yeah, Kirby's work was definitely in my subconscious programming.", "The guy was a visionary.", "Absolutely.", "And he could draw machines like nobody's business.", "He was sort of like A. E. van Vogt and some of these other science-fiction writers who are able to create worlds that — even though we live in a science-fictionary world today — are still so far beyond what we're experiencing.", "\"* Several Kirby images are among those on the \"Marvel Super Heroes\" set of commemorative stamps issued by the U.S.", "Postal Service on July 27, 2007.Ten of the stamps are portraits of individual Marvel characters and the other 10 stamps depict individual Marvel comic book covers.", "According to the credits printed on the back of the pane, Kirby's artwork is featured on: Captain America, The Thing, Silver Surfer, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #1, ''The Incredible Hulk'' #1, ''Captain America'' #100, ''The X-Men'' #1, and ''The Fantastic Four'' #3.", "* In the 1990s ''Superman: The Animated Series'' television show, police detective Dan Turpin was modeled on Kirby.", "* In the 1998 episode \"The Demon Within\" of ''The New Batman Adventures'', Klarion has Etrigan break into the '''Kirby Cake Company'''.", "Both characters were created by Kirby.", "* In 2002, jazz percussionist Gregg Bendian released a seven-track CD titled ''Requiem for Jack Kirby'', inspired by Kirby's art and storytelling.", "Titles of the instrumental cuts include \"Kirby's Fourth World\", \"New Gods\", \"The Mother Box\", \"Teaneck in the Marvel Age\" and \"Air Above Zenn-La\".", "* The Cartoon Network/Adult Swim series ''Minoriteam'' uses artwork as a homage to Jack Kirby (credited under Jack \"The King\" Kirby, who is thanked in the show's end credits).", "* Various comic-book and cartoon creators have done homages to Kirby.", "Examples include the ''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles'' Mirage Comics series (\"Kirby and the Warp Crystal\" in ''Donatello'' #1, and its animated counterpart, \"The King\", from the 2003 cartoon series).", "The episode of ''Superman: The Animated Series'' entitled \"Apokolips ...", "Now!, Part 2\" was dedicated to his memory.", "* As of June 2018, Hollywood films based on characters Kirby co-created have collectively earned nearly US$7.4 billion.", "Kirby himself is a character portrayed by Luis Yagüe in the 2009 Spanish short film ''The King & the Worst,'' which is inspired by Kirby's service in World War II.", "He is portrayed by Michael Parks in a brief appearance in the fact-based drama ''Argo'' (2012), about the Canadian Caper.", "* A play based on Kirby's life, ''King Kirby'', by Crystal Skillman and ''New York Times'' bestselling comics writer Fred Van Lente, was staged at Brooklyn's Brick Theater as part of its annual Comic Book Theater Festival.", "The play was a ''New York Times'' Critics' Pick selection and was funded by a widely publicized Kickstarter campaign.", "* The 2016 novel ''I Hate the Internet'' frequently mentions Kirby as a \"central personage\" of the novel.", "* To mark Jack Kirby's 100th birthday in 2017, DC Comics announced a series of one-shots involving characters that Kirby had created, including The Newsboy Legion and the Boy Commandos, Manhunter, Sandman, the New Gods, Darkseid, and ending with The Black Racer and Shilo Norman.", "* In May 2004, in ''Fantastic Four'' issue #511 (written by Mark Waid and penciled by Mike Weiringo), Reed, Sue, and Johnny travel to Heaven to recover the soul of the deceased Ben Grimm.", "After passing a trial, they are allowed to meet God himself, who is depicted as Jack Kirby.", "God explains that he is seen by them as what he is to them, and that he considers the fact that they see him as Kirby to be an honor.", "* Alan Moore delivers his tribute to Jack Kirby in his next-to-last issue of the ''Supreme'' series, ''Supreme'' #62 (The Return #6) \"New Jack City\" (March 2000), illustrated by Rob Liefeld and, for the Kirbyesque part, Rick Veitch.", "In this story Supreme enters a realm of pure ideas where he meets a gigantic floating Jack Kirby head, smoking a cigar.", "\"''This gigantic entity explains to him that he used to be a flesh and blood artist but now he is entirely in the realm of ideas, which is much better because flesh and blood has its limitations because he can only do four or five pages a day tops, where now he exists purely in the world of ideas''\".", "* The Disney California Adventure attraction ''Guardians of the Galaxy'' – Mission: Breakout!", "is surrounded by markings on the ground that serve as a tribute to the Kirby Krackle.", "* The 1995 video game ''Marvel Super Heroes'' was dedicated to Kirby." ], [ "Filmography", "* Kirby guest starred in the episode \"Bounty Hunter\" of ''Starsky & Hutch'' as an Officer.", "* Kirby made an un-credited cameo appearance in the episode \"No Escape\" of ''The Incredible Hulk''.", "He can be spotted in the hospital scene as a police sketch artist who is recreating, from the witness's description, a picture of the man he claimed to have saved his life.", "Instead of resembling the live-action Hulk, this illustration is instantly recognizable as the Hulk as he appeared in the original comics.", "* Kirby appeared as himself in the episode \"You Can't Win\" of ''Bob''." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Jack Kirby received a great deal of recognition over the course of his career, including the 1967 Alley Award for Best Pencil Artist.", "The following year he was runner-up behind Jim Steranko.", "His other Alley Awards were:* 1963: Favorite Short Story – \"The Human Torch Meets Captain America\", by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, ''Strange Tales'' #114* 1964:** Best Novel – \"Captain America Joins the Avengers\", by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, from ''The Avengers'' #4** Best New Strip or Book – \"Captain America\", by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, in ''Tales of Suspense''* 1965: Best Short Story – \"The Origin of the Red Skull\", by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, ''Tales of Suspense'' #66* 1966: Best Professional Work, Regular Short Feature – \"Tales of Asgard\" by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, in ''Thor''* 1967: Best Professional Work, Regular Short Feature – (tie) \"Tales of Asgard\" and \"Tales of the Inhumans\", both by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, in ''Thor''* 1968:** Best Professional Work, Best Regular Short Feature – \"Tales of the Inhumans\", by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, in ''Thor''** Best Professional Work, Hall of Fame – ''Fantastic Four'', by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby; ''Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D.", "'', by Jim SterankoKirby won a Shazam Award for Special Achievement by an Individual in 1971 for his \"Fourth World\" series in ''Forever People'', ''New Gods'', ''Mister Miracle'', and ''Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen''.", "He received an Inkpot Award in 1974 and was inducted into the Shazam Awards Hall of Fame in 1975.In 1987 he was an inaugural inductee into the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame.", "He received the 1993 Bob Clampett Humanitarian Award at that year's Eisner Awards.His work was honored posthumously in 1998: The collection of his New Gods material, ''Jack Kirby's New Gods'', edited by Bob Kahan, won both the Harvey Award for Best Domestic Reprint Project, and the Eisner Award for Best Archival Collection/Project.", "On July 14, 2017, Jack Kirby was named a Disney Legend for his part in the creation of numerous characters that would comprise Disney's Marvel Cinematic Universe.The Jack Kirby Awards and Jack Kirby Hall of Fame were named in his honor.", "He was the posthumous recipient of the Bill Finger Award in 2017.Will Eisner (left), Jack Kirby (middle), and Roz Kirby in 1982With Will Eisner, Robert Crumb, Harvey Kurtzman, Gary Panter and Chris Ware, Kirby was among the artists honored in the exhibition \"Masters of American Comics\" at the Jewish Museum in New York City from September 16, 2006, to January 28, 2007.Asteroid 51985 Kirby, discovered September 22, 2001, was named in his honor.", "A crater on Mercury, located near the north pole, was named in his honor in 2019." ], [ "Bibliography", "This is an abridged listing of Kirby's comics work (interior pencil art) for the two main comics publishers, DC Comics and Marvel Comics.", "For his work at DC it lists any title Kirby worked on for eight or more issues between 1970 and 1976.Of his Marvel Comics work, it lists any title Kirby worked on for eight or more issues between 1959 and 1978.===DC Comics===* ''Demon'' #1–16 (1972–1974)* ''Forever People'' #1–11 (1971–1972)* ''Kamandi: The Last Boy on Earth'' #1–40 (1972–1976)* ''Mister Miracle'' #1–18 (1971–1974)* ''New Gods'' #1–11 (1971–1972)* ''O.M.A.C.''", "#1–8 (1974–1975)* ''Our Fighting Forces'' (The Losers) #151–162 (1974–1975)* ''Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen'' #133–139, 141–148 (1970–1972)===Marvel Comics===* ''Amazing Adventures'' #1–4 (Inhumans) (1970)* ''Avengers'' #1–8 (full pencils), #14–17 (layouts only, pencils by Don Heck) (1963–1965)* ''Black Panther'' #1–12 (1977–1978)* ''Captain America'' #100–109, 112 (1968–1969); #193–214, ''Annual'' #3–4 (1976–1977)* ''Devil Dinosaur'' #1–9 (1978)* ''Eternals'' #1–19, ''Annual'' #1 (1976–1978)* ''Fantastic Four'' #1–102, 108, ''Annual'' #1–6 (1961–1971)* ''Incredible Hulk'' #1–5 (1962–1963)* ''Journey into Mystery'' #51–52, 54–82 (1959–1962); (Thor): #83–89, 93, 97–125, ''Annual'' #1 (1962–1966)* ''Machine Man'' #1–9 (1978)* ''Silver Surfer'' #18 (1970)* ''Strange Tales'' #67–70, 72–100 (1959–1962); (Human Torch): #101–105, 108–109, 114, 120, ''Annual'' #2 (1962–1964); (Nick Fury): #135, 141–142 (full pencils), 136–140, 143–153 (layouts only, pencils by John Severin, Jim Steranko and others) (1965–1967)* ''Tales of Suspense'' #2–4, 7–35 (1959–1962); (Iron Man): #41, 43 (1963); (Captain America): #59–68, 78–86, 92–99 (full pencils), #69–75, 77 (layouts only) (1964–1968)* ''Tales to Astonish'' #1, 5–34; (Ant-Man): #35–40, 44, 49–51 (1962–1964); (The Incredible Hulk): #68–72 (full pencils), #73–84 (layouts only, pencils by Bill Everett and others) (1965–1966); (Sub-Mariner): #82 (1966)* ''Thor'' #126–177, 179, ''Annual'' #2 (1966–1970)* ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' #1–10 (1976–1977)* ''X-Men'' #1–11 (full pencils) (1963–1965), #12–17 (layouts only, pencils by Alex Toth and Werner Roth) (1965–1966)" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* The Jack Kirby Museum & Research Center* * * * Jack Kirby at Mike's Amazing World of Comics* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Johnny Weissmuller" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johnny Weissmuller''' (; born '''Johann Peter Weißmüller''' ; June 2, 1904 – January 20, 1984) was an American Olympic swimmer, water polo player and actor.", "He was known for having one of the best competitive swimming records of the 20th century.", "He set world records alongside winning five gold medals in the Olympics.", "He won the 100m freestyle and the relay team event in the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris and the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam.", "Weissmuller also won gold in the 400m freestyle, as well as a bronze medal in the water polo competition in Paris.", "Following his retirement from swimming, Weissmuller played Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan in twelve feature films from 1932 to 1948; six were produced by MGM, and six additional films by RKO.", "Weissmuller went on to star in sixteen ''Jungle Jim'' movies over an eight year period, then filmed 26 additional half-hour episodes of the ''Jungle Jim'' TV series." ], [ "Early life", "Johann Peter Weißmüller was born on June 2, 1904, in Szabadfalva, in the Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary (now part of Romania, and called Freidorf) into an ethnically Banat Swabian family.", "He was the sixth generation Weismüller born in Hungary.", "An ancestor had immigrated from Baden .", "Three days later he was baptized into the Catholic faith by the Hungarian version of his German name, as János.", "Early the next year on January 26, 1905, he embarked on a twelve-day trip on the ''S.S.", "Rotterdam'' to Ellis Island alongside his father, Peter Weißmüller, and mother, Elisabeth Weißmüller (née Kersch).", "Soon they arrived in Windber, Pennsylvania, to live with family.", "Johnny's brother Peter was born the following September.Weißmüller homestead, FreidorfThree years later they relocated to Chicago to be with his mother's parents.", "His parents rented a single level in a shared house where he lived during his childhood.", "Fullerton Beach on Lake Michigan is where Johnny's love for swimming took off, having his first swimming lessons there.", "He excelled immediately and began entering and winning every race he could.", "Johnny's father deserted the family when Johnny was in the eighth grade.", "He left school to begin working in order to support his mother and younger brother.When Weissmuller was 11 he lied to join the YMCA, which had a 12 year old minimum rule to join.", "He won every swimming race he entered and also excelled at running and high jumping.", "Before long he was on one of the best swim teams in the country, the Illinois Athletic Club." ], [ "Careers", "===Swimming===Weissmuller in 1924Weissmuller tried out for swimming coach Bill Bachrach.", "Impressed with what he saw, he took Weissmuller under his wing.", "He also was a strong father figure and mentor for Johnny.", "On August 6, 1921, Weissmuller began his competitive swimming career.", "He entered four Amateur Athletic Union races and won them all.", "He set his first two world records at the A.A.U.", "Nationals on September 27, 1921, in the 100m and 150yd events.On July 9, 1922, Weissmuller broke Duke Kahanamoku's world record in the 100-meter freestyle, swimming it in 58.6 seconds.", "He won the title for that distance at the 1924 Summer Olympics, beating Kahanamoku for the gold medal.", "He also won the 400-meter freestyle and was a member of the winning U.S. team in the 4×200-meter relay.Four years later, at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, he won another two gold medals.", "It was during this period that Weissmuller became an enthusiast for John Harvey Kellogg's holistic lifestyle views on nutrition, enemas and exercise.", "He came to Kellogg's Battle Creek, Michigan sanatorium to dedicate its new 120-foot swimming pool, and break one of his own previous swimming records after adopting the vegetarian diet prescribed by Kellogg.In 1927, Weissmuller set a new world record of 51.0 seconds in the 100-yard freestyle, which stood for 17 years.", "He improved it to 48.5 seconds at Billy Rose World's Fair Aquacade in 1940, aged 36, but this result was discounted, as he was competing as a professional.As a member of the U.S. men's national water polo team, he won a bronze medal at the 1924 Summer Olympics.", "He also competed in the 1928 Olympics, where the U.S. team finished in seventh place.In all, Weissmuller won five Olympic gold medals and one bronze medal, 52 United States national championships, and set 67 world records.", "He was the first man to swim the 100-meter freestyle under one minute and the 440-yard freestyle under five minutes.", "He never lost a race and retired with an unbeaten amateur record.", "In 1950, he was selected by the Associated Press as the greatest swimmer of the first half of the 20th century.===Films===Weissmuller's first film was the non-speaking role of Adonis in the movie ''Glorifying the American Girl''.", "He appeared wearing only a fig leaf while hoisting actress Mary Eaton on his shoulders.", "He was noticed by the writer Cyril Hume, which led to his big break playing Tarzan in ''Tarzan the Ape Man'' in 1932.Weissmüller (Tarzan) with Maureen O'Sullivan (Jane) in ''Tarzan's Secret Treasure''When asked to play Tarzan, Weissmuller was already under contract to model BVD underwear.", "MGM agreed to have actresses such as Greta Garbo and Marie Dressler featured in BVD ads so that he could be released from his BVD contract.", "The author of Tarzan, Edgar Rice Burroughs, was pleased with Weissmuller, although he so hated the studio's depiction of Tarzan as an individual who barely spoke English that he created his own concurrent Tarzan series starring Herman Brix as a suitably articulate version of the character (as is true to the original books).Weissmuller is considered the definitive Tarzan.", "He originated the famous Tarzan yell, which was created by sound recordist Douglas Shearer.", "Shearer recorded Weissmuller's normal yell, but manipulated it and played it in reverse.Weissmuller went on to play the lead in the film ''Jungle Jim''.", "He appeared in sixteen Jungle Jim movies over eight years, going on to film 26 episodes of the Jungle Jim TV series.Weissmuller retired from acting in 1957." ], [ "Personal life", "With his second wife, the Mexican actress Lupe Vélez, in a newspaper press photo (1934)Weissmuller was married five times: band and club singer Bobbe Arnst (married 1931, divorced 1933); actress Lupe Vélez (married 1933, divorced 1939); Beryl Scott (married 1939, divorced 1948); Allene Gates (married 1948, divorced 1962); and Maria Gertrude Baumann (born 1921, died 2004; married from 1963 until his death in 1984).With his third wife, Beryl, he had three children, Johnny Weissmuller, Jr. (1940–2006), Wendy Anne Weissmuller (born 1942), and Heidi Elizabeth Weissmuller (1944–1962), who was killed in a car crash.", "He also had a stepdaughter with Baumann, Lisa Weissmuller-Gallagher.Weissmuller saved many peoples' lives throughout his own life.", "One very notable instance was in 1927: whilst training for the Chicago Marathon, Weissmuller saved 11 people from drowning after a boat accident.", "On July 28, 1927, sixteen children, ten women, and one man drowned, when the ''Favorite'', a small excursion boat cruising from Lincoln Park to Municipal Pier (Navy Pier), capsized half a mile off North Avenue in a sudden, heavy squall.", "Seventy-five women and children and a half dozen men sank with the boat when it tipped over, but rescuers saved over fifty of them.", "Weissmuller was one of the Chicago lifeguards who saved many." ], [ "Later life", "In 1974, Weissmuller broke both his hip and leg, marking the beginning of years of declining health.", "While hospitalized he learned that in spite of his strength and lifelong daily regimen of swimming and exercise, he had a serious heart condition.", "In 1977, Weissmuller suffered a series of strokes.", "In 1979, he entered the Motion Picture & Television Country House and Hospital in Woodland Hills, California, for several weeks before moving with his last wife, Maria, to Acapulco, Mexico, the location of his last Tarzan movie.On January 20, 1984, Weissmuller died from pulmonary edema at the age of 79.He was buried just outside Acapulco, Valle de La Luz at the Valley of the Light Cemetery.", "As his coffin was lowered into the ground, a recording of the Tarzan yell he invented was played three times, at his request.", "He was honored with a 21-gun salute, befitting a head of state, which was arranged by Senator Ted Kennedy and President Ronald Reagan." ], [ "Legacy", "For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Johnny Weissmuller has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.He is on the album cover of The Beatles' ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' (1967).His former co-star and movie son Johnny Sheffield wrote of him, \"I can only say that working with Big John was one of the highlights of my life.", "He was a Star (with a capital \"S\") and he gave off a special light and some of that light got into me.", "Knowing and being with Johnny Weissmuller during my formative years had a lasting influence on my life.", "\"In 1973, Weissmuller was awarded the George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film.The Piscine Molitor in Paris was built as a tribute to Weissmuller and his swimming prowess.Edgar Rice Burroughs himself paid tribute to Weissmuller's powerful screen persona in the last Tarzan novel that he completedWeissmuller was inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 1965 after becoming its founding chairman." ], [ "Filmography", " Johnny Weissmuller in Film Year Film Role Notes 1929 ''Glorifying the American Girl'' Adonis Cameo appearance in the segment 'Loveland'1931 ''Swim or Sink'' Himself Short subject ''Water Bugs'' Himself Short subject1932 ''Tarzan the Ape Man'' Tarzan ''The Human Fish'' Himself Short subject 1934 ''Tarzan and His Mate'' Tarzan 1936 ''Tarzan Escapes'' Tarzan 1939 ''Tarzan Finds a Son!''", "Tarzan 1941 ''Tarzan's Secret Treasure'' Tarzan 1942 ''Tarzan's New York Adventure'' Tarzan1943 ''Tarzan Triumphs'' Tarzan Complete title: ''Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan Triumphs'' ''Stage Door Canteen'' Himself Cameo role washing dishes.", "''Tarzan's Desert Mystery'' Tarzan Complete title: ''Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan's Desert Mystery'' 1945 ''Tarzan and the Amazons'' Tarzan Complete title: ''Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan and the Amazons''1946 ''Tarzan and the Leopard Woman'' Tarzan Complete title: ''Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan and the Leopard Woman'' ''Swamp Fire'' Johnny Duval co-starring Buster Crabbe 1947 ''Tarzan and the Huntress'' Tarzan Complete title: ''Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan and the Huntress''1948 ''Tarzan and the Mermaids'' Tarzan Complete title: ''Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan and the Mermaids'' ''Jungle Jim'' Jungle Jim 1949 ''The Lost Tribe'' Jungle Jim1950 ''Mark of the Gorilla'' Jungle Jim ''Captive Girl'' Jungle Jim Alternative title: ''Jungle Jim and the Captive Girl'' ''Pygmy Island '' Jungle Jim Alternative title: ''Pigmy Island''1951 ''Fury of the Congo'' Jungle Jim ''Jungle Manhunt'' Jungle Jim1952 ''Jungle Jim in the Forbidden Land'' Jungle Jim ''Voodoo Tiger'' Jungle Jim1953 ''Savage Mutiny'' Jungle Jim ''Valley of Head Hunters'' Jungle Jim ''Killer Ape'' Jungle Jim1954 ''Jungle Man-Eaters'' Jungle Jim ''Cannibal Attack'' Johnny Weissmuller1955 ''Jungle Moon Men'' Johnny Weissmuller ''Devil Goddess'' Johnny Weissmuller 1970 ''The Phynx'' Himself 1974 ''The Great Masquerade'' Sepy Debronvi 1976 ''Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood'' Stagehand No.", "2 (final film role) Television Year Title Role Notes 1956–1958 ''Jungle Jim'' Jungle Jim 26 episodes 1958 ''You Bet Your Life'' Guest Contestant 1" ], [ "Published works", "* Autobiography, excerpts of which were published in ''The Saturday Evening Post''." ], [ "See also", "* List of athletes with Olympic medals in different disciplines* List of multiple Olympic gold medalists* List of multiple Olympic gold medalists at a single Games* List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)* List of Olympic medalists in water polo (men)* List of multi-sport athletes* World record progression 4 × 200 metres freestyle relay* World record progression 100 metres freestyle* World record progression 200 metres freestyle* World record progression 400 metres freestyle* World record progression 800 metres freestyle* List of members of the International Swimming Hall of Fame" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations===" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Louis S. Nixdorff, 1928 Olympic games collection, 1926–1978, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.", "* The passenger list of the ship that brought the Weissmullers to Ellis Island * \"Serbia: Monument to Tarzan\", ''The New York Times'', February 17, 2007.The article states that Johnny Weissmuller was born in Serbia.", "* * Johnny Weissmuller Official Website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jean Grey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean Elaine Grey''' is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.", "Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-plotter Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in ''The X-Men'' #1 (September 1963).", "Jean Grey is a member of a subspecies of humans known as mutants who are born with superhuman abilities.", "She was born with psionic powers.", "The character has also been known as '''Marvel Girl''', '''Phoenix''', and '''Dark Phoenix''' at various points in her history.Her powers first manifested when she saw her childhood friend being hit by a car.", "She is a caring, nurturing figure, but she also has to deal with being an Omega-level mutant and the physical manifestation of the cosmic Phoenix Force.", "Jean experienced a transformation into the Phoenix in the ''X-Men'' storyline \"The Dark Phoenix Saga\".", "She has faced death numerous times in the history of the series.", "Her first death was under her guise as Marvel Girl, when she died and was \"reborn\" as Phoenix in \"The Dark Phoenix Saga\".", "This transformation led to her second death, which was suicide, though not her last.", "She is also an important figure in the lives of other Marvel Universe characters, mostly the X-Men, including her husband Cyclops, her mentor and father figure Charles Xavier, her other love interest Wolverine, her best friend and sister-like figure Storm, and her genetic children Rachel Summers, Cable, Stryfe, and X-Man.Often listed as one of the most notable and powerful female characters in Marvel Comics, the character has been featured in various other Marvel-licensed products, including video games, animated television series, and merchandise.", "Famke Janssen portrayed the character as an adult in the 20th Century Fox ''X-Men'' films while Sophie Turner portrayed her as a teenager and young adult." ], [ "Publication history", "Jean Grey debuted under the codename Marvel Girl in ''The X-Men'' #1 (September 1963), created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby.", "The original team's sole female member, Marvel Girl was a regular part of the team through the series' publication.", "Initially possessing the ability of telekinesis, the character was later granted the power of telepathy, which would be retconned years later as a suppressed mutant ability.Under the authorship of Chris Claremont and the artwork of first Dave Cockrum and then John Byrne in the late 1970s, Jean Grey underwent a significant transformation from the X-Men's weakest member, to its most powerful.The first comic Claremont saw at Marvel after coming there in 1969 was the first X-Men issue penciled by Neal Adams (issue 56), after which he became enamored of Jean Grey.", "But when he started to write X-Men in issue 94, the first issue after the creation of the new team in Giant-Size X-Men 1, Len Wein had already established that she was leaving the team.", "The artwork was already done, and it was too late to change.", "But he promised himself he would bring her back as soon as possible, which he did in issue 97 when he became the sole writer of the title.", "Claremont also decided to upgrade her powers significantly.Jean as Marvel Girl from ''House of X'' #1.Art by Pepe Larraz.The storyline in which Jean Grey died as Marvel Girl and was reborn as Phoenix (''The Uncanny X-Men'' #101–108, 1976–1977) has been retroactively dubbed by fans \"The Phoenix Saga\", and the storyline of her eventual corruption and death as Dark Phoenix (''The Uncanny X-Men'' #129–138, 1980) has been termed \"The Dark Phoenix Saga\".", "This storyline is one of the most well-known and heavily referenced in mainstream American superhero comics, and is widely considered a classic, including Jean Grey's suicidal sacrifice.When the first trade paperback of \"The Dark Phoenix Saga\" was published in 1984, Marvel also published a 48-page special issue titled ''Phoenix: The Untold Story''.", "It contained the original version of ''The Uncanny X-Men'' #137, the original splash page for ''The Uncanny X-Men'' #138, and transcripts of a roundtable discussion between Shooter, Claremont, Byrne, editors Jim Salicrup and Louise Jones, and inker Terry Austin about the creation of the new Phoenix persona, the development of the story, and what led to its eventual change, and Claremont and Byrne's plans for Jean Grey had she survived.Claremont revealed that his and Cockrum's motivation for Jean Grey's transformation into Phoenix was to create \"the first female cosmic hero\".", "The two hoped that, like Thor had been integrated into ''The Avengers'' lineup, Phoenix would also become an effective and immensely powerful member of the X-Men.", "However, both Salicrup and Byrne had strong feelings against how powerful Phoenix had become, feeling that she drew too much focus in the book.", "Byrne worked with Claremont to effectively remove Phoenix from the storyline, initially by removing her powers.", "However, Byrne's decision to have Dark Phoenix destroy an inhabited planetary system in ''The Uncanny X-Men'' #135, coupled with the planned ending to the story arc, worried then-Editor-in-Chief Jim Shooter, who felt that allowing Jean to live at the conclusion of the story was both morally unacceptable (given that she was now a \"mass murderer\") and also an unsatisfying ending from a storytelling point of view.", "Shooter publicly laid out his reasoning in the 1984 roundtable:I personally think, and I've said this many times, that having a character destroy an inhabited world with billions of people, wipe out a starship and then—well, you know, having the powers removed and being let go on Earth.", "It seems to me that that's the same as capturing Hitler alive and letting him go live on Long Island.", "Now, I don't think the story would ''end'' there.", "I think a lot of people would come to his door with machine guns...One of the creative team's questions that affected the story's conclusion was whether the Phoenix's personality and later descent into madness and evil were inherent to Jean Grey or if the Phoenix was itself an entity merely possessing her.", "The relationship between Jean Grey and the Phoenix would continue to be subject to different interpretations and explanations by writers and editors at Marvel Comics following the story's retcon in 1986.At the time of the Dark Phoenix's creation, Byrne felt that, \"If someone could be seen to corrupt Jean, rather than her just turning bad, this could make for an interesting story.\"", "Salicrup and Byrne stated later that they viewed Phoenix as an entity that entirely possessed Jean Grey, therefore absolving her of its crimes once it was driven out.", "However, the creative and editorial team ultimately agreed that Phoenix had been depicted as an inherent and inseparable aspect of Jean Grey, meaning that the character was fully responsible for her actions as Phoenix.", "As a result, Shooter ordered that Claremont and Byrne rewrite issue #137 to explicitly place in the story both a consequence and an ending commensurate with the enormity of Phoenix's actions.", "In a 2012 public signing, Claremont spoke about the context of the late 1970s and the end of the Vietnam War during the story's writing, stating that the history of these events also made Jean Grey's genocidal actions difficult to redeem.In the original ending, Jean does not revert to Dark Phoenix, and the Shi'ar subject her to a \"psychic lobotomy\", permanently removing all her telepathic or telekinetic powers.", "Claremont and Byrne planned to later have Magneto offer Jean the chance to restore her abilities, but Jean choosing to remain depowered and eliminate the threat of Dark Phoenix returning to power.X-Factor'' #1) Art by Jackson Guice.After several years, Marvel decided to revive the character, but only after an editorial decree that the character be absolved of her actions during The Dark Phoenix Saga.", "Writer Kurt Busiek is credited with devising the plot to revive Jean Grey.", "Busiek, a fan of the original five X-Men, was displeased with the character's death and formulated various storylines that would have met Shooter's rule and allowed the character to return to the X-Men franchise.", "He eventually shared his storyline idea with fellow writer Roger Stern who mentioned it to Byrne, who was both writing and illustrating the ''Fantastic Four'' at the time.", "Both series writer Bob Layton and artist Jackson Guice, who were developing the series ''X-Factor''—a team of former X-Men—had yet to settle on their fifth team member, initially considering Dazzler.", "Layton opted to fill the open spot with Jean instead, and both he and Byrne submitted the idea to Shooter, who approved it.", "Jean Grey's revival became a crossover plotline between the ''Avengers'' under Stern, ''Fantastic Four'' under Byrne, and ''X-Factor'' under Layton.Busiek later found out that his idea had been used thanks to Layton, and he was credited in ''Fantastic Four'' #286 and paid for his contributions.", "The decision to revive Jean Grey was controversial among fans, with some appreciating the return of the character and others feeling it weakened the impact of the Dark Phoenix Saga's ending.", "Busiek maintained that the idea that led to Jean Grey's official return to Marvel Comics was merely a case of sharing his ideas with friends as a fan, and that he neither formally pitched the idea to anyone nor gave it the final go ahead.", "Claremont expressed dissatisfaction with the retcon, stating in 2012: \"We'd just gone to all the effort of saying, 'Jean is dead, get over it,' and they said, 'Haha, we fibbed.'", "So why should anyone trust us again?", "But that's the difference between being the writer and being the boss.\"", "In a 2008 interview Byrne said he still felt Busiek's method of reviving Jean Grey was \"brilliant\", but agreed that in retrospect the character should have remained dead.In the comics, having been fully established as separate from the \"Jean Grey\" copy created and taken over by the Phoenix Force, Jean is \"absolved\" of involvement in the atrocities of \"The Dark Phoenix\" storyline, and she returned in the first issue of ''X-Factor'' (1st Series).Claremont later commented on how Jean's revival affected his original plans for Madelyne Pryor, stating that the relationship between the two women was intended to be entirely coincidental.", "He intended Madelyne only to look like Jean by complete coincidence and exist as a means for Cyclops to move on with his life and be written out of the ''X-Men'' franchise, part of what he believed to be a natural progression for any member of the team.", "Claremont expressed dismay that Jean's resurrection ultimately resulted in Cyclops abandoning his wife and child, tarnishing his written persona as a hero and \"decent human being\", and the \"untenable situation\" with Madelyne was dealt with by transforming her into a prolicidal demonic villain and killing her off.Soon after the beginning publication of ''X-Factor'', Marvel also reprinted and released the original ''X-Men'' series under the title ''Classic X-Men''.", "These reissues paired the original stories with new vignettes, elaborating on plot points.", "One such issue, ''Classic X-Men'' #8 (April 1987), paired the original ''The X-Men'' #100 (Aug. 1976) story of Jean Grey's disastrous return flight from space immediately preceding her transformation into Phoenix (\"Love Hath No X-Man...\") with the new story \"Phoenix\".", "The story further supported the retcon establishing Jean Grey and the Phoenix Force as two separate entities.Following the conclusion of ''Inferno'', Jean continued to be a mainstay character throughout the rest of ''X-Factor''''X-Factor'' (1st Series) ended its run featuring the original X-Men with ''X-Factor'' #70 (Sept. 1991), with the characters transitioning over to ''The Uncanny X-Men'', explained in continuity as the two teams deciding to merge.", "The fourteen X-Men divide into two teams—\"Blue\" and \"Gold\"—led by Cyclops and Storm, respectively.", "Jean was added to the Gold Team beginning in ''The Uncanny X-Men'' #281 (Oct. 1991).Following Cyclops's possession by the mutant villain Apocalypse and disappearance in the conclusion of the crossover storyline \"Apocalypse: The Twelve\", Jean lost her telekinetic abilities and was left with increased psychic powers, the result of the \"six month gap\" in plot across the ''X-Men'' franchise created by the ''Revolution'' revamp.", "During the ''Revolution'' event, all ''X-Men'' titles began six months after the events of ''Apocalypse: the Twelve'', allowing writers to create fresh situations and stories and gradually fill in the missing events of the previous six months of continuity.", "Due to editing decisions following the success of the 2000 ''X-Men'' film, which depicted the character of Jean Grey with both telepathy and telekinesis, an explanation for Jean's altered powers in the comics was never explicitly made, though writer Chris Claremont revealed in interviews that it was intended to be an accidental power switch between fellow X-Man Psylocke, explaining Psylocke's new telekinetic powers as well.Jean was next featured in the six-issue miniseries ''X-Men Forever'' written by Fabian Nicieza, which was designed to tie up the remaining plot lines.", "During the series, Jean revisited many of the events involving the Phoenix Force and the series introduced the concept of \"Omega level mutants\", a category for mutants with unlimited potential, which included Jean herself.In June 2001, ''X-Men'' was retitled as ''New X-Men'' under writer Grant Morrison.", "The title consisted of a smaller team featuring Jean, Cyclops, Beast, Wolverine, Emma Frost, and Charles Xavier.", "The overarching plot focused on the team assuming the roles of teachers to a new generation of mutants at the Xavier Institute while navigating their personal relationships and dealing with newly emerging pro- and anti-mutant political sentiments.", "Jean also made minor appearances in other titles during the ''New X-Men'' run, such as Chris Claremont's ''X-Treme X-Men'', occasionally lending support to the characters.Jean and her connection with the Phoenix Force was examined again one year after the conclusion of Morrison's run on ''New X-Men'' in ''X-Men: Phoenix – Endsong'' written by Greg Pak in 2005.At the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con X-Men panel, when asked whether or not Jean would return, editor Nick Lowe responded by saying, \"She's dead.", "\"Regarding Jean's actual return to the ''X-Men'' franchise, Marvel indicated that Jean's eventual return is being discussed but stated that the return of Jean Grey was \"a story Marvel does not want to rush\".", "Marvel loosely tied questions regarding Jean Grey's eventual return to the events in 2007's ''X-Men: Messiah Complex'' in which a mutant girl named Hope—who has red hair, green eyes, and immense mutant powers—is born, and 2010's ''X-Men: Second Coming'' which sees both Hope's return as a teenager and the return of the Phoenix Force.Following the conclusion of ''Avengers vs. X-Men'' as part of the Marvel NOW!", "event, a teenage Jean Grey and the four other founding members of X-Men are transported across time to the present day by Beast in the series ''All-New X-Men'' by Brian Michael Bendis.The original adult Jean Grey returned to the Marvel Universe in a new series titled ''Phoenix Resurrection: The Return of Jean Grey'', released on December 27, 2017.The series was written by Matthew Rosenberg with art by Leinil Francis Yu.Following the events of Extermination story, the time-displaced Jean Grey and the other original X-Men were returned to their original time, as part of Jonathan Hickman's plan to reboot the entire X-Men franchise." ], [ "Fictional character biography", "===Youth===Jean Elaine Grey was born the second daughter of John and Elaine Grey.", "She had an older sister, Sara Grey-Bailey.", "John Grey was a professor at Bard College in upstate New York.", "Depictions of Jean's childhood and her relations with her family have shown a stable, loving family life growing up.===Emergence of powers and joining the X-Men===Jean's mutant powers of telepathy and telekinesis first manifested when her best friend was hit by a car and killed.", "Jean mentally linked with her friend and nearly died as well.", "The event left her comatose, and she was brought back to consciousness when her parents sought the help of powerful mutant telepath, Charles Xavier.", "Xavier blocked her telepathy until she was old enough to be able to control it, leaving her with access only to her telekinetic powers.", "Xavier later recruited her as a teenager to be part of his X-Men team as \"Marvel Girl\", the team's sole female member.", "After several missions with the X-Men, Xavier removed Jean's mental blocks and she was able to use and control her telepathic powers.", "She began a relationship with teammate Cyclops, which persisted as her main romantic relationship, though she also developed a mutual, secret attraction to a later addition to the team, Wolverine.===Phoenix Force and first death===During an emergency mission in space, the X-Men find their shuttle damaged.", "Jean pilots the shuttle back to Earth, but is exposed to fatal levels of radiation.", "Dying, but determined to save Cyclops and her friends, Jean calls out for help and is answered by the cosmic entity, the Phoenix Force.", "The Phoenix Force, the sum of all life in the universe, is moved by Jean's wish to save herself and her friends.", "It takes the form of a duplicate body to house Jean's psyche.", "The duplication is so exact that the Phoenix Force believes itself to be Jean Grey, and places Jean's dying body in a healing cocoon.", "This cocoon is later described as a Phoenix Egg.", "The ship crashes in Jamaica Bay, with the other X-Men unharmed.The Phoenix Force, as Jean Grey, emerges in a new costume and adopts the new codename \"Phoenix\", with immense cosmic powers.", "Meanwhile, the cocoon containing the real Jean Grey sinks to the bottom of the bay, unnoticed.", "Phoenix continues her life as Jean Grey with the other X-Men, joining them on missions and saving the universe.", "During \"The Dark Phoenix Saga\", Phoenix becomes overwhelmed and corrupted by her first taste of evil and transforms into a force of total destruction, called \"Dark Phoenix\", inadvertently killing the inhabitants of a planetary system, after consuming its star, and jeopardizing the entire universe.", "However, Jean's personality manages to take control and Phoenix commits suicide to ensure the universe's safety.===Revival===Upon its suicide by way of a disintegration ray, the Phoenix Force disperses into its original form and a fragment locates the still-healing Jean at the bottom of Jamaica Bay.", "In trying to bond with her, Jean senses its memories of death and destruction as Dark Phoenix and rejects it, causing it to bond with and animate a lifeless clone of Jean Grey created by the villain Mister Sinister.", "Sinister created the clone to mate with Cyclops to create genetically superior mutants.", "Named \"Madelyne Pryor\", the unaware clone meets Cyclops in a situation engineered by Sinister and the two fall in love, marry, and have a child, Nathan Christopher Summers.", "Meanwhile, the cocoon is discovered and retrieved by the Avengers and the Fantastic Four.", "Jean emerges with no memory of the actions of the Phoenix/Dark Phoenix.", "The Avengers and Fantastic Four tell her of what happened and that she was believed dead until now.", "She is reunited with the original X-Men and convinces them to form the new superhero team X-Factor, reusing her \"Marvel Girl\" codename.", "Madelyne is angered over Cyclops's decision to lead X-Factor and neglect his family.", "Though Jean encourages Cyclops to return to Madelyne, he finds their house abandoned and assumes that Madelyne has left him and taken their infant son.", "Cyclops returns to X-Factor and he and Jean continue their relationship, but the Phoenix Force's impersonation, and his marrying Madelyne, damaged their mutual trust.", "The team's adventures continue throughout the series, culminating in the line-wide \"Inferno\" crossover.", "Madelyne reappears, now nearly insane and with powers awakened by a demonic pact, calling herself the Goblyn Queen.Learning of her true identity and purpose as a clone created by Mister Sinister drove her completely insane and she plans to sacrifice Nathan Christopher to achieve greater power and unleash literal Hell on Earth.", "While attempting to stop her, Jean is reunited with the other X-Men, who are happy to learn that she is alive, particularly Wolverine, reminding Jean of her unaddressed feelings for him.", "Jean and Madelyne confront each other, and Madelyne attempts to kill them both.", "Jean manages to survive only by absorbing the remnant of the Phoenix Force housed within Madelyne, giving her both Madelyne's memories and the Phoenix's memories from \"The Dark Phoenix Saga\".===Return to the X-Men and marriage to Cyclops===Unsure of herself since returning to life, Jean finds possessing the Phoenix Force and Madelyne's memories to be difficult.", "Cyclops proposes to her and she meets her alternate future daughter Rachel Summers (who goes by the codename \"Phoenix\" as well and is also able to tap into the Phoenix Force), but Jean rejects them both out of the feeling that they indicate that her life is predetermined.", "Jean had learned during the Inferno event that her rejecting the Phoenix Force caused Madelyne to wake; Cyclops admits to Susan Storm Richards that Jean sometimes wishes that the Fantastic Four had not found her, and that he does not know how to communicate with her.", "When X-Factor unites with the X-Men, Jean joins the Gold Team, led by Storm.", "During this time, she no longer uses a codename, instead being referred to by her civilian name.", "After some time, she makes up with Rachel, welcoming her into her life, and proposes to Cyclops and the two marry.", "On their honeymoon, the couple is immediately psychically transported 2000 years into the future to raise Cyclops's son Nathan, who had been transported to the future as an infant in hopes of curing him of a deadly virus.", "Jean adopts the identity of \"Redd\" along with Cyclops (\"Slym\") and they raise Nathan Christopher for twelve years before they are sent back into their bodies on their wedding honeymoon.", "Jean learns that a time-displaced Rachel had used her powers to transport them to the future to protect Nathan, and per Rachel's request, Jean adopts the codename \"Phoenix\" once again to establish it as a symbol of good after all the bad it had caused.", "Meanwhile, her psychic and telekinetic abilities begin to grow and she begins using the iconic green and gold Phoenix costume again.", "Jean also met another alternate future child of hers and Scott's: the immensely powerful Nathan Grey, who accidentally revived the psionic ghost of Madelyne Pryor, leading to another confrontation between the two women.===Onslaught===In Bishop's original timeline before he ends up in the present he finds the X-Men's war room and finds a garbled distress signal from Jean about a traitor destroying the X-Men from within.", "Meanwhile, in the present, the X-Men begin to hear increasing news about a malevolent entity called Onslaught.", "Jean first sees Onslaught as a psionic image with the rest of the X-Men after Onslaught coerces Gateway to kidnap Cyclops, Wolverine, Storm, and Iceman.", "He later appears to her again in a similar way after rescuing her and Gambit from Bastion and offers her a chance to join him.", "Onslaught makes his first full appearance to Jean on the astral plane and shows her how humanity is closing in on mutants as well as revealing that Xavier was in love with her while she was a student to convince her to join him.", "He then telepathically brands his name to her mind when she refuses and asks him his name.", "When Juggernaut comes to the mansion with information about Onslaught's true identity but has a mental block preventing him from divulging it, Jean enters his mind and helps him to remember who Onslaught really is and to her horror she discovers that Onslaught is really Professor X, having gone insane ever since wiping Magneto's mind.Professor Xavier calls the X-Men together for a meeting and Jean tries unsuccessfully to rally the X-Men against him before he manifests Onslaught.", "While Onslaught easily overtakes the rest of the X-Men, Jean escapes to the war room and sends out the distress signal that Bishop found in the future.", "After a massive battle against Jean and the rest of the X-Men, Onslaught escapes to carry out his plans.", "After Onslaught nearly kills the X-Men they team up with the Avengers to make a plan to stop him, knowing full well that it may come down to them killing Xavier if the world is to survive.", "Jean accompanies Cyclops, Archangel, and Psylocke to Muir Island where they and Moira McTaggert discover the ''Xavier Protocols'', secret plans that Xavier made to kill any of the individual X-Men should anyone become a threat against the world.", "Meanwhile, Jean's earlier distress signal makes it to X-Factor, Excalibur, and X-Force.", "After returning to New York, Jean works closely with Reed Richards to help build up defenses against Onslaught as well as to help create the psionic armor that could block Xavier's telepathic powers as seen in the ''Xavier Protocols''.", "When Jean senses that Xavier has been freed from Onslaught and is going to confront him on his own, she and Cyclops bring together the rest of the X-Men to back him up.", "The rest of the Avengers and Fantastic Four join them in a final stand against Onslaught before he completely destroys the world.", "In a final act of desperation Jean finds Hulk and locks away Bruce Banner's mind, leaving only the Hulk in control so he can fight Onslaught unencumbered.", "With the vast majority of earth's heroes missing and assumed dead after Onslaught is finally defeated, Jean and Cyclops open their home to Quicksilver and his daughter and try to help the X-Men to get their lives back together.===New X-Men===Following Cyclops's possession by the mutant villain Apocalypse and apparent death, Jean continues with the X-Men, but is distraught by the loss of her husband.", "She later learns that she is an \"Omega-level\" mutant with unlimited potential.", "Jean begins to suspect that Cyclops may still be alive and with the help of Nathan Summers (now the aged superhero \"Cable\"), is able to locate and free Cyclops of his possession by Apocalypse.", "The couple return to the X-Men as part of the Xavier Institute's teaching staff to a new generation of mutants.", "While Jean finds she is slowly able to tap into the powers of the Phoenix Force once again, her marriage to Scott begins to fail.", "Jean and Wolverine address their long-unspoken mutual attraction, deciding it is best not to act on their feelings; Cyclops grows further alienated from Jean due to her growing powers and institute responsibilities and seeks consolation from the telepathic Emma Frost to address his disillusionment and his experiences while possessed by Apocalypse.", "These therapy sessions lead to a \"psychic affair\" between Scott and Emma.", "Jean's discovery of the psychic affair results in a confrontation between her and Emma, though ultimately Jean realizes that Emma truly loves him.===Second death===In a final confrontation with a traitor at the institute (the X-Men's teammate Xorn, posing as Magneto) Jean fully realizes and assumes complete control of the powers of the Phoenix Force, but is killed in a last-ditch lethal attack by Xorn.", "Jean dies, telling Scott \"to live\".", "However, after her funeral, Scott rejects Emma and her offer to run the school together.", "This creates a dystopian future where all life and natural evolution is under assault by the infectious, villainous, sentient bacteria \"Sublime\".", "Jean is resurrected in this future timeline and becomes the fully realized '''White Phoenix of the Crown''', using the abilities of the Phoenix Force to defeat Sublime and eliminate the dystopic future by reaching back in time and telling Cyclops to move on.", "This leads him to accept Emma's love and her offer to run the school together.", "Jean then reconciles with Cyclops and fully bonds with the Phoenix Force and ascends to a higher plane of existence called the \"White Hot Room\".===Endsong===A weakened Phoenix Force returns to reanimate Jean.", "Jean tries to convince the Phoenix Force to let her go so they can return to the White Hot Room together, but once again the Phoenix Force takes over.", "Jean lets Wolverine find her and tries to convince him to kill her again before the Phoenix does more damage.", "The Shi'ar track the Phoenix Force and make an alliance with Storm to find her and defeat her.", "Jean takes Wolverine to the North Pole before the Shi'ar can kill her and convinces him to kill her.", "He stabs her numerous times but Phoenix keeps reanimating her, prompting Jean to dive deep into the ice and freeze herself.", "The Phoenix Force leaves her body and once again assumes Jean's form to tempt Cyclops to attack her so she can absorb his optic blasts and become strong again.", "When the Phoenix Force merges with and overwhelms Emma Frost, Cyclops frees Jean from the ice.", "Once freed Jean ejects the Phoenix from Emma and accepts that she is one with the Phoenix Force.", "After feeling the love from the X-Men, the Phoenix relents and returns with Jean back to the White Hot Room.", "Before she departs, Jean and Cyclops share a telepathic emotional farewell.===Postmortem manifestations===Though she had yet to fully return, the Phoenix Force and Jean continued to manifest themselves, particularly the Phoenix through the red-haired, green-eyed \"mutant messiah\" who slightly resembles Jean named Hope Summers, and Jean briefly appears in a vision to Emma Frost from the White Hot Room, warning the X-Men to \"prepare\".", "She again appears in a vision to Cyclops when he is overwhelmed by the power of Dark Phoenix, helping him abandon the power so that it can pass on to its true host.", "After Nightcrawler is fatally wounded by the Crimson Pirates, Jean appears to him along with Amanda Sefton and the recently deceased Wolverine to help coax him back to life.", "Jean's spirit begins to manifest in a more straightforward and aggressive manner to the time-displaced Jean from an alternate timeline, seemingly training her for the arrival of the Phoenix.", "However, after the younger Jean begins to ignore her, she possesses the time displaced Jean and uses her as a means to ambush Emma Frost.===Return===Strange psych occurrences around the world, which include a large bird flaring out from the sun and an explosion on the moon, raise red flags for the X-Men, who quickly launch an investigation of these events.", "After a string of bizarre encounters with familiar enemies, many of them considered deceased, the X-Men come to one conclusion: the Phoenix Force is back on Earth.", "The X-Men also discover that psychs are going missing or falling ill, which prompts the team to investigate the grave of Jean Grey.", "As they find the coffin of their long-dead teammate empty, they race to locate the Phoenix before it can find a suitable host.", "As it turns out, with the time-displaced teen Jean Grey out of the Phoenix Force's way, the cosmic entity has already resurrected the present adult Jean Grey.", "However, she does not recall her life as a mutant and an X-Man, and terrible visions from her previous life have left Jean unsure of the difference between reality and fiction.", "As she lies inside of what appears to be a Phoenix Egg, the X-Men theorize that the strange psych occurrences are subconscious cries for help made by Jean Grey and that they must try to stop the Phoenix from merging with their old friend.", "Old Man Logan is able to make Jean Grey remember her true life and she learns about the fate of her family and several of her friends, among them Cyclops.", "As Jean faces the Phoenix Force, she is finally able to convince the cosmic entity to stop bringing her back and let her go.", "Alive once again, Jean is reunited with her friends as the Phoenix Force journeys back to space.Restored to life, Jean gathers some of the greatest minds on Earth together so that she can read their minds to plan her next move.", "Recognizing that there has been a sudden surge in anti-mutant sentiment, to the point where there are plans to abort pregnancies if the mutant gene is detected, Jean announces her plans to establish a more official mutant nation, making it clear that she will not establish a geographic location for said nation as past examples make it clear that doing so just makes mutants a target.", "To support her in this goal, she assembles a team including Nightcrawler, X-23 and Namor, but is unaware that her actions are being observed by Cassandra Nova.===House of X / Dawn of X===The adult Jean returns to using her original Marvel Girl codename and wears her second green-and-yellow Marvel Girl costume.", "She is sent as part of a strike team to outer space to stop a satellite near the sun from being used as a Sentinel factory.", "Sentinels crush Jean's escape pod and she dies, but is resurrected into a cloned body.", "She is also a member of the Quiet Council, Krakoa's provisional government.", "Following the events of House of X, Jean briefly joins the Krakoan incarnation of X-Force, before resigning in protest of Beast's actions in Terra Verde.Following through the tournament for the new host of the Phoenix Force, the Phoenix chose Maya Lopez, the hero known as Echo.", "As Maya, Jean Grey called out to her from Krakoa with a word of advice.", "After Maya took on the Phoenix Force, Jean ordered Wolverine to leave her alone and return home, as he said he would kill anyone who took on the Phoenix Force.", "She then reached out to Maya as she flew off, and told the young woman not to go on this journey alone as the Phoenix prefers loners and isolated figures it can better influence to carry out its own agenda.", "Jean also told Maya if she wants to keep her soul as the new Phoenix, she has to make the Phoenix her own." ], [ "Powers and abilities", "Jean Grey is an Omega-level mutant, and at her highest and strongest potential was fully merged with the Phoenix Force and with it was able to defeat even Galactus.===Empathy===Jean is a powerful empath, as she can feel and manipulate emotions of other people, as shown when her power first emerged as she felt her friend Annie Richardson slowly dying.", "Jean can also connect people's minds to the feelings of others and make them feel the pain they inflicted.===Telepathy===When her powers first manifested, Jean was unable to cope with her telepathic abilities, forcing Professor Charles Xavier to suppress her access to it altogether.", "Instead, he chose to train her in the use of her psychokinetic abilities while allowing her telepathy to grow at its natural rate before reintroducing it.", "When the Professor hid to prepare for the Z'Nox, he reopened Jean's telepathic abilities, which was initially explained by writers as Xavier 'sharing' some of his telepathy with her.Jean is also one of the few telepaths skilled enough to communicate with animals (animals with high intelligence, such as dolphins, dogs, and ravens).", "As a side effect of her telepathy, she has an eidetic memory.", "Jean was able, through telepathic therapy with the comatose Jessica Jones, to grant Jessica immunity to the Purple Man's mind control abilities, despite his powers being chemical in nature rather than psychic.", "When Jean absorbed Psylocke's specialized telepathic powers, her own telepathy was increased to the point that she could physically manifest her telepathy as a psionic firebird whose claws could inflict both physical and mental damage.", "She briefly developed a psychic shadow form like Psylocke's, with a gold Phoenix emblem over her eye instead of the Crimson Dawn mark possessed by Psylocke.", "Jean briefly lost her telekinesis to Psylocke during this exchange, but her telekinetic abilities later came back in full and at a far stronger level than before.", "It was later stated that Jean has been an Omega Level telepath.===Telekinesis===Jean possesses a high-level of telekinetic ability that enables her to psionically levitate and rapidly move about all manner of animate and inanimate matter.", "She can use her telekinetic abilities on herself or others to simulate the power of flight or levitation, stimulate molecules to increase friction, create protective force fields out of psychokinetic energy, or project her telekinetic energy as purely concussive force.", "The outer limits of her telekinetic power have never been clearly established, though she was capable of lifting approximately fifty tons of rubble with some strain.", "Jean was later stated to have become an Omega Level Telekinetic.===Psychic Energy Synthesis===Jean's younger self who had been brought from the past into the present by an older Hank McCoy eventually found an entirely new usage of her powers separate from the Phoenix Force.", "The teenage Marvel Girl learned she has the ability to harness ambient psychic energy and channel it into powerful blasts of force, which are a combination of both her telepathy and telekinesis.", "Its potency is such that she can match and overpower the likes of Gladiator, magistrate of the Shi'ar, with relative ease.", "When using this ability Jean's whole body glows with pink psychic energy, obscuring her human form.====Telekinetic weapons====Under the tutelage of Psylocke, teenage Marvel Girl learned the ability to create psionic weapons that damage a target either physically or mentally.", "She showed skill in constructing multiple types of psionic weapons that differ in size, length and power which she uses in combat.===Phoenix Force===The relationship between Jean Grey and the Phoenix Force (and the nature of the powers she has) is portrayed in a variety of ways throughout the character's history.", "In the initial plotline of the Phoenix being a manifestation of Jean's true potential, these powers are considered her own, as part of Claremont and Byrne's desire to create \"the first cosmic superheroine\".", "However, since the retcon of the Phoenix as a separate entity from Jean Grey, depictions of these powers vary; these include Jean being one of many hosts to the Phoenix and \"borrowing\" its \"Phoenix powers\" during this time, being a unique host to the Phoenix, and being one with the Phoenix.", "She is later described as the only one currently able to hold the title of \"White Phoenix of the Crown\" among the many past, present, and future hosts of the Phoenix.", "Jean — both young and adult versions — is also the only character ever to force the Phoenix against its own cosmic will to do anything while not presently a host to its powers.", "In one instance Jean forcibly ripped the Phoenix out of Emma Frost and imposed its status upon herself.", "Young Jean was able to keep her psyche anchored in the Phoenix's mind postmortem despite the Phoenix's own efforts to forcibly remove her after it murdered her.", "Jean then subsequently forced the Phoenix to resurrect her after manipulating the Phoenix's mental landscape against it.Over the years, Jean's abilities while bonded to the Phoenix Force have fluctuated, but the ''Women of Marvel: Celebrating Seven Decades Handbook'' has detailed what Jean is capable of as Phoenix:The Phoenix Force also seems to render its host unaging and, at least in some adaptations, enhances the physical strength of its avatar to superhuman levels; in certain incarnations, Jean, namely while acting as Dark Phoenix, seemed to possess some level of superhuman strength.====Resurrection====For one reason or another, Jean Grey (both young and old) has, on more than one occasion, been repeatedly resurrected by either the Phoenix or apparently her sheer force of will.", "In some depictions, these resurrections are immediately after she or whoever she is reviving is killed, while other depictions indicate that a resurrection must occur at a \"correct\" time, sometimes taking a century.", "During the height of the Psych Wars, Young Jean was able to forcibly make the Phoenix Force restore her to life, despite the Phoenix's adamant resolve not to do so, completely recreating her body after it had been vaporized.", "After her body was taken over and completely devoured by a Poison, a small part of Jean's mind survived and, despite itself, was able to infect the whole Poison Hive and destroy it from the inside out, subsequently using nothing but her mind to reconstruct her body.", "This leaves Jean believing that she may not even be human anymore.", "This is not the first time Jean was resurrected without the Phoenix; in one instance, she was even able to fully resurrect herself after being clinically dead completely independent of the Phoenix Force.In their most recent meeting, Jean tells the Phoenix Force that she should have died on the shuttle, and asks it to not resurrect her again.===Miscellaneous abilities===Jean Grey is a trained pilot and proficient unarmed combatant.", "She also has some degree of teaching ability, experience as a fashion model, and training in psychology." ], [ "Cultural impact and legacy", "=== Critical response ===Maite Molina of ''ComicsVerse'' called Jean Grey one of the most \"powerful, recognizable, and admirable heroes in Marvel Comics history,\" writing, \"Jean Grey is undoubtedly one of the most iconic characters in comic book history.", "Her telekinetic abilities prove her to be an incredibly formidable superhero.", "She has battled some of the most notorious villains in Marvel Comics while fearlessly leading her own team of heroes.", "With this, she has also explored her own dark side.", "Epic sagas such as the notable ''Dark Phoenix Saga'' depict Jean as an exemplification of evil itself.", "However, during this trying period, Jean still overcame the corruption within.", "She showed readers that even heroes can fall into the clutches of darkness and rise above.", "Most importantly though, Jean Grey is and always has been an incredibly multi-faceted character.", "She has been a student and a teacher as well as the tether between good and evil.\"", "Nigel Mitchell of ''Comic Book Resources'' said, \"Jean Grey was always a really popular character for readers.", "Partly, it was because she was one of the most sensitive and intelligent members of the X-Men, the heart of the team.", "The fact that she was the team's first woman also made her unique, and her beauty was a major source of crushes for the fans.", "She was also involved in a love triangle between herself, Cyclops, and Wolverine, which drove a lot of emotional storylines.", "When she became Phoenix, she became the most high-profile female superhero in comics, but the other X-Men creative team Jim Salicrup and John Byrne felt her powers overshadowed the other members and stories.", "That's why Marvel decided to do something that hadn't really been done before: take one of its greatest superheroes and turn her into one of its greatest supervillains.", "It was a journey unlike any we'd seen before \"The Phoenix Saga\" and is compelling to watch.\"", "David Caballero of ''Screen Rant'' stated, \"Jean Grey served no important purpose in the team before ''The Dark Phoenix Saga'', especially during the X-Men's early days.", "The character existed as a love interest for the group-- every member of the X-Men's original roster had feelings for her at one point-- and a mother figure to provide support and encouragement.", "As more and more female characters arrived--Storm, Scarlet Witch, and Mystique all debuted throughout the 60s and 70s--it became increasingly complicated to use Jean in any meaningful way.", "''The Dark Phoenix Saga'' was not only a showcase but, as it turns out, a victory lap for the X-Men's first lady.", "The storyline took a nearly irrelevant character and elevated it to the apex of importance, turning her into one of Marvel's most overpowered figures in the process.", "\"Elle Collins of ''ComicsAlliance'' referred to Jean Grey as one of the \"first ladies of Marvel Comics as well as one of the most powerful,\" saying, \"In both the movies and the comics, we have a young Jean who's still learning her full potential as a mutant and a hero, and who's written as a real person with a real personality.", "That's not to say Jean hasn't accumulated fans over the preceding years; she absolutely has.", "Whether your first Jean was the Marvel Girl in her green Go Go dress, the Phoenix (who we were later told wasn't Jean, but let's be real it was basically Jean), the hyper competent blue-headsock-wearing Jean of the '90s comic and cartoon, or the cool black leather Jean of the turn of the Century (whether drawn by Frank Quitely or played by Famke Janssen) --- it's hard not to be excited about this next era of the character.\"", "Tamara Jude of ''Sideshow'' asserted, \"As the only female superhero of the X-Men, Jean Grey (initially introduced as Marvel Girl) lacked an impactful role in the comic series.", "Her biggest storyline involved her love triangle with Cyclops and Wolverine.", "Claremont wanted to expand her powers with the Phoenix Force and re-brand her as an influential teammate with cosmic abilities.", "Much like Thor’s significant addition to the Avengers, Claremont wanted Jean to hold a similar importance with the X-Men.", "However, as they wrote the ''Phoenix Saga'', her powers proved too dominant, and the character’s presence took over the focus of the comic.", "Their cosmic hero proved too much for everyone involved.\"", "Sara Century of ''Syfy'' stated, \"When Jean Grey is introduced in ''X-Men #1'' all the way back in late 1963, she asks herself what kind of person she is going to be.", "The answer to that question doesn't come to her immediately, yet it is true that from her relatively one-dimensional origins eventually sprang a complex personality full of nuance and empathy that has only grown more interesting as time has gone on.", "From the ''Phoenix Saga'' to ''X-Factor'' to ''Inferno'' to the ''X-Cutioner''’s to ''Onslaught'' to ''New X-Men'' to ''Phoenix: Resurrection'' and countless alternate realities in between, Jean Grey has truly been beyond and back.", "Still, many writers have struggled to define her.", "The complicated, fiercely compassionate Jean Grey has not always translated well to other mediums, and even in comics Jean has been known to experience long dormant periods in which her persona is secondary to other characters.", "Yet her fanship has remained ever vigilant, because while she is not often cited as people’s favorite X-Man, a whole lot of folks relate to her in very specific and incredibly personal ways.", "Also, it turns out that there’s a pretty solid queer allegory in Jean’s story.", "Though a parable about a straight character is not to be mistaken for actual queer representation, it is still worth noting that a lot of Jean Grey’s most avid advocates are LGBTQIA people.", "\"Deirdre Kaye of ''Scary Mommy'' called Jean Grey a \"role model\" and a \"truly heroic\" female character.", "Chris Arrant of ''Newsarama'' ranked Jean Grey's Dark Phoenix persona 1st in their \"Marvel's Best Phoenix Force Hosts\" list, calling her one of the \"X-Men's core characters,\" while George Marston ranked her 5th in their \"Best X-Men Members Of All Time\" list.", "''IGN'' ranked Jean Grey 6th in their \"Top 25 X-Men\" list, her Dark Phoenix persona 9th in their \"Top 100 Comic Book Villains of All Time\" list, and 13th in their \"Top 100 Comic Book Heroes\" list, while Hilary Goldstein and Richard George of ''IGN'' said, \"Jean Grey is host to the most powerful entity in the universe.", "One of the original X-Men, Jean has become the symbol (and cruel joke) of death and rebirth among the mutant population.", "Partnered with the Phoenix Force, Jean has returned to the X-Men on several occasions.", "However, it's her first death that remains both memorable and significant to X-Men lore.", "Jean sacrificed herself, choosing to die as a human than live as a God.", "In a universe where self-worth is almost exclusive judged on power level, Jean held her humanity so dear she was willing to give up everything she loved.", "The strong-willed redhead is an integral part of the X-Men's legacy.", "\"Gavia Baker-Whitelaw of ''The Daily Dot'' ranked Jean Grey 7th in their \"Top 33 Female Superheroes Of All Time\" list.", "Jordan St James of ''Collider'' ranked Jean Grey 8th in their \"10 Most Powerful Marvel Mutants\" list, saying, \"Jean Grey has gone from sweet-natured powerhouse to planet-destroying villainess to perpetual Lazarus figure.\"", "Lance Cartelli of ''GameSpot'' ranked Jean Grey 10th in their \"50 Most Important Superheroes\" list, writing, \"She is super important to the X-Men and to all of us.\"", "Matthew Aguilar of ''ComicBook.com'' wrote, \"While Charles Xavier put the X-Men together, there is one of his students who simply dwarfs all others when it comes to power and their effect on mutant history.", "That honor falls to one of his first students, Jean Grey, a powerful telepath in her own right who became part of the original five X-Men.", "She would later grow even more powerful though, setting up some of the X-Men's most epic moments into motion.", "Over the years she's undergone transformations not only in her skills and abilities but also regarding her costumes.", "She started out in the early days like everyone else, eventually adopting the Marvel Girl suit and persona.", "It fit her quieter nature at the time, but she would then adopt several looks over the years that changed according to her ever-evolving personality,\" while Lance Cartelli ranked her 16th in their \"50 Most Important Superheroes Ever\" list.", "Darren Franich of ''Entertainment Weekly'' ranked Jean Grey 30th in their \"Let's Rank Every X-Man Ever\" list.", "''The A.V.", "Club'' ranked Jean Grey 60th in their \"100 Best Marvel Characters\" list.Joe Garza of ''Slashfilm'' ranked Jean Grey 1st in their \"Most Powerful X-Men Characters\" list.", "Rachel Ulatowski of ''The Mary Sue'' ranked Jean Grey 1st in their \"10 Most Powerful X-Men of All Time\" list.", "''Comics Buyer's Guide'' ranked Jean Grey 3rd in their \"100 Sexiest Women in Comics\" list.", "Joshua Corvington of ''Sportskeeda'' ranked Jean Grey 6th in their \"10 Most Overpowered Superheroes In The Marvel Universe\" list.", "''Screen Rant'' included Jean Grey in their \"10 Female Marvel Heroes That Should Come To The MCU\" list, and ranked her 1st in their \"X-Men: The 10 Most Powerful Members Of The Summers Family\" list, 5th in their \"25 Most Powerful Mutants\" list.", "''Comic Book Resources'' ranked Jean Grey 1st in their \"X-Men: The Strongest Members Of The Summers Family\" list, 1st in their \"X-Men: All Of Marvel's Omega-Level Mutants, Ranked By Power\" list, 2nd in their \"10 Best Female X-Men Characters\" list, 2nd in their \"10 Most Attractive Marvel Heroes\" list, 3rd in their \"10 Strongest Female Villains\" list, and 5th in their \"10 Bravest Mutants in Marvel Comics\" list.=== Impact ===" ], [ "Literary reception", "=== Volumes ======= ''X-Men: The Dark Phoenix Saga'' (1980) ====David Caballero of ''Screen Rant'' stated, \"During the Silver and Bronze Ages of comic books, many Marvel teams had their obligatory female figure.", "The X-Men had Jean as Marvel Girl, the Fantastic Four had the Invisible Girl, and the Avengers had the Wasp.", "They provided considerable support to their men-dominated teams but never excelled in the same way their teammates did.", "By the 70s, more female characters were a part of the conversation, but they never took control of it.", "''The Dark Phoenix Saga'' changed the discourse by having a woman take the microphone, then blowing the roof and making the entire world her stage.", "The mightiest being in Marvel comics was a woman, a normally obedient female character who was finally letting loose.", "''The Dark Phoenix Saga'' did more for female heroes and villains with just a few numbers than an entire decade of comic book continuity.\"", "Tyler Huckabee of ''IGN'' included ''X-Men: The Dark Phoenix Saga'' in their \"7 Best Jean Grey Comics\" list, stating, \"We begin at the end — one of the many that Jean Grey has endured during her time as an X-Man.", "It’s The Dark Phoenix Sagae how influential John Byrne and Chris Claremont’s 1980 epic is.", "It was, perhaps, the first superhero stoDark Phoenix Sagatalize on just how sweeping the medium could be, while never losing sight of the tender heart that beat at the center of all Claremont’s finest work.", "Every superhero story that came after ''The Dark Phoenix Saga'' is indebted to it in some way.", "Like any X-Man worth her salt, Jean’s story is a bit convoluted, and the ''Dark Phoenix Saga'' is a trippier ride than most, but Claremont keeps things clipping at an even pace that helps even the wildest plot twist go down easily.", "And more importantly, he centers the all-important romance between Cyclops and Jean Grey, leading to some profoundly moving moments.", "These moments are all captured exquisitely by legendary superhero artist John Byrne, who was as deft as crafting crackling fight scenes as he was with intimate confessions of love.", "Nearly forty years after its publication, it’s hardly a spoiler to say the Dark Phoenix ended with Jeans’ (first) (temporary) death, but what rose from the ashes was a whole new era for how grand comic books could be.", "\"==== ''X-Men Origins: Jean Grey'' (2008) ====According to Diamond Comic Distributors, ''X-Men Origins: Jean Grey'' #1 was the 85th best selling comic book in August 2008.Michael Austin of ''Comic Book Resources'' asserted, \"This 2008 one-shot written by Sean McKeever was a true standout for the character.", "While the photorealism of the outwork is truly outstanding, it is the story that makes this comic great.", "As Jean's childhood best friend, Annie, is hit by a car, her telepathic abilities manifest for the first time.", "Jean is forced to experience the final thoughts of her dying friend and is traumatized as a result.", "With Professor Xavier's help, she works past her trauma and goes on to become a hero.", "The tragic, lifelike beauty of this story and illustration makes ''X-Men Origins: Jean Grey'' a stand-out among her many stories.", "It is a must-read for the character, as it helps inform both how she became such a powerful entity and what monsters she has lurking in the back of her mind.\"", "Jesse Schedeen of ''IGN'' gave ''X-Men Origins: Jean Grey'' #1 a grade of 7.5 out of 10, writing, \"Mostly, this issue is meant to appeal to fans of Mayhew's art (of which I'm sure there are plenty) and those who really want Jean back in the X-books (no clue on that one).", "Those two groups will be satisfied, so I suppose that means mission accomplished.", "\"==== ''Jean Grey'' (2017) ====According to Diamond Comic Distributors, ''Jean Grey'' #1 was the 13th best selling comic book in May 2017.", "''Jean Grey'' #2 was the 84th best selling comic book in May 2017.Mya Nunnally of ''ComicsVerse'' gave ''Jean Grey'' #1 a score of 95%, stating, \"In a world where teenage girls get insulted endlessly for their music choice, their taste in movies, and their hobbies, we need Jean Grey.", "Specifically, we need ''Jean Grey'' #1, her new solo run written by Dennis Hopeless.", "In this comic, Jean is an unapologetic teenage girl.", "A silly, pretty, emotional, selfie-taking teenage girl.", "And that’s what makes her wonderful.", "Too often we see female superheroes stripping themselves of their identity to fit the mold of what a superhero should be.", "Maybe they wear completely ineffective armor.", "Or perhaps they’re essentially a male character with boobs.", "Maybe they try to be cold and distant and masculine so that they’re really just another testosterone bump to the already male team.", "... ''Jean Grey'' #1 ends in a crazy cliff-hanger, which I believe is how all first episodes should end.", "However, it’ll definitely be divisive.", "Some might see it as weak storytelling relying on previous Jean-related drama.", "But I thought it was a natural way to go and a good way to make sure readers want to continue reading.", "I’ll definitely keep up with this, even if it’s just to keep a character I love close to my heart.", "Jean Grey deserved better, and now here she is, getting it.\"", "Jesse Schedeen of ''IGN'' gave ''Jean Grey''#1 a grade of 7 out of 10, asserting, \"Jean Grey seems like it'll develop into a worthwhile addition to the growing ResurrXion lineup.", "The art is strong, and Dennis Hopeless shows a decent handle on the title character.", "Unfortunately, the series gets off to a needlessly slow start in this first issue, dwelling on an overlong battle with the Wrecking Crew rather than diving into the heart of Jean's struggle.", "\"==== ''Phoenix Resurrection: The Return of Jean Grey'' (2017) ====According to Diamond Comic Distributors, ''Phoenix Resurrection: The Return of Jean Grey'' #1 was the 3rd best selling comic book in December 2017.Joe Glass of ''Bleeding Cool'' wrote, \"Nothing with the Phoenix is ever easy and straightforward, but it is dramatic and fun, and Rosenberg has managed that tight rope expertly in this first issue.", "Yu's artwork is great for the issue, too.", "There are some really creepy moments, which Yu draws well and manages to make it creepy to look at.", "We get to see a fairly big number of X-Men, and he gives each their own identity clearly and the story flows well.", "''Phoenix Resurrection: The Return of Jean Grey #1'' is a really great, intriguing and bizarre start for this series, and it certainly has me hooked to see how this series will evolve.\"", "Jesse Schedeen of ''IGN'' gave ''Phoenix Resurrection: The Return of Jean Grey'' #1 a grade of 6.3 out of 10, writing, \"The prospect of having Jean Grey back as an active player in the X-Men franchise is plenty appealing, but Phoenix Resurrection only partly realizes that potential.", "When this issue focuses on the enigmatic status quo of this all-powerful mutant heroine, it makes for fascinating reading.", "But when the rest of the X-Men enter the picture, the book begins to drag.", "It doesn't help that artist Leinil Yu struggles to make the most of the material.", "Hopefully this series can find its groove as it gets deeper into Jean's latest return to life.", "\"==== ''Giant-Size X-Men: Jean Grey and Emma Frost'' (2020) ====According to Diamond Comic Distributors, ''Giant Size X-Men: Jean Grey and Emma Frost'' #1 was the 5th best selling comic book in February 2020.", "''Giant Size X-Men: Jean Grey and Emma Frost'' #1 was the 26th best selling comic book in 2020.Matthew Aguilar of ''ComicBook.com'' stated, \"This story is a joy from beginning to end, but it also subtly hints at larger ramifications for not only Storm but every other mutant on the planet.", "Macro-level ideas regarding the soul, mutant resurrection, and the state of the mind are all explored in one way or another—anchored by the imminent danger to one of the X-Men's most iconic faces, and it makes for one very compelling mix.", "Whether you're looking for an entertaining adventure between two of your X-Men favorites, a thoughtful and action-packed journey through the mind, or another step forward in the evolution the X-Men, you'll find all of it in ''Giant Size X-Men: Jean Grey and Emma Frost'' #1.It is one of the most stunning one-shots on the market today.", "In short, don't miss out on this issue; you'll regret it.\"", "Mike Fugere of ''Comic Book Resources'' wrote, \"''Giant-Size X-Men: Jean Grey and Emma Frost'' #1 is an obvious tribute to an issue of Grant Morrison and Frank Quitely's iconic run on ''New X-Men,'' but its tone is far less psychedelic and far more ethereal.", "There is a sense of peace throughout Storm's mind, despite the horrific revelation that's discovered by the end of the issue.", "How the various emotional avatars within our Omega-Level mutant's mind interact with Jean and Emma are probably the most compelling part of this issue from a storytelling standpoint.", "It does a wonderful job at expressing emotions that are not always openly expressed between characters with conflicting ideologies with humor and a wonderful sense of whimsy.\"" ], [ "Other versions", "===Time-displaced incarnation=======All-New X-Men====In ''All-New X-Men'', present-day Beast goes to the past and brings a younger version of Jean to the present day along with the other original X-Men in hopes of helping the present-day Cyclops to see how far he's fallen.", "This version has experienced a surge in her abilities due to the trauma of being brought to the future.", "The time travel also caused her suppressed telepathic powers to awaken much earlier in her life than they were supposed to.", "She also has a habit of reading people's minds without their permission, to the great frustration of her team.", "During the ''Battle of the Atom'' crossover, a future version of this Jean Grey, who had never returned to the past and whose powers had grown beyond her control, would return to the present as Xorn, a member of the future Brotherhood of Mutants.", "Xorn perished during the battle, but in the process the X-Men also found out that there is something preventing the All-New X-Men from returning to the past.", "During this timeline, she reads the mind of current Beast, who regrets never admitting his feelings for her, so confronts younger Beast and gives him a kiss, which creates problems with the younger Cyclops.", "She and her team also leave the Jean Grey School for mutants and go to Cyclops's school, where she forms a reluctant friendship with Emma Frost as she trains her psychic abilities.====The Trial of Jean Grey====Jean is later kidnapped by the Shi'ar and placed on trial for the destruction done by the Phoenix Force years earlier in a 2014 crossover storyline ''The Trial of Jean Grey''.", "The All-New X-Men team up with the Guardians of the Galaxy to rescue Jean from the Shi'ar homeworld, but Jean awakens a new power that she never had, in which she is able to absorb massive amounts of psionic energy from others and combine her telepathy and telekinesis, which she used to defeat the powerful Gladiator, leader of the Shi'ar.====Traveling to the Ultimate Universe====While searching for new mutants, Jean and the All-New X-Men get teleported into the Ultimate Marvel universe.", "She teams up with Spider-Man (Miles Morales) to rescue Beast, who has been trapped by the local Dr. Doom.", "Before she is teleported back she gives Miles Morales a kiss.", "Upon their return to Earth 616, she and the All-New X-Men team up with the Guardians of the Galaxy a second time in search of The Black Vortex.====Extraordinary X-Men====Following the reconstruction of reality after the Battleworld crisis, Jean has parted ways from the rest of the time-displaced X-Men as she attempts to find her own life in the present by living a normal civilian life in College until Storm recruits her to join her new team of X-Men to help protect mutants from Terrigen.", "She mentions having broken up with Hank McCoy, considering him to be more of a brother.", "After the X-Men go to war against the Inhumans to destroy the Terrigen, Jean leaves Storm's team and attempts to return to her original timeline along with the rest of the time-displaced X-Men but realizes that they're not from the 616 timeline, leaving them stranded on Earth 616 with no idea which timeline they're originally from.", "With this new knowledge that they are from an unknown alternate timeline, Jean becomes the time-displaced X-Men's new leader and they quit the X-Men in hopes of finding their place in the current world.====X-Men: Blue====Jean ends up approached by Magneto, who offers her and her team to join him in preserving Xavier's dream by defeating those who oppose it.", "Jean accepts and her team joins him, but in secret they train themselves in case Magneto ever reverts to his villainous roots to kill them.====Phoenix premonition====As part of the Marvel's ''RessurXion'' event, Jean Grey received her first-ever solo series.", "While on a solo mission against the Wrecking Crew, Jean receives a vision that the Phoenix Force is coming back to Earth.", "She goes to the rest of the X-Men to warn them about her vision but as there haven't been any Phoenix sightings since the X-Men went to war against the Avengers to decide the fate of the Phoenix, she has a hard time getting Beast, Captain Marvel, and Kitty Pryde to accept that her vision was real even though they assure her that if the Phoenix ever does return then the X-Men and Avengers will come together and do all they can to stop it.", "Jean feels even less taken seriously when Beast begins examining her for signs of delusional hallucinations.", "Jean then meets with other former Phoenix hosts Colossus, Magik, Rachel Summers, Hope Summers and Quentin Quire, where the latter uses his powers to show her how the aftereffects of bonding with the Phoenix Force has individually affected each of them.", "A meeting with Namor helps Jean come to the conclusion that she can refuse the Phoenix and even possibly defeat it.", "After meeting with Thor and training with Psylocke, Jean learns how to create telekinetic weapons to help with her impending battle against the Phoenix.====Meeting Phoenix====Jean ends up sent back in time for unknown reasons and ends up meeting that timeline's Jean Grey shortly after she first becomes Phoenix.", "Time-displaced Jean attempts to ask Phoenix questions about the Phoenix Force but she dodges Jean's questions.", "Instead Phoenix takes Jean for a night out and shows off her powers.", "After witnessing Phoenix use her cosmic powers to prevent Galactus from consuming a defenseless planet, Jean contemplates warning Phoenix of her fate until an encounter with The Watcher stops her from doing so.", "The Watcher commends Jean and tells her that choosing to not change her future means that her ultimate fate is in her own hands whether or not she ends up hosting the Phoenix Force back in her present.", "As Jean returns to her present, Phoenix cryptically states that they will meet again.====Psych War====Backed by a host of former Phoenix Force wielders, Emma Frost, Quentin Quire, Hope Summers, the Stepford Cuckoos and even the spirit of the adult Jean Grey, the teen Jean tries to defy destiny and stop the Phoenix before it can take her over and bend her to its will.", "With the Phoenix Force now on Earth, the team realizes it's going to take a lot more than they have to stop it.", "And while the young Jean is able to wound the Phoenix with the aid of Cable's Psi-mitar, the Phoenix seems just too strong for anyone to overcome.", "Teen Jean eventually managed to push the cosmic force far away from her friends and allies, where a final battle can take place.", "However, both Jean Greys learned how wrong they were, as the Phoenix was never coming for teen Jean, at least not like they believed.", "Actually, the Phoenix wants the adult Jean, but to do that it needs the young Jean out of the way.", "Thus, the force floods her body with flaming psychic energy, incinerating her from the inside out, leaving only a skeleton.", "This was done to resurrect the adult Jean Grey, which the Phoenix considers its one true host.", "However, after dying, the younger Jean found herself somehow in the White Hot Room despite not being a Phoenix host.", "Angry, the Phoenix attempted to destroy her using mental manifestations of its past hosts, created from pieces of their life forces left in the Room.", "Jean realized that she could control the White Hot Room against the Phoenix wishes and commanded the cosmic entity to resurrect her, which it did so in order to get rid of her.", "After returning to Madripoor, she was approached by her resurrected older Earth-616 counterpart, much to her surprise.===1602===In the ''Marvel 1602'' alternative universe miniseries, Jean Grey fakes her identity (and gender), posing as \"John Grey\", a member of the \"Witchbreed\".", "The group was led by Carlos Javier (the Charles Xavier of the 1602 universe).", "Like her Marvel Universe counterpart, Jean has telekinetic powers.", "Besides Javier and Nicholas Fury, the only one who knows of Jean's deception is Scotius Summerisle (Scott Summers), who is attracted to her.", "\"John\" also has a close friendship with Werner (Angel) who only learns her true gender after she sacrifices her life for her comrades, during their battle against Otto Von Doom (Doctor Doom).", "Werner tells Scott that he was attracted to Jean, although he had thought that she was male.", "After her death, her friends gave her a burial at sea.", "When her corpse is cremated, the fire forms a giant Phoenix raptor before disappearing.===Age of Apocalypse===In the ''Age of Apocalypse'' storyline, Jean is a student of Magneto.", "She is forced to suppress her telepathic powers in order to escape from the Shadow King's attacks.", "She eventually falls in love with fellow student, Weapon X. Jean is later kidnapped by Mr. Sinister, who offers her a place among his team.", "She refuses, and is sent to Sinister's breeding pens.", "Weapon X rescues her, but not before Sinister extracted her DNA and combined it with that of Cyclops to engineer the perfect mutant, X-Man.", "Weapon X, and Jean leave the X-Men and join forces with the Human High Council.", "She learns of a plan to drop nuclear bombs on the United States to kill Apocalypse.", "She confronts Weapon X, then leaves him to try to stop the attack with the aid of Cyclops.", "She's apparently killed at the hands of Cyclops' brother, Prelate Havok, before she can hold back the nuclear bombs with her telekinesis.In the tenth-anniversary limited series, it is revealed that Jean was the one that stopped the nuclear attack from the Human High Council with the last of her powers.", "She was also \"resurrected\" by Sinister and began displaying Phoenix Force powers, known in this reality as \"Mutant Alpha\" abilities.", "Jean does not remember her old life at first, so Sinister manipulated her to create a new team to fight the X-Men, the Sinister Six.", "During the fight between the two teams, Logan is able to connect emotionally with Jean.", "She turns on Sinister and incinerates him.", "Jean and Logan reunite, and she becomes leader of the X-Men at Magneto's behest.===Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows===In this continuity, she is married to Wolverine and is a co-director of education for Xavier's School of Gifted Youngsters.", "The two have a daughter named Kate whom the others nickname \"Shine.\"", "It's revealed that she broke up with Scott after he lost faith in Xavier's vision when Xavier and the Avengers proposed self-policing of mutant and superhero kind with the Avengers to prevent the Superhuman Registration Act.", "When Xavier offers an invitation for Spider-Man and Mary-Jane's daughter to enroll in their school, she tries to convince the couple that it's the right decision.===Days of Future Past===In the timeline known as the ''Days of Future Past'', Jean dies when Mastermind detonated a nuclear device at Pittsburgh, after she had given birth to her and Scott's daughter, Rachel, a few months before.", "There are conflicting reports whether this Jean had been replaced by the Phoenix Force.===Earth X===The past of Jean Grey of Earth-9997/''Earth X'' mirrors that of her Earth-616 counterpart.", "In recent history, Jean had once again lost her telepathic abilities— the circumstances behind her loss of this ability are as yet unrevealed.", "However, this would eventually spare Jean's life when the psychic birth of the Skull resulted in the death of every telepathic being on the planet, killing Jean's mentor Professor Xavier.", "Shortly after his death, the X-Men disbanded.", "Either prior to, or shortly after the disbanding of the X-Men, Jean would leave Cyclops after a long relationship to pursue a romance with Wolverine.", "However, Wolverine and Jean's life would devolve into a New York stereotype of the bickering couple.", "Both would put on significant amounts weight and would resort to arguing with each other.", "When Wolverine would refuse to help the heroes defend New York from the Skull and his army, Jean would leave Wolverine in disgust, telling him that she was really Madelyne Pryor to rankle Wolverine even more.", "Jean would resurface years later at the wedding of Medusa and King Britain, which served as a brief reunion of the surviving members of the X-Men.", "Jean would eventually reconcile with Wolverine but the two would remain apart.", "Her current whereabouts are unknown.===Marvel Mangaverse Jean Grey===In the original'' Marvel Mangaverse X-Men'' and ''X-Men Ronin'' stories, Jean is a powerful telepath and telekinetic and calls herself Marvel Girl, but she also has access to the Phoenix Force.", "The three-issue ''X-Men: Phoenix – Legacy of Fire'' limited series, involves a separate character based on Jean Grey named \"Jena Pyre\".", "Jena and her sister Madelyne are the guardians of the \"Phoenix Sword\", whose power Jean absorbs.", "The miniseries depicts the lead characters in near-nudity.", "The series' rating was raised from PG to PG+ before issue #1 was released, and the series was moved to the MAX mature readers imprint for issues #2 and #3.===Marvel Zombies 2===Jean Grey as Dark Phoenix appears in the sequel to ''Marvel Zombies'', now a member of the Zombie Galactus, or rather Galacti, alongside other heroes.", "The zombie Hulk punches through her body and squishes her head while she attempted to subdue him, thus killing her.===Mutant X===Jean's history in the ''Mutant X'' universe is quite muddled.", "Under the name of Ariel, she was a founding member of the X-Men and in love with their leader, Havok.", "Some time later during a mission, Jean was believed dead and later on Havok married her lookalike, Madelyne Pryor, Jean's clone.", "In reality, Jean was saved by Apocalypse and Magneto, and hidden from Professor X who was capturing all the telepaths in the world for his evil plans.", "When she re-surfaced, Jean was working together with Sinister and Apocalypse to recruit the aid of Havok's new team, the Six, against an evil Xavier.", "That crisis having passed, Jean joined the Six, as Madelyne had been turned into the Goblin Queen and was no longer with them.", "Jean also mentioned having been in a relationship with Wolverine, and having worked with SHIELD for a while, though it was unclear where exactly these events fit in with her history and also whether Jean had access to the Phoenix Force.===Amalgam Comics===In the Amalgam Comics community, Jean Grey was combined with DC's Fire to create Firebird.", "She was part of the JLX until the Dark Firebird Saga where she joined the Hellfire League of Injustice.===Exiles===On the Exiles's second mission lands them in the middle of an alternative reality Dark Phoenix Saga.", "The team learns that in this world Jean actually is the Dark Phoenix, and they participate in the Shiar trial by combat, disguised as representatives of the world she destroyed.", "Originally, their goal is to prevent the Shiar Imperial Guard from killing Jean before she can overcome the Dark Phoenix, however when Jean vaporizes Storm, Gladiator, and Cyclops, they realize that this version of Jean has lost herself to the Dark Phoenix and must die.", "They are able to overwhelm her momentarily, allowing Wolverine to get close enough to stab her through the heart, resulting in an explosion that kills her and vaporizes the moon and the Shiar ships orbiting it.", "The Exiles are removed from this reality, right before the blast.===New Exiles===After the ''New Exiles'' land on the world of warring empires, they encounter Dame Emma Frost, head of Britain's Department X and founder of Force-X.", "This team includes John Grey, a male version of Jean who is codenamed Sunspot and displays telekinetic abilities.===Red Queen===A counterpart of Jean Grey from Earth-9575, who had most of her powers taken away for crimes unknown and for that reason it is not clear whether she had access to the Phoenix Force.", "Banished from her own universe, she ended up on Earth-998, where she pretended to be a reincarnation of the recently deceased Queen Madelyne.", "Jean then set out to become not only queen of Britain but of the entire world.", "To reach that goal and find a way of restoring her powers, she looked for the ultimate weapon across the multiverse: the various incarnations of Nate Grey.", "She lured many of them to her kingdom, though most of them died after having been used by her for a while.", "Queen Jean also traveled to the main 616 universe where she replaced Nate Grey's companion, Madelyne Pryor, wormed her way into Nate's mind, and returned to her world with him as her weapon.", "However, Nate broke free and fought against her, culminating in her draining the life-force of all her \"subjects\" in an attempt to use the power to kill him.", "He eventually kills her by creating a sun around her, burning her to death.Ironically some time later, Madelyne Pryor herself would use the \"Red Queen\" moniker.===Ruins===A young prostitute in Washington, D.C., Jean was gunned down by Nick Fury after soliciting him in ''Marvel Ruins'' .===Shadow-X===New Excalibur battles an evil counterpart of the Jean Grey, who is a member of the Shadow-X, the X-Men of an alternative reality in which Professor X was possessed by the Shadow King.", "They are brought to Earth-616 as a result of M-Day.", "This counterpart of Jean seemed to have access to the Phoenix Force too.", "In ''New Excalibur'' #24 she was stabbed in the shoulder with a broadsword by Petrie, one of Albion's Shadow Captains (de-powered mutants given ability-enhancing suits).", "After beating him, she used her power to gain the knowledge necessary to deactivate the device Albion had used to nullify London's supply of electricity.", "The energy required to perform this, as well as the blood loss caused by the stab wound, killed her.===Ultimate Marvel===In the Ultimate Marvel continuity, Jean Grey is a responsible, but extroverted young woman; scathingly sarcastic and a bit of a tease, and she secretly reads other people's minds, particularly the other members of the X-Men.", "Early in the series, she has very short, cropped hair and prefers to dress in a rocker type style.", "Eventually, she becomes more mature and wears clothes that are more conservative, and grows her hair somewhat longer.", "She has a brief affair with Wolverine, but when Wolverine reveals how he was originally sent to kill Professor X, Jean is angry and ends the relationship.", "She later begins to date Cyclops although she is occasionally frustrated by his shyness.", "Xavier found Jean Grey while she was in a mental hospital, having problems controlling her telepathy and having troublesome visions of a \"Phoenix raptor\".", "It is established at the start of the series that her age is 19 and was Xavier's second student after Cyclops.The exact nature of the Phoenix in the Ultimate Universe has not been revealed, but very often Jean is haunted by visions and hallucinations of the Phoenix early in the Ultimate timeline.", "The powers seem to reveal themselves when Jean gets angry.", "It appears, due to tests conducted in Ultimate X-Men #71, that the Phoenix is an actual entity and not an uncovered aspect of Jean's own mind.", "According to the Fire and Brimstone story arc, Jean's Phoenix powers come from the Phoenix God, although Xavier does not believe this.Jean kills many members of the Hellfire Club in a fit of Phoenix powered rage before Xavier calms her down.", "Much later in the story, Jean uses her Phoenix powers often.", "She starts with her powers out of her control due to her anger, accidentally killing two mercenaries who were attacking the X-Men.", "She feels guilty over the incident for weeks, but after a while, she manifests signs of the Phoenix, beginning to draw upon more and more of the residual Phoenix energies buried within her mind to help the X-Men on several occasions, combating Magneto and the deceptive and manipulative Magician.", "It has been revealed that Jean envisions imaginary tiny, green goblins carrying out her telekinetic activities.When the man from the future, \"Cable\", attacks the X-Men, he kidnaps Jean Grey, but she is later rescued by the X-Men and Bishop.", "After Professor X's apparent death, Jean has become the headmistress of the school, along with Cyclops.", "She did not join Bishop's new team of X-Men, but has assisted the team when needed, often butting heads with Cyclops over when to help and when not to help.Further down the line, The X-Men hunt Sinister down, finding him in the Morlock tunnels slaughtering several Morlocks in order to reach his goal; to be reborn as Apocalypse.", "He has the power to control mutants and brings former X-Men Cyclops, Jean, Iceman, Rogue, and Toad to NYC for a giant survival battle royal.", "The Fantastic Four intercept Cyclops' team, where Sue Storm traps Jean in a force field, rendering her a mere spectator.", "Jean is broken free of the bubble when Professor X, able to walk, uses his telepathy to free her and the other reserve X-Men, leaving her to subdue the other team of X-Men and the Morlocks.", "She hesitantly calls for help when Apocalypse puts Xavier on the brink of death and the Phoenix Force responds, physically manifesting herself and merging with Jean to fight Apocalypse.", "Using her unimaginable powers, she brings Apocalypse to his knees and melts his armor.", "Having fully merged with the Phoenix, Jean reverts recent history, allowing the X-Men to remember.", "She then travels across the universe, causing war and suicide among different races.", "When she reaches her destination, the Silver Surfer arrives to warn her but she pushes on to find Heaven.Jean later inexplicably turns up at the Mansion and resettles with the X-Men.", "When Alpha Flight kidnaps Northstar, Jean strives to push the X-Men to fight harder, especially when Cyclops leaves to protect Colossus, Rogue, Dazzler, and Angel, who were using Banshee to rescue Northstar.", "Unfortunately, they believe they've failed and become Banshee addicts.", "Jean leads her X-Men to deal with Colossus but falls into a trance, having visions of her father, who tells her not to push her friends to failure.", "She recovers Northstar, crippled from the waist down, and less aggressive.", "Everyone but Scott returns home, so Jean tracks him into space, where he is staring down at Earth, feeling omnipotent.", "Jean reminds him he's in need, provoking him into attacking her.", "During the ensuing fight Banshee were wears off and Scott almost succumbs to vacuum.", "Jean encompassed him in her fire.During the events of the Ultimate Marvel crossover event Ultimatum, Magneto's Manhattan tidal wave kills Nightcrawler and Dazzler.", "Scott, Jean, and Logan go as the \"original X-Men\" to stop Magneto once and for all.", "The remaining X-Men along with the Fantastic Four, Ultimates, and SHIELD assault Magneto's base, during which they lose several more members including Wolverine, who has his Adamantium ripped from his bones by Magneto.", "In the end Magneto is defeated when Jean downloads Nick Fury's memories into Magneto, which reveals that mutants are not the next stage of human evolution, but rather a super-soldier experiment gone wrong.", "Horrified by the truth, Magneto surrenders, and Cyclops executes him with his optic blast.Soon after, Jean is in Washington with the remaining X-Men, where Cyclops makes a speech, attempting to bring peace to the anti-mutant hostilities and to ask that all mutants surrender to the government.", "He is then assassinated by Quicksilver, who lodges a bullet into his skull, promising to form a new Brotherhood.", "Scott dies in the arms of Storm and Colossus, while Rogue rushes a distraught Jean to safety.", "Jean is later seen in ''Ultimate X-Men Requiem'' alongside Rogue and Iceman tearing down the Xavier Institute and everything on the estate.", "They bury the bodies of the various deceased X-Men on the estate's remains.Jean then moves to Baltimore, dying her hair black under the alias of '''\"Karen Grant\"'''.", "She begins working at a shopping mall called Cherry Square Shopping Center, and is now in a relationship with the mall cop, Dave.", "She has been living in Baltimore for 3 or 4 months but uses her telepathy to make people believe she had worked there for 3 years.Jean discovers that Dave has put her photo on Facebook, making her angry and culminating in separation.", "Not much later Mystique and Sabretooth show up and a fight starts, leaving Dave dead.", "Meanwhile, at home, packing up to disappear, Jean meets the son of Wolverine, Jimmy, for the first time.", "Jean is later seen travelling with Jimmy to Chicago to recruit a mutant known as Derek Morgan, then to south California to locate Liz Allan.One night, Jimmy is attacked by Sabretooth.", "Jean had sought Bruce Banner for help and a fight ensues.", "Quicksilver then arrives with his newly formed Brotherhood of Mutant Supremacy, but is defeated by Jean and her recruits.", "Nick Fury reveals that the team Jean made was part of the Xavier Protocols, and that he is willing to help mutants on the run from the government.", "He later enlists them in S.H.I.E.L.D., forming a group known as the Ultimate X.Jean and her team are seen en route to the SEAR to aid Hawkeye.", "After witnessing the heaven created by the Xorn/Zorn brothers in Tian, the Ultimate X group deserts, deciding to remain there.", "Nick Fury reveals that Jean is using her telekinetic powers to make the brothers believe she is in Tian in order to have an \"inside man\" when she is really in America.", "However, a recent meeting between Karen and Zorn implies that she may be double crossing Fury, as she is physically in Tian as well as revealing her real identity as Jean Grey.She sends a spy to keep tabs on what Kitty is up to with Reservation X forming a wide Resistance in the pages of ''Ultimate Comics: X-Men'' consisting of past members like Iceman, Strom and Colossus.===''What If?", "''===In ''What If'' vol.", "2 #27, Jean Grey was not the last X-Man standing during the fight with the Imperial Guard and was successfully 'lobotomised', remaining with the X-Men as mansion staff, eventually re-manifesting her powers when a mission to aid the Shi'ar forced the X-Men to fight Galactus so that Jean could drive him away.", "Although she appeared redeemed from her past, her Phoenix persona secretly manifested itself at night to feed on dead worlds and uninhabited stars until Jean was confronted about her actions, her resulting anger when discovered causing her to lash out and accidentally kill the X-Men, her guilt and grief result in her consuming the entire universe as the entire Phoenix was unleashed.Another version of Phoenix remains powerless and happily married to Cyclops until an attack by Mastermind causes her to remember her true origin; she accidentally kills the original Jean Grey.", "Although Phoenix tries to help the X-Men in secret, she leaves Earth and her husband and child when Destiny tells her that only death and destruction would result if she remains on Earth.In another story, Vulcan ends up inside the M'kraan Crystal instead of Professor X, and from there he gained the power of the Phoenix Force after entering the White Hot Room and killing all the Phoenix's hosts.", "Using the Phoenix Force he destroys seven galaxies, the entire Annihilation Wave, the Shi'ar and Kree Empires before travelling to Earth.", "Using the Phoenix Force, he restores Krakoa before engaging in battle with Cyclops, Havok, Rachel and Cable.", "Vulcan appears to be winning until a strange outside force causes Vulcan to lose control of the Phoenix Force.", "After a brief mental battle between Vulcan and his family, Vulcan accepts his defeat by letting go of the rage and hate inside him as he dies.", "As the host of the Phoenix Force, Vulcan travels to the White Hot Room, where he reverts to the form of a child, and is comforted by the strange force who reveals to Gabriel that wielding the ultimate power would not give him what he truly wanted, which was the wish of being loved.", "The force then reveals herself to be Jean Grey, White Phoenix of the Crown.", "As she reclaims the power from Vulcan it's revealed that it was Jean that had helped Rachel and Havok escape from the Shi'ar Empire by opening a teleportation portal to Earth before the Empire's fall at the hands of Vulcan, and it was her that prevented Vulcan from fully accessing the Phoenix Force in Krakoa.===X-Men Noir===In ''X-Men Noir'', Jean Grey is depicted as the grifter for the X-Men, a group of sociopathic teenagers recruited by Professor Charles Xavier.", "Adept at running scams, she had a reputation of controlling the minds of men.", "She is seemingly found murdered, covered in slash marks, in the opening of the series.", "It is revealed later, however, that the victim was in fact Anne-Marie Rankin, whom Jean switched places with in order to collect the millions Anne-Marie was to inherit.", "She is also revealed to be a complete sociopath, who does what she does not because of any past trauma, but because that's just what she is.", "She then dies when she is tackled off the roof of a building by Robert Halloway.===X-Men Forever===In Chris Claremont's ''X-Men Forever'', Jean is in nearly all respects the same character as the mainline Marvel Universe character.", "Her flirtations with Logan are explored more in-depth in the first few issues of the title, and she confesses shortly after Logan's death that she loved him.", "She and Scott both recognize their romantic relationship is over, due to the revelations.", "Claremont has also shown that Jean still possesses the Phoenix Force, and has manifested it twice, once in the first issue to subdue Fabian Cortez after he has apparently killed Logan and Kitty Pryde, and again to attack Storm in retaliation for her killing of Logan.", "She has, recently, been acknowledged as the field leader of the team during Cyclops' leave of absence.", "Jean continues to demonstrate signs of the Phoenix Force and wears a new blue and gold X-Men uniform which is cut in a similar style to her old Phoenix costume.", "After dealing with Logan's loss Jean began a relationship with the Beast but it ended after he sacrificed himself.", "With Cyclops's return, Jean began to share leadership of the X-Men with him and eventually she would be reunited with the true Storm.", "In the finale of the series, it is hinted that she and Scott resume their relationship.===Prelude to Deadpool Corps===In the second issue, Deadpool visits a world where Jean and Rogue are orphaned kids at an orphanage run by Emma Frost.", "There they go to a dance along with Prof. X's Orphanage for Troubled kids.", "It seems at a young age she has a thing for Cyclops but tells him to wait 20 years.===Battle of the Atom===The Jean Grey of the future- established as the temporally-displaced young Jean Grey grown up- is depicted as a very powerful mutant who has to wear the Xorn mask to contain her powers, capable of removing it for only a few minutes before becoming dangerous to her environment.", "She is destroyed in a clash with the original five X-Men, including her younger self.", "Charles Xavier II, the new leader of the displaced Brotherhood, attempts to attack the team using a psychic illusion of Xorn, but this deception is exposed by the young Jean.===X-Men: No More Humans===When Raze – the future son of Wolverine and Mystique, now trapped in the present, attempted to force the X-Men to accept his new 'status quo' by teleporting all humans off Earth and summoning other mutants from worlds where they were being oppressed, one of the mutants he summoned to be a member of his new Brotherhood was a Jean Grey who was still in her 'Dark Phoenix' state, barely under the control of her world's Mastermind.", "However, when she confronted the temporally-displaced Jean Grey, the younger Jean was able to appeal to her Dark Phoenix self to help them undo Raze's actions and save the displaced humans while also creating a new Earth in a pocket dimension for the refugee mutants." ], [ "In other media", "=== Television ===The character was present for much of the X-Men's history, and she was featured in all three ''X-Men'' animated series.=== Films ===Famke Janssen portrayed the character as an adult in the 20th Century Fox ''X-Men'' films while Sophie Turner portrayed her as a teenager and young adult." ], [ "Collected editions", "===Phoenix=== Title Material Collected Publication Date ISBN''X-Men Epic Collection: The Fate Of The Phoenix''''Phoenix: The Untold Story'' and ''X-Men'' (vol.", "1) #129-143, ''Annual'' #4, ''Marvel Treasury Edition'' #26-27, material from ''Marvel Team-Up'' #100March 2021''X-Men: The Adventures of Cyclops and Phoenix''''The Adventures of Cyclops & Phoenix'' #1-4, ''The Further Adventures of Cyclops & Phoenix'' #1-4, material from ''Marvel Valentine Special'' #1October 2018 ''X-Men: Phoenix – Endsong'' ''X-Men: Phoenix – Endsong'' #1–5 May 2006 ''X-Men: Phoenix – Warsong'' ''X-Men: Phoenix – Warsong'' #1–5 January 2008 ''Phoenix Resurrection: The Return of Jean Grey'' ''Phoenix Resurrection'' #1–5 May 2018 ===Jean Grey=== Title Material Collected Publication Date ISBN''X-Men Origins: The Complete Collection''''X-Men Origins: Jean Grey'' and ''Colossus'', ''Beast'', ''Wolverine'', ''Sabretooth'', ''Gambit'', ''Cyclops'', ''Nightcrawler'', ''Iceman'', ''Emma Frost'', ''Deadpool''August 2018''X-Men: First Class - Class Portraits''''Marvel Girl'' #1 and ''Ice Man and Angel'' #1, ''Cyclops'' #1, ''Magneto'' #1, material from ''Spider-Man Family'' #8-9 and ''Marvel Comics Presents'' (vol.", "2) #3April 2011 ''Jean Grey Vol.", "1: Nightmare Fuel'' ''Jean Grey'' #1–6 October 2017 ''Jean Grey Vol.", "2: Final Fight'' ''Jean Grey'' #7–11 April 2018 ''Giant-Size X-Men by Jonathan Hickman''''Giant-Size X-Men: Jean Grey and Emma Frost'' and ''Nightcrawler'', ''Magneto'', ''Fantomex'', ''Storm''January 2021" ], [ "See also", "* \"End of Greys\", a story arc featured in the ''Uncanny X-Men'' comic book series.", "* Rachel Summers, (also known as Rachel Grey) the daughter of the alternate future counterparts to Cyclops (Scott Summers) and Jean Grey.", "She inherited her mother's telepathic and telekinetic powers and the code name Phoenix." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Phoenix (Jean Grey) at Marvel.com" ] ]
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[ [ "Jacques Dupuis (Jesuit)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacques Dupuis''' (5 December 1923 – 28 December 2004) was a Belgian Jesuit priest and theologian.", "He spent several decades in India and taught at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome." ], [ "Career", "Jacques Dupuis became a Jesuit in 1941.After early religious and academic training in Belgium, he left for India in 1948.A three-year (1948–1951) teaching experience at St. Xavier's Collegiate School, Calcutta, made him discover the way Hinduism shaped the personalities of the students entrusted to him.", "This discovery about the variety of religions was the beginning of a lifelong search: \"does God's self-revelation necessarily pass for all through the person of Jesus Christ?", "\"After being ordained priest in Kurseong, India he completed a doctorate at the Gregorian University in Rome on the religious anthropology of Origen of Alexandria.", "He was assigned to teach Dogmatic Theology at the Jesuit Faculty of Theology of Kurseong (later shifted to Delhi, and renamed 'Vidyajyoti College of Theology').Director of the journal ''Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological Reflection,'' Father Dupuis was also an adviser to the Catholic Bishops' conference of India.", "Besides numerous articles on theological and inter-religious topics, he published in 1973 (with Josef Neuner) a collection of church documents, ''The Christian Faith'', that went into seven editions over twenty years.", "Some considered it an invaluable instrument of theological learning for students of Catholicism.In 1984, after 36 years in India, Dupuis was called to teach theology and non-Christian religions at the Gregorian University in Rome.", "His book ''Jésus-Christ à la rencontre des religions'' (1989) was well-received and promptly translated in Italian, English and Spanish.", "He was made director of the journal ''Gregorianum'' and appointed consultor at the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue." ], [ "Under investigation", "In 2001, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, a department of the Roman Curia, determined that his book ''Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism'' contained ambiguities that present \"difficulties on important doctrinal points\" with respect to the proper understanding of \"the seeds of truth and goodness that exist in other religions.\"", "Even a positive reviewer, Gavin D'Costa, noted that in Depuis's argument, \"there is no 'necessity' (Lumen Gentium 14) of the Church as the mediator of salvation.", "\"Dupuis was told to clarify his position in relation to that document, but he was never disciplined.", "Future editions of his book had to include a copy of the Congregation's notification about areas in which it considered his work unclear.", "A visitor reported in 2003 that \"the ordeal he went through with the C.D.F.", "had caused havoc to his mental and physical health.\"", "The notification stated: \"It is consistent with Catholic doctrine to hold that the seeds of truth and goodness that exist in other religions are a certain participation in truths contained in the revelation of or in Jesus Christ.", "However, it is erroneous to hold that such elements of truth and goodness, or some of them, do not derive ultimately from the source-mediation of Jesus Christ.", "\"Subsequently, however, Dupuis's 'pioneering' work was highly praised on the meaning of other religions in \"God's plan of salvation of mankind.\"" ], [ "Christology", "Many theologians argue for a Christology that is expressly based on the Trinity and an understanding of the interpersonal relationships between Father and Son and between Son and Holy Spirit.", "In Jacques Dupuis' ''Who Do You Say I Am?", "'', he argues that, within the one person of Jesus Christ, we can distinguish between his two natures, human and divine, and thus between the operations of his uncreated divine nature and his created finite human nature.In order to properly phrase the relationship between Jesus Christ and the Father, Dupuis utilizes different terms to describe aspects of Christ's divine and human nature.", "Instead of \"absolute\" and \"definitive\", Dupuis speaks in terms of \"constitutive\" and \"universal\".", "In this way, Dupuis tries to lead the discussion away from dealing in absolutes.Dupuis emphasizes that Jesus' constitutive uniqueness as universal Savior rests on his personal identity as the Son of God." ], [ "See also", "*Religious pluralism*Religious exclusivism*Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''The Christian Faith'', Alba House New York (1973) .", "* ''Jesus-Christ at the encounter of World Religions'' (1991).", "* ''Who do you say I am ?", "Introduction to Christology'' (1994).", "* ''Towards a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism'' (1997).", "* ''Christianity and the religions'' (2002).", "* Kendall, Daniel (2003).", "O'Collins, Gerald (eds), ''In many and diverse ways: In Honor of Jacques Dupuis'' (2003).", "Includes a complete bibliography of Depuis's work.", "* * Gerard O'Connell, ''Do not stifle the Spirit; Conversations with Jacques Dupuis'', New York (Maryknoll), Orbis Books, 2017." ], [ "External links", "* Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, \"Dominus Iesus: On the Unicity and Salvific Universality of the Jesus Christ and the Church\" (2000) * See Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, \"Notification on the book ''Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism'' (Orbis Books: Maryknoll, New York 1997) by Father Jacques Dupuis, S.J.", "\": * Jacques Dupuis, SJ, RELIGIOUS PLURALITY AND THE CHRISTOLOGICAL DEBATE, 1990.", "* Documentation pertaining to the case of Fr.", "Jacques Dupuis, S.J.", "- National Catholic Reporter (US)" ], [ "Notes" ] ]
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[ [ "Jack Brabham" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir John Arthur Brabham''' (2 April 1926 – 19 May 2014) was an Australian racing driver who was Formula One World Champion in , , and .", "He was a founder of the Brabham racing team and race car constructor that bore his name.Brabham was a Royal Australian Air Force flight mechanic and ran a small engineering workshop before he started racing midget cars in 1948.His successes with midgets in Australian and New Zealand road racing events led to his going to Britain to further his racing career.", "There he became part of the Cooper Car Company's racing team, building as well as racing cars.", "He contributed to the design of the mid-engined cars that Cooper introduced to Formula One and the Indianapolis 500, and won the Formula One world championship in 1959 and 1960.In 1962 he established his own Brabham marque with fellow Australian Ron Tauranac, which in the 1960s became the largest manufacturer of custom racing cars in the world.", "In the 1966 Formula One season Brabham became the first – and still, the only – man to win the Formula One world championship driving one of his own cars.", "He was the last surviving World Champion of the 1950s.Brabham retired to Australia after the 1970 Formula One season, where he bought a farm and maintained business interests, which included the Engine Developments racing engine manufacturer and several garages." ], [ "Early life", "John Arthur 'Jack' Brabham was born on 2 April 1926 in Hurstville, New South Wales, then a commuter town outside Sydney.", "Brabham was involved with cars and mechanics from an early age.", "At the age of 12, he learned to drive the family car and the trucks of his father's grocery business.", "Brabham attended technical college, studying metalwork, carpentry, and technical drawing.Brabham's early career continued the engineering theme.", "At the age of 15 he left school to work, combining a job at a local garage with an evening course in mechanical engineering.", "Brabham soon branched out into his own business selling motorbikes, which he bought and repaired for sale, using his parents' back veranda as his workshop.One month after his 18th birthday on 19 May 1944 Brabham enlisted into the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).", "Although he was keen on becoming a pilot, there was already a surplus of trained aircrew and the Air Force instead put his mechanical skills to use as a flight mechanic, of which there was a wartime shortage.", "He was based at RAAF Station Williamtown, where he maintained Bristol Beaufighters at No.", "5 Operational Training Unit.", "On his 20th birthday, 2 April 1946, Brabham was discharged from the RAAF with the rank of leading aircraftman.", "He then started a small service, repair, and machining business in a workshop built by his uncle on a plot of land behind his grandfather's house." ], [ "Racing career", "===Australia===A midget car similar to those driven by BrabhamBrabham started racing after an American friend, Johnny Schonberg, persuaded him to watch a midget car race.", "Midget racing was a category for small open-wheel cars racing on dirt ovals.", "It was popular in Australia, attracting crowds of up to 40,000.Brabham records that he was not taken with the idea of driving, being convinced that the drivers \"were all lunatics\" but he agreed to build a car with Schonberg.At first Schonberg drove the homemade device, powered by a modified JAP motorcycle engine built by Brabham in his workshop.", "In 1948, Schonberg's wife persuaded him to stop racing and on his suggestion Brabham took over.", "He almost immediately found that he had a knack for the sport, winning on his third night's racing.", "From there he was a regular competitor and winner in Midgets (known as Speedcars in Australia) at tracks such Sydney's Cumberland Speedway, the Sydney Showground, and the Sydney Sports Ground, as well as interstate tracks such as Adelaide's Kilburn and Rowley Park speedways and the Ekka in Brisbane.", "Brabham has since said that it was \"terrific driver training.", "You had to have quick reflexes: in effect you lived—or possibly died—on them.\"", "Due to the time required to prepare the car, the sport also became his living.", "Brabham won the 1948 Australian Speedcar Championship, the 1949 Australian and South Australian Speedcar championships, and the 1950–1951 Australian championship with the car.After successfully running the midget at some hillclimbing events in 1951, Brabham became interested in road racing.", "He bought and modified a series of racing cars from the Cooper Car Company, a British constructor, and from 1953 concentrated on this form of racing, in which drivers compete on closed tarmac circuits.", "He was supported by his father and by the Redex fuel additive company, although his commercially aware approach—including the title ''RedeX Special'' painted on the side of his Cooper-Bristol—did not go down well with the Confederation of Australian Motor Sport (CAMS), which banned the advertisement.", "Brabham competed in Australia and New Zealand until early 1955, taking \"a long succession of victories\", including the 1953 Queensland Road Racing championship.", "During this time, he picked up the nickname \"Black Jack\", which has been variously attributed to his dark hair and stubble, to his \"ruthless\" approach on the track, and to his \"propensity for maintaining a shadowy silence\".", "After the 1954 New Zealand Grand Prix, Brabham was persuaded by Dean Delamont, competitions manager of the Royal Automobile Club in the United Kingdom, to try a season of racing in Europe, then the international centre of road racing.===Europe=======Cooper====A rear-engined T51 of the type Brabham used to win his first world championshipUpon arriving in Europe on his own in early 1955, Brabham based himself in the UK, where he bought another Cooper to race in national events.", "His crowd-pleasing driving style initially betrayed his dirt track origins: as he put it, he took corners \"by using full steering lock and lots of throttle\".", "Visits to the Cooper factory for parts led to a friendship with Charlie and John Cooper, who told the story that after many requests for a drive with the factory team, Brabham was given the keys to the transporter taking the cars to a race.", "Brabham soon \"seemed to ''merge'' into Cooper Cars\": he was not an employee, but he started working at Cooper daily from the midpoint of the 1955 season building a Bobtail mid-engined sports car, intended for Formula One, the top category of single seater racing.", "He made his Grand Prix debut at the age of 29 driving the car at the 1955 British Grand Prix.", "It had a 2-litre engine, half a litre less than permitted, and ran slowly with a broken clutch before retiring.", "Later in the year Brabham, again driving the Bobtail, tussled with Stirling Moss for third place in a non-championship Formula One race at Snetterton.", "Although Moss finished ahead, Brabham saw the race as a turning point, proving that he could compete at this level.", "He shipped the Bobtail back to Australia, where he used it to win the 1955 Australian Grand Prix before selling it to help fund a permanent move to the UK the following year with his wife Betty and their son Geoff.Brabham briefly and unsuccessfully campaigned his own second hand Formula One Maserati 250F during 1956, but his season was saved by drives for Cooper in sports cars and Formula Two, the junior category to Formula One.", "At that time, almost all racing cars had their engines mounted at the front but Coopers were different, having the engine placed behind the driver, which improved their handling.", "In 1957, Brabham drove another mid-engined Cooper, again only fitted with a 2-litre engine, at the Monaco Grand Prix.", "He avoided a large crash at the first corner and was running third towards the end of the race when the fuel pump mount failed.", "After more than three hours of racing, the exhausted Brabham, who \"hated to be beaten\", pushed the car to the line to finish sixth.", "The following year, he was Autocar Formula Two champion in a Cooper, while continuing to score minor points-scoring positions with the small-engined Coopers in the World Drivers' Championship and driving for Aston Martin in Sportscars.", "His schedule necessitated a considerable amount of travel on the roads of Europe.", "Brabham's driving on public roads was described as \"safe as houses\", unlike many of his contemporaries—on the way back from the 1957 Pescara Grand Prix, passenger Tony Brooks took over driving after Brabham refused to overtake a long line of lorries.", "In late 1958, Brabham rekindled his interest in flying and began taking lessons.", "He bought his own plane and on gaining his licence began to make heavy use of it piloting himself, his family, and members of his team around Europe to races.In 1959, Cooper obtained 2.5-litre engines for the first time and Brabham put the extra power to good use by winning his first world championship race at the season-opening Monaco Grand Prix after Jean Behra's Ferrari and Stirling Moss's Cooper failed.", "More podium places were followed by a win in the British Grand Prix at Aintree after Brabham preserved his tyres to the end of the race, enabling him to finish ahead of Moss who had to pit to replace worn tyres.", "This gave him a 13-point championship lead with four races to go.", "At the Portuguese Grand Prix at Monsanto Park, Brabham was chasing race leader Moss when a backmarker moved over on him and launched the Cooper into the air.", "The airborne car hit a telegraph pole, throwing Brabham onto the track, where he narrowly avoided being hit by one of his teammates but escaped with no serious injury.", "With two wins each, Brabham, Moss, and Ferrari's Tony Brooks were all capable of winning the championship at the final event of the season, the United States Grand Prix at Sebring.", "Brabham was among those up until 1 am the morning before the race working on the Cooper team cars.", "The next day, after pacing himself behind Moss, who soon retired with a broken gearbox, he led almost to the end of the race before running out of fuel on the last lap.", "He again pushed the car to the finish line to place fourth, although in the event this was unnecessary as his other title rival, Brooks, finished only third.", "His championship-winning margin over Brooks was four points.", "According to Gerald Donaldson, \"some thought his title owed more to stealth than skill, an opinion at least partly based on Brabham's low-key presence.", "\"Despite his success with Cooper, Brabham was sure he could do better.", "He considered buying Cooper in partnership with Roy Salvadori and then in late 1959 he asked his friend Ron Tauranac to come to the UK and work with him, producing upgrade kits for Sunbeam Rapier and Triumph Herald road cars at his car dealership, Jack Brabham Motors, but with the long-term aim of designing racing cars.", "Brabham continued to drive for Cooper, but on the long flight back from the 1960 season-opening Argentine Grand Prix, he had a heart-to-heart with John Cooper.", "John's father Charlie and the designer Owen Maddock had been reluctant to update their car, but although a Cooper had won in Argentina, other cars had been faster before they broke down.", "Brabham helped design the more advanced Cooper T53, including advice from Tauranac.", "Brabham spun the new car out of the next championship race, the Monaco Grand Prix, but then embarked on a series of five straight victories.", "He won from the front at the Dutch, French, and Belgian Grands Prix, where title rival Moss was badly injured in a practice accident that put him out for two months.", "Two other drivers were killed during the race.", "At the British Grand Prix, Brabham was closing on Graham Hill's BRM before Hill spun off, leaving Brabham the victory.", "He then came back from eighth place to second at the Portuguese Grand Prix after sliding off on tramlines and won after race leader John Surtees crashed.", "Brabham's points total was put out of reach when the British teams withdrew from the Italian GP on safety grounds.", "Mike Lawrence writes that Brabham's expertise in setting up the cars was a significant factor in Cooper's 1960 drivers' and constructors' titles.Coventry Climax were late in producing the smaller 1.5-litre engine required for the 1961 season and the Cooper-Climaxes were outclassed by new mid-engined cars from Porsche, Lotus, and championship-winners Ferrari.", "Brabham scored only three points and finished 11th in the championship.", "He had a little more success in the non-championship Formula One races, where he ran his own private Coopers and took three victories at Snetterton (26 March), Brussels (9 April), and Aintree (22 April).The same year, Brabham entered the famous Indianapolis 500 oval race for the first time in a modified version of the Formula One Cooper.", "It had a 2.7-litre Climax engine producing compared to the 4.4-litre, Offenhauser engines used by the front-engined roadsters driven by all the other entrants.", "Jack qualified a respectable 17th at 145.144 mp/h (pole winner Eddie Sachs qualified at 147.481 mp/h), and while the front-engined roadsters were much faster on the long front and back straights, the rear-engined Cooper's superior handling through the turns and the shorter north and south sections kept the reigning World Champion competitive.", "Brabham ran as high as third before finishing ninth, completing all 200 laps.", "Although most of the doubters in the American Indycar scene claimed that rear-engine cars were for drivers who like to be pushed around, as Brabham put it, it \"triggered the rear-engined revolution at Indy\" and within five years most of the cars that raced at Indianapolis would be rear-engined.====Brabham====Brabham at the 1965 German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring.Brabham after winning the 1966 Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort.Brabham BT18-Honda of the type with which Jack Brabham dominated Formula Two in 1966Brabham in the car before the 1966 Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort.Brabham in his Brabham BT33 at the 1970 Race of Champions at Brands Hatch.Brabham and Tauranac set up a company called Motor Racing Developments (MRD), which produced customer racing cars, while Brabham himself continued to race for Cooper.", "MRD produced cars for Formula Junior, with the first one appearing in mid-1961.Brabham left Cooper in 1962 to drive for his own team: the Brabham Racing Organisation, using cars built by Motor Racing Developments.", "A newly introduced engine limit in Formula One of 1500 cc did not suit Brabham and he did not win a single race with a 1500 cc car.", "His team suffered poor reliability during this period and motorsport authors Mike Lawrence and David Hodges have said that Brabham's reluctance to spend money may have cost the team results, a view echoed by Tauranac.", "During the 1965 season, Brabham started to consider retirement to manage his team.", "Dan Gurney took the lead driver role, and the team's first world championship win, while Brabham gave up his car to several other drivers towards the end of the season.", "At the end of the season, Gurney announced his intention to leave and set up his own team and Brabham decided to carry on.In 1966, a new 3-litre formula was created for Formula One.", "The new engines under development by other suppliers all had at least 12 cylinders and proved difficult to develop, being heavy and unreliable.", "Brabham took a different approach to the problem of obtaining a suitable engine: he persuaded Australian engineering company Repco to develop a new 3-litre eight-cylinder engine for him.", "Repco had no experience in designing complete engines.", "Brabham had identified a supply of suitable engine blocks obtained from Oldsmobile's aluminium alloy 215 engine and persuaded the company that an engine could be designed around the block, largely using existing components.", "Brabham and Repco were aware that the engine would not compete in terms of outright power, but felt that a lightweight, reliable engine could achieve good championship results while other teams were still making their new designs reliable.The combination of the Repco engine and the Brabham BT19 chassis designed by Tauranac worked.", "At the French Grand Prix at Reims-Gueux, Jack Brabham took his first Formula One world championship win since 1960 and became the first man to win such a race in a car of his own construction.", "Only his two former teammates, Bruce McLaren and Dan Gurney, have since matched this achievement.", "It was the first in a run of four straight wins for the Australian veteran.", "The 40-year-old Brabham was annoyed by press stories about his age and, in a highly uncharacteristic stunt, at the Dutch Grand Prix he hobbled to his car on the starting grid before the race wearing a long false beard and leaning on a cane before going on to win the race.", "Brabham confirmed his third championship at the Italian Grand Prix and became the only driver to win the Formula One World Championship in a car that carried his own name.The season also saw the fruition of Brabham's relationship with Japanese engine manufacturer Honda in Formula Two.", "After a generally unsuccessful season in 1965, Honda revised their 1-litre engine completely.", "Brabham won ten of the year's 16 European Formula Two races in his Brabham-Honda.", "There was no European Formula Two championship that year, but Brabham won the ''Trophées de France'', a championship consisting of six of the French Formula Two races.In 1967, the Formula One title went to Brabham's teammate Denny Hulme.", "Hulme had better reliability through the year, possibly due to Brabham's desire to try new parts first.Despite taking pole position in the first two rounds, mechanical problems halted his chances of victory.", "He spun numerous times in South Africa, and at Monaco, his engine blew up at the start, and the win went to his teammate Denny Hulme.", "At the Dutch Grand Prix, he scored his first podium of the season, with second place, behind Scotsman Jim Clark.", "He retired in the Belgian Grand Prix with another blown engine.", "He fixed this by winning the French Grand Prix at the Bugatti Circuit in Le Mans.", "He came fourth at the British Grand Prix, behind Chris Amon, his teammate Hulme, and Clark.", "At the German Grand Prix, he had a huge battle with Amon, and Brabham eventually finished ahead of the New Zealander, by only half a second.", "Hulme was the winner.", "At the first ever Canadian Grand Prix at Mosport Park, he took a huge win, ahead of Hulme, in cold and rainy conditions.", "At the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, Brabham had to finish second, only a few car lengths behind John Surtees, who took his last GP win.", "Hulme retired from the race, cutting the gap to 3 points between the two, as the circus headed for the United States, at Watkins Glen for the United States Grand Prix.", "Brabham outqualified his teammate, and finished fifth in the race, and with Hulme on the podium, this meant the championship chances were looking slim for Black Jack, as the circus went to Mexico for the championship deciding and final race of the season.", "Once again, he outqualified his teammate, and needed to win, with Hulme fifth or lower.", "But Jim Clark was simply too fast during the whole weekend, and dominated the race from pole to win, with Brabham finishing over 1 minute and 25 seconds behind.", "Hulme finished third, and so the New Zealander won the championship, while Brabham settled for second place.", "The team secured the Constructors' Championship, with 67 total points scored, and 23 points ahead of Lotus which scored a total of 44 points.Brabham raced alongside his teammate Jochen Rindt during the 1968 season.", "It wasn't a good season for him.", "He retired from the first seven races, before scoring two points for fifth place at the German Grand Prix.", "He retired from the remaining four races.", "At the end of the year, he fulfilled a desire to fly from Britain to Australia in a small twin-engined Beechcraft Queen Air.", "Partway through the 1969 season, Brabham suffered serious injuries to his foot in a testing accident.", "He returned to racing before the end of the year, but promised his wife that he would retire after the season finished and sold his share of the team to Tauranac.Finding no top drivers available despite coming close to bringing Rindt back to the team, Brabham decided to race for one more year.", "He began auspiciously, winning the first race of the season, the South African Grand Prix, and then led the third race, the Monaco Grand Prix until the very last turn of the last lap.", "Brabham was about to hold off the onrushing Rindt (the eventual 1970 F1 champion) when his front wheels locked in a skid on the sharp right turn only yards from the finish and he ended up second.", "While leading at the British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch, he ran out of fuel at Clearways and Rindt passed him to take the win while Brabham coasted to the finish in second place.", "After the 13th and final race of the season, the Mexican Grand Prix, Brabham did retire.", "He had tied Jackie Stewart for fifth in the points standings in the season he drove at the age of 44.Brabham also drove for the works Matra team during the 1970 World Sportscar Championship season and won the final race of the season and his final top level race at the Paris 1000 km in October that year.", "He then made a complete break from racing and returned to Australia, to the relief of his wife who had been \"scared stiff\" each time he drove." ], [ "Retirement", "Brabham continued his involvement in motorsport after his retirement.", "Former rivals Brabham and Stirling Moss shake hands at the 2004 Goodwood Revival meeting.Following his retirement, Brabham and his family moved to a farm between Sydney and Melbourne.", "Brabham says that he \"never really wanted\" the move, but his wife hoped their sons could grow up away from motorsport.", "As well as running the new venture, he continued his interest in businesses in the UK and Australia, including a small aviation company and garages and car dealerships.", "He also set up Engine Developments Ltd. in 1971 with John Judd, who had worked for Brabham on the Repco engine project in the mid 1960s.", "The company builds engines for racing applications.", "Brabham was also a shareholder in Jack Brabham Engines Pty Ltd., an Australian company marketing Jack Brabham memorabilia.The Brabham team continued in Formula One, winning two further Drivers' Championships in the early 1980s under Bernie Ecclestone's ownership.", "Although the original organisation went into administration in 1992, the name was attached to a German company selling cars and accessories in 2008, and an unsuccessful attempt to set up a new Formula One team the following year.", "On both occasions the Brabham family, which was unconnected to the ventures, announced its intention to take legal advice.", "In September 2014, Brabham's youngest son David announced Project Brabham, a new team planning to use a crowdsourcing business model to enter the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship in the LMP2 category.Despite his three titles, and although John Cooper considered him \"the greatest\", Formula One journalist Adam Cooper wrote in 1999 that Brabham is never listed among the Top 10 of all time, noting that \"Stirling Moss and Jim Clark dominated the headlines when Jack was racing, and they still do\".", "Brabham was the first post-war racing driver to be knighted when he received the honour in 1978 for services to motorsport.", "He has received several other honours and in 2011, the suburb of Brabham in Perth, Western Australia, was named after him.", "A race circuit and an automotive training school were also named after him in the early 2010s.Brabham at the Classic Adelaide rally in 2002.In retirement, Brabham continued to be involved in motorsport events, appearing at contemporary and historic motorsport events around the world where he often drove his former Cooper and Brabham cars until the early 2000s.", "In 1999, after competing at the Goodwood Revival at the age of 73 he commented that driving stopped him getting old.", "Despite a large accident at the 2000 Revival, the first racing accident to put him in hospital overnight, he continued to drive until at least 2004.By the late 2000s, ill-health was preventing him from driving in competition.", "In addition to the deafness caused by years of motor racing without adequate ear protection, his eyesight was reduced due to macular degeneration and he had kidney disease for which by 2009 he was receiving dialysis three times a week.", "Nonetheless, that year he attended a celebration of the 50th anniversary of his first world championship at the Phillip Island Classic festival of motorsport, and in 2010 flew to Bahrain with most of the other Formula One world Drivers' Champions for a celebration of 60 years of the Formula One world championship.", "Brabham was the oldest surviving F1 champion.Brabham and Betty had three sons together: Geoff, Gary, and David.", "All three became involved in motorsport, with support from Brabham in their early years.", "Between them, they have won sportscar and single-seater races and championships.", "Geoff was an Indycar and sportscar racer who won five North American sportscar championships as well as the 24 Hours of Le Mans, while David competed in Formula One for the Brabham team and has also won the Le Mans race as well as three Japanese and North American sportscar titles.", "Gary also drove briefly in Formula One, although his F1 career consisted of two DNPQ's for the Life team.", "Brabham and Betty divorced in 1994 after 43 years.", "Brabham married his second wife, Margaret in 1995 and they lived on the Gold Coast, Queensland.", "Brabham's grandson Matthew (son of Geoff) graduated from karts in 2010 and won two ladders of the Road to Indy, eventually racing in the 2016 Indianapolis 500 and winning three Stadium Super Trucks championships.", "Another grandson, Sam, the son of David and Lisa, whose brother Mike also was an F1 driver, stepped up to car racing from karts in 2013 when he made his debut in the British Formula Ford Championship.", "The Brabham family have been involved in world-class motorsport for over 60 years." ], [ "Death", "Brabham made his last public appearance on 18 May 2014, appearing with one of the cars he built.", "He died at his home on the Gold Coast on 19 May 2014, aged 88, following a lengthy battle with liver disease.", "He was eating breakfast with his wife, Margaret, when he died.", "In a statement on the family's website, Brabham's son David confirmed his father's death.", "\"It's a very sad day for all of us\", David Brabham stated.", "\"My father passed away peacefully at home at the age of 88 this morning.", "He lived an incredible life, achieving more than anyone would ever dream of and he will continue to live on through the astounding legacy he leaves behind.", "\"Brabham was the last surviving world champion from the 1950s era.At his request, his ashes were scattered at the Tamborine Mountain Skywalk in Queensland Australia by his wife Margaret, Lady Brabham on 4 September 2014.Brabham was a frequent visitor to the Skywalk." ], [ "Honours and awards", "* Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE; for services to international motor-car racing, 1966)* Australian of the Year (1966)* Knight Bachelor (for distinguished service to the sport of motor racing, 1979)* Inductee, Sport Australia Hall of Fame (1985, elevated to Legend status in 2003)* Australian Sports Medal (2000)* Centenary Medal (2001)* Officer of the Order of Australia (AO; for service to motor sport as an ambassador, mentor and promoter of safety, and to the community through support of charitable organisations, 2008)* Inductee, Australian Speedway Hall of Fame (2011)* Named a National Living Treasure (2012)" ], [ "Racing record", "===Career summary=== Season Series Team Races Wins Poles F/laps Podiums Points Position1955Formula OneCooper Car Company1000001956Formula OneJack Brabham1000001957Formula OneCooper Car Company300000Rob Walker Racing Team20000World Sportscar ChampionshipCooper Cars10000024 Hours of Le MansCooper Cars10000N/A15th1958Formula OneCooper Car Company90000318thWorld Sportscar ChampionshipDavid Brown, Aston Martin Ltd.20001024 Hours of Le MansDavid Brown Racing Dept.10000N/A1959Formula OneCooper Car Company8211531'''1st'''World Sportscar ChampionshipJohn Coombs Racing Organisation1000001960Formula OneCooper Car Company8533543'''1st'''Formula TwoCooper Car Company5210320'''1st'''1961Formula OneCooper Car Company80110411thUSAC Championship CarCooper Car Company1000020020th1962Formula OneBrabham Racing Organisation8000099th1963Formula OneBrabham Racing Organisation100001147thBritish Saloon Car ChampionshipAlan Brown Racing Ltd11011922nd1964Formula OneBrabham Racing Organisation100012118thTasman SeriesEcurie Vitesse630043'''2nd'''USAC Championship CarJohn Zink100000British Saloon Car ChampionshipAlan Brown Racing Ltd211021412th1965Formula OneBrabham Racing Organisation60001910thTasman SeriesEcurie Vitesse3000321'''3rd'''British Saloon Car ChampionshipAlan Brown Racing Ltd311011215th1966Formula OneBrabham Racing Organisation9431542'''1st'''Tasman SeriesEcurie Vitesse20001410thBritish Saloon Car ChampionshipAlan Brown Racing Ltd311132012th1967Formula OneBrabham Racing Organisation11220646'''2nd'''Tasman SeriesEcurie Vitesse6100218'''3rd'''World Sportscar ChampionshipSidney Taylor1000001968Formula OneBrabham Racing Organisation110000223rdTasman SeriesBrabham200000World Sportscar ChampionshipAlan Mann Racing Limited0000001969Formula OneMotor Racing Developments Ltd802121410thTasman SeriesBrabham1000148thWorld Sportscar ChampionshipAlan Mann Racing Ltd.000000USAC Championship CarBrabham1000001970Formula OneMotor Racing Developments Ltd131144256thWorld SportscarMatra Sports / Equipe Matra-Elf40000024 Hours of Le MansEquipe Matra-Simca10000N/AUSAC Championship CarBrabham1000001976Bathurst 1000Esmonds Motors10000N/A1977Bathurst 1000John Goss Racing Pty Limited10000N/A18th1978Bathurst 1000Jack Brabham Holdings Pty Ltd10000N/A6th1980British Saloon Car ChampionshipSRG10000237th1984World Sportscar ChampionshipRothmans Porsche000000===Complete Formula One World Championship results===(key) (Races in '''bold''' indicate pole position; races in ''italics'' indicate fastest lap):'' Indicates shared drive with Mike MacDowel'':'' Indicates Formula 2 car''=== Formula One non-championship results ===(key) (Races in '''bold''' indicate pole position) (Races in ''italics'' indicate fastest lap)===Complete Tasman Series results=== Year Car 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rank Points 1964 Brabham BT7A LEV PUK WIG TER SAN1 WAR LAK LON 2nd 33 1965 Brabham BT11A PUK LEV WIG TER WAR SAN LON 3rd 21 1966 Brabham BT19 PUK LEV WIG TER WAR LAK SAN LON 10th 4 1967 Brabham BT23A PUK WIG LAK WAR SAN LON 3rd 18 1968 Brabham BT21E PUK LEV WIG TER SUR WAR SAN LON NC 0 1969 Brabham BT31B PUK LEV WIG TER LAK WAR SAN 8th 4===Complete World Sportscar Championship results===(key) (Races in '''bold''' indicate pole position) (Races in ''italics'' indicate fastest lap)===Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results=== Year Team Co-drivers Car Class Laps 1957 Cooper Cars Ian Raby Cooper T39 S1.1 254 15th '''3rd''' 1958 David Brown Racing Dept.", "Stirling Moss Aston Martin DBR1/300 S3.0 30DNF(Con rod) 1970 Equipe Matra-Simca François Cevert Matra-Simca MS650 P3.0 76 DNF===Indy 500 results===YearCarStartQualRankFinishLapsLedRetired196117 13 145.144 17 9 200 0 Running196452 25 152.504 15 20 77 0 Fuel Tank196995 29 163.875 29 24 58 0 Ignition197032 26 166.397 22 13 175 1 Piston'''Totals''' 510 1 Starts4Poles0Front row0Wins0Top 50Top 101Retired3===Complete British Saloon Car Championship results===(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)", "Year Team Car Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Pts Class 1963 Alan Brown Racing Ltd Ford Galaxie SNE OUL GOO AIN SIL CRY SIL BRH BRH OUL ''SIL''1 22nd 9 6th 1964 Alan Brown Racing Ltd Ford Galaxie '''''SNE'''''1 GOODNS OUL AIN SIL CRY BRH OUL3 12th 14 5th 1965 Alan Brown Racing Ltd Ford Mustang BRH OUL SNE GOO SIL CRY6† '''BRH'''1 OULDSQ 15th 12 4th 1966 Alan Brown Racing Ltd Ford Mustang ''SNE''1 '''GOO'''2 SILDNS CRY2† BRH BRH OUL BRH 12th 20 4th 1980 SRG Renault 5 Gordini MAL OUL THR SIL SIL BRH18 MAL BRH THR SIL 37th 2 12th† Events with 2 races staged for the different classes.===Complete Bathurst 1000 results=== Year Team Co-drivers Car Class Laps 1976 Esmonds Motors Stirling Moss Holden LH Torana SL/R 5000 L34 3001cc – 6000cc 37 DNF 1977 John Goss Racing Pty Limited Geoff Brabham Ford XC Falcon GS500 Hardtop 3001cc – 6000cc 141 18th 9th 1978 Jack Brabham Holdings Pty Ltd Brian Muir Holden LX Torana SS A9X 4 Door A 153 6th 6th" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Jack Brabham statistics* Interactive Jack Brabham Statistics – compare Jack with other F1 drivers* Official Australian website * Official US website* Clip of Desert Island Discs appearance 19 December 1966" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jones calculus" ], [ "Introduction", "In optics, polarized light can be described using the '''Jones calculus''', invented by R. C. Jones in 1941.Polarized light is represented by a '''Jones vector''', and linear optical elements are represented by ''Jones matrices''.", "When light crosses an optical element the resulting polarization of the emerging light is found by taking the product of the Jones matrix of the optical element and the Jones vector of the incident light.Note that Jones calculus is only applicable to light that is already fully polarized.", "Light which is randomly polarized, partially polarized, or incoherent must be treated using Mueller calculus." ], [ "Jones vector", "The Jones vector describes the polarization of light in free space or another homogeneous isotropic non-attenuating medium, where the light can be properly described as transverse waves.", "Suppose that a monochromatic plane wave of light is travelling in the positive ''z''-direction, with angular frequency ''ω'' and wave vector '''k''' = (0,0,''k''), where the wavenumber ''k'' = ''ω''/''c''.", "Then the electric and magnetic fields '''E''' and '''H''' are orthogonal to '''k''' at each point; they both lie in the plane \"transverse\" to the direction of motion.", "Furthermore, '''H''' is determined from '''E''' by 90-degree rotation and a fixed multiplier depending on the wave impedance of the medium.", "So the polarization of the light can be determined by studying '''E'''.", "The complex amplitude of '''E''' is written :Note that the physical '''E''' field is the real part of this vector; the complex multiplier serves up the phase information.", "Here is the imaginary unit with .The Jones vector is:Thus, the Jones vector represents the amplitude and phase of the electric field in the ''x'' and ''y'' directions.The sum of the squares of the absolute values of the two components of Jones vectors is proportional to the intensity of light.", "It is common to normalize it to 1 at the starting point of calculation for simplification.", "It is also common to constrain the first component of the Jones vectors to be a real number.", "This discards the overall phase information that would be needed for calculation of interference with other beams.Note that all Jones vectors and matrices in this article employ the convention that the phase of the light wave is given by , a convention used by Hecht.", "Under this convention, increase in (or ) indicates retardation (delay) in phase, while decrease indicates advance in phase.", "For example, a Jones vectors component of () indicates retardation by (or 90 degree) compared to 1 ().", "Collett uses the opposite definition for the phase ().", "Also, Collet and Jones follow different conventions for the definitions of handedness of circular polarization.", "Jones' convention is called: \"From the point of view of the receiver\", while Collett's convention is called: \"From the point of view of the source.\"", "The reader should be wary of the choice of convention when consulting references on the Jones calculus.The following table gives the 6 common examples of normalized Jones vectors.", "Polarization Jones vector Typical ket notation Linear polarized in the ''x'' directionTypically called \"horizontal\" Linear polarized in the ''y'' directionTypically called \"vertical\" Linear polarized at 45° from the ''x'' axisTypically called \"diagonal\" L+45 Linear polarized at −45° from the ''x'' axisTypically called \"anti-diagonal\" L−45 Right-hand circular polarizedTypically called \"RCP\" or \"RHCP\" Left-hand circular polarizedTypically called \"LCP\" or \"LHCP\" A general vector that points to any place on the surface is written as a ket .", "When employing the Poincaré sphere (also known as the Bloch sphere), the basis kets ( and ) must be assigned to opposing (antipodal) pairs of the kets listed above.", "For example, one might assign = and = .", "These assignments are arbitrary.", "Opposing pairs are* and * and * and The polarization of any point not equal to or and not on the circle that passes through is known as elliptical polarization." ], [ "Jones matrices", "The Jones matrices are operators that act on the Jones vectors defined above.", "These matrices are implemented by various optical elements such as lenses, beam splitters, mirrors, etc.", "Each matrix represents projection onto a one-dimensional complex subspace of the Jones vectors.", "The following table gives examples of Jones matrices for polarizers: Optical element Jones matrix Linear polarizer with axis of transmission horizontal Linear polarizer with axis of transmission vertical Linear polarizer with axis of transmission at ±45° with the horizontal Linear polarizer with axis of transmission angle from the horizontal Right circular polarizer Left circular polarizer" ], [ "Phase retarders", "A phase retarder is an optical element that produces a phase difference between two orthogonal polarization components of a monochromatic polarized beam of light.", "Mathematically, using kets to represent Jones vectors, this means that the action of a phase retarder is to transform light with polarization : to : where are orthogonal polarization components (i.e. )", "that are determined by the physical nature of the phase retarder.", "In general, the orthogonal components could be any two basis vectors.", "For example, the action of the circular phase retarder is such that:However, linear phase retarders, for which are linear polarizations, are more commonly encountered in discussion and in practice.", "In fact, sometimes the term \"phase retarder\" is used to refer specifically to linear phase retarders.Linear phase retarders are usually made out of birefringent uniaxial crystals such as calcite, MgF2 or quartz.", "Plates made of these materials for this purpose are referred to as waveplates.", "Uniaxial crystals have one crystal axis that is different from the other two crystal axes (i.e., ''ni'' ≠ ''nj'' = ''nk'').", "This unique axis is called the extraordinary axis and is also referred to as the optic axis.", "An optic axis can be the fast or the slow axis for the crystal depending on the crystal at hand.", "Light travels with a higher phase velocity along an axis that has the smallest refractive index and this axis is called the fast axis.", "Similarly, an axis which has the largest refractive index is called a slow axis since the phase velocity of light is the lowest along this axis.", "\"Negative\" uniaxial crystals (e.g., calcite CaCO3, sapphire Al2O3) have ''ne'' o'' so for these crystals, the extraordinary axis (optic axis) is the fast axis, whereas for \"positive\" uniaxial crystals (e.g., quartz SiO2, magnesium fluoride MgF2, rutile TiO2), ''ne'' > ''no'' and thus the extraordinary axis (optic axis) is the slow axis.", "Other commercially available linear phase retarders exist and are used in more specialized applications.", "The Fresnel rhombs is one such alternative.Any linear phase retarder with its fast axis defined as the x- or y-axis has zero off-diagonal terms and thus can be conveniently expressed as :where and are the phase offsets of the electric fields in and directions respectively.", "In the phase convention , define the relative phase between the two waves as .", "Then a positive (i.e.", "> ) means that doesn't attain the same value as until a later time, i.e.", "leads .", "Similarly, if , then leads .For example, if the fast axis of a quarter waveplate is horizontal, then the phase velocity along the horizontal direction is ahead of the vertical direction i.e., leads .", "Thus, which for a quarter waveplate yields .In the opposite convention , define the relative phase as .", "Then means that doesn't attain the same value as until a later time, i.e.", "leads .", "Phase retarders Corresponding Jones matrix Quarter-wave plate with fast axis vertical Quarter-wave plate with fast axis horizontal Quarter-wave plate with fast axis at angle w.r.t the horizontal axis Half-wave plate rotated by Half-wave plate with fast axis at angle w.r.t the horizontal axis General Waveplate (Linear Phase Retarder) Arbitrary birefringent material (Elliptical phase retarder) The Jones matrix for an arbitrary birefringent material is the most general form of a polarization transformation in the Jones calculus; it can represent any polarization transformation.", "To see this, one can show:The above matrix is a general parametrization for the elements of SU(2), using the convention :where the overline denotes complex conjugation.Finally, recognizing that the set of unitary transformations on can be expressed as:it becomes clear that the Jones matrix for an arbitrary birefringent material represents any unitary transformation, up to a phase factor .", "Therefore, for appropriate choice of , , and , a transformation between any two Jones vectors can be found, up to a phase factor .", "However, in the Jones calculus, such phase factors do not change the represented polarization of a Jones vector, so are either considered arbitrary or imposed ad hoc to conform to a set convention.The special expressions for the phase retarders can be obtained by taking suitable parameter values in the general expression for a birefringent material.", "In the general expression:*The relative phase retardation induced between the fast axis and the slow axis is given by * is the orientation of the fast axis with respect to the x-axis.", "* is the circularity.Note that for linear retarders, = 0 and for circular retarders, = ± /2, = /4.In general for elliptical retarders, takes on values between - /2 and /2." ], [ "Axially rotated elements", "Assume an optical element has its optic axis perpendicular to the surface vector for the plane of incidence and is rotated about this surface vector by angle ''θ/2'' (i.e., the principal plane through which the optic axis passes, makes angle ''θ/2'' with respect to the plane of polarization of the electric field of the incident TE wave).", "Recall that a half-wave plate rotates polarization as ''twice'' the angle between incident polarization and optic axis (principal plane).", "Therefore, the Jones matrix for the rotated polarization state, M(''θ''), is :: where This agrees with the expression for a half-wave plate in the table above.", "These rotations are identical to beam unitary splitter transformation in optical physics given by:where the primed and unprimed coefficients represent beams incident from opposite sides of the beam splitter.", "The reflected and transmitted components acquire a phase ''θr'' and ''θt'', respectively.", "The requirements for a valid representation of the element are :and:Both of these representations are unitary matrices fitting these requirements; and as such, are both valid." ], [ "Arbitrarily rotated elements", "This would involve a three-dimensional rotation matrix.", "See Russell A. Chipman and Garam Yun for work done on this." ], [ "See also", "* Polarization* Scattering parameters* Stokes parameters* Mueller calculus* Photon polarization" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* E. Collett, ''Field Guide to Polarization'', SPIE Field Guides vol.", "'''FG05''', SPIE (2005).", ".", "* D. Goldstein and E. Collett, ''Polarized Light'', 2nd ed., CRC Press (2003).", ".", "* E. Hecht, ''Optics'', 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley (1987).", ".", "* Frank L. Pedrotti, S.J.", "Leno S. Pedrotti, ''Introduction to Optics'', 2nd ed., Prentice Hall (1993).", "* A. Gerald and J.M.", "Burch, ''Introduction to Matrix Methods in Optics'',1st ed., John Wiley & Sons(1975).", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * William Shurcliff (1966) ''Polarized Light: Production and Use'', chapter 8 Mueller Calculus and Jones Calculus, page 109, Harvard University Press." ], [ "External links", "* ''Jones Calculus written by E. Collett on Optipedia''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Josip Broz Tito" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Josip Broz''' (, ; 7 May 1892 – 4 May 1980), commonly known as '''Tito''' (; , ), was a Yugoslav communist revolutionary and politician who served in various positions of national leadership from 1943 until his death in 1980.During World War II, he was the leader of the Yugoslav Partisans, often regarded as the most effective resistance movement in German-occupied Europe.", "He also served as the prime minister from 2 November 1944 to 29 June 1963 and president of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 14 January 1953 until his death on 4 May 1980.Tito's political ideology and policies are collectively known as Titoism.Tito was born to a Croat father and Slovene mother in the village of Kumrovec in Austria-Hungary (present-day Croatia).", "Drafted into military service, he distinguished himself, becoming the youngest sergeant major in the Austro-Hungarian Army of that time.", "After being seriously wounded and captured by the Russians during World War I, he was sent to a work camp in the Ural Mountains.", "He participated in some events of the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the subsequent Russian Civil War.", "Upon his return to the Balkans in 1920, he entered the newly established Kingdom of Yugoslavia, where he joined the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ).", "Having assumed de facto control over the party by 1937, he was formally elected its general secretary in 1939 and later its president, the title he held until his death.", "During World War II, after the Nazi invasion of the area, he led the Yugoslav guerrilla movement, the Partisans (1941–1945).", "By the end of the war, the Partisanswith backing of the Allies since mid-1943took power in Yugoslavia.After the war, Tito was the chief architect of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), serving as the prime minister (1944–1963), president (1953–1980; since 1974 president for life), and marshal of Yugoslavia, the highest rank of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA).", "Despite being one of the founders of the Cominform, he became the first Cominform member and the only leader in Joseph Stalin's lifetime to defy Soviet hegemony in the Eastern Bloc, leading to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the organisation in 1948 in the event known as the Tito–Stalin split.", "In the following years, alongside other political leaders and Marxist theorists such as Edvard Kardelj and Milovan Đilas, Tito went on to initiate the idiosyncratic model of socialist self-management in which firms were managed through workers' councils and all workers were entitled to workplace democracy and equal share of profits.", "Tito wavered between supporting either a centralised or more decentralised federation and ended up favouring the latter in order to keep ethnic tensions under control; thus, the constitution was gradually developed in order to delegate as much power as possible to each republic in keeping with the Marxist theory of withering away of the state.", "Tito envisaged the SFR of Yugoslavia as a \"federal republic of equal nations and nationalities, freely united on the principle of brotherhood and unity in achieving specific and common interest.\"", "A very powerful cult of personality was built around Tito, which was maintained by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia even after his death.", "After Tito's death, the leadership of Yugoslavia was transformed into an annually rotating presidency to give representation to all of Yugoslavia's nationalities and to prevent the emergence of an authoritarian leader.", "Twelve years after his death, as communism collapsed in Eastern Europe and ethnic tensions escalated, Yugoslavia dissolved and descended into a series of interethnic wars.Historians critical of Tito view his presidency as authoritarian and see him as a dictator, while others characterise him as a benevolent dictator.", "He was a popular public figure both in Yugoslavia and abroad.", "He remains a popular leader in the former countries of Yugoslavia.", "Viewed as a unifying symbol, his internal policies maintained the peaceful coexistence of the nations of the Yugoslav federation.", "He gained further international attention as the founder of the Non-Aligned Movement, alongside Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, and Sukarno of Indonesia.", "With a highly favourable reputation abroad in both Cold War blocs, he received a total of 98 foreign decorations, including the Legion of Honour and the Order of the Bath." ], [ "Early life", "===Pre-World War I===Josip Broz was born on 7 May 1892 in Kumrovec, a village in the northern Croatian region of Zagorje.", "At the time it was part of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia within the Austro-Hungarian Empire.", "He was the seventh or eighth child of Franjo Broz (1860–1936) and Marija née Javeršek (1864–1918).", "His parents had already had a number of children die in early infancy.", "Broz was christened and raised as a Roman Catholic.", "His father, Franjo, was a Croat whose family had lived in the village for three centuries, while his mother, Marija, was a Slovene from the village of Podsreda.", "The villages were apart, and his parents had married on 21 January 1881.Franjo Broz had inherited a estate and a good house, but he was unable to make a success of farming.", "Josip spent a significant proportion of his pre-school years living with his maternal grandparents at Podsreda, where he became a favourite of his grandfather Martin Javeršek.", "By the time he returned to Kumrovec to begin school, he spoke Slovene better than Croatian, and had learned to play the piano.", "Despite his mixed parentage, Broz identified as a Croat like his father and neighbours.In July 1900, at the age of eight, Broz entered primary school at Kumrovec.", "He completed four years of school, failing the 2nd grade and graduating in 1905.As a result of his limited schooling, throughout his life, Tito was poor at spelling.", "After leaving school, he initially worked for a maternal uncle and then on his parents' family farm.", "In 1907, his father wanted him to emigrate to the United States but could not raise the money for the voyage.Instead, aged 15 years, Broz left Kumrovec and travelled about south to Sisak, where his cousin Jurica Broz was doing army service.", "Jurica helped him get a job in a restaurant, but Broz was soon tired of that work.", "He approached a Czech locksmith, Nikola Karas, for a three-year apprenticeship, which included training, food, and room and board.", "As his father could not afford to pay for his work clothing, Broz paid for it himself.", "Soon after, his younger brother Stjepan also became apprenticed to Karas.During his apprenticeship, Broz was encouraged to mark May Day in 1909, and he read and sold ''Slobodna Reč'' (), a socialist newspaper.", "After completing his apprenticeship in September 1910, Broz used his contacts to gain employment in Zagreb.", "At the age of 18, he joined the Metal Workers' Union and participated in his first labour protest.", "He also joined the Social Democratic Party of Croatia and Slavonia.He returned home in December 1910.In early 1911, he began a series of moves in search of work, first seeking work in Ljubljana, then Trieste, Kumrovec and Zagreb, where he worked repairing bicycles.", "He joined his first strike action on May Day 1911.After a brief period of work in Ljubljana, between May 1911 and May 1912, he worked in a factory in Kamnik in the Kamnik–Savinja Alps.", "After it closed, he was offered redeployment to Čenkov in Bohemia.", "On arriving at his new workplace, he discovered that the employer was trying to bring in cheaper labour to replace the local Czech workers, and he and others joined successful strike action to force the employer to back down.Driven by curiosity, Broz moved to Plzeň, where he was briefly employed at the Škoda Works.", "He next travelled to Munich in Bavaria.", "He also worked at the Benz car factory in Mannheim and visited the Ruhr industrial region.", "By October 1912, he had reached Vienna.", "He stayed with his older brother Martin and his family and worked at the Griedl Works before getting a job at Wiener Neustadt.", "There he worked for Austro-Daimler and was often asked to drive and test the cars.", "During this time, he spent considerable time fencing and dancing, and during his training and early work life, he also learned German and passable Czech.===World War I===In May 1913, Broz was conscripted into the Austro-Hungarian Army, for his compulsory two years of service.", "He successfully requested to serve with the 25th Croatian Home Guard Regiment garrisoned in Zagreb.", "After learning to ski during the winter of 1913 and 1914, Broz was sent to a school for non-commissioned officers (NCO) in Budapest, after which he was promoted to sergeant major.", "At 22 years of age, he was the youngest of that rank in his regiment.", "At least one source states that he was the youngest sergeant major in the Austro-Hungarian Army.", "After winning the regimental fencing competition, Broz came in second in the army fencing championships in Budapest in May 1914.Soon after the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the 25th Croatian Home Guard Regiment marched toward the Serbian border.", "Broz was arrested for sedition and imprisoned in the Petrovaradin fortress in present-day Novi Sad.", "Broz later gave conflicting accounts of this arrest, telling one biographer that he had threatened to desert to the Russian side but also claiming that the whole matter arose from a clerical error.", "A third version was that he had been overheard saying that he hoped the Austro-Hungarian Empire would be defeated.", "After his acquittal and release, his regiment served briefly on the Serbian Front before being deployed to the Eastern Front in Galicia in early 1915 to fight against Russia.", "Tito in his own account of his military service did not mention that he participated in the failed Austrian invasion of Serbia, instead giving the misleading impression that he fought only in Galicia, as it would have offended Serbian opinion to know that he fought in 1914 for the Habsburgs against them.", "On one occasion, the scout platoon he commanded went behind the enemy lines and captured 80 Russian soldiers, bringing them back to their own lines alive.", "In 1980 it was discovered that he had been recommended for an award for gallantry and initiative in reconnaissance and capturing prisoners.", "Tito's biographer, Richard West, wrote that Tito actually downplayed his military record as the Austrian Army records showed that he was a brave soldier, which contradicted his later claim to have been opposed to the Habsburg monarchy and his self-portrait of himself as an unwilling conscript fighting in a war he was opposed to.", "Broz was regarded by his fellow soldiers as ''kaisertreu'' (\"true to the Emperor\").On 25 March 1915, he was wounded in the back by a Circassian cavalryman's lance and captured during a Russian attack near Bukovina.", "Broz in his account of his capture described it melodramatically: \"... but suddenly the right flank yielded and through the gap poured cavalry of the Circassians, from Asiatic Russia.", "Before we knew it they were thundering through our positions, leaping from their horses and throwing themselves into our trenches with lances lowered.", "One of them rammed his two-yard, iron-tipped, double-pronged lance into my back just below the left arm.", "I fainted.", "Then, as I learned, the Circassians began to butcher the wounded, even slashing them with their knives.", "Fortunately, Russian infantry reached the positions and put an end to the orgy\".", "Now a prisoner of war (POW), Broz was transported east to a hospital established in an old monastery in the town of Sviyazhsk on the Volga river near Kazan.", "During his 13 months in hospital, he had bouts of pneumonia and typhus, and learned Russian with the help of two schoolgirls who brought him Russian classics by such authors as Tolstoy and Turgenev to read.After recuperating, in mid-1916, he was transferred to the Ardatov POW camp in the Samara Governorate, where he used his skills to maintain the nearby village grain mill.", "At the end of the year, he was again transferred, this time to the Kungur POW camp near Perm where the POWs were used as labour to maintain the newly completed Trans-Siberian Railway.", "Broz was appointed to be in charge of all the POWs in the camp.", "During this time, he became aware that the Red Cross parcels sent to the POWs were being stolen by camp staff.", "When he complained, he was beaten and put in prison.", "During the February Revolution, a crowd broke into the prison and returned Broz to the POW camp.", "A Bolshevik he had met while working on the railway told Broz that his son was working in engineering works in Petrograd, so, in June 1917, Broz walked out of the unguarded POW camp and hid aboard a goods train bound for that city, where he stayed with his friend's son.", "The journalist Richard West has suggested that because Broz chose to remain in an unguarded POW camp rather than volunteer to serve with the Yugoslav legions of the Serbian Army, this indicates that he remained loyal to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and undermines his later claim that he and other Croat POWs were excited by the prospect of revolution and looked forward to the overthrow of the empire that ruled them.Less than a month after Broz arrived in Petrograd, the July Days demonstrations broke out, and Broz joined in, coming under fire from government troops.", "In the aftermath, he tried to flee to Finland in order to make his way to the United States but was stopped at the border.", "He was arrested along with other suspected Bolsheviks during the subsequent crackdown by the Russian Provisional Government led by Alexander Kerensky.", "He was imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress for three weeks, during which he claimed to be an innocent citizen of Perm.", "When he finally admitted to being an escaped POW, he was to be returned by train to Kungur, but escaped at Yekaterinburg, then caught another train that reached Omsk in Siberia on 8 November after a journey.", "At one point, police searched the train looking for an escaped POW, but were deceived by Broz's fluent Russian.In Omsk, the train was stopped by local Bolsheviks who told Broz that Vladimir Lenin had seized control of Petrograd.", "They recruited him into an International Red Guard that guarded the Trans-Siberian Railway during the winter of 1917 and 1918.In May 1918, the anti-Bolshevik Czechoslovak Legion wrested control of parts of Siberia from Bolshevik forces, and the Provisional Siberian Government established itself in Omsk, and Broz and his comrades went into hiding.", "At this time, Broz met a 14-year-old local girl, , who hid him and then helped him escape to a Kazakh village from Omsk.", "Broz again worked maintaining the local mill until November 1919 when the Red Army recaptured Omsk from White forces loyal to the Provisional All-Russian Government of Alexander Kolchak.", "He moved back to Omsk and married Belousova in January 1920.At the time of their marriage, Broz was 27 years old, and Belousova was 15.Broz later wrote that during his time in Russia, he heard much talk of Lenin, a little of Trotsky and \"...as for Stalin, during the time I stayed in Russia, I never once heard his name\".", "In the autumn of 1920, he and his pregnant wife returned to his homeland, first by train to Narva, by ship to Stettin, then by train to Vienna, where they arrived on 20 September.", "In early October, Broz returned home to Kumrovec in what was then the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to find that his mother had died and his father had moved to Jastrebarsko near Zagreb.", "Sources differ over whether Broz joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union while in Russia, but he stated that the first time he joined the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY) was in Zagreb after he returned to his homeland." ], [ "Interwar communist activity", "===Communist agitator===Upon his return home, Broz was unable to gain employment as a metalworker in Kumrovec, so he and his wife moved briefly to Zagreb, where he worked as a waiter and took part in a waiter's strike.", "He also joined the CPY.", "The CPY's influence on the political life of Yugoslavia was growing rapidly.", "In the 1920 elections, it won 59 seats and became the third-strongest party.", "In light of difficult economic and social circumstances, the regime viewed the CPY as the main threat to the system of government.", "On 30 December, the government issued a Proclamation () outlawing communist activities, which included bans on propaganda, assembly halls, stripping of civil service for servants and scholarships for students found to be communist.", "Its author Milorad Drašković, the Yugoslav Minister of the Interior, was eventually assassinated by a young communist named Alija Alijagić on 2 August 1921.The CPY was then declared illegal under the Yugoslav State Security Act of 1921, and the regime proceeded to prosecute party members and sympathisers as political prisoners.Due to his overt communist links, Broz was fired from his employment.", "He and his wife then moved to the village of Veliko Trojstvo where he worked as a mill mechanic.", "After the arrest of the CPY leadership in January 1922, Stevo Sabić took over control of its operations.", "Sabić contacted Broz, who agreed to work illegally for the party, distributing leaflets and agitating among factory workers.", "In the contest of ideas between those that wanted to pursue moderate policies and those that advocated violent revolution, Broz sided with the latter.", "In 1924, Broz was elected to the CPY district committee, but after he gave a speech at a comrade's Catholic funeral, he was arrested when the priest complained.", "Paraded through the streets in chains, he was held for eight days and was eventually charged with creating a public disturbance.", "With the help of a Serbian Orthodox prosecutor who hated Catholics, Broz and his co-accused were acquitted.", "His brush with the law had marked him as a communist agitator, and his home was searched on an almost weekly basis.", "Since their arrival in Yugoslavia, Pelagija had lost three babies soon after their births and one daughter, Zlatina, at the age of two.", "Broz felt the loss of Zlatina deeply.", "In 1924, Pelagija gave birth to a boy, Žarko, who survived.", "In mid-1925, Broz's employer died, and the new mill owner gave him an ultimatumgive up his communist activities or lose his job.", "So, at the age of 33, Broz became a professional revolutionary.===Professional revolutionary===The CPY concentrated its revolutionary efforts on factory workers in the more industrialised areas of Croatia and Slovenia, encouraging strikes and similar action.", "In 1925, the now unemployed Broz moved to Kraljevica on the Adriatic coast, where he started working at a shipyard to further the aims of the CPY.", "During his time in Kraljevica, Tito acquired a love of the warm, sunny Adriatic coastline that was to last for the rest of his life, and throughout his later time as leader, he spent as much time as possible living on his yacht while cruising the Adriatic.While at Kraljevica, he worked on Yugoslav torpedo boats and a pleasure yacht for the People's Radical Party politician, Milan Stojadinović.", "Broz built up the trade union organisation in the shipyards and was elected as a union representative.", "A year later, he led a shipyard strike and soon after was fired.", "In October 1926, he obtained work in a railway works in Smederevska Palanka near Belgrade.", "In March 1927, he wrote an article complaining about the exploitation of workers in the factory, and after speaking up for a worker, he was promptly sacked.", "Identified by the CPY as worthy of promotion, he was appointed secretary of the Zagreb branch of the Metal Workers' Union and, soon after, the whole Croatian branch of the union.", "In July 1927, Broz was arrested, along with six other workers, and imprisoned at nearby Ogulin.", "After being held without trial for some time, Broz went on a hunger strike until a date was set.", "The trial was held in secret, and he was found guilty of being a member of the CPY.", "Sentenced to four months imprisonment, he was released from prison pending an appeal.", "On the orders of the CPY, Broz did not report to the court for the hearing of the appeal, instead going into hiding in Zagreb.", "Wearing dark spectacles and carrying forged papers, Broz posed as a middle-class technician in the engineering industry, working undercover to contact other CPY members and coordinate their infiltration of trade unions.Tito's alt=a series of three black and white head and shoulders photographsIn February 1928, Broz was one of 32 delegates to the conference of the Croatian branch of the CPY.", "During the conference, Broz condemned factions within the party.", "These included those that advocated a Greater Serbia agenda within Yugoslavia, like the long-term CPY leader, the Serb Sima Marković.", "Broz proposed that the executive committee of the Communist International purge the branch of factionalism and was supported by a delegate sent from Moscow.", "After it was proposed that the entire central committee of the Croatian branch be dismissed, a new central committee was elected with Broz as its secretary.", "Marković was subsequently expelled from the CPY at the Fourth Congress of the Comintern, and the CPY adopted a policy of working for the break-up of Yugoslavia.", "Broz arranged to disrupt a meeting of the Social-Democratic Party on May Day that year; in a melee outside the venue, Broz was arrested by the police.", "They failed to identify him, charging him under his false name for a breach of the peace.", "He was imprisoned for 14 days and then released, returning to his previous activities.", "The police eventually tracked him down with the help of a police informer.", "He was ill-treated and held for three months before being tried in court in November 1928 for his illegal communist activities, which included allegations that the bombs that had been found at his address had been planted by the police.", "He was convicted and sentenced to five years imprisonment.===Prison===Tito (left) and his ideological mentor alt=a black and white photograph of two menAfter his sentencing, his wife and son returned to Kumrovec, where they were looked after by sympathetic locals, but then one day, they suddenly left without explanation and returned to the Soviet Union.", "She fell in love with another man, and Žarko grew up in institutions.", "After arriving at Lepoglava prison, Broz was employed in maintaining the electrical system and chose as his assistant a middle-class Belgrade Jew, Moša Pijade, who had been given a 20-year sentence for his communist activities.", "Their work allowed Broz and Pijade to move around the prison, contacting and organising other communist prisoners.", "During their time together in Lepoglava, Pijade became Broz's ideological mentor.", "After two and a half years at Lepoglava, Broz was accused of attempting to escape and was transferred to Maribor prison, where he was held in solitary confinement for several months.", "After completing the full term of his sentence, he was released, only to be arrested outside the prison gates and taken to Ogulin to serve the four-month sentence he had avoided in 1927.He was finally released from prison on 16 March 1934, but even then, he was subject to orders that required him to live in Kumrovec and report to the police daily.", "During his imprisonment, the political situation in Europe had changed significantly, with the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany and the emergence of right-wing parties in France and neighbouring Austria.", "He returned to a warm welcome in Kumrovec but did not stay for long.", "In early May, he received word from the CPY to return to his revolutionary activities and left his hometown for Zagreb, where he rejoined the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Croatia.The Croatian branch of the CPY was in disarray, a situation exacerbated by the escape of the executive committee of the CPY to Vienna in Austria, from which they were directing activities.", "Over the next six months, Broz travelled several times between Zagreb, Ljubljana and Vienna, using false passports.", "In July 1934, he was blackmailed by a smuggler but pressed on across the border and was detained by the local ''Heimwehr'', a paramilitary Home Guard.", "He used the Austrian accent he had developed during his war service to convince them that he was a wayward Austrian mountaineer, and they allowed him to proceed to Vienna.", "Once there, he contacted the General Secretary of the CPY, Milan Gorkić, who sent him to Ljubljana to arrange a secret conference of the CPY in Slovenia.", "The conference was held at the summer palace of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ljubljana, whose brother was a communist sympathiser.", "It was at this conference that Broz first met Edvard Kardelj, a young Slovene communist who had recently been released from prison.", "Broz and Kardelj subsequently became good friends, with Tito later regarding him as his most reliable deputy.", "As he was wanted by the police for failing to report to them in Kumrovec, Broz adopted various pseudonyms, including \"Rudi\" and \"Tito\".", "He used the latter as a pen name when he wrote articles for party journals in 1934, and it stuck.", "He gave no reason for choosing the name \"Tito\" except that it was a common nickname for men from the district where he grew up.", "Within the Comintern network, his nickname was \"Walter.", "\"===Flight from Yugoslavia===alt=two black and white mugshotsDuring this time, Tito wrote articles on the duties of imprisoned communists and on trade unions.", "He was in Ljubljana when Vlado Chernozemski, an assassin for the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) and instructor for the Croatian ultranationalist organisation Ustaše, assassinated King Alexander in Marseilles on 9 October 1934.In the crackdown on dissidents that followed his death, it was decided that Tito should leave Yugoslavia.", "He travelled to Vienna on a forged Czech passport, where he joined Gorkić and the rest of the Politburo of the CPY.", "It was decided that the Austrian government was too hostile to communism, so the Politburo travelled to Brno in Czechoslovakia, and Tito accompanied them.", "On Christmas Day 1934, a secret meeting of the Central Committee of the CPY was held in Ljubljana, and Tito was elected as a member of the Politburo for the first time.", "The Politburo decided to send him to Moscow to report on the situation in Yugoslavia, and in early February 1935, he arrived there as a full-time official of the Comintern.", "He lodged at the main Comintern residence, the Hotel Lux on Tverskaya Street and was quickly in contact with Vladimir Ćopić, one of the leading Yugoslavs with the Comintern.", "He was soon introduced to the main personalities in the organisation.", "Tito was appointed to the secretariat of the Balkan section, responsible for Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania and Greece.", "Kardelj was also in Moscow, as was the Bulgarian communist leader Georgi Dimitrov.", "Tito lectured on trade unions to foreign communists and attended a course on military tactics run by the Red Army, and occasionally attended the Bolshoi Theatre.", "He attended as one of 510 delegates to the Seventh World Congress of the Comintern in July and August 1935, where he briefly saw Joseph Stalin for the first time.", "After the congress, he toured the Soviet Union and then returned to Moscow to continue his work.", "He contacted Polka and Žarko, but soon fell in love with an Austrian woman who worked at the Hotel Lux, Johanna Koenig, known within communist ranks as Lucia Bauer.", "When she became aware of this liaison, Polka divorced Tito in April 1936.Tito married Bauer on 13 October of that year.After the World Congress, Tito worked to promote the new Comintern line on Yugoslavia, which was that it would no longer work to break up the country and would instead defend the integrity of Yugoslavia against Nazism and Fascism.", "From a distance, Tito also worked to organise strikes at the shipyards at Kraljevica and the coal mines at Trbovlje near Ljubljana.", "He tried to convince the Comintern that it would be better if the party leadership were located inside Yugoslavia.", "A compromise was arrived at, where Tito and others would work inside the country, and Gorkić and the Politburo would continue to work from abroad.", "Gorkić and the Politburo relocated to Paris, while Tito began to travel between Moscow, Paris and Zagreb in 1936 and 1937, using false passports.", "In 1936, his father died.Yugoslav volunteers fighting in the Spanish Civil War|alt=black and white photograph of men firing weaponsTito returned to Moscow in August 1936, soon after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.", "At the time, the Great Purge was underway, and foreign communists like Tito and his Yugoslav compatriots were particularly vulnerable.", "Despite a laudatory report written by Tito about the veteran Yugoslav communist Filip Filipović, Filipović was arrested and shot by the Soviet secret police, the NKVD.", "However, before the Purge really began to erode the ranks of the Yugoslav communists in Moscow, Tito was sent back to Yugoslavia with a new mission, to recruit volunteers for the International Brigades being raised to fight on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War.", "Travelling via Vienna, he reached the coastal port city of Split in December 1936.According to the Croatian historian Ivo Banac, the reason Tito was sent back to Yugoslavia by the Comintern was in order to purge the CPY.", "An initial attempt to send 500 volunteers to Spain by ship failed utterly, with nearly all the communist volunteers being arrested and imprisoned.", "Tito then travelled to Paris, where he arranged the travel of volunteers to France under the cover of attending the Paris Exhibition.", "Once in France, the volunteers simply crossed the Pyrenees to Spain.", "In all, he sent 1,192 men to fight in the war, but only 330 came from Yugoslavia, the rest being expatriates in France, Belgium, the U.S. and Canada.", "Less than half were communists, and the rest were social-democrats and anti-fascists of various hues.", "Of the total, 671 were killed in the fighting, and another 300 were wounded.", "Tito himself never went to Spain, despite speculation that he had.", "Between May and August 1937, Tito travelled several times between Paris and Zagreb, organising the movement of volunteers and creating a separate Communist Party of Croatia.", "The new party was inaugurated at a conference at Samobor on the outskirts of Zagreb on 1–2 August 1937.Tito played a crucial role in organizing the return of the Yugoslav volunteers from German concentration camps to Yugoslavia when the decision was made to mount an armed resistance in Yugoslavia, the 1941 Uprising in Serbia.===General Secretary of the CPY===In June 1937, Gorkić was summoned to Moscow, where he was arrested, and after months of NKVD interrogation, he was shot.", "According to Banac, Gorkić was killed on Stalin's orders.", "West concludes that despite being in competition with men like Gorkić for the leadership of the CPY, it was not in Tito's character to have innocent people sent to their deaths.", "Tito then received a message from the Politburo of the CPY to join them in Paris.", "In August 1937, he became acting General Secretary of the CPY.", "He later explained that he survived the Purge by staying out of Spain, where the NKVD was active, and also by avoiding visiting the Soviet Union as much as possible.", "When first appointed as general secretary, he avoided travelling to Moscow by insisting that he needed to deal with some disciplinary issues in the CPY in Paris.", "He also promoted the idea that the upper echelons of the CPY should be sharing the dangers of underground resistance within the country.", "He developed a new, younger leadership team that was loyal to him, including the Slovene Edvard Kardelj, the Serb, Aleksandar Ranković, and the Montenegrin, Milovan Đilas.", "In December 1937, Tito arranged for a demonstration to greet the French foreign minister when he visited Belgrade, expressing solidarity with the French against Nazi Germany.", "The protest march numbered 30,000 and turned into a protest against the neutrality policy of the Stojadinović government.", "It was eventually broken up by the police.", "In March 1938, Tito returned to Yugoslavia from Paris.", "Hearing a rumour that his opponents within the CPY had tipped off the police, he travelled to Belgrade rather than Zagreb and used a different passport.", "While in Belgrade, he stayed with a young intellectual, Vladimir Dedijer, who was a friend of Đilas.", "Arriving in Yugoslavia a few days ahead of the ''Anschluss'' between Nazi Germany and Austria, he made an appeal condemning it, in which the CPY was joined by the Social Democrats and trade unions.", "In June, Tito wrote to the Comintern, suggesting that he should visit Moscow.", "He waited in Paris for two months for his Soviet visa before travelling to Moscow via Copenhagen.", "He arrived in Moscow on 24 August.Fake Canadian ID, \"Spiridon Mekas\", used for returning to Yugoslavia from Moscow, 1939On arrival in Moscow, he found that all Yugoslav communists were under suspicion.", "Nearly all the most prominent leaders of the CPY were arrested by the NKVD and executed, including over twenty members of the Central Committee.", "Both his ex-wife Polka and his wife Koenig/Bauer were arrested as \"imperialist spies\", although they were both eventually released, Polka after 27 months in prison.", "Tito, therefore, needed to make arrangements for the care of Žarko, who was fourteen.", "He placed him in a boarding school outside Kharkov, then at a school at Penza, but he ran away twice and was eventually taken in by a friend's mother.", "In 1941, Žarko joined the Red Army to fight the invading Germans.", "Some of Tito's critics argue that his survival indicates he must have denounced his comrades as Trotskyists.", "He was asked for information on a number of his fellow Yugoslav communists, but according to his own statements and published documents, he never denounced anyone, usually saying he did not know them.", "In one case, he was asked about the Croatian communist leader Kamilo Horvatin, but wrote ambiguously, saying that he did not know whether he was a Trotskyist.", "Nevertheless, Horvatin was not heard of again.", "While in Moscow, he was given the task of assisting Ćopić to translate the ''History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)'' into Serbo-Croatian, but they had only got to the second chapter when Ćopić too was arrested and executed.", "He worked on with a fellow surviving Yugoslav communist, but a Yugoslav communist of German ethnicity reported an inaccurate translation of a passage and claimed it showed Tito was a Trotskyist.", "Other influential communists vouched for him, and he was exonerated.", "He was denounced by a second Yugoslav communist, but the action backfired, and his accuser was arrested.", "Several factors were at play in his survival; working-class origins, lack of interest in intellectual arguments about socialism, attractive personality and capacity for making influential friends.While Tito was avoiding arrest in Moscow, Germany was placing pressure on Czechoslovakia to cede the Sudetenland.", "In response to this threat, Tito organised a call for Yugoslav volunteers to fight for Czechoslovakia, and thousands of volunteers came to the Czechoslovak embassy in Belgrade to offer their services.", "Despite the eventual Munich Agreement and Czechoslovak acceptance of the annexation and the fact that the volunteers were turned away, Tito claimed credit for the Yugoslav response, which worked in his favour.", "By this stage, Tito was well aware of the realities in the Soviet Union, later stating that he \"witnessed a great many injustices\" but was too heavily invested in communism and too loyal to the Soviet Union to step back at this point.", "After restoring the image of a decisive, coherent and non-fractional CPY to the Comintern executives, Tito was by October 1938 reassured that the party would not be disestablished; he was then tasked to compile two resolutions on plans of future CPY activities.", "Hoping to return to Yugoslavia before the 1938 Yugoslavian parliamentary election in December, Tito requested permission to do so from Comintern's Georgi Dimitrov several times, stating that his stay in Moscow was greatly prolonged, but to no avail.", "Tito's resolutions were formally ratified by the Comintern on 5 January 1939, and he was appointed as General Secretary of the CPY.", "After his appointment to the highest position of leadership in the party, the newly formed Politburo of Central Committee retained the old leadership team of Josip Broz Tito, Edvard Kardelj, Milovan Đilas, Aleksandar Ranković and Ivo Lola Ribar (the representative of SKOJ) and was expanded with Franc Leskošek, Miha Marinko and Josip Kraš, and by the end of 1939 and start of 1940, Rade Končar and Ivan Milutinović." ], [ "World War II", "===Resistance in Yugoslavia===1st Proletarian Brigade.", "Next to him are: Ivan Ribar, Koča Popović, Filip Kljajić and Ivo Lola RibarOn 6 April 1941, Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia.", "On 10 April 1941, Slavko Kvaternik proclaimed the Independent State of Croatia, and Tito responded by forming a Military Committee within the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY).", "Attacked from all sides, the armed forces of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia quickly crumbled.", "On 17 April 1941, after King Peter II and other members of the government fled the country, the remaining representatives of the government and military met with German officials in Belgrade.", "They quickly agreed to end military resistance.", "Prominent communist leaders, including Tito, held the May consultations to discuss the course of action to take in the face of the invasion.", "On 1 May 1941, Tito issued a pamphlet calling on the people to unite in a battle against the occupation.", "On 27 June 1941, the Central Committee appointed Tito commander-in-chief of all national liberation military forces.", "On 1 July 1941, the Comintern sent precise instructions calling for immediate action.Tito and Ivan Ribar at Sutjeska in 1943Tito stayed in Belgrade until 16 September 1941, when he, together with all members of the CPY, left Belgrade to travel to rebel-controlled territory.", "To leave Belgrade Tito used documents given to him by Dragoljub Milutinović, who was a ''voivode'' with the collaborationist Pećanac Chetniks.", "Since Pećanac was already fully co-operating with Germans by that time, this fact caused some to speculate that Tito left Belgrade with the blessing of the Germans because his task was to divide rebel forces, similar to Lenin's arrival in Russia.", "Broz travelled by train through Stalać and Čačak and arrived to the village of Robaje on 18 September 1941.Despite conflicts with the rival monarchic Chetnik movement, Tito's Partisans succeeded in liberating territory, notably the \"Republic of Užice\".", "During this period, Tito held talks with Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović on 19 September and 27 October 1941.It is said that Tito ordered his forces to assist escaping Jews, and that more than 2,000 Jews fought directly for Tito.On 21 December 1941, the Partisans created the First Proletarian Brigade (commanded by Koča Popović) and on 1 March 1942, Tito created the Second Proletarian Brigade.", "In liberated territories, the Partisans organised People's Committees to act as a civilian government.", "The Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) convened in Bihać on 26–27 November 1942 and in Jajce on 29 November 1943.In the two sessions, the resistance representatives established the basis for the post-war organisation of the country, deciding on a federation of the Yugoslav nations.", "In Jajce, a 67-member \"presidency\" was elected and established a nine-member National Committee of Liberation (NKOJ; five communist members) as a de facto provisional government.", "Tito was named President of NKOJ.Partisan Supreme Command, 14 May 1944With the growing possibility of an Allied invasion in the Balkans, the Axis began to divert more resources to the destruction of the Partisans main force and its high command.", "This meant, among other things, a concerted German effort to capture Josip Broz Tito personally.", "On 25 May 1944, he managed to evade the Germans after the Raid on Drvar (''Operation Rösselsprung''), an airborne assault outside his Drvar headquarters in Bosnia.After the Partisans managed to endure and avoid these intense Axis attacks between January and June 1943, and the extent of Chetnik collaboration became evident, Allied leaders switched their support from Draža Mihailović to Tito.", "King Peter II, American President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill joined Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in officially recognising Tito and the Partisans at the Tehran Conference.", "This resulted in Allied aid being parachuted behind Axis lines to assist the Partisans.", "On 17 June 1944 on the Dalmatian island of Vis, the Treaty of Vis () was signed in an attempt to merge Tito's government (the AVNOJ) with the government in exile of King Peter II.", "The Balkan Air Force was formed in June 1944 to control operations that were mainly aimed at aiding his forces.Tito and British prime minister Winston Churchill in 1944 in Naples, ItalyOn 12 August 1944, Winston Churchill met Tito in Naples for a deal.", "On 12 September 1944, King Peter II called on all Yugoslavs to come together under Tito's leadership and stated that those who did not were \"traitors\", by which time Tito was recognised by all Allied authorities (including the government-in-exile) as the Prime Minister of Yugoslavia, in addition to the commander-in-chief of the Yugoslav forces.", "On 28 September 1944, the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) reported that Tito signed an agreement with the Soviet Union allowing \"temporary entry\" of Soviet troops into Yugoslav territory, which allowed the Red Army to assist in operations in the northeastern areas of Yugoslavia.", "With their strategic right flank secured by the Allied advance, the Partisans prepared and executed a massive general offensive that succeeded in breaking through German lines and forcing a retreat beyond Yugoslav borders.", "After the Partisan victory and the end of hostilities in Europe, all external forces were ordered off Yugoslav territory.In the autumn of 1944, the communist leadership adopted a political decision on the expulsion of ethnic Germans from Yugoslavia.", "On 21 November, a special decree was issued on the confiscation and nationalisation of ethnic German property.", "To implement the decision, 70 camps were established in Yugoslav territory.", "In the final days of World War II in Yugoslavia, units of the Partisans were responsible for atrocities during Bleiburg repatriations, and accusations of culpability were later raised at the Yugoslav leadership under Tito.", "At the time, according to some scholars, Josip Broz Tito repeatedly issued calls for surrender to the retreating column, offering amnesty and attempting to avoid a disorderly surrender.", "On 14 May he dispatched a telegram to the supreme headquarters of the Slovene Partisan Army prohibiting the execution of prisoners of war and commanding the transfer of the possible suspects to a military court.===Aftermath===Celebration of liberation in Zagreb in 1945 dedicated to Tito, in presence of Orthodox dignitaries, the Catholic cardinal Aloysius Stepinac, and the Soviet military ''attaché''On 7 March 1945, the provisional government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia (DFY) was assembled in Belgrade by Josip Broz Tito, while the provisional name allowed for either a republic or monarchy.", "This government was headed by Tito as provisional Yugoslav Prime Minister and included representatives from the royalist government-in-exile, among others Ivan Šubašić.", "In accordance with the agreement between resistance leaders and the government-in-exile, post-war elections were held to determine the form of government.", "In November 1945, Tito's pro-republican People's Front, led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, won the elections with an overwhelming majority, the vote having been boycotted by monarchists.", "During the period, Tito evidently enjoyed massive popular support due to being generally viewed by the populace as the liberator of Yugoslavia.", "The Yugoslav administration in the immediate post-war period managed to unite a country that had been severely affected by ultra-nationalist upheavals and war devastation, while successfully suppressing the nationalist sentiments of the various nations in favour of tolerance, and the common Yugoslav goal.", "After the overwhelming electoral victory, Tito was confirmed as the Prime Minister and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the DFY.", "The country was soon renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) (later finally renamed into Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, SFRY).", "On 29 November 1945, King Peter II was formally deposed by the Yugoslav Constituent Assembly.", "The Assembly drafted a new republican constitution soon afterwards.Yugoslavia organised the Yugoslav People's Army (, JNA) from the Partisan movement and became the fourth strongest army in Europe at the time, according to various estimates.", "The State Security Administration (, UDBA) was also formed as the new secret police, along with a security agency, the Department of People's Security (, OZNA).", "Yugoslav intelligence was charged with imprisoning and bringing to trial large numbers of Nazi collaborators; controversially, this included Catholic clergymen due to the widespread involvement of Croatian Catholic clergy with the Ustaša regime.", "Draža Mihailović was found guilty of collaboration, high treason and war crimes and was subsequently executed by firing squad in July 1946.Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito met with the president of the Bishops' Conference of Yugoslavia, Aloysius Stepinac on 4 June 1945, two days after his release from imprisonment.", "The two could not reach an agreement on the state of the Catholic Church.", "Under Stepinac's leadership, the bishops' conference released a letter condemning alleged Partisan war crimes in September 1945.The following year Stepinac was arrested and put on trial, which was perceived by some as a show trial.", "\"The trial was also covered in numerous newspapers outside Yugoslavia, largely perceived as a classic communist show trial, and Stepinac as a martyred religious leader.\"", "In October 1946, in its first special session for 75 years, the Vatican excommunicated Tito and the Yugoslav government for sentencing Stepinac to 16 years in prison on charges of assisting Ustaše terror and of supporting forced conversions of Serbs to Catholicism.", "Stepinac received preferential treatment in recognition of his status and the sentence was soon shortened and reduced to house arrest, with the option of emigration open to the archbishop.", "At the conclusion of the \"Informbiro period\", reforms rendered Yugoslavia considerably more religiously liberal than the Eastern Bloc states.In the first post-war years, Tito was widely considered a communist leader very loyal to Moscow; indeed, he was often viewed as second only to Stalin in the Eastern Bloc.", "In fact, Stalin and Tito had an uneasy alliance from the start, with Stalin considering Tito too independent.From 1946 to 1948, Tito actively engaged in building an alliance with neighbouring communist Albania, with the intent of incorporating Albania into Yugoslavia.", "According to Enver Hoxha, the then communist ruler of Albania, in the summer of 1946 Tito promised Hoxha that the Yugoslav province of Kosovo would be ceded to Albania.", "Despite the decision of unification being agreed upon by Yugoslav communists during the Bujan Conference, the plan never materialised.", "In the first post-war years in Kosovo, Tito enacted the policy of banning the return of Serb colonists to Kosovo, in addition to enacting the first large-scale primary education program of the Albanian language.During the immediate post-war period, Tito's Yugoslavia had a strong commitment to orthodox Marxist ideas.", "Harsh repressive measures against dissidents and \"enemies of the state\" were common from government agents, although not known to be under Tito's orders, including \"arrests, show trials, forced collectivisation, suppression of churches and religion\".", "As the leader of Yugoslavia, Tito displayed a fondness for luxury, taking over the royal palaces that had belonged to the House of Karađorđević together with the former palaces used by the House of Habsburg that were located in Yugoslavia.", "Tito's tours across Yugoslavia in his luxury Blue Train closely resembled the royal tours of the Karađorđević kings and Habsburg emperors and in Serbia.", "He also adopted the traditional royal custom of being a godfather to every 9th son, although he modified it to include daughters as well after criticism was made that the practice was sexist.", "Just like a Serbian king, Tito would appear wherever a 9th child was born to the family to congratulate the parents and give them a gift of cash.", "Tito always spoke very harshly of the Karađorđević kings in both public and private (through in private, he sometimes had a kind word for the Habsburgs), but in many ways, he appeared to his people as sort of a king." ], [ "Presidency", "===Tito–Stalin split===Edvard Kardelj, Aleksandar Ranković and Tito in 1958Unlike other states in east-central Europe liberated by allied forces, Yugoslavia liberated itself from Axis domination with limited direct support from the Red Army.", "Tito's leading role in liberating Yugoslavia not only greatly strengthened his position in his party and among the Yugoslav people but also caused him to be more insistent that Yugoslavia had more room to follow its own interests than other Bloc leaders who had more reasons to recognise Soviet efforts in helping them liberate their own countries from Axis control.", "Although Tito was formally an ally of Stalin after World War II, the Soviets had set up a spy ring in the Yugoslav party as early as 1945, giving way to an uneasy alliance.Tito with North Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh in Belgrade, 1957|leftIn the immediate aftermath of World War II, several armed incidents occurred between Yugoslavia and the Western Allies.", "Following the war, Yugoslavia acquired the Italian territory of Istria as well as the cities of Zadar and Rijeka.", "Yugoslav leadership was looking to incorporate Trieste into the country as well, which was opposed by the Western Allies.", "This led to several armed incidents, notably attacks by Yugoslav fighter planes on U.S. transport aircraft, causing bitter criticism from the West.", "In 1946 alone, Yugoslav air-force shot down two U.S. transport aircraft.", "The passengers and crew of the first plane were secretly interned by the Yugoslav government.", "The second plane and its crew were a total loss.", "The U.S. was outraged and sent an ultimatum to the Yugoslav government, demanding the release of the Americans in custody, U.S. access to the downed planes, and full investigation of the incidents.", "Stalin was opposed to what he felt were such provocations, as he believed the USSR unready to face the West in open war so soon after the losses of World War II and at the time when U.S. had operational nuclear weapons whereas the USSR had yet to conduct its first test.", "In addition, Tito was openly supportive of the Communist side in the Greek Civil War, while Stalin kept his distance, having agreed with Churchill not to pursue Soviet interests there, although he did support the Greek communist struggle politically, as demonstrated in several assemblies of the UN Security Council.", "In 1948, motivated by the desire to create a strong independent economy, Tito modelled his economic development plan independently from Moscow, which resulted in a diplomatic escalation followed by a bitter exchange of letters in which Tito wrote that \"We study and take as an example the Soviet system, but we are developing socialism in our country in somewhat different forms\".Iosif Grigulevich (right) was one of several Soviet agents sent by Joseph Stalin to assassinate Tito.The Soviet answer on 4 May admonished Tito and the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY) for failing to admit and correct its mistakes and went on to accuse them of being too proud of their successes against the Germans, maintaining that the Red Army had saved them from destruction.", "Tito's response on 17 May suggested that the matter be settled at the meeting of the Cominform to be held that June.", "However, Tito did not attend the second meeting of the Cominform, fearing that Yugoslavia was to be openly attacked.", "In 1949 the crisis nearly escalated into an armed conflict, as Hungarian and Soviet forces were massing on the northern Yugoslav frontier.", "An invasion of Yugoslavia was planned to be carried out in 1949 via the combined forces of neighbouring Soviet satellite states of Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania, followed by the subsequent removal of Tito's government.", "On 28 June, the other member countries of the Cominform expelled Yugoslavia, citing \"nationalist elements\" that had \"managed in the course of the past five or six months to reach a dominant position in the leadership\" of the CPY.", "The Hungarian and Romanian armies were expanded in size and, together with Soviet ones, massed on the Yugoslav border.", "The assumption in Moscow was that once it was known that he had lost Soviet approval, Tito would collapse; \"I will shake my little finger, and there will be no more Tito,\" Stalin remarked.", "The expulsion effectively banished Yugoslavia from the international association of socialist states, while other socialist states of Eastern Europe subsequently underwent purges of alleged \"Titoists\".", "Stalin took the matter personally and arranged several assassination attempts on Tito's life, none of which succeeded.", "In one correspondence between them, Tito openly wrote:The Goli Otok prisonOne significant consequence of the tension arising between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union was Tito's decision to begin large-scale repression against enemies of the government.", "This repression was not limited to known and alleged Stalinists but also included members of the Communist Party or anyone exhibiting sympathy towards the Soviet Union.", "Prominent partisans, such as Vlado Dapčević and Dragoljub Mićunović, were victims of this period of strong repression, which lasted until 1956 and was marked by significant violations of human rights.", "\"''Human rights were routinely suppressed...''\" Tens of thousands of political opponents served in forced labour camps, such as Goli Otok (meaning Barren Island), and hundreds died.", "An often disputed but relatively feasible number that was put forth by the Yugoslav government itself in 1964 places the number of Goli Otok inmates incarcerated between 1948 and 1956 to be 16,554, with less than 600 having died during detention.", "The facilities at Goli Otok were abandoned in 1956, and jurisdiction of the now-defunct political prison was handed over to the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia.Tito and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in Skopje after the 1963 earthquakeTito's estrangement from the USSR enabled Yugoslavia to obtain U.S. aid via the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA), the same U.S. aid institution that administered the Marshall Plan.", "Still, Tito did not agree to align with the West, which was a common consequence of accepting American aid at the time.", "After Stalin's death in 1953, relations with the USSR were relaxed, and Tito began to receive aid from the Comecon as well.", "In this way, Tito played East–West antagonism to his advantage.", "Instead of choosing sides, he was instrumental in kick-starting the Non-Aligned Movement, which would function as a \"third way\" for countries interested in staying outside of the East–West divide.The event was significant not only for Yugoslavia and Tito, but also for the global development of socialism, since it was the first major split between Communist states, casting doubt on Comintern's claims for socialism to be a unified force that would eventually control the whole world, as Tito became the first (and the only successful) socialist leader to defy Stalin's leadership in the Cominform.", "This rift with the Soviet Union brought Tito much international recognition, but also triggered a period of instability often referred to as the Informbiro period.", "Tito's form of communism was labelled \"Titoism\" by Moscow, which encouraged purges and repression against suspected and accused \"Titoites'\" throughout the Eastern Bloc.", "Some Trotskyists considered Tito to be an 'unconscious Trotskyist' because of the split.", "However, this was rejected by Ted Grant in 1949 who asserted there were no fundamental principled differences between Stalin and Tito.", "He said they were both 'proletarian Bonapartists' ruling deformed workers' statesTito modelling his regime on that of Stalin's.\"\"", "(\"Factories to the workers\") was the slogan of the Yugoslav socialist self-management system, as proclaimed by TitoOn 26 June 1950, the National Assembly supported a crucial bill written by Milovan Đilas and Tito regarding \"socialist self-management\", a type of cooperative independent socialist experiment that introduced profit sharing and workplace democracy in previously state-run enterprises, which then came under direct social ownership of the employees.", "On 13 January 1953, they established that the law on self-management was the basis of the entire social order in Yugoslavia.", "Tito also succeeded Ivan Ribar as the President of Yugoslavia on 14 January 1953, becoming the official head of state.", "After Stalin's death, Tito rejected the USSR's invitation for a visit to discuss the normalisation of relations between the two nations.", "Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin visited Tito in Belgrade in 1955 and apologised for wrongdoings by Stalin's administration, signing the Belgrade declaration.", "Tito visited the USSR in 1956, which signalled to the world that animosity between Yugoslavia and USSR was easing.", "Rapprochement between the two countries would not last long, as Yugoslav leadership took an increasingly explicit posture of non-alignment in the aftermath of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.Relations further deteriorated in the late 1960s because of Yugoslav economic reforms which consciously linked Yugoslavia to the international system, as well as Tito's support for the Prague Spring, which itself found much of its inspiration in Yugoslav market socialism, and opposition to the subsequent Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.The Tito–Stalin split had large ramifications for countries outside the USSR and Yugoslavia.", "It has, for example, been given as one of the reasons for the Slánský trial in Czechoslovakia, in which 14 high-level Communist officials were purged, with 11 of them being executed.", "Stalin put pressure on Czechoslovakia to conduct purges in order to discourage the spread of the idea of a \"national path to socialism,\" which Tito espoused.===Non-Alignment===Tito's diplomatic passport, 1973Under Tito's leadership, Yugoslavia became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "In 1961, Tito co-founded the movement with Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser, India's Jawaharlal Nehru, Indonesia's Sukarno and Ghana's Kwame Nkrumah, in an action called The Initiative of Five (Tito, Nehru, Nasser, Sukarno, Nkrumah), thus establishing strong ties with third world countries.", "This move did much to improve Yugoslavia's diplomatic position.", "Tito saw the Non-Aligned Movement as a way of presenting himself as a world leader of an important bloc of nations that would improve his bargaining power with both the eastern and western blocs.", "On 1 September 1961, Josip Broz Tito became the first Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement.Tito receiving Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser in Belgrade, 1961|leftTito's foreign policy led to relationships with a variety of governments, such as exchanging visits (1954 and 1956) with Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, where a street was named in his honour.", "In 1953, Tito visited Ethiopia, and in 1954, the Emperor visited Yugoslavia.", "Tito's motives in befriending Ethiopia were somewhat self-interested as he wanted to send recent graduates of Yugoslav universities (whose standards were not up to those of Western universities, thus making them unemployable in the West) to work in Ethiopia, which was one of the few countries that was willing to accept them.", "As Ethiopia did not have much of a health care system or a university system, Haile Selassie, from 1953 onward, encouraged the graduates of Yugoslav universities, especially with medical degrees, to come work in his empire.", "Reflecting his tendency to pursue closer ties with Third World nations, from 1950 onward, Tito permitted Mexican films to be shown in Yugoslavia, where they became very popular, especially the 1950 film ''Un día de vida'', which become a huge hit when it premiered in Yugoslavia in 1952.The success of Mexican films led to the \"Yu-Mex\" craze of the 1950s–1960s as Mexican music became popular, and it was fashionable for many Yugoslav musicians to don sombreros and sing Mexican songs in Serbo-Croatian.Tito was notable for pursuing a foreign policy of neutrality during the Cold War and for establishing close ties with developing countries.", "Tito's strong belief in self-determination caused the 1948 rift with Stalin and, consequently, the Eastern Bloc.", "His public speeches often reiterated that policy of neutrality and co-operation with all countries would be natural as long as these countries did not use their influence to pressure Yugoslavia to take sides.", "Relations with the United States and Western European nations were generally cordial.Josip Broz Tito greeting former U.S. first lady Eleanor Roosevelt during her July 1953 visit to YugoslaviaTito and Sukarno at the Postojna Cave, 1960In the early 1950s, Yugoslav-Hungarian relations were strained as Tito made little secret of his distaste for the Stalinist Mátyás Rákosi and his preference for the \"national communist\" Imre Nagy instead.", "Tito's decision to create a \"Balkan Pact\" by signing a treaty of alliance with NATO members Turkey and Greece in 1954 was regarded as tantamount to joining NATO in Soviet eyes, and his vague talk of a neutralist Communist federation of Eastern European states was seen as a major threat in Moscow.", "The Yugoslav embassy in Budapest was seen by the Soviets as a centre of subversion in Hungary as they accused Yugoslav diplomats and journalists, sometimes with justification, of supporting Nagy.", "However, when the revolt broke out in Hungary in October 1956, Tito accused Nagy of losing control of the situation, as he wanted a Communist Hungary independent of the Soviet Union, not the overthrow of Hungarian communism.", "On 31 October 1956, Tito ordered the Yugoslav media to stop praising Nagy and he quietly supported the Soviet intervention on 4 November to end the revolt in Hungary, as he believed that a Hungary ruled by anti-communists would pursue irredentist claims against Yugoslavia, as had just been the case during the interwar period.", "To escape from the Soviets, Nagy fled to the Yugoslav embassy, where Tito granted him asylum.", "On 5 November 1956, Soviet tanks shelled the Yugoslav embassy in Budapest, killing the Yugoslav cultural attache and several other diplomats.", "Tito's refusal to turn over Nagy, despite increasingly shrill Soviet demands that he do so, served his purposes well with relations with the Western states, as he was presented in the Western media as the \"good communist\" who stood up to Moscow by sheltering Nagy and the other Hungarian leaders.", "On 22 November, Nagy and his cabinet left the embassy on a bus that took them into exile in Yugoslavia after the new Hungarian leader, János Kádár had promised Tito in writing that they would not be harmed.", "Much to Tito's fury, when the bus left the Yugoslav embassy, it was promptly boarded by KGB agents who arrested the Hungarian leaders and roughly handled the Yugoslav diplomats who tried to protect them.", "The kidnapping of Nagy, followed by his subsequent execution, almost led to Yugoslavia breaking off diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and in 1957 Tito boycotted the ceremonials in Moscow for the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution, being the only communist leader who did not attend the occasion.Tito and German chancellor Willy Brandt in Bonn, 11 October 1970Yugoslavia had a liberal travel policy permitting foreigners to freely travel through the country and its citizens to travel worldwide, whereas it was limited by most Communist countries.", "A number of Yugoslav citizens worked throughout Western Europe.", "Tito met many world leaders during his rule, such as Soviet rulers Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev; Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser, Indian politicians Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi; British Prime Ministers Winston Churchill, James Callaghan and Margaret Thatcher; U.S. Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter; other political leaders, dignitaries and heads of state that Tito met at least once in his lifetime included Che Guevara, Fidel Castro, Yasser Arafat, Willy Brandt, Helmut Schmidt, Georges Pompidou, Kwame Nkrumah, Queen Elizabeth II, Hua Guofeng, Kim Il Sung, Sukarno, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Suharto, Idi Amin, Haile Selassie, Kenneth Kaunda, Gaddafi, Erich Honecker, Nicolae Ceaușescu, János Kádár, Saddam Hussein and Urho Kekkonen.", "He also met numerous celebrities.Queen Elizabeth II in Belgrade, 1972Yugoslavia provided major assistance to anti-colonialist movements in the Third World.", "The Yugoslav delegation was the first to bring the demands of the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) to the United Nations.", "In January 1958, the French Navy boarded the ''Slovenija'' cargo ship off Oran, whose holds were filled with weapons for the insurgents.", "Diplomat Danilo Milić explained that \"Tito and the leading nucleus of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia really saw in the Third World's liberation struggles a replica of their own struggle against the fascist occupants.", "They vibrated to the rhythm of the advances or setbacks of the FLN or Viet Cong.Tito and Finnish president Urho Kekkonen in Helsinki, 1964|leftThousands of Yugoslav military advisors travelled to Guinea after its decolonisation and as the French government tried to destabilise the country.", "Tito also covertly helped left-wing liberation movements to destabilise the Portuguese colonial empire.", "He saw the murder of Patrice Lumumba in 1961 as the \"greatest crime in contemporary history\".", "The country's military academies hosted left-wing activists from SWAPO (Namibia) and the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (South Africa) as part of Tito's efforts to undermine apartheid in South Africa.", "In 1980, the intelligence services of South Africa and Argentina plotted to return the 'favour' by covertly bringing 1,500 anti-urban communist guerrillas to Yugoslavia.", "The operation was aimed at overthrowing Tito and was planned during the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow so that the Soviets would be too busy to react.", "The operation was finally abandoned due to Tito's death the Yugoslav armed forces raising their alert level.In 1953, Tito travelled to Britain for a state visit and met with Winston Churchill.", "He also toured Cambridge and visited the University Library.Tito visited India from 22 December 1954 through 8 January 1955.After his return, he removed many restrictions on churches and spiritual institutions in Yugoslavia.Tito and Jimmy Carter hold a meeting between U.S. and Yugoslav officials in 1978Tito also developed warm relations with Burma under U Nu, travelling to the country in 1955 and again in 1959, though he did not receive the same treatment in 1959 from the new leader, Ne Win.", "Tito had an especially close friendship with Prince Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia, who preached an eccentric mixture of monarchism, Buddhism and socialism, and like Tito, wanted his country to be neutral in the Cold War.", "Tito saw Sihanouk as something of a kindred soul who, like him had to struggle to maintain his backward country's neutrality in the face of rival power blocs.", "By contrast, Tito had a strong dislike of President Idi Amin of Uganda, whom he saw as a thuggish and possibly insane leader.Because of its neutrality, Yugoslavia would often be rare among Communist countries to have had diplomatic relations with right-wing, anti-communist governments.", "For example, Yugoslavia was the only communist country that had diplomatic relations with Alfredo Stroessner's Paraguay.", "Faced by economic crisis, Yugoslavia was willing to sell arms supplies to staunchly anti-communist regimes such as that of Guatemala under Kjell Eugenio Laugerud García during the Guatemalan Civil War.", "Notable exceptions to Yugoslavia's neutral stance toward anti-communist countries include Spain under Franco, Greece under Greek junta and Chile under Pinochet; Yugoslavia was one of many countries that severed diplomatic relations with Chile after Salvador Allende was overthrown.===Reforms===A butcher shop in Maribor adorned with a portrait of Tito, 1957Starting in the 1950s, Tito's government permitted Yugoslav workers to go to western Europe, especially West Germany as ''Gastarbeiter'' (\"guest workers\").", "The exposure of many Yugoslavs to the West and its culture led many people in Yugoslavia to view themselves as culturally closer to Western Europe than Eastern Europe.", "In the autumn of 1960, Tito met President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the United Nations General Assembly meeting.", "Tito and Eisenhower discussed a range of issues from arms control to economic development.", "When Eisenhower remarked that Yugoslavia's neutrality was \"neutral on his side\", Tito replied that neutrality did not imply passivity but meant \"not taking sides\".", "On 7 April 1963, the country changed its official name from \"Federal People's Republic\" to \"Socialist Federal Republic\" of Yugoslavia.", "Economic reforms encouraged smallscale private enterprise (up to five full-time workers; most of these were family businesses and largest in agriculture) and greatly relaxed restrictions on religious expression.", "Tito subsequently went on a tour of the Americas.", "In Chile, two government ministers resigned over his visit to that country.Tito's calling card from 1967In 1966, an agreement with the Holy See, fostered in part by the death in 1960 of the anti-communist archbishop of Zagreb Aloysius Stepinac and shifts in the church's approach to resisting communism originating in the Second Vatican Council, accorded new freedom to the Yugoslav Roman Catholic Church, particularly to catechise and open seminaries.", "The agreement also eased tensions, which had prevented the naming of new bishops in Yugoslavia since 1945.Holy See and Yugoslavia reconciled their relations and worked together on achieving peace in Vietnam.", "Tito's new socialism met opposition from traditional communists culminating in a conspiracy headed by Aleksandar Ranković.", "Allegedly, the charge on which he was removed from power and expelled from the LCY was that he bugged the working and sleeping quarters of Josip Broz Tito as well as many other high government officials.", "Ranković was, for almost twenty years, at the head of the State Security Administration (UDBA), as well as Federal Secretary of Internal Affairs.", "His position as a party whip and Tito's way of controlling and monitoring the government and, to a certain extent, the people bothered many, especially the younger, newer generation of government officials who were working towards a more liberal Yugoslav society.", "In the same year, Tito declared that communists must henceforth chart Yugoslavia's course by the force of their arguments (implying an abandonment of Leninist orthodoxy and development of liberal socialism).", "On 1 January 1967, Yugoslavia became the first communist country to open its borders to all foreign visitors and abolish visa requirements.", "In the same year Tito became active in promoting a peaceful resolution of the Arab–Israeli conflict.", "His plan called for Arabs to recognise the state of Israel in exchange for territories Israel newly occupied.In 1968, Tito offered to fly to Prague on three hours' notice if Czechoslovak leader Alexander Dubček needed help in facing down the Soviets.", "In April 1969, Tito removed generals Ivan Gošnjak and Rade Hamović in the aftermath of the invasion of Czechoslovakia due to the unpreparedness of the Yugoslav army to respond to a similar invasion of Yugoslavia.Tito with U.S. president Richard Nixon at the White House, 28 October 1971In 1971, Tito was re-elected as President of Yugoslavia by the Federal Assembly for the sixth time.", "In his speech before the Federal Assembly, he introduced 20 sweeping constitutional amendments that would provide an updated framework on which the country would be based.", "The amendments provided for a collective presidency, a 22-member body consisting of elected representatives from six republics and two autonomous provinces.", "The body would have a single chairman of the presidency, and chairmanship would rotate among six republics.", "When the Federal Assembly failed to agree on legislation, the collective presidency would have the power to rule by decree.", "Amendments also provided for a stronger cabinet with considerable power to initiate and pursue legislation independently from the Communist Party.", "Džemal Bijedić was chosen as the Premier.", "The new amendments aimed to decentralise the country by granting greater autonomy to republics and provinces.", "The federal government would retain authority only over foreign affairs, defence, internal security, monetary affairs, free trade within Yugoslavia, and development loans to poorer regions.", "Control of education, healthcare, and housing would be exercised entirely by the governments of the republics and the autonomous provinces.Tito's greatest strength, in the eyes of the western communists, had been in suppressing nationalist insurrections and maintaining unity throughout the country.", "It was Tito's call for brotherhood and unity, and related methods, that held together the people of Yugoslavia.", "This ability was put to a test several times during his reign, notably during the Croatian Spring (also referred as the or Maspok for short, meaning \"Mass Movement\") when the government suppressed both public demonstrations and dissenting opinions within the Communist Party.", "Despite this suppression, much of Maspok's demands, including for decentralisation, were later realised with the new constitution, heavily backed by Tito himself against opposition from the Serbian branch of the party, who favoured centralisation.", "On 16 May 1974, the new Constitution was passed, and the 82-year-old Tito was named president for life.", "However, the 1974 constitution caused issues for the Yugoslavian economy and distorted its market mechanism, which led to the future escalation of ethnic tensions.Tito's visits to the United States avoided most of the Northeast due to large minorities of Yugoslav emigrants bitter about communism in Yugoslavia.", "Security for the state visits was usually high to keep him away from protesters, who would frequently burn the Yugoslav flag.", "During a visit to the United Nations in the late 1970s, emigrants shouted \"Tito murderer\" outside his New York hotel, for which he protested to United States authorities." ], [ "Final years and death", "After the constitutional changes of 1974, Tito began reducing his role in the day-to-day running of the state, transferring much of it to the prime minister who was the head of government, but retained the final word on all major policy decisions as president and head of state and as the head of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia.", "40th anniversary of his communist party leadership was observed on the Youth Day of 1977 throughout Yugoslavia.", "He continued to travel abroad and receive foreign visitors, going to Beijing in 1977 and reconciling with the Chinese leadership that had once branded him a revisionist.", "In turn, Chairman Hua Guofeng visited Yugoslavia in 1979.In 1978, Tito travelled to the U.S. During the visit, strict security was imposed in Washington, D.C., owing to protests by anti-communist Croat, Serb and Albanian groups.House of Flowers, a mausoleum within the Museum of Yugoslavia in Belgrade, SerbiaTito became increasingly ill over the course of 1979.During this time, ''Vila Srna'' was built for his use near Morović in the event of his recovery.", "On 7 January and again on 12 January 1980, Tito was admitted to the Medical Centre in Ljubljana, the capital city of the SR Slovenia, with circulation problems in his legs.", "Tito's own stubbornness and refusal to allow doctors to follow through with the necessary amputation of his left leg played a part in his eventual death of gangrene-induced infection.", "His adjutant later testified that Tito threatened to take his own life if his leg was ever to be amputated and that he had to hide Tito's pistol in fear that he would follow through on his threats.", "After a private conversation with his two sons Žarko and Mišo Broz, he finally agreed, and his left leg was amputated due to arterial blockages.", "The amputation proved to be too late, and Tito died at the Medical Centre of Ljubljana on 4 May 1980, three days short of his 88th birthday.The state funeral of Josip Broz Tito drew many world statesmen.", "It attracted government leaders from 129 states.", "Based on the number of attending politicians and state delegations, at the time it was the largest state funeral in history; this concentration of dignitaries would be unmatched until the funeral of Pope John Paul II in 2005 and the memorial service of Nelson Mandela in 2013.Those who attended included four kings, 31 presidents, six princes, 22 prime ministers and 47 ministers of foreign affairs.", "They came from both sides of the Cold War, from 128 countries out of 154 UN members at the time.Reporting on his death, ''The New York Times'' commented:Tito was interred in the House of Flowers, a mausoleum in Belgrade which forms part of a memorial complex in the grounds of the Museum of Yugoslav History (formerly called \"Museum 25 May\" and \"Museum of the Revolution\").", "The museum keeps the gifts Tito received during his presidency.", "The collection includes original prints of ''Los Caprichos'' by Francisco Goya, and many others." ], [ "Evaluation", "Tito in 1970Dominic McGoldrick writes that as the head of a \"highly centralised and oppressive\" regime, Tito wielded tremendous power in Yugoslavia, with his authoritarian rule administered through an elaborate bureaucracy that routinely suppressed human rights.", "The main victims of this repression were during the first years known and alleged Stalinists, such as Dragoslav Mihailović and Dragoljub Mićunović, but during the following years, even some of the most prominent among Tito's collaborators were arrested.", "On 19 November 1956, Milovan Đilas, perhaps the closest of Tito's collaborators and widely regarded as his possible successor, was arrested because of his criticism of Tito's regime.", "Victor Sebestyen writes that Tito \"was as brutal as\" Stalin.", "The repression did not exclude intellectuals and writers, such as Venko Markovski, who was arrested and sent to jail in January 1956 for writing poems considered anti-Titoist.Even if, after the reforms of 1961, Tito's presidency had become comparatively more liberal than other communist regimes, the Communist Party continued to alternate between liberalism and repression.", "Yugoslavia managed to remain independent from the Soviet Union, and its brand of socialism was in many ways the envy of Eastern Europe, but Tito's Yugoslavia remained a tightly controlled police state.", "According to David Matas, outside the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia had more political prisoners than all of the rest of Eastern Europe combined.", "Tito's secret police were modelled on the Soviet KGB.", "Its members were ever-present and often acted extrajudicially, with victims including middle-class intellectuals, liberals and democrats.", "Yugoslavia was a signatory to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, but scant regard was paid to some of its provisions.", "Tito with U.S. president Jimmy Carter in Washington, 7 March 1978Tito's Yugoslavia was based on respect for nationality, although Tito ruthlessly purged any flowerings of nationalism that threatened the Yugoslav federation.", "However, the contrast between the deference given to some ethnic groups and the severe repression of others was sharp.", "Yugoslav law guaranteed nationalities to use their language, but for ethnic Albanians, the assertion of ethnic identity was severely limited.", "Almost half of the political prisoners in Yugoslavia were ethnic Albanians imprisoned for asserting their ethnic identity.Yugoslavia's post-war development was impressive, but the country ran into economic snags around 1970 and experienced significant unemployment and inflation.Declassified documents from the CIA state in 1967, it was already clear that although Tito's economic model had achieved growth of the gross national product around 7%, it also created frequently unwise industrial investment and a chronic deficit in the nation's balance of payment.", "In the 1970s, uncontrolled growth often created chronic inflation, which Tito and the Party could not fully stabilise or moderate.", "Yugoslavia also paid high interest on loans compared to the LIBOR rate, but Tito's presence eased investors' fears since he had proven willing and able to implement unpopular reforms.", "By 1979 with Tito's passing on the horizon, a global downturn in the economy, consistently increasing unemployment and growth slowing to 5.9% throughout the 1970s, it had become likely that \"the rapid economic growth to which the Yugoslavs had become accustomed\" would aggressively decline.With the passing of the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution, Tito initiated what, according to A. Ross Johnson of the United States Department of State, \"constituted the first effort in postwar Yugoslavia (and the first attempt in any Communist system) to establish depersonalised and institutionalised 'rules of the game' in Party decision-making bodies intended to apply to the period of succession.\"", "This system created a state and party presidency that was governed collectively, each limited to one year term of office.", "However, this constitutional system might have contributed to the collapse of Yugoslavia, according to professor Robert M. Hayden, \"While perhaps no federal structure could have contained the political pressures of Yugoslavia in 1989/91, the flaws of the 1974 constitution served to ensure that they became unmanageable, thus making civil war virtually inevitable.", "Responsibility for the war must thus be shared, between the Slovenes, whose actions destroyed the federal structure, Slobodan Milošević|Slobodan Milošević, whose aggressive politics goaded the Slovenes into doing so, and the drafters of the constitution, who made the chimaera of a \"confederation\" seem a reasonable constitutional structure.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Statue of Tito in the village of his birth, KumrovecMarshal Tito Street in Skopje (Yugoslav People's Army provide support after 26 July 1963 earthquake)Tito memorabilia in a market in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2009\"Long live Tito\", graffiti in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2009Graffiti in Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2012Tito is credited with transforming Yugoslavia from a poor nation to a middle-income one that saw vast improvements in women's rights, health, education, urbanisation, industrialisation, and many other areas of human and economic development.", "A 2010 poll found that as many as 81% of Serbians believe that life was better under Tito.", "Tito also ranked first in the \"Greatest Croatian\" poll which was conducted in 2003 by the Croatian weekly news magazine ''Nacional''.During his life and especially in the first year after his death, several places were named after Tito; several of these have since returned to their original names.For example, Podgorica, formerly Titograd (though Podgorica's international airport is still identified by the code TGD), and Užice, formerly known as Titovo Užice, which reverted to its original name in 1992.Streets in Belgrade, the capital, have all reverted to their original pre-World War II and pre-communist names as well.", "In 2004, Antun Augustinčić's statue of Broz in his birthplace of Kumrovec was decapitated in an explosion.", "It was subsequently repaired.", "Twice in 2008, protests took place in what was then Zagreb's Marshal Tito Square (since 2017 the Republic of Croatia Square), organised by a group called Circle for the Square (), with an aim to force the city government to rename it to its previous name, while a counter-protest by Citizens' Initiative Against Ustašism () accused the \"Circle for the Square\" of historical revisionism and neo-fascism.", "Croatian president Stjepan Mesić criticised the demonstration to change the name.In the Croatian coastal city of Opatija the main street (also its longest street) still bears the name of Marshal Tito.", "Rijeka, third largest city in Croatia, also refuses to change the name of one of the squares in the city centre named after Tito.", "There are streets named after Tito in numerous towns in Serbia, mostly in the country's north (Vojvodina).", "One of the main streets in downtown Sarajevo is called Marshal Tito Street, and Tito's statue in a park in front of the university campus (ex.", "JNA barrack \"Maršal Tito\") in Marijin Dvor is a place where Bosnians and Sarajevans still today commemorate and pay tribute to Tito.", "The largest Tito monument in the world, about high, is located at Tito Square (), the central square in Velenje, Slovenia.", "One of the main bridges in Slovenia's second largest city of Maribor is Tito Bridge ().", "The central square in Koper, the largest Slovenian port city, is named Tito Square.", "The main-belt asteroid 1550 Tito, discovered by Serbian astronomer Milorad B. Protić at Belgrade Observatory in 1937, was named in his honour.The Croat historian Marijana Belaj wrote that for some people in Croatia and other parts of the former Yugoslavia, Tito is remembered as a sort of secular saint, mentioning how some Croats keep portraits of Catholic saints together with a portrait of Tito on their walls as a way to bring hope.", "The practice of writing letters to Tito has continued well after his death with several websites in former Yugoslavia devoted entirely as forums for people to send posthumous letters to him, where they often talk about various personal problems.", "Every year on 25 May, several thousand people from the former Yugoslavia gather in Tito's hometown of Kumrovec and his resting place, House of Flowers, to pay tribute to his memory and celebrate the former country's Youth Day, which was in Yugoslav era one of the biggest annual celebrations and would be marked by the Relay of Youth with a birthday pledge to Josip Broz Tito.", "Belaj wrote that much of the posthumous appeal of the Tito cult centres around Tito's everyman persona and how he was presented as a \"friend\" to ordinary people, in contrast to the way in which Stalin was depicted in his cult of personality as a cold, aloof god-like figure whose extraordinary qualities set him apart from ordinary people.", "The majority of those who come to Kumrovec on 25 May to kiss Tito's statue are women.", "Belaji wrote that the appeal of the Tito cult today centres less around communism, observing that most people who come to Kumrovec do not believe in communism, but rather due to nostalgia for their youth in Tito's Yugoslavia, and affection for an \"ordinary man\" who became great.", "Tito was not a Croat nationalist, but the fact that Tito became the world's most famous Croat, serving as the leader of the Non-Aligned Movement and been seen as an important world leader, inspires pride in certain quarters of Croatia.Every year a \"Brotherhood and Unity\" relay race is organised in Montenegro, Macedonia, and Serbia that ends at the \"House of Flowers\" in Belgrade on 25 May – the final resting place of Tito.", "At the same time, runners in Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina set off for Kumrovec, Tito's birthplace in northern Croatia.", "The relay is a left-over from the Relay of Youth from Yugoslav times, when young people made a similar yearly trek on foot through Yugoslavia that ended in Belgrade with a massive celebration.", "''Tito and Me'' (), a Yugoslav comedy film by Serbian director Goran Marković, was released in 1992.In the years following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, historians started highlighting that human rights were suppressed in Yugoslavia under Tito, particularly in the first decade up until the Tito–Stalin split.", "On 4 October 2011, the Slovenian Constitutional Court found a 2009 naming of a street in Ljubljana after Tito to be unconstitutional.", "While several public areas in Slovenia (named during the Yugoslav period) do already bear Tito's name, on the issue of renaming an additional street the court ruled that:The court, however, explicitly made it clear that the purpose of the review was \"not a verdict on Tito as a figure or on his concrete actions, as well as not a historical weighing of facts and circumstances\".", "Slovenia has several streets and squares named after Tito, notably ''Tito Square'' in Velenje, incorporating a 10-meter statue.Some scholars have named Tito as responsible for the systematic eradication of the ethnic German (Danube Swabian) population in Vojvodina by expulsions and mass executions following the collapse of the German occupation of Yugoslavia at the end of World War II, in contrast to his inclusive attitude towards other Yugoslav nationalities." ], [ "Family and personal life", "Jovanka Broz and Tito in Postojna, 6 April 1960Tito was married several times and engaged in numerous affairs.", "In 1918 he was brought to Omsk, Russia, as a prisoner of war.", "There he met , who was then fourteen; he married her a year later, and she moved with him to Yugoslavia.", "They had five children but only their son (born 4 February 1924) survived.", "When Tito was jailed in 1928, Belousova returned to Russia.", "After the divorce in 1936, she remarried.In 1936, when Tito stayed at the Hotel Lux in Moscow, he met the Austrian .", "They married in October 1936, but the records of this marriage were later deliberately erased.His next relationship was with Herta Haas, whom he married in 1940.Broz left for Belgrade after the April War, leaving Haas pregnant.", "In May 1941, she gave birth to their son, Aleksandar \"Mišo\" Broz.", "All throughout his relationship with Haas, Tito had maintained a promiscuous life and had a parallel relationship with , who, under the codename \"Zdenka Horvat\", served as a courier in the resistance and subsequently became his personal secretary.", "Haas and Tito suddenly parted company in 1943 in Jajce during the second meeting of AVNOJ after she reportedly walked in on him and Davorjanka.", "The last time Haas saw Broz was in 1946.Davorjanka died of tuberculosis in 1946, and Tito insisted that she be buried in the backyard of the Beli Dvor, his Belgrade residence.", "''Beli dvor'' in Belgrade, one of Tito's residencesHis best-known wife was Jovanka Broz.", "Tito was just shy of his 60th birthday, while she was 27, when they finally married in April 1952, with state security chief Aleksandar Ranković as the best man.", "Their eventual marriage came about somewhat unexpectedly since Tito actually rejected her some years earlier when his confidante brought her in originally.", "At that time, she was in her early 20s, and Tito objected to her energetic personality.", "Not one to be discouraged easily, Jovanka continued working at Beli Dvor, where she managed the staff and eventually got another chance.", "Their relationship was not a happy one, however.", "It had gone through many, often public, ups and downs with episodes of infidelities and even allegations of preparation for a ''coup d'état'' by the latter pair.", "Certain unofficial reports suggest Tito and Jovanka even formally divorced in the late 1970s, shortly before his death.", "However, during Tito's funeral, she was officially present as his wife and later claimed rights for inheritance.", "The couple did not have any children.Tito's grandchildren include Saša Broz, a theatre director in Croatia; Svetlana Broz, a cardiologist and writer in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Josip Broz (better-known as Joška Broz), a politician in Serbia; Edvard Broz and Natali Klasevski, an artisan of Bosnia and Herzegovina.Brijuni Islands, location of the summer residenceAs president, Tito had access to extensive (state-owned) property associated with the office and maintained a lavish lifestyle.", "In Belgrade, he resided in the official residence, the Beli Dvor, and maintained a separate private home.", "The Brijuni Islands were the site of the State Summer Residence from 1949 on.", "The pavilion was designed by Jože Plečnik and included a zoo.", "Close to 100 foreign heads of state were to visit Tito at the island residence, along with film stars such as Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Burton, Sophia Loren, Carlo Ponti, and Gina Lollobrigida.", "On the island of Brijuni, a museum displays photos of the many visitors that Tito received over more than three decades.Tito's Blue Train in 1976Lounge in the Blue TrainAnother residence was maintained at Lake Bled, while the grounds at Karađorđevo were the site of \"diplomatic hunts\".", "By 1974 the Yugoslav president had at his disposal 32 official residences, large and small, the yacht ''Galeb'' (\"seagull\"), a Boeing 727 as the presidential aeroplane, and the Blue Train.", "After Tito's death the presidential Boeing 727 was sold to Aviogenex, the ''Galeb'' remained docked in Montenegro, while the Blue Train was stored in a Serbian train shed for over two decades.", "While Tito was the person who held the office of president for by far the longest period, the associated property was not private, and much of it continues to be in use by Yugoslav successor states, as public property or maintained at the disposal of high-ranking officials.As regards knowledge of languages, Tito replied that he spoke Serbo-Croatian, German, Russian, and some English.", "Broz's official biographer and then fellow Central Committee-member Vladimir Dedijer stated in 1953 that he spoke \"Serbo-Croatian ... Russian, Czech, Slovenian ... German (with a Viennese accent) ... understands and reads French and Italian ... and also speaks Kazakh.\"", "At the 38th World Esperanto Congress that was held in Zagreb in 1953, Tito revealed his knowledge of Esperanto which he learned during his jail time.In his youth, Tito attended Catholic Sunday school and was later an altar boy.", "After an incident where he was slapped and shouted at by a priest when he had difficulty assisting the priest to remove his vestments, Tito would not enter a church again.", "As an adult, he identified as an atheist.Every federal unit had a town or city with historical significance from World War II renamed to have Tito's name included.", "The largest of these was Titograd, now Podgorica, the capital city of Montenegro.", "With the exception of Titograd, the cities were renamed simply by the addition of the adjective ''Titov'' 'Tito's'.", "Previous names of the cities were restored after the Fall of Communism.", "The cities were: '''Republic''' '''City''' '''Original name''' Bosnia and Herzegovina Titov Drvar (1981–1991) Drvar Croatia Titova Korenica (1945–1991) Korenica Macedonia Titov Veles (1946–1996) Veles Montenegro Titograd (1948–1992) Podgorica Serbia:: Kosovo:: Vojvodina Titovo Užice (1947–1992): Titova Mitrovica (1981–1991): Titov Vrbas (1983–1992) Užice: Mitrovica: Vrbas Slovenia Titovo Velenje (1981–1990) Velenje ===Language and identity dispute===In the years after Tito's death up to the present, many conspiracy theories have been put forward that suggest possible existence of several alternate identities of Tito, none with any serious evidence to support them.", "Serbian journalist Vladan Dinić argued in ''Tito is not Tito'' that three separate people had identified as Tito.", "Tito's personal physician, Aleksandar Matunović, wrote a book about Tito in which he questioned his true origin, noting that Tito's habits and lifestyle could only mean that he was from an aristocratic family.In 2013, a lot of media coverage was given to a declassified NSA study in ''Cryptologic Spectrum'' that concluded Tito had not spoken Serbo-Croatian as a native.", "The report noted that his speech had features of other Slavic languages (Russian and Polish).", "The hypothesis that \"a non-Yugoslav, perhaps a Russian or a Pole\" assumed Tito's identity was included with a note that this had happened during or before the Second World War.", "The report notes Draža Mihailović's impressions of Tito's Russian origins after he had personally spoken with Tito.However, the NSA's report was disputed by Croatian experts.", "The report failed to recognise that Tito was a native speaker of the very distinctive local Kajkavian dialect of Zagorje.", "His acute accent, present only in Croatian dialects, and which Tito was able to pronounce perfectly, is the strongest evidence for his Zagorje origins.===Origin of the name \"Tito\"===As the Communist Party was outlawed in Yugoslavia starting on 30 December 1920, Josip Broz took on many assumed names during his activity within the Party, including \"Rudi\", \"Walter\", and \"Tito\".", "Broz himself explains:" ], [ "Awards and decorations", "Josip Broz Tito received a total of 119 awards and decorations from 60 countries around the world (59 countries and Yugoslavia).", "21 decorations were from Yugoslavia itself, 18 having been awarded once, and the Order of the National Hero on three occasions.", "Of the 98 international awards and decorations, 92 were received once, and three on two occasions (Order of the White Lion, Polonia Restituta, and Karl Marx).", "The most notable awards included the French Legion of Honour and National Order of Merit, the British Order of the Bath, the Soviet Order of Lenin, the Japanese Order of the Chrysanthemum, the West German Federal Cross of Merit, and the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic.The decorations were seldom displayed, however.", "After the Tito–Stalin split of 1948 and his inauguration as president in 1953, Tito rarely wore his uniform except when present in a military function, and then (with rare exception) only wore his Yugoslav ribbons for obvious practical reasons.", "The awards were displayed in full number only at his funeral in 1980.Tito's reputation as one of the Allied leaders of World War II, along with his diplomatic position as the founder of the Non-Aligned Movement, was primarily the cause of the favourable international recognition.===Domestic awards=== 1st Row Order of the People's Hero 2nd RowOrder of the Yugoslav Great StarOrder of FreedomOrder of the Hero of Socialist LabourOrder of National LiberationOrder of the War BannerOrder of the Yugoslav Flag with Sash3rd RowOrder of the Partisan Star with Golden WreathOrder of the Republic with Golden WreathOrder of Merits for the PeopleOrder of Brotherhood and Unity with Golden WreathOrder of the People's Army with Laurel WreathOrder of Military Merits with Great Star4th RowOrder of BraveryCommemorative Medal of the Partisans of 194110 Years of the Yugoslav People's Army Medal20 Years of the Yugoslav People's Army Medal30 Years of the Yugoslav People's Army Medal30 Years of the Victory over Fascism Medal '''Note 1:''' Awarded 3 times.", "'''Note 2:''' All state decorations of the former Yugoslavia are now defunct." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Journals & papers===* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * , also Published as * * * * ===Historiography and memory===* online* * Cicic, Ana.", "\"Yugoslavia Revisited: Contested Histories through Public Memories of President Tito.\"", "(2020).", "online* Cosovschi, Agustin.", "\"Seeing and Imagining the Land of Tito: Oscar Waiss and the Geography of Socialist Yugoslavia.\"", "''Balkanologie.", "Revue d'études pluridisciplinaires'' 17.1 (2022).", "online* Foster, Samuel.", "''Yugoslavia in the British imagination: Peace, war and peasants before Tito'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2021) online.", "See also online book review* Trošt, Tamara P. \"The image of Josip Broz Tito in post-Yugoslavia: Between national and local memory.\"", "in ''Ruler Personality Cults from Empires to Nation-States and Beyond'' (Routledge, 2020) pp.", "143–162.online" ], [ "External links", "* Josip Broz Tito Archive at marxists.org* *" ] ]
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[ [ "John Stauber" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Stauber''' is an American progressive writer.", "Stauber has co-authored five books about government propaganda, private interests and the public relations industry.", "His work includes one book about how industry manipulates science (''Trust Us, We're Experts''), one about the history and current scope of the public relations industry (''Toxic Sludge is Good for You''), and one about mad cow disease (''Mad Cow USA''), which predicted the surfacing of the disease within the United States.In July 2003, Stauber and Sheldon Rampton wrote ''Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush's War on Iraq'', which argued that the Bush administration deceived the American public into supporting the war.", "In 2004, the two co-authored ''Banana Republicans,'' which argued that the Republican Party is turning the U.S. into a one-party state.", "The book argues that the far-right and its functionaries in the media, lobbying establishment and electoral system are undermining dissent and squelching pluralistic politics in the United States.", "In 2006 the two wrote ''The Best War Ever: Lies, Damned Lies, and the Mess in Iraq,'' which builds upon the arguments they posited in ''Weapons of Mass Deception''.Stauber is the founder and former executive director of the Center for Media and Democracy, which sponsors PR Watch and SourceWatch.", "Since the 1960s, he has worked with public interest, consumer, family farm, environmental and community organizations at the local, state and national level.", "He edits and writes for the Center's quarterly newsmagazine, ''PR Watch''.", "He is also a member of the Liberty Tree Board of Advisers.Stauber grew up in a conservative Republican household in Marshfield, Wisconsin, but the war in Vietnam turned him into an anti-war and environmental activist while still in high school." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "James P. Hogan (writer)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Patrick Hogan''' (27 June 1941 – 12 July 2010) was a British science fiction author.", "His major works include the ''Giants'' series of five novels published between 1977 and 2005." ], [ "Biography", "Hogan was born in London, England.", "He was raised in the Portobello Road area on the west side of London.", "After leaving school at the age of sixteen, he worked various odd jobs until, after receiving a scholarship, he began a five-year program at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough studying the practice and theory of electrical, electronic, and mechanical engineering.", "He was married four times and fathered six children.Hogan worked as a design engineer for several companies and eventually began working with sales during the 1960s, traveling around Europe as a sales engineer for Honeywell.", "During the 1970s he joined the Digital Equipment Corporation's Laboratory Data Processing Group and during 1977 relocated to Boston, Massachusetts to manage its sales training program.", "He published his first novel, ''Inherit The Stars'', during the same year to win an office bet.He quit DEC during 1979 and began writing full-time, relocating to Orlando, Florida, for a year where he met his third wife Jackie.", "They later relocated to Sonora, California.", "During his later years, Hogan adopted a number of contrarian opinions.", "He was a proponent of Immanuel Velikovsky's version of catastrophism, arguing Velikovsky's critics were part of \"an entrenched priesthood\" who refused to seriously examine Velikovsky even when some of his predictions were validated (such as Venus's extremely high surface temperature which was contrary to prevailing scientific opinion in the 1950s); and as of 1999 Hogan accepted the Peter Duesberg hypothesis that AIDS is caused by pharmaceutical use rather than HIV (see AIDS denialism).", "He criticized the idea of the gradualism of evolution, though he did not propose theistic creationism as an alternative.", "Hogan was skeptical of scientific consensus about climate change and ozone depletion.Hogan believed that the Holocaust did not happen in the manner described by mainstream historians, writing that he found the work of Arthur Butz and Mark Weber to be \"more scholarly, scientific, and convincing than what the history written by the victors says\".", "In March 2010, in an essay defending Holocaust denier Ernst Zündel, Hogan stated that the mainstream history of the Holocaust includes \"claims that are wildly fantastic, mutually contradictory, and defy common sense and often physical possibility\".Hogan died of heart failure at his home in Ireland on Monday, 12 July 2010, aged 69." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Novels===*''The Genesis Machine'' () – April 1978.", "*''The Two Faces of Tomorrow'' () – June 1979.", "*''Thrice Upon a Time'' () – March 1980.", "*''Voyage from Yesteryear'' () – July 1982 (also ( or ) (Paperbacks)).", "*''Code of the Lifemaker'' () – June 1983 (exploring ideas of a Clanking replicator robotic system).", "*''The Proteus Operation'' () – October 1985.", "*''Endgame Enigma'' () – August 1987.", "*''The Mirror Maze'' () – March 1989.", "*''The Infinity Gambit'' () – March 1991.", "*''The Multiplex Man'' () – December 1992.", "*''The Immortality Option'' () – February 1995 (sequel to ''Code of the Lifemaker'').", "*''Realtime Interrupt'' () – March 1995.", "*''Paths To Otherwhere'' () – February 1996.", "*''Bug Park'' () – April 1997.", "*''Outward Bound'' () – March 1999 (A Jupiter Novel).", "*''Cradle of Saturn'' () – June 1999.", "*''The Legend That Was Earth'' () – October 2000.", "*''The Anguished Dawn'' () – June 2003 (sequel to \"Cradle of Saturn\").", "*''Echoes of an Alien Sky'' () – February 2007.", "*''Moon Flower'' () – April 2008.", "*''Migration'' () – 18 May 2010.====Giants series====#''Inherit the Stars'' () – May 1977.#''The Gentle Giants of Ganymede'' () – May 1978.#''Giants' Star'' () – July 1981.#''Entoverse'' () – October 1991.#''Mission to Minerva'' () – May 2005.===Short stories===*\"Assassin\" (May 1978, ''Stellar #4'', recollected in ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"Silver Shoes for a Princess\" (October 1979, ''Destinies, October-December 1979'', collected in ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'' and reworked as the first section of ''Star Child'').", "*\"The Sword of Damocles\" (May 1980, ''Stellar #5'', an adapted version appears in ''Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions'').", "*\"Neander-Tale\" (December 1980, ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'', collected in ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"Till Death Us Do Part\" (January 1981, ''Stellar #6'', collected in ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"Making Light\" (August 1981, ''Stellar #7'', collected in ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"Identity Crisis\" (August 1981, ''Stellar #7'', collected in ''Rockets, Redheads & Revolution'').", "*\"The Pacifist\" (June 1988, ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"Code of the Lifemaker: Prologue\" (June 1988, ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'' (the first segment of the novel of the same name)).", "*\"Merry Gravmas\" (June 1988, ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"Generation Gap\" (June 1988, ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"Rules Within Rules\" (June 1988, ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"The Absolutely Foolproof Alibi\" (June 1988, ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"Down To Earth\" (June 1988, ''Minds, Machines & Evolution'').", "*\"Leapfrog\" (August 1989, ''Alternate Empires'', collected in ''Rockets, Redheads & Revolution'').", "*\"Last Ditch\" (December 1992, ''Analog Science Fiction and Fact'', collected in ''Rockets, Redheads & Revolution'').", "*\"Out of Time\" (December 1993, chapbook (), collected in ''Rockets, Redheads & Revolution'').", "*\"Zap Thy Neighbor\" (September 1995, ''How to Save the World'', collected in ''Rockets, Redheads & Revolution'').", "*\"Madam Butterfly\" (July 1997, ''Free Space'', collected in ''Rockets, Redheads & Revolution'').", "*\"Silver Gods from the Sky\" (June 1998, ''Star Child'' (second part)).", "*\"Three Domes and a Tower\" (June 1998, ''Star Child'' (third part)).", "*\"The Stillness Among the Stars\" (June 1998, ''Star Child'' (fourth part)).", "*\"His Own Worst Enemy\" (October 2001, ''Martian Knightlife'' (a Kieran Thane story)).", "*\"The Kahl of Tadzhikstan\" (October 2001, ''Martian Knightlife'' (a Kieran Thane story)).", "*\"Convolution\" (October 2001, ''Past Imperfect'', collected in ''Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions'').", "*\"Take Two\" (December 2001, ''Silicon Dreams'', collected in ''Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions'').", "*\"Jailhouse Rock\" (June 2004, ''Cosmic Tales: Adventures in Sol System'' (a Kieran Thane story)).", "*\"The Colonizing of Tharle\" (July 2004, ''Visions of Liberty'').", "*\"The Tree of Dreams\" (February 2005, ''Cosmic Tales II: Adventures in Far Futures'', collected in ''Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions'').", "*\"The Falcon\" (June 2005, ''Apex Science Fiction and Horror Digest, Summer 2005'', collected in ''Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions'').", "*\"Decontamination Squad\" (July 2005, ''Challenger #22'', collected in ''Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions'').", "*\"The Guardians\" (December 2005, ''Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions'').", "*\"Murphy's War\" (August 2007, ''Jim Baen's Universe'').", "*\"Escape\" (February 2008, ''Transhuman'').===Short story collections and fixups===*''Minds, Machines & Evolution'' () – June 1988 (Bantam Spectra, republished by Baen, December 1999, short stories and essays).", "*''Star Child'' () – June 1998 (expansion of \"Silver Shoes for a Princess\" to a four-story cycle: \"Silver Shoes for a Princess\", \"Silver Gods from the Sky\", \"Three Domes and a Tower\" and \"The Stillness Among the Stars\")*''Rockets, Redheads & Revolution'' () – April 1999 (Baen, short stories and essays)*''Martian Knightlife'' () – October 2001 (two novellas, \"His Own Worst Enemy\" and \"The Kahl of Tadzhikstan\", both featuring the Simon Templar-influenced Kieran Thane)*''Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions'' (title as published; was to be ''Catastrophes, Creation & Convolutions'') () – December 2005 (Baen, short stories and essays)===Omnibus editions===Compilations of novels in the \"Giants series\".", "*''The Minervan Experiment'' () – November 1982 (an omnibus edition of the first three books of the Giants series)*''The Giants Novels: Inherit the Stars, The Gentle Giants of Ganymede, and Giants' Star'' () – March 1994 (republication of ''The Minervan Experiment'')*''The Two Moons'' () - April 2006 (omnnibus of the first two Giants novels)*''The Two Worlds'' () - September 2007 (omnibus of the third and fourth Giants novels)===Non-fiction===*''Mind Matters – Exploring the World of Artificial Intelligence'' () – March 1997*''Kicking the Sacred Cow: Heresy and Impermissible Thoughts in Science'' () – July 2004" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** James P. Hogan, entry at The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, 4th edition* James P. Hogan on SciFan*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jeff Lynne" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jeffrey Lynne''' (born 30 December 1947) is an English musician, singer-songwriter and record producer.", "He is the co-founder and leader of the rock band Electric Light Orchestra (ELO), which was formed in 1970, and as a songwriter has written most of the band's hits, including \"Evil Woman\", \"Livin' Thing\", \"Telephone Line\", \"Mr. Blue Sky\", \"Don't Bring Me Down\" and \"Hold On Tight\".Lynne was born in Birmingham and became interested in music during his youth, being heavily inspired by the Beatles.", "He began his music career in 1963 as a member of the Andicaps, leaving the group a year later to join the Chads.", "From 1966 to 1970, Lynne was a founding member and principal songwriter for the Idle Race.", "In 1970, Lynne accepted Roy Wood's offer to join the Move, with Lynne contributing heavily to the band's last two albums.", "Later that year, Lynne and Wood disbanded the Move to form the band ELO, which was formed out of Lynne's and Wood's desire to create modern rock and pop songs with classical overtones.", "Following Wood's departure from ELO in 1972, Lynne assumed sole leadership of the band and wrote, arranged and produced virtually all of its subsequent records.During the 1970s and 1980s, ELO released a string of top 10 albums and singles, including the band's most commercially successful album, the double album ''Out of the Blue'' (1977).", "Two ELO albums reached the top of British charts: the disco-inspired ''Discovery'' (1979) and the science fiction–themed concept album ''Time'' (1981).", "In 1986 Lynne lost interest in the band and disbanded the group.", "After ELO's original disbandment in 1986, Lynne released two solo albums: ''Armchair Theatre'' (1990) and ''Long Wave'' (2012).", "Additionally, he began producing various artists.", "In 1988, under the pseudonyms '''Otis Wilbury''' and '''Clayton Wilbury''', he co-founded the supergroup Traveling Wilburys with George Harrison, Bob Dylan, Roy Orbison and Tom Petty.", "Lynne co-produced the Beatles' ''Anthology'' reunion singles from John Lennon demos, \"Free as a Bird\" (1995), \"Real Love\" (1996), and \"Now and Then\" (2023).", "In 2014, Lynne re-formed ELO and resumed concert touring under the name \"Jeff Lynne's ELO\".Lynne produced all fifteen ELO singles that rose to the Top 10 record charts in the UK.", "Outside of ELO, Lynne's producing credits include the UK or US Top 10 albums ''Cloud Nine'' (Harrison, 1987), ''Mystery Girl'' (Orbison, 1989), ''Full Moon Fever'' (Petty, 1989), ''Into the Great Wide Open'' (Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, 1991), ''Flaming Pie'' (Paul McCartney, 1997) and ''Get Up!''", "(Bryan Adams, 2015).", "In 2014, Lynne received a star on the Birmingham Walk of Stars, and was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame the following year.", "He received three Ivor Novello Awards, including the award for Outstanding Services to British Music.", "In 2017, Lynne was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of ELO, and was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 2020." ], [ "Early life", "Lynne was born in Erdington, Birmingham, to Nancy and Philip Lynne and grew up in Shard End, Birmingham, England, where he attended Alderlea Boys' Secondary School.", "As a native of Birmingham, he still has his Brummie accent.", "His father bought him his first guitar, an acoustic instrument, for £2.He was still playing it in 2012." ], [ "Musical career", "In 1963, he formed a group with Robert Reader and David Walsh using little more than Spanish guitars and cheap electrical instruments.", "They were originally named the Rockin' Hellcats, then the Handicaps and finally the Andicaps.", "They practised at Shard End Community Centre and performed weekly.", "However, in 1964, Robert Reader and David Walsh left the band and Lynne brought in replacements.", "At the end of 1964, Lynne decided to leave the band to replace Mick Adkins of the local band \"the Chads\".Some time in or after 1965, he acquired his first item of studio recording equipment, a Bang & Olufsen 'Beocord 2000 De Luxe' stereo reel-to-reel tape recorder, which allowed multi-tracking between left and right channels.", "He says it \"taught me how to be a producer\".", "In 1966, Lynne joined the line-up of the Nightriders as guitarist, having responded to an advertisement in the ''Birmingham Evening Mail''.The band soon changed their name to the Idle Race.", "Despite recording two critically acclaimed albums with the band and producing the second, success eluded him.", "In 1970, Lynne accepted an offer from friend Roy Wood to join the line-up of the more successful band the Move.=== 1970–1986: The Move and ELO ===The Move/Electric Light Orchestra in the early 1970s|270x270pxLynne contributed many songs to the Move's last two albums while formulating, with Roy Wood and Bev Bevan, a band built around a fusion of rock and classical music – a project which would eventually become the Electric Light Orchestra (ELO).", "The original idea was that both bands would exist in tandem.", "Bevan has, however, since suggested that Lynne had little interest in the Move, stating: \"The only reason Jeff Lynne ever joined the Move was to form a new band.", "He was never interested in being a part of the Move.", "\"The band's eponymous first album was released in December 1971, featuring heavy contributions from Lynne and Wood and producing the band's debut single \"10538 Overture\".", "Problems led to Wood's departure from ELO in 1972 (forming the band Wizzard later that year), a year after the release of the band's first album, leaving Lynne as the band's dominant creative force.", "Thereafter followed a succession of band personnel changes and increasingly popular albums: ''ELO 2'' (1973) and ''On the Third Day'' (also 1973), ''Eldorado'' (1974) and ''Face the Music'' (1975).", "By ''A New World Record'' (1976), Lynne had almost developed the roots of the group into a more complex and unique pop-rock sound mixed with studio strings, layered vocals, and tight, catchy pop singles.", "Lynne's now almost complete creative dominance as producer, songwriter, arranger, lead singer and guitarist could make ELO appear to be an almost solo effort.", "However, the ELO sound and the focus of Lynne's writing was also shaped by Louis Clark's and Richard Tandy's co-arranging, under Lynne's direction (especially the large string sections in addition to ELO's own string trio), and Bev Bevan's drumming, while Richard Tandy's integration of the piano, Moog, harmonium, and Mellotron, with more novel keyboard technology, gave Lynne's songs a more symphonic sound.", "Bassist Kelly Groucutt's distinctive voice mixed with Lynne's to produce the classic ELO harmonic vocal sound.Lynne performing with Electric Light Orchestra during the Time TourThe pinnacle of ELO's chart success and worldwide popularity was the expansive double album ''Out of the Blue'' (1977), which was largely conceived in a Swiss chalet during a two-week writing marathon.", "The band's 1978 world tour featured an elaborate \"space ship\" set and laser light show.", "In order to recreate the complex instrumental textures of their albums, the band used pre-recorded supplemental backing tracks in live performances.", "Although that practice has now become commonplace, it caused considerable derision in the press of the time.", "Lynne has often stated that he prefers the creative environment of the studio to the rigours and tedium of touring.", "Lynne followed up the success of ''Out of the Blue'' with ''Discovery'' (1979), which held No.", "1 in the UK for 5 weeks.", "The album is primarily associated with its two disco-flavoured singles (\"Shine a Little Love\" and \"Last Train to London\") and with the title's word play on \"disco\" and \"very\".", "However, the remaining seven non-disco tracks on the album reflected Lynne's range as a pop-rock songwriter, including a heavy, mid-tempo rock anthem (\"Don't Bring Me Down\") that, despite its use of a drum loop, could be considered the antithesis of disco.", "Lynne later recalled his forays into dance music: \"I love the force of disco.", "I love the freedom it gave me to make different rhythms across it.", "I enjoyed that really steady driving beat.", "Just steady as a rock.", "I’ve always liked that simplicity in the bass drum.", "\"In 1979, Lynne rejected an offer for ELO to headline the Knebworth Concert in the UK, allowing Led Zeppelin to headline instead.", "In the absence of any touring to support ''Discovery'', Lynne had time to contribute five tracks to the soundtrack for the 1980 film musical ''Xanadu''.", "The score yielded three Top 20 singles for ELO in both the UK and the US: \"I'm Alive\" (UK No.", "20, US No.", "16), \"All Over The World\" (UK No.", "11, US No.", "13), and the title track \"Xanadu\", featuring Olivia Newton-John joining ELO on lead vocals, which reached number one in the UK (US No.", "8).", "Nevertheless, Lynne was not closely involved with the development of the film, and his material consequently had only superficial attachment to the plot.", "''Xanadu'' performed weakly at the box office (although it later has experienced popularity as a cult favourite).", "Lynne subsequently disavowed his limited contribution to the project.ELO performing in 1986 (Lynne and Tandy pictured)Lynne took the band in a somewhat different direction with the science-fiction themed album ''Time'' (1981), reaching number one for two weeks in the UK, producing the second Top 3 single in less than two years.", "The strings were still featured, but with heavily synthesised textures.", "Following a marginally successful tour, Lynne kept this general approach with ''Secret Messages'' (1983) and a final contractually-obligated ELO album ''Balance of Power'' (1986).", "Lynne discusses the contractually-obligated nature of the final albums on the short interview included with the 'Zoom' DVD.", "ELO now had only three remaining official members (Lynne, Bevan and Tandy), and Lynne began devoting more time to producing.", "During his time in the Electric Light Orchestra, Lynne had managed to release a few recordings under his own name.", "In 1976, Lynne covered the Beatles songs \"With a Little Help from My Friends\" and \"Nowhere Man\" for ''All This and World War II''.", "In 1977, Lynne released his first solo single, the disco-flavoured \"Doin' That Crazy Thing\"/\"Goin' Down to Rio\".", "Despite ELO's high profile at that time, it received little airplay and failed to chart.In 1984, Lynne and Tandy contributed two original songs \"Video!\"", "and \"Let It Run\" to the film ''Electric Dreams'' (they also provided a third song, \"Sooner Or Later\", which was released as the b-side of \"Video!\").", "Lynne also wrote the song \"The Story of Me,\" which was recorded by the Everly Brothers on their comeback album ''EB84''.", "Even before the official end of ELO, Lynne began his move toward focusing almost exclusively on studio production work.", "Lynne produced and wrote the 1983 top-40 hit \"Slipping Away\" for Dave Edmunds and played on sessions (with Tandy) for Edmunds's album, ''Information''.", "Lynne also produced six tracks on Edmunds's follow-up album in 1984, ''Riff Raff''.", "In contrast to the dense, boomy, baroque sound of ELO, Lynne's post-ELO studio work has tended toward more minimal, acoustic instrumentation and a sparse, \"organic\" quality that generally favours light room ambience and colouration over artificial reverb, especially on vocals.", "Lynne's recordings also often feature the jangling compressed acoustic guitar sound pioneered by Roger McGuinn and a heavily gated snare drum sound.=== 1980s–1990s: Collaborations with the Beatles ===During the 1980s and 1990s, Lynne collaborated on various projects with former members of the Beatles.", "The band had been a major influence on Lynne since the release of their debut album, ''Please Please Me,'' in 1963, and have continued to influence him throughout his career to date.In 1968, while performing with The Idle Race, Lynne and the other members of the band were invited to a Beatles session at Abbey Road Studios.", "While there, he met the Beatles during the making of ''The White Album'', witnessing the band making it together.", "He spent an hour at the session, before going back to the sessions with the Idle Race.", "Years later, he admitted that being in the same room \"caused me not to sleep for, like, three days.\"", "The original aim of Electric Light Orchestra was to take up \"where the Beatles had left off, and to present it on stage.\"", "John Lennon praised the group, calling them the \"sons of the Beatles\" on a radio station when discussing the group's 1973 single \"Showdown\" on the New York radio station WNEW.Lynne worked with George Harrison very closely in the late 1980s.", "This friendship eventually led to Harrison's appearance at the Birmingham Heartbeat Charity Concert, showing up as the finale of the concert and joining many other musicians in a rendition of \"Johnny B. Goode\", as well as a one-off Electric Light Orchestra concert, both in 1986.In 1987, he appeared with Harrison at Prince's Trust in Wembley Arena.Critics often compared Electric Light Orchestra to The Beatles, and they were often criticised for \"ripping off\" the band.", "Lynne admitted that he \"was very influenced by the Beatles' sound of '68 and '69.That has obviously been a big influence on the way he looked at songwriting\" and said that being compared with The Beatles was the \"ultimate compliment\".=== 1987–1991: Traveling Wilburys ===Lynne's Beatles influence was clearly evident in his ELO work, and the connection to the Beatles was strengthened when Lynne produced George Harrison's ''Cloud Nine.''", "The latter was a successful comeback album for Harrison, released in 1987, featuring the popular singles \"Got My Mind Set on You\", \"When We Was Fab\" (appearing in the video) and \"This Is Love\", the last two of which were co-written by Lynne.", "Lynne's association with Harrison led to the 1988 formation of the Traveling Wilburys, a studio \"supergroup\" that also included Tom Petty, Bob Dylan and Roy Orbison and resulted in two albums (''Vol.", "1'' and ''Vol.", "3''), both produced by Harrison and Lynne.", "In 1988, Lynne also worked on Orbison's album ''Mystery Girl'', co-writing and producing Orbison's last major hit, \"You Got It\", plus two other tracks on that album.", "For ''Rock On!", "'', the final Del Shannon album, Lynne co-wrote \"Walk Away\" and finished off several tracks after Shannon's death.In 1989, Lynne co-produced ''Full Moon Fever'' by Tom Petty, which included the hit singles \"Free Fallin'\", \"I Won't Back Down\" and \"Runnin' Down a Dream\", all co-written by Lynne.", "This album and ''Traveling Wilburys Vol.", "1'' received nominations for the Grammy Award for Best Album of the Year in 1989.The Traveling Wilburys won a Grammy for \"Best Rock Performance By a Duo or Group with Vocal\" that year.", "Lynne's song \"One Way Love\" was released as a single by Agnetha Fältskog and appeared on her second post-ABBA album, ''Eyes of a Woman''.", "Lynne co-wrote and produced the track \"Let It Shine\" for Beach Boys founder Brian Wilson's first solo album in 1988.Lynne also contributed three tracks to an album by Duane Eddy and \"Falling in Love\" on ''Land of Dreams'' for Randy Newman.In 1990, Lynne collaborated on the Wilburys' follow up ''Traveling Wilburys Vol.", "3'' and released his first solo album ''Armchair Theatre''.", "The album featured Harrison and Tandy and included the singles \"Every Little Thing\" and \"Lift Me Up\".", "It received some positive critical attention but little commercial success.", "Lynne also provided the song \"Wild Times\" to the motion picture soundtrack ''Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves'' in 1991.In 1991, Lynne returned to the studio with Petty, co-writing and producing the album ''Into the Great Wide Open'' for Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, which featured the singles \"Learning to Fly\" and \"Into the Great Wide Open\".", "The following year he produced two songs on Roy Orbison's posthumous album ''King of Hearts'', including the single \"I Drove All Night\".===1990s–2000s===In February 1994, Lynne worked with the three surviving Beatles on the ''Anthology'' album series.", "At Harrison's request, Lynne was brought in to assist in reevaluating John Lennon's original studio material.", "The songs \"Free as a Bird\" and \"Real Love\" were created by digitally processing Lennon's demos for the songs and overdubbing the three surviving band members to form a virtual Beatles reunion that the band had mutually eschewed during Lennon's lifetime.", "He also worked on the song \"Now and Then\", which remained unfinished until 2023.Lynne has also produced records for Ringo Starr and worked on Paul McCartney's Grammy-nominated album ''Flaming Pie''.Lynne's work in the 1990s also includes production of a 1993 album for singer-songwriter Julianna Raye titled ''Something Peculiar'' and production or songwriting contributions to albums by Roger McGuinn (''Back from Rio'') and Joe Cocker (''Night Calls''), songs by Aerosmith (\"Lizard Love\"), Tom Jones (\"Lift Me Up\"), Bonnie Tyler (\"Time Mends a Broken Heart\"), the film ''Still Crazy'', Hank Marvin (\"Wonderful Land\" and \"Nivram\"), Et Moi (\"Drole De Vie\") and the Tandy Morgan Band (\"Action\").", "In 1996, Lynne was officially recognised by his peers when he was awarded the Ivor Novello Award for \"Outstanding Contributions to British Music\" for a second time.In the year 2000, Lynne reactivated ELO and released the retrospective box set ''Flashback'', containing many newly finished, previously unreleased tracks.", "The following year Lynne debuted the first new ELO album in fifteen years, ''Zoom''.", "The album featured guest appearances by Ringo Starr, George Harrison and Richard Tandy, with Lynne multi-tracking a majority of the instruments and vocals.", "The album received positive reviews but had no hit singles.", "It was marketed as a \"return to the classic ELO sound\" in an attempt to connect with a loyal body of fans and to jump-start a planned concert tour (with Lynne and Tandy as the only returning original ELO members).", "While a live performance was taped at CBS Television City over two consecutive nights and shown on PBS (with subsequent DVD release), the tour itself was cancelled.Earlier in 2001, Lynne began working with George Harrison on what would turn out to be Harrison's final album, ''Brainwashed''.", "After Harrison's death from cancer on 29 November 2001, Lynne returned to the studio in 2002 to help finish the uncompleted album.", "Lynne was heavily involved in the memorial ''Concert for George'', held at London's Royal Albert Hall in November 2002, which also featured Traveling Wilburys member Petty.", "Lynne sang the lead vocal on \"The Inner Light\", \"I Want to Tell You\" and \"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)\", and subsequently produced the Surround Sound audio mix for the ''Concert for George'' DVD, released in November 2003, which later received a Grammy.", "Lynne reunited in 2006 with Petty to produce the latter's third solo release, ''Highway Companion''.", "In 2004, Lynne and Petty inducted Harrison into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, then played \"Handle with Care\" with Dhani Harrison, also \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" adding Prince, Steve Winwood, and others.In a Reuters article on 23 April 2009, Lynne said that he had been working on the follow-up to his 1990 solo debut album ''Armchair Theatre'' with a possible tentative release date of \"later this year\".", "He also produced four tracks on Regina Spektor's fifth album ''Far'', released 23 June 2009.===2010s===In a March 2010 interview with the ''Daily Express'' newspaper, Lynne confirmed he was working on a new album with Joe Walsh and simultaneously \"writing a couple of albums under his own name, though he won't tell us in which musical direction he's heading.\"", "Lynne contributed a cover of Buddy Holly's \"Words of Love\" for the tribute album ''Listen to Me: Buddy Holly'', which was released on 6 September 2011.On 31 December 2011, Brian Williams reported on NBC New Year's Eve with Carson Daly that \"2012 releases will include rare new work from Jeff Lynne.", "\"In 2012, Walsh released his ''Analog Man'' album which was produced by Lynne.", "Lynne's second solo album, a covers album titled ''Long Wave'', was released on 8 October 2012.A greatest hits collection of re-recorded ELO songs by Lynne titled ''Mr.", "Blue Sky: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra'' was also released under the ELO moniker on the same day.", "Lynne suggested that a new album with original material could be released during 2013.In 2012, Lynne and Tandy teamed up at Lynne's Bungalow Palace home studios to record a live set of ELO's songs.", "This was broadcast on TV as part of the ''Mr.", "Blue Sky'' documentary.", "Lynne and Tandy reunited again on 12 November 2013 to perform, under the name Jeff Lynne and Friends, \"Livin' Thing\" and \"Mr. Blue Sky\" at the Children in Need Rocks concert at Hammersmith Eventim Apollo, London.On 9 February 2014, Lynne performed George Harrison's \"Something\" with Joe Walsh and Dhani Harrison on ''The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles'', as well as \"Hey Bulldog\" from the ''Yellow Submarine soundtrack'', while accompanying Dave Grohl, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Beatles' performance on ''The Ed Sullivan Show''.", "On 5 March 2014, Lynne received an honorary doctorate degree from Birmingham City University.", "He also mentioned he was working with Bryan Adams on new material.", "On 14 September 2014, Jeff Lynne and his touring band, under the name Jeff Lynne's ELO, played a public concert for the first time in over 25 years, headlining at the Radio 2 festival in Hyde Park, London.", "Never particularly enthusiastic for live performance even in his younger days, Lynne has called this event \"easily the best concert I've ever been involved with\".On 8 February 2015, Lynne appeared at the Grammy Awards, playing \"Evil Woman\" and \"Mr. Blue Sky\" with Ed Sheeran.Lynne performing at the Genting Arena in April 2016On 10 September 2015, Lynne's website announced he had signed a contract to deliver an album of new ELO music for Columbia Records marking the first time in 14 years new ELO music would be released.", "On 24 September 2015, \"When I Was a Boy\", the first single from ''Alone in the Universe'' was released on the internet with a music video scheduled not long after.", "The album was released on 13 November 2015 and was followed by promotional shows including the first ELO shows in the United States in 30 years.", "A 2016 European tour was scheduled, with Dublin, Amsterdam and Zurich being some of the locations toured.", "Notably, the Dublin concert was delayed by a week due to medical advice given to Lynne.", "In September, 2016, shortly after the European dates, ELO played three shows at the Hollywood Bowl, Los Angeles, with full orchestra and fireworks.", "Jeff Lynne's ELO also played two concerts at Radio City Music Hall in New York City, on 16 and 18 September 2016 respectively.On 24 June 2017, Lynne performed at Wembley Stadium to a crowd of 60,000, playing a 24-song setlist including \"Xanadu\", \"Do Ya\" and \"Twilight\".", "The concert was released on DVD and CD, under the title ''Wembley or Bust''.", "On 2 August 2018, Lynne and his band Jeff Lynne's ELO began a 10-city tour of North America which included Oakland, California and Los Angeles, Denver, Houston, Dallas, Rosemont, Illinois, Detroit, New York City, Philadelphia and Toronto.", "On 12 September 2018, Jeff Lynne's ELO began a tour throughout Europe including dates in Stockholm, Oslo, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Berlin, Munich, Mannheim, Vienna, Amsterdam, Nottingham, Glasgow, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Birmingham, Leeds, London, Liverpool, Dublin, and Belfast.", "On 20 June 2019, Jeff Lynne's ELO began a North American tour with Dhani Harrison.On 26 September 2019, Jeff Lynne's ELO announced a new album, called ''From Out of Nowhere'', which was subsequently released on 1 November of the same year.", "The album was accompanied by the release of an eponymous single which premiered on BBC Radio 2 that same day.", "The album went to number 1 on the UK Albums Chart." ], [ "Personal life", "Lynne in 1977Lynne was married to his first wife Rosemary Adams from 1972 to 1977, and then to Sandi Kapelson, with whom he has two daughters, in 1979.After divorcing Kapelson, Lynne married Camelia Kath in 2017.Kath, née Ortiz, had previously been married to Terry Kath and Kiefer Sutherland.", "She is the mother of Sarah Sutherland and Michelle Kath.Despite his success, Lynne has spoken of his aversion to the stereotypical rock star lifestyle.", "Reflecting on the 1970s, he told Rolling Stone magazine: ''\"I was reluctant to become a real rock star.", "I was shy and was always told to not get a big head.", "And my favourite thing in the world was to work 14 hours a day in the studio.", "Everything else was peripheral to me, like having the record out and promoting it.", "I did have a big house, but I didn't do rock-star things.", "I never saw myself like that.", "I was a songwriter, singer and producer.", "Rock stars are different.", "They dress all flashy and hang out in nightclubs.", "That just wasn't my priority.", "I liked to spend my spare moments at the pub.", "\"''Lynne was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2020 Birthday Honours for services to music.", "He is a fan of Birmingham City F.C." ], [ "Awards and honours", "Lynne's star on the Walk of Fame in Birmingham* 2009: Golden Note Award from the ASCAP* 2013: Songwriters Hall of Fame nominee for 2014 induction* 2014: Star on the Birmingham Walk of Stars* 2014: Honorary doctorate degree from Birmingham City University* 2015: Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame* 2015: Songwriters Hall of Fame nominee for 2016 induction* 2016: Songwriters Hall of Fame nominee for 2017 induction* 2017: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee as a member of Electric Light Orchestra* 2018: Songwriters Hall of Fame nominee for 2019 induction* 2019: ASCAP Founders Award from the ASCAP*2023: Songwriters Hall of Fame induction." ], [ "Solo discography", "===Studio albums=== Title Album details Peak chart positions Certifications UK AUS BEL CAN GER NLD NOR SWE SWI US'' Armchair Theatre'' *Released: 12 June 1990*Label: Reprise Records 24 35 — 23 52 44 7 8 — 83''Long Wave''*Released: 26 September 2012*Label: Frontiers Records 7 — 153 — 83 74 — 24 64 113===Compilation albums=== Title Album details''A Message from the Country – The Jeff Lynne Years 1968/1973''(as Jeff Lynne featuring ELO, The Idle Race, The Move)*Released: 1989*Label: Harvest ===Singles=== Year Title Album Chart positions UK AUS CAN US 1977 \"Doin' That Crazy Thing\"/\"Going Down to Rio\" Non-album single – – – – 1984 \"Video!", "\"/\"Sooner or Later\" ''Electric Dreams: Original Soundtrack from the Film'' 87 – – 85 1990 \"Every Little Thing\" (12\" remix and album versions)/\"I'm Gone\" ''Armchair Theatre'' 59 31 18 – \"Lift Me Up\"/\"Sirens\"/\"Borderline\" – 125 37 –===Compilation appearances===YearSongAlbum1976 \"With a Little Help from My Friends\"/\"Nowhere Man\" ''All This and World War II: Original Soundtrack''1984 \"Video!\"", "''Electric Dreams: Original Soundtrack from the Film'' \"Let it Run\"1991 \"Wild Times\" ''Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves - Original Motion Picture Soundtrack''2003 \"I Want to Tell You\" ''Concert for George'' \"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)\"2011\"Words of Love\"''Listen to Me: Buddy Holly''2013\"Stream of Stars\"''American Hustle: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack''2014\"Junk\"''The Art of McCartney''" ], [ "Producer discography", "See also: The Idle Race discography, the Move discography, Electric Light Orchestra discography, Traveling Wilburys discography===Albums=== Album Release Charts Certifications UK US UK US The Idle Race - ''Idle Race'' 1969 Liberty — — The Electric Light Orchestra - ''ELO 2'' 1973 Harvest, United Artists 35 62 Electric Light Orchestra - ''On the Third Day'' 1973 Warner Bros., United Artists — 52 Silver* Electric Light Orchestra - ''Eldorado,'' 1974 Warner Bros., United Artists — 16 Silver* Gold Electric Light Orchestra - ''Face the Music'' 1975 Jet, United Artists — 8 Silver* Gold Electric Light Orchestra - ''A New World Record'' 1976 Jet, United Artists 6 5 Platinum Platinum Electric Light Orchestra - ''Out of the Blue'' 1977 Jet, United Artists 4 4 Platinum Platinum Electric Light Orchestra - ''Discovery'' 1979 Jet 1 5 Platinum 2× Platinum Electric Light Orchestra - ''Time'' 1981 Jet 1 16 Platinum Gold Electric Light Orchestra - ''Secret Messages'' 1983 Jet 4 36 Gold Electric Light Orchestra - ''Balance of Power'' 1986 Epic, CBS Associated 9 49 Silver Jeff Lynne - ''Armchair Theatre'' 1990 Reprise 24 83 Julianna Raye - ''Something Peculiar'' 1993 Reprise — — Electric Light Orchestra - ''Zoom'' 2001 Epic / Legacy 34 94 Jeff Lynne - ''Long Wave'' 2012 Frontiers 7 133 Electric Light Orchestra - ''Mr.", "Blue Sky: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra'' (new recordings) 2012 Frontiers 8 118 Bryan Adams - ''Get Up!''", "2015 2 99 Jeff Lynne's ELO - ''Alone in the Universe'' 2015 Columbia, RCA 4 23 Platinum Jeff Lynne's ELO - ''From Out of Nowhere'' 2019 Columbia, RCA 1 47'''Co-produced''' Album Release Charts Certifications UK US UK US The Move - ''Looking On'' 1970 Fly, Capitol — — The Move - ''Message from the Country'' 1971 Harvest, Capitol — — Electric Light Orchestra - ''The Electric Light Orchestra AKA No Answer'' 1971 Harvest, 1972 United Artists 32 196 Dave Edmunds - ''Information'' 1983 Arista, Columbia 92 51 Dave Edmunds - ''Riff Raff'' 1984 Arista, Columbia — 140 George Harrison - ''Cloud Nine'' 1987 Dark Horse 10 8 Gold Platinum Duane Eddy - ''Duane Eddy'' 1987 Capitol — — Brian Wilson - ''Brian Wilson'' 1988 Sire 54 Traveling Wilburys - ''Traveling Wilburys Vol.", "1'' 1988 Wilbury 16 3 Platinum 3× Platinum Roy Orbison - ''Mystery Girl'' 1989 Virgin 2 5 Platinum Platinum Tom Petty - ''Full Moon Fever'' 1989 MCA 8 3 Gold 5× Platinum Miss B.", "Haven - ''Nobody's Angel'' 1990 Eastwest Traveling Wilburys - ''Traveling Wilburys Vol.", "3'' 1990 Wilbury, Warner Bros. 14 11 Gold Platinum Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers - ''Into the Great Wide Open'' 1991 MCA 3 13 Gold 2× Platinum Del Shannon - ''Rock On!''", "1991 Silvertone, MCA — — — — Ringo Starr - ''Time Takes Time'' 1992 Private Music — — George Harrison - ''Songs by George Harrison 2'' (\"Hottest Gong in Town\") 1992 Dark Horse — — — — Roy Orbison - ''King of Hearts'' 1992 Virgin — — Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers (\"Christmas All Over Again\") - ''A Very Special Christmas 2'' (various artists) 1992 A&M — — — — Paul McCartney - ''Flaming Pie'' 1997 Parlophone, Capitol 2 2 Gold Gold Del Shannon - ''A Complete Career Anthology: 1961-1990'' (one previously unreleased song produced by Lynne) 1998 Raven — — George Harrison - ''Brainwashed'' 2002 Parlophone, Capitol 29 18 Gold Gold Tom Petty - ''Highway Companion'' 2006 American 56 4 Gold Regina Spektor - ''Far'' 2009 Sire 30 3 Joe Walsh - ''Analog Man'' 2012 Decca, Fantasy 53 12===Soundtracks=== Album Release Charts Certifications UK US UK US Various artists - ''Concert for George'' 2003 Warner Bros. — 97 '''Co-produced''' Album Release Charts Certifications UK US UK US Electric Light Orchestra, Olivia Newton-John - ''Xanadu'' 1980 Jet, MCA 2 4 Platinum 2× Platinum Jeff Lynne (\"Video!", "\", \"Let It Run\") - ''Electric Dreams'' (various artists) 1984 Virgin, Epic — 94 Paul McCartney (\"Maybe Baby\") - ''Maybe Baby'' (various artists) 2000 EMI — — — —===Singles==='''A-sides co-produced''' Single Release Charts Certifications UK US UK US Del Shannon - \"Ghost\" 1974 Interfusion–––– George Harrison - \"Cheer Down\" also on the Lethal Weapon 2 soundtrack (Warner Bros.) 1989 Dark Horse–––– Traveling Wilburys - \"Nobody's Child\" (also on ''Nobody's Child: Romanian Angel Appeal'') 1990 Warner Bros.44––– The Beatles - \"Free as a Bird\" 1995 Apple 2 6 Silver Gold The Beatles - \"Real Love\" 1996 Apple 4 11 — Gold'''B-sides''' Single Release Charts Certifications UK US UK US Jeff Lynne - \"Sooner or Later\" 1984 Virgin, Epic––––'''B-sides co-produced''' Single Release Charts Certifications UK US UK US George Harrison - \"Zig Zag\" 1988 Dark Horse–––– Tom Petty - \"Don't Treat Me Like a Stranger\" 1989 MCA –––– Tom Petty - \"Down the Line\" 1989 MCA –––– Paul McCartney - \"Looking for You\" 1997 Parlophone––––" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Van der Kiste, John ''Jeff Lynne: The Electric Light Orchestra, before and after'', (Stroud: Fonthill Media, 2015)" ], [ "External links", "* * Jeff Lynne Songs database*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Judge Dredd" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Judge Joseph Dredd''' is a fictional character created by writer John Wagner and artist Carlos Ezquerra.", "He first appeared in the second issue of ''2000 AD'' (1977), which is a British weekly anthology comic.", "He is the magazine's longest-running character, and in 1990 he got his own title, the ''Judge Dredd Megazine''.", "He also appears in a number of film and video game adaptations.Judge Dredd is a law enforcement and judicial officer in the dystopian future city of Mega-City One, which covers most of the east coast of North America.", "He is a \"street judge\", empowered to summarily arrest, convict, sentence, and execute criminals.In Great Britain, the character of Dredd and his name are sometimes invoked in discussions of police states, authoritarianism, and the rule of law.", "Over the years, ''Judge Dredd'' has been hailed as one of the best satires of American and British culture with an uncanny ability to predict upcoming trends and events such as mass surveillance, the rise of populist leaders, and the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In 2011, IGN ranked Judge Dredd 35th among the top 100 comic book heroes of all time.Judge Dredd made his live-action debut in 1995 in ''Judge Dredd'', portrayed by Sylvester Stallone.", "Later, he was portrayed by Karl Urban in the 2012 adaptation ''Dredd''.", "In audio dramas by Big Finish Productions, Dredd is voiced by Toby Longworth." ], [ "Publication history", "When comics editor Pat Mills was developing ''2000 AD'' in 1976, he brought in his former writing partner, John Wagner, to develop characters.", "Wagner had written a ''Dirty Harry''-style \"tough cop\" story, \"One-Eyed Jack\", for ''Valiant'', and suggested a character who took that concept to its logical extreme.", "In a 1995 interview, Wagner said: \"When Pat was putting together ''2000 AD'', we realised from the success of \"One-Eyed Jack\" this was the kind of story the paper should have – a really hard, tough cop.", "\"Mills had developed a horror strip called ''Judge Dread'' (named after the stage name of British ska and reggae artist Alexander Minto Hughes), before abandoning the idea as unsuitable for the new comic; but the name, with the spelling modified to \"Dredd\" at the suggestion of sub-editor Kelvin Gosnell, was adopted by Wagner.", "According to Mills, the name Joseph – given to Dredd in a story written by Mills which appeared in \"prog\" (short for programme or issue) no.", "30 – refers to where he went to school, St Joseph's College, Ipswich.The task of visualising the character was given to Carlos Ezquerra, a Spanish artist who had worked for Mills before on ''Battle Picture Weekly''.", "Wagner gave Ezquerra an advertisement for the film ''Death Race 2000'', showing the character Frankenstein (played by David Carradine) clad in black leather on a motorbike, as a suggestion of Dredd's appearance.", "Ezquerra added body-armour, zips, and chains, which Wagner initially objected to, commenting that the character looked like a \"Spanish pirate.\"", "Wagner's initial script was rewritten by Mills and drawn up by Ezquerra.", "The hardware and cityscapes Ezquerra had drawn were far more futuristic than the near-future setting originally intended; in response, Mills set the story further into the future, on the advice of his art assistant Doug Church.", "The original launch story written by Wagner and drawn by Ezquerra was vetoed by the board of directors for being too violent.", "A new script was needed for the first episode.By this stage, Wagner had quit, disillusioned that a proposed buy-out of the new comic by another company, which would have given him and Mills a greater financial stake in the comic, had fallen through.", "Mills was reluctant to lose ''Judge Dredd'' and farmed the strip out to a variety of freelance writers, hoping to develop it further.", "Their scripts were given to a variety of artists as Mills tried to find a strip which would provide a good introduction to the character.", "This ''Judge Dredd'' would not be ready for the first issue of ''2000 AD'', launched in February 1977.Mike McMahon, from a story later published in #6.The story chosen to introduce the character was submitted by freelance writer Peter Harris, and was extensively re-written by Mills, who added a new ending suggested by Kelvin Gosnell.", "It was drawn by newcomer Mike McMahon.", "The strip debuted in prog 2.Around this time Ezquerra quit and returned to work for ''Battle''.", "There are conflicting sources about why.", "Ezquerra says it was because he was angry that another artist had drawn the first published ''Judge Dredd'' strip.", "Mills says he chose McMahon because Ezquerra had already left, having been offered a better deal by the editor of ''Battle''.Wagner soon returned to the character, starting in prog 9.His storyline, \"The Robot Wars\", was drawn by a rotating team of artists (including Ezquerra), and marked the point where Dredd became the most popular character in the comic, a position he has rarely relinquished.", "Judge Dredd has appeared in almost every issue since, most of the stories written by Wagner (in collaboration with Alan Grant between 1980 and 1988).In 1983, Judge Dredd made his American debut with his own series from publisher Eagle Comics, titled ''Judge Dredd''.", "It consisted of stories reprinted from the British comic, but since 2012 IDW Publishing has published a variety of ''Judge Dredd'' titles featuring original stories.", "Since 1990, Dredd has also had his own title in Britain, the ''Judge Dredd Megazine''.", "With Wagner concentrating his energies on that, the ''Dredd'' strip in ''2000 AD'' was left to younger writers, including Garth Ennis, Mark Millar, Grant Morrison and John Smith.", "Their stories were less popular with fans, and sales fell.", "Wagner returned to writing the character full-time for ''2000 AD'' in 1994.", "''Judge Dredd'' has also been published in a long-running comic strip (1981–1998) in the ''Daily Star'', and briefly in ''Metro'' from January to April 2004.These were usually created by the same teams writing and drawing the main strip, and the ''Daily Star'' strips have been collected into a number of volumes.In 2012, Dredd was one of 10 British comic characters commemorated in a series of stamps issued by the Royal Mail.Between 2015 and 2018, Hachette Partworks published a fortnightly partwork collection of hardback books entitled ''Judge Dredd: The Mega Collection''.", "This included not only ''Judge Dredd'' stories but also a variety of spin-off stories set in the same universe.===Lists of stories===* A list of all ''Judge Dredd'' stories to appear in ''2000 AD'' from March 1977 to September 2023 (#2 to #2350) is available at //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Dredd2AD.pdf WikiCommons.", "* A list of all ''Judge Dredd'' stories to appear in the ''Judge Dredd Megazine'' from October 1990 to December 2023 (#1 to #463) is available at WikiCommons.Almost all of the stories from both comics are currently being reprinted in their original order of publication in a series of trade paperbacks.", "Stories from the regular issues of ''2000 AD'' and the ''Megazine'' are collected in a series entitled ''Judge Dredd: The Complete Case Files.''", "This series began in 2005 and is still ongoing as of 2023.Stories from special holiday issues and annuals appeared in ''Judge Dredd: The Restricted Files''.", "This four-volume series began in 2010 and concluded in 2012." ], [ "Character and appearance", "Mike McMahon in 1977.The character's appearance has remained essentially unchanged since, except for a more prominent jawline.Joseph Dredd is the most famous of the Street Judges that patrol Mega-City One, empowered to instantly convict, sentence, and sometimes execute offenders.", "Dredd is armed with a \"Lawgiver\", a pistol programmed to recognise only his palm-print and capable of firing six types of ammunition, a daystick, a boot knife and stun or gas grenades.", "His helmet obscures his face, except for his mouth and jaw.", "He rides a large \"Lawmaster\" motorcycle equipped with machine-guns, a powerful laser cannon, and full artificial intelligence capable of responding to orders from the Judge and operating itself.In an interview, Ezquerra commented on how he designed the character stating he received the basic description of \"a menacing policeman dressed in black and driving a motorbike.\"", "He later described his process on creating the character: \"When I create a character, I'll do it fairly quickly, the longer you stay working on an idea, the more chances you have to spoil it and Dredd was not an exception.", "I draw the essentials: grim face, black suit, menacing helmet (based on the Greeks), protections, and gun readily available when sitting on the bike, after that I started to embellish the protections and bike with symbols, maybe a couple of days in total.", "\"Dredd's entire face is never shown in the strip.", "This began as an unofficial guideline, but soon became a rule.", "As John Wagner explained: \"It sums up the facelessness of justice − justice has no soul.", "So it isn't necessary for readers to see Dredd's face, and I don't want you to\".On rare occasions, Dredd's face has been seen in flashbacks to his childhood; but these pictures lack detail.", "In an early story, Dredd is forced to remove his helmet and the other characters react as if he is disfigured, but his face was covered by a faux censorship sticker.", "In prog 52, during Dredd's tenure on the Lunar Colonies, he uses a 'face-change' machine to impersonate the crooked lawyer of a gang of bank robbers.In Carlos Ezquerra's original design, Dredd had large lips, \"to put a mystery as to his racial background\".", "Not all of the artists who worked on the strip were told of this.", "Mike McMahon drew Dredd as a black man, while Brian Bolland and Ron Smith drew him as white.", "The strip was not yet printed in colour, and this went unnoticed.", "The idea was dropped.Time passes in the ''Judge Dredd'' strip in real time, so as a year passes in life, a year passes in the comic.", "The first Dredd story, published in 1977, was set in 2099, 122 years in the future, and so stories published in are set 122 years in the future, in .", "Consequently, as former editor Alan McKenzie explains, \"every year that goes by Dredd gets a year older – unlike Spider-Man, who has been a university student for the past twenty-five years!\".", "Therefore, Dredd was 38 when he first appeared, but is now years old, with years of active service (2079–), and for almost 30 years Dredd's age and fitness for duty were recurring plot points (in prog 1595 (2008), Dredd was diagnosed with benign cancer of the duodenum).How Dredd's aging would be addressed was a source of reader speculation until 2016, when writer Michael Carroll and artist Ben Willsher published the story \"Carousel\", in which Dredd is ordered to undertake rejuvenation treatment that restores him to his physical prime.", "Regarding the possible death of the character, in an interview with ''Empire'' in 2012 Wagner said: \"There could be many ways to end it, but the probability is that I won't still be around when it happens!", "I would love to write it, but I can't see it happening.", "I'll leave the script in my will\".===Weapon===The '''Lawgiver''' is a fictional weapon used by the Judges including ''Judge Dredd''.", "The Lawgiver is a self-loading handgun featuring manual and automatic focusing and targeting, plus a built-in computer capable of controlling its operation.", "An in-line gunsight shows the view directly down the barrel.", "A Lawgiver can only be operated by its designated Judge owner, whose palm print is programmed into the gun's memory.", "Any attempt by a non-designated user to fire a Lawgiver causes the weapon to self-destruct (a feature introduced by writer Malcolm Shaw).The gun fires six different kinds of rounds, which a Judge can switch via voice command:*''Standard execution'' – A standard bullet.", "*''Heat Seeker'' or ''Hot Shot'' – Heatseeker rounds lock onto the target's heat source.", "*''Ricochet'' – A bullet coated with rubber.", "Ricochet rounds can bounce off solid surfaces while retaining enough kinetic energy to penetrate flesh.", "This enables the Judge to, for example, kill a perp that is using a human shield, bouncing their shot off a back wall and hitting the target from behind.", "*''Incendiary'' – A napalm round.", "*''Armour Piercing'' – Useful against robots and armoured opponents.", "*''High-Explosive'' (Hi-Ex) – An explosive shell.As well as the usual six rounds listed above, a stun shot has also been depicted in the comic, and a variety of other rounds have been shown in the films." ], [ "Setting", "Dredd's first stories take place in the year 2099, 122 years after their publication date in 1977.His regular stories are generally set 122 years after their real-world publication date (unless otherwise stated as a flashback or prequel story), so that stories published in are set in .The setting of ''Judge Dredd'' is a dystopian future Earth damaged by a series of international conflicts; much of the planet has become radioactive wasteland, and so populations have aggregated in enormous conurbations known as 'mega-cities'.", "The story is centred on the megalopolis of Mega-City One, on the east coast of North America.", "Within Mega-City One, extensive automation (including intelligent robots) has rendered the majority of the population unemployed.", "As a consequence, the general population is prone to embracing any fashion or craze they encounter.", "Mega-City One is surrounded by the inhospitable \"Cursed Earth\", a radioactive desert populated by outlaws and mutants.", "Much of the remaining world's geography is somewhat vague, although other mega-cities are visited in the strip.Mega-City One's population lives in gigantic towers known as City Blocks, each holding some 50,000 people.", "Each is named after some historical person or TV character, usually for comic effect.", "Mega-City One extends from Boston to Charlotte; but extended into Florida before the Apocalypse War laid waste to the southern sectors.", "At its height, the city contained a population of about 800 million; after the Apocalypse War, it was halved to 400 million.===The Judge system===Street Judges act as police, judge, jury, and executioner.", "Capital punishment in Mega-City One is rarely used, though deaths while resisting arrest are commonplace.", "Numerous writers have used the Judge System to satirize contemporary politics.Judges, once appointed, can be broadly characterised as \"Street Judges\" (who patrol the city), and administrative (office-based) Judges.", "The Justice Department is responsible not only for law enforcement, but is also the government, since the United States was overthrown in 2070 following the Third World War, which devastated much of America.", "The Judges are a ruling class, the ordinary citizens having no participation in government except at the municipal level.", "Dredd was once offered the job of Chief Judge, but he refused it.The Judge System has spread world-wide, with various super-cities possessing similar methods of law enforcement.", "As such, this political model has become the most common form of government on Earth, with only a few small areas practicing civilian rule." ], [ "Fictional character biography", "In 2066, Joseph Dredd and his older (by twelve minutes) \"brother\" Rico Dredd are cloned from the DNA of Chief Judge Fargo, the founder of the Judge System, who was said to have died in the line of duty years before.", "Their growth is artificially accelerated in gestation so they are \"born\" with the physiological and mental development of a 5-year-old child, with appropriate knowledge and training already implanted in their brains.", "The last name \"Dredd\" is chosen by the genetic scientist who created them, Morton Judd, to \"instill fear in the population.", "\"In 2070, the corrupt President Robert Linus Booth starts World War III, also known as the Atomic Wars, and the Judges move to restore order to the panic-stricken public.", "Cadets Joe Dredd and Rico Dredd are temporarily made full judges to help restore order under the supervision of Judge Kinnison, despite being physically and mentally only nine years old.", "They make their first kills stopping a rape gang but are unable to prevent Kinnison's death in action.", "During the war, they discover their clone-father Eustace Fargo is still alive, hidden by higher ranking judges.", "Seeing them as kin, Fargo recruits Joe and Rico to be his temporary bodyguards.", "He openly tells them his doubts regarding the Justice Department, wondering if the system has taken away \"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness\" while trying to instill strict order and control.", "Three weeks later, Fargo is placed in suspended animation and the Dredd brothers return to the Academy.", "After the Battle of Armageddon in 2071, President \"Bad Bob\" Booth is captured, tried for war crimes, and sentenced to suspended animation.", "In the wake of World War III, the office of the President is retired and the Judges now have full control over what's left of America.Distinguishing themselves, the Dredds are fast-tracked through the Academy of Law.", "Rico graduates at the top of their class in 2079, with Joseph graduating second.", "Joe's final assessment is done under the supervision of Judge Morphy, who is impressed with the young man and passes him.", "Joe later discovers Rico has embraced corruption, engaging in multiple crimes including murder, justifying his actions by saying Judges are thugs and killers by nature.", "Rico asks Joe to help him cover his crimes, but Joe arrests his brother instead, sentencing him to 20 years of hard labour on the penal colony on Saturn's moon Titan (a typical punishment for corrupt Judges).", "Joe Dredd continues operating as a judge, quickly gaining a reputation throughout the city as a formidable and incorruptible law enforcement agent.", "In 2099, Rico Dredd returns to Earth after serving his 20-year sentence.", "He comes after Joe for revenge, challenging him to a fast draw.", "No longer used to Earth's gravity, Rico loses and Joe shoots him dead in self-defence.", "Visibly upset, Joe insists he be the one to carry his brother's body away.Over the decades, Joe Dredd becomes a major force protecting Mega-City One and is sometimes the biggest catalyst in preventing its destruction.", "Offered the opportunity to become Chief Judge in 2101, Dredd declines, preferring to serve on the streets enforcing the law, though he does temporarily serve in other senior positions.", "In \"Tour of Duty\", Dredd is appointed to the Council of Five, Mega-City One's highest governing body below the Chief Judge, on which he serves for two years (2132 to 2134).", "On several occasions, he saves his city from conquest or destruction by powerful enemies, and in 2114, he saves the entire world during the Fourth World War.In 2107, Dredd loses his eyes in combat during the story ''City of the Damned''.", "He has them replaced with bionic eyes that grant him night-vision.", "In 2112, he suffers near-fatal wounds when a battle causes him to fall into a lake of acidic chemicals, burning his entire body.", "Later on, he undergoes rejuvenation treatment, healing him and adding more vitality than a man his age would normally have.", "In 2130, Dredd is diagnosed with cancer of the duodenum, though it was benign.", "In 2138, at 72 years old, Dredd undergoes another \"rejuve\" treatment after being ordered to.", "It is specified that his entire epidermis, vascular, and muscular tissue are rebuilt on a cellular level, once again restoring some lost youth and vitality.", "He turns down an offer for a full treatment that would rebuild his internal organs and skeleton.Although Dredd holds his duty above every other priority, this devotion is not blind.", "On two occasions (in \"The Robot Wars\" and \"Tale of the Dead Man\"), Dredd resigns from the force on principle, but both times he later returns, believing the Judge System, while imperfect and vulnerable to corruption, is the best protection that currently exists for people.", "In 2113, Dredd insists the Justice Department gamble its existence on a referendum to prove its legitimacy.", "In 2116, he risks 20 years imprisonment with hard labour when he challenges the policy of a Chief Judge.", "In 2129, Dredd threatens to resign if the Chief Judge doesn't change the city's harsh anti-mutant apartheid laws.In 2129 (''2000 AD'' #1535), Dredd is present when his clone-father Eustace Fargo is revived from cryogenic suspension, only to die later the same day.", "Before Fargo dies, he calls for Dredd to be at his side and admits his conclusion that the Judge system was a mistake that killed the American Dream, that it was meant to fix things but not last forever.", "Since Joe and Rico Dredd are his blood, Eustace hopes they will fix his mistakes, implying they should replace the Judge System with something else (he was unaware Rico Dredd had gone renegade and later died by Joe's hand).", "After Eustace Fargo dies, Dredd decides not to share the man's final words.In more recent years, Dredd has met other Fargo clones such as Kraken and Nimrod, and a rogue clone of himself called DRƎDD.", "He has also developed a family of sorts with the introduction of two younger clones of his own named Dolman and Judge Rico (no first name).", "Dredd also discovered his older brother Rico Dredd fathered a daughter, Vienna Dredd, who now sees Joe as an uncle.===Family and associates===* '''Judge Rico Dredd.'''", "Judge Joe Dredd's older \"brother,\" also cloned from Chief Judge Eustace Fargo and initially superior to him in physical skills.", "Soon after Joseph and Rico Dredd became Judges, Rico became corrupt.", "Joe arrested him and sentenced him to twenty years on the penal colony on Saturn's moon Titan.", "Twenty years later, Rico sought revenge, and Joe killed him in self-defense.", "* '''Vienna.'''", "The daughter of Rico Dredd and a journalist who visited him on Titan.", "Dredd considers her his niece and goes out of his way to help her on occasion.", "* '''Judge Rico.'''", "A clone created directly from Joe Dredd's own DNA, identical to him but decades younger.", "Rather than adopt the same last name as Joe Dredd, this clone decides to redeem the name of Joe's late, corrupt older brother and so becomes Judge Rico with no first name.", "Judge Rico eventually inherits Joe Dredd's old apartment at Rowdy Yates Block.", "* '''Judge Anderson.'''", "For years, Dredd had a close but uneasy friendship with Cassandra Anderson of Psi-Division, which came to an end when Anderson briefly abandoned the law.", "After she returned to duty, Dredd initially denied their friendship, but re-affirmed it after she was injured while saving the city.", "Dredd has great respect for Anderson's abilities and trusts her often with his life, but sometimes finds her flippant attitude and playful jokes annoying.", "* '''Judge Hershey.'''", "Dredd knew Chief Judge Hershey for forty years.", "Like all chief judges since Goodman, Dredd had easy access to her, but they also had a personal relationship based on mutual respect.", "While they had differences at times, Dredd believed her to be \"the best chief judge we've ever had\".", "After Hershey became terminally ill, she hid her illness from Dredd and all others but requested him to be at her side when she chose to be euthanised.", "Her death was initially faked so she could leave the city on an undercover mission, but after completing her private mission (and one final meeting with Dredd) her illness claimed her on her own terms - while bringing law to the lawless.", "* '''Dolman.'''", "Another clone grown from Joe Dredd's DNA, but years younger.", "Formerly a trainee judge and member of the MC1 Space Corps.", "Has undergone face changing procedures to hide his heritage and so bears no resemblance to Dredd or Rico, and Vienna is the only person outside the Justice Department who knows his true identity.", "* '''Judge Beeny'''.", "Dredd's protégée since 2007.On Dredd's recommendation, Hershey appointed her to the Council of Five.", "She was initially dismissed from the council when Hershey stepped down but was later reappointed by Chief Judge Logan.", "* '''Walter the Wobot and Maria.'''", "Dredd used to rent his Rowdy Yates Block apartment from Maria, a landlady with a thick, stereotypical Italian accent.", "After helping the Judges fight a robot revolution, a former vending machine robot called Walter the Wobot became the city's first free robot and moved in with Dredd, acting as his cook and housekeeper out of love.", "After several years, Dredd parts company with both Walter and Maria.", "Walter starts a business, then briefly goes rogue and starts his own robot revolution, leading Dredd and the second Judge Giant to arrest him.", "Dredd later assigns Walter a probation sentence of community service as house robot and caretaker of Mrs.", "Gunderson.", "* '''Mrs Gunderson.'''", "A sweet-natured widow living in Sylvia Plath Block in a large apartment with multiple bedrooms that she often rents.", "Following the \"Necropolis\" affair, the supernatural alien Judge Death rented a room from her, using the name \"Jay De'Ath.\"", "Mrs. Gunderson was unaware of Judge Death's true nature due to the fact she is partially deaf and nearly blind, and he spared her after concluding she was the one truly innocent soul he had met.", "After Judge Death decides to challenge the Judges directly and no longer hide, Judge Dredd meets Mrs. Gunderson.", "He meets her again when it is discovered that one of her rented bedrooms is now haunted by a journalist Judge Death murdered.", "To ensure she can make money from the room, Judge Dredd helps Mrs. Gunderson contact a ghost-hunting group willing to rent it for their own purposes.", "Dredd later assigns his former house robot turned criminal Walter the Wobot to serve a probation sentence as Mrs. Gunderson's caretaker and housekeeper.", "Dredd visits the apartment again when Judge Death returns on the 12th anniversary of his defeat at Necropolis in the audio drama ''Judge Dredd: Death Trap''.", "* '''Galen DeMarco'''.", "A former Judge infatuated with Dredd.", "This breach of regulations led her to resign from the Justice System and become a private investigator.", "Dredd first tried to help her adjust to civilian life but she severed contact when he again rejected her advances.", "She has her own occasional series called ''DeMarco P.", "I.", "''* '''Fargo clan.'''", "A town occupied by the mutated descendants of Ephram Fargo, the twin brother of Chief Judge Eustace Fargo.", "These mutants, who share the common mutation of an overly large, exaggerated chin, are relatives of Judge Dredd himself, and consider him a \"cousin\".", "This led to Dredd campaigning to have Mega-City One's mutant segregation laws repealed.", "* '''Judge Morphy.'''", "Dredd's mentor at the beginning of his career.", "The two maintained a respect and appreciation for each other over the years, arguably making him one of Dredd's only friends.", "The same day he told Dredd he would retire from street duty soon and hoped to become a teacher, Morphy was killed in the line of duty.", "* '''Judge Logan.'''", "Dredd's assistant for a number of years, later promoted to Senior Judge and later Sector House Chief (Sector 6).", "Dredd encouraged Logan to stand for Chief Judge when Hershey resigned.", "Dredd's and Hershey's public endorsements were instrumental in Logan being elected as Chief Judge.", "* '''Judge Giant Senior.'''", "Dredd's first cadet trainee, introduced during Dredd's first year of stories.", "Having graduated from the Academy of Law, he was assigned to Dredd for his final field assessment.", "After testing if he will stand up even to other judges when they break the law or codes of conduct, Dredd was satisfied and approved Giant.", "Giant then bid his family goodbye, saying he needed to focus all his energy on enforcing the law.", "Giant was a recurring character for years and saved Dredd from execution when Mega-City One was temporarily controlled by the insane Chief Judge Cal.", "Judge Giant Sr. was shot in the back and killed in the line of duty during the \"Block Mania\" story (1981) while trying to arrest Orlok, just before the Apocalypse War.", "* '''Judge Giant Junior.'''", "The 1989 story \"Young Giant\" established Judge Giant fathered a child in 2101 before his death, despite judges being prohibited from marrying and/or creating families.", "Orphaned when his mother was murdered in front of him shortly after the Apocalypse War in 2104, Giant's son \"Junior\" was inducted into the Academy of Law.", "Years later, the ten-year-old Cadet Giant was supervised on a field test by Judge Dredd, who noted the cadet performed extremely well but has unresolved rage regarding the murder of his mother.", "With Dredd's help, Giant Jr. brought in his mother's killer according to proper protocol rather than simply hunting the man down and executing him.", "Giant Jr. spent the next several years as a cadet, helping Dredd on different occasions such as during the \"Necropolis\" affair and \"Judgement Day.\"", "Five years after his introduction, Giant Junior's final assessment was conducted by Judge Dredd and he became a street judge in 2116, the youngest to do so, at age 15.", "* '''Judge Dekker'''.", "Dredd's second cadet trainee, first appearing in \"Super Bowl\" (in ''2000 AD'' #370–371, 1984).", "Dekker quickly proved her worth and became a judge after Dredd's assessment.", "The two fought alongside each other several times after she became a full Judge, and Dredd considered her his best cadet trainee.", "She died during the 1992 story \"Judgement Day.", "\"* '''Judge Kraken.'''", "Another clone of Chief Judge Fargo, decades younger than Joe Dredd but otherwise identical in appearance and similar in skill.", "Kraken was created by Morton Judd, the geneticist who cloned and named Joe and Rico Dredd.", "Kraken was one of the Judda, clones subservient to Judd.", "After Judd's defeat, Kraken is groomed to one day succeed Dredd and trained to become a Judge, though Dredd believes he isn't mentally fit.", "When Dredd first temporarily quits, Chief Judge Silver makes Kraken a Judge and has him impersonate Dredd so others won't know that one of Mega-City's greatest lost faith in the system.", "Kraken is then manipulated and corrupted by the Dark Judges, forced to help them temporarily turn Mega-City One into Necropolis, leading to the deaths of 60 million.", "After the Dark Judges are defeated, Kraken's mind is free and he peacefully accepts execution by Dredd.", "* '''Cadet Jessica Paris.'''", "A recent addition to the family – a clone of Joe Dredd grown without SRY, making her a woman as a result.", "Has only made a single appearance in the comic to date in which she was shown as being heavily pregnant and the decision on what to do with her and the child being left ambiguous.", "* '''Judge Steel.'''", "Introduced in the 2002 Big Finish Productions audio drama ''Judge Dredd: Wanted: Dredd or Alive'', Steel was another cadet trained by Dredd who became a trusted ally.", "Born in Brit-Cit, 5-year-old Amy Steel joined the Judge Academy after the murder of her father, quickly transferring to Mega-City One.", "On her 18th birthday, she was assigned to Dredd for final assessment.", "Although she ignored certain orders and protocols, Dredd believed in her and said he was honored to ride with her.", "Dredd and Steel worked alongside each other in more audio dramas, including against Judge Death.", "After uncovering information about her past, she left the Judges in the audio drama ''Judge Dredd: Get Karter!''", "Steel gave Dredd her badge, indicating she might return.===Recurring adversaries===Dredd's adversaries generally do not return in sequels, since they are usually killed or sentenced to long terms of incarceration.", "However, a few notable villains have returned in multiple stories, and some later got their own spin-off series.", "* '''The Dark Judges''' are a group of undead judges from another dimension, who believe that since all crime is committed by the living, life itself should be a crime.", "Usually four in number, their leader '''Judge Death''' may be said to be Dredd's arch-enemy.", "Death was first introduced to the series in 1980 and has featured in many stories since, in ''Judge Dredd'' and in his own series.", "* '''Orlok the Assassin''' was a secret agent from East-Meg One, the Russian counterpart to Mega-City One.", "He killed millions of innocent citizens with a chemical weapon.", "* '''Mean Machine Angel''' is a psychopath from the Cursed Earth around Texas.", "He had a cybernetic arm and head, and preferred to kill people by head-butting them to death.", "Generally used as comic relief.", "* '''PJ Maybe''' was a serial killer who murdered his first victim at the age of only 12.He evaded detection several times, and claimed thousands of victims, including a mayor and a deputy mayor of Mega-City One, over a criminal career lasting three decades.", "* '''Judge Jura Edgar''' was a serious adversary of Dredd even before he discovered that she was a criminal.", "A high-ranking judge (the head of the Public Surveillance Unit), Edgar clashed with Dredd several times, and sometimes got the better of him: a very rare example of an opponent Dredd could not simply arrest or kill." ], [ "Major storylines", "There have been a number of Judge Dredd stories that have significantly developed the Dredd character and/or the fictional world, or which create and add to a larger storyline.", "These are listed below (for a complete list of all stories see here).", "* ''The Robot Wars'' (''2000 AD'' progs 10–17; prologue in prog 9).", "The Mega-City Judges face an uprising by the city's robot servant workforce, led by carpenter-droid Call-Me-Kenneth.", "The first multi-part Dredd story.", "Walter the Wobot, a robot who often pronounces R sounds as W, helps Dredd against the uprising and rallies together other robots that wish to still serve humanity.", "As a result, he is made a \"free robot\".", "Due to his love and respect for Dredd, Walter decides to remain as the judge's personal valet, housekeeper, and cook.", "*''The Return of Rico'' (prog 30).", "It is revealed that Joe Dredd is a clone who was artificially aged and trained to be a judge since childhood.", "The story also reveals he has an older (by 12 minutes) clone \"brother\" Rico Dredd who became a judge alongside him.", "Rico grew corrupt, taking bribes and killing people in his way until Joe arrested him, leading to a sentence of 20 years hard labor on Saturn's moon Titan (this penal colony will be mentioned again in several later stories, particularly as a place where renegade judges are sent).", "Now in 2099, 20 years later, Rico comes to Mega-City One seeking revenge.", "No longer used to Earth's gravity, Rico Dredd is outdrawn and killed by Joe, who seems to mourn his brother despite their differences.", "Some later stories expand Rico's life and personality.", "* ''Luna-1'' (multiple stories; progs 42–59) Dredd is assigned to act for six months as Judge Marshall of Luna-1, a colony on Earth's moon governed by judges from all three Mega-Cities.", "This story introduced Luna-1 and Judges from East-Meg One and Texas City.", "* ''The Cursed Earth'' (progs 61–85).", "Dredd, accompanied by punk biker Spikes Harvey Rotten (and later the alien Tweak), leads a small group of Judges on an epic journey across the Cursed Earth, transporting vaccine for the deadly 2T-FRU-T virus that is devastating Mega-City Two.", "This multi-part epic is often referred to as 'the first Dredd epic' and was inspired by Roger Zelazny's ''Damnation Alley.", "''* ''The Day the Law Died'' (progs 89–108; prologues in 86–88).", "It's 2101.The insane Judge Cal, head of the Special Judicial Squad (SJS), arranges the assassination of Chief Judge Goodman and then assumes the man's position himself.", "By brainwashing Judges and employing alien mercenaries, Cal rules Mega-City One like a new version of Caligula.", "Dredd rallies together a few other Judges and Judge-Tutors to lead a resistance movement, and eventually Fergee kills Cal.", "This story introduced the alien Kleggs and saw Chief Judge Griffin assume the Chief Judgeship after Cal's death.", "* ''Judge Death'' (progs 149–151).", "The first appearance of Judge Death and Dredd's recurring ally Psi-Judge Anderson.", "On a parallel Earth, the undead Judge Death decides that since crime is committed by the living, life itself is a crime and the only sentence is death.", "After laying waste to his Earth (later called Deadworld), Judge Death arrives in Dredd's dimension in 2102, determined to continue killing.", "His body is destroyed in battle with the Judges, leading his spirit to seek a new host until he is trapped inside the powerful telepathic mind of Psi-Judge Anderson.", "Anderson subjects herself to suspended animation, acting as a living cage.", "A later story reveals Judge Death was not alone but was one of four \"Dark Judges\".", "* ''The Judge Child'' (progs 156–181; epilogue in 182).", "Along with taking Judge Dredd outside the boundaries of Mega-City One, this story introduced several long-running characters and concepts into the Dredd mythos including: Judge Hershey, The Angel Gang (except for Fink Angel, introduced later), Murd the Oppressor, the Judge Child, and the new head of the SJS, McGruder.", "This story also begins writer Alan Grant's tenure as John Wagner's long-term co-writer of the Dredd series.", "The story starts when Psi-Judge Feyy, the best 'pre-cog' in Psi-Division, predicts that a psychic child bearing the mark of the Eagle of Justice will need to rule Mega-City One in order to save it from a future disaster.", "Dredd is assigned to lead a team on a galaxy-spanning search for the \"Judge Child\", Owen Krsyler, leading to several battles, as well as Judge Lopez losing his life.", "Dredd realizes the boy's psychic predictions of death and disaster are intentionally caused by manipulative, self-fulfilling prophecies.", "On finding Owen Krysler, Dredd concludes that he is evil and abandons the Judge Child on the planet Xanadu rather than risk Mega-City One having a corrupt ruler, despite his orders and the sacrifices made.", "In the epilogue, Dredd's reputation is shaken and Judge McGruder questions his judgment, however he would be vindicated by events that occur in ''City of the Damned''* ''Judge Death Lives!''", "(progs 224–228).", "Voted #3 for \"best story ever printed\" in the Dredd comics in a 2005 poll on the 2000AD online website, this tale introduced the other three Dark Judges: Judges Fear, Fire and Mortis.", "A year after Judge Death's defeat, the three other Dark Judges journey to Dredd's dimension, free Death from Judge Anderson's mind, and provide him a new host body.", "After the host body is killed and made undead, Judge Death regains his full power and leads the other three on a killing spree.", "Released from suspended animation, Anderson joins Dredd in fighting the Dark Judges.", "The two then follow the quartet to their native parallel Earth, the 'Deadworld.'", "By tapping into the psychic anguish of all their victims, Anderson is seemingly able to destroy the four Dark Judges (though they will return years later).", "*''Block Mania'' (progs 236–244).", "Contamination of water supplies by Orlok the Assassin leads to madness and violent aggression in many citizens.", "Minor wars break out between many city blocks of Mega-City One.", "This story introduced Orlok and saw the death of Judge Giant.", "* ''The Apocalypse War'' (progs 245–270, except 268).", "In 2104, Mega-City One is still weakened by the events of Block Mania, leaving it a vulnerable target for the Soviet forces of East-Meg One.", "Almost half the city (400 million people) are killed in nuclear strikes, while more die from radiation sickness, starvation, and cold.", "The Mega-City Judges are unable to strike back, as the Soviet city is protected by a dimensional force field that sends all incoming nukes to a parallel Earth.", "The Judges fight a guerilla war that eventually culminates in the destruction of East-Meg One when Dredd captures a Soviet missile bunker.", "This story features the death of Chief Judge Griffin, with McGruder becoming the new Chief Judge.", "* ''City of the Damned'' (progs 393–406).", "By 2107, the Judges have developed reliable - albeit power-hungry - time travel technology.", "Dredd and Anderson travel to the year 2120 to discover more about the disaster predicted in ''The Judge Child'' storyline.", "Arriving in May 2120, Mega-City One is a wasteland inhabited by monsters, vampire Judges, and ruled by a powerful being called the Mutant.", "Dredd is separated from Anderson and blinded.", "He learns the Mutant is a clone of the Judge Child Owen Krysler, born with an inhuman appearance but inheriting all of his memories.", "The Mutant caused the destruction of Mega-City One and, for his own amusement reanimated the future corpse of Dredd, making him a zombie servant.", "Chased by his undead double, Dredd and Anderson flee back to 2107, where his eyes are replaced by bionics.", "The Judge Child clone is then located in 2107 and killed, along with all those involved, supposedly erasing the dystopian timeline.", "Anderson questions the certainty of this though as the Zombie Dredd still exists in their current timeline.", "This storyline was originally intended to be much longer, but the creative team disliked time-travel stories and decided to finish the saga early.", "* ''Oz'' (progs 545–570).", "When sky-surfer Chopper breaks out of jail and flees to the Sydney-Melbourne Conurb in Australia to take part in the (now legal) Supersurf 10, Dredd is sent to retrieve him.", "But Dredd’s real mission is to fight former Council of Five member Morton Judd, the scientist who created him from the cloned DNA of Judge Fargo.", "After escaping justice 40 years earlier, Judd has created a new army of clones called the Judda, planning to use them to dominate Mega-City One.", "Dredd destroys the Judda’s base in Uluru (Ayers Rock) with a nuclear bomb, although some Judda survive and are captured.", "* ''The Dead Man'' (progs 650–662).", "When first published in ''2000 AD'', this was not billed as a 'Judge Dredd' tale and was printed as an extra storyline while the main 'Judge Dredd' series continued in parallel.", "No references to established Dredd comic locations or characters were made until the storyline's last few chapters.", "The story begins when a boy named Yassa Povey, one of a group of settlers living in a desolate landscape, discovers an amnesiac near-dead man whose entire body and face have been burned.", "Supernatural forces hunt the Dead Man, who then retraces his steps with Yassa's help.", "In the 11th chapter of the story, the two find the remains of a Judge uniform and a badge reading \"Dredd\".", "The Dead Man recalls he is Joseph Dredd and that, following the events of \"A Letter to Judge Dredd\", he recently lost faith in the system and retired, taking the \"long walk\" into the Cursed Earth (where Yassa lives).", "He was then attacked by psychic projections of the Sisters of Death, the witches who made the Dark Judges into supernatural monsters, which led to him falling into an acidic chemical lake.", "After encountering the Sisters again, Dredd returns Yassa home and heads back to Mega-City One.", "* ''A Letter to Judge Dredd'' (prog 661).", "Published alongside the penultimate chapter of \"The Dead Man\" storyline, this story reveals that during the Judges' suppression of a protest rally of Democrats (citizens who want democracy instead of Judge control), a protestor named Sholley was struck so hard he suffered permanent brain damage.", "Sholley has regular fits of violent delusions for the next two years, often attacking his family.", "Since Dredd was in charge of breaking up the rally that day, a boy named Wenders writes to him asking why Sholley was permanently injured during a seemingly peaceful protest.", "He also has several questions regarding the effectiveness and fairness of the Judge system when crime, violence, and corruption don't improve, the people fear their own protectors, and punishments are dealt so harshly by people whose judgment may not be perfect.", "Sholley has another violent episode and kills Wenders, whose letter is given to Dredd.", "Already having had doubts for years, Dredd questions the Judge system even more after reading it.", "Thus the story reveals what set in motion his retirement mentioned in \"The Dead Man\", and sets up a chain of events in stories to follow.", "* ''Tale of the Dead Man'' (progs 662–668).", "The first chapter of this story was published in the same issue as the final chapter of \"The Dead Man\", linking that story back into the main \"Judge Dredd\" series.", "As Dredd heads back to Mega-City One following the events of \"The Dead Man\", he recalls what led to him retiring and leaving for the Cursed Earth.", "Disillusioned with the system, Dredd assesses his younger clone-brother Kraken, a former Judda who is now a Cadet.", "During the assessment, Dredd's former mentor Morphy is killed, bringing up more feelings in Dredd that his own time as a Judge should end.", "Kraken impresses many but Dredd sees a glimmer of Judda attitude when the young man is angry, and recommends he not be a Judge.", "Dredd then announces his retirement and pardons all the Democrats he arrested from the protest two years earlier mentioned in the Wenders letter.", "The next day, he leaves for the Cursed Earth, leading into the events of \"The Dead Man\".", "This story acts as a prologue to ''Necropolis''.", "* ''Countdown to Necropolis'' (progs 669–673).", "Kraken is sentenced to death based on Dredd's belief that he is still a Judda at heart.", "But this is actually a final test of loyalty to see if he attempts to defend himself.", "Seeing that Kraken accepts the sentence and is willing to execute himself, Chief Judge Silver makes him a full Judge.", "Since the population of Mega-City One and most Judges don't know that Dredd retired, Silver then orders Judge Kraken to pretend to be Dredd for the time being, to avoid admitting to the public that such a famous and trusted Judge lost faith in the justice system.", "Meanwhile, a woman named Xena is becoming obsessed with Judge Death, having barely survived an encounter with him during one of the previous Dark Judge rampages.", "It is revealed that the Sisters of Death have influencing Xena from Deadworld, gaining her loyalty and convincing her she will be the \"Bride of Death\".", "Eventually, they use her mind and life force to create a psychic bridge allowing them to manifest on Earth.", "* ''Necropolis'' (progs 674–699).", "Two months after Dredd left Mega-City One, the Sisters of Death attack and take control of the vulnerable minded Judge Kraken.", "Realizing Xena is too weak to be of much further use, the Sisters have Kraken bring them Psi-Judge Kit Agee so her psychic power can form a stronger bridge from Deadworld.", "Increasingly corrupted by the Sisters, Kraken later forces an extra-dimensional research lab to bring the Dark Judges back to Mega-City One.", "The Sisters use magic to corrupt MC1 into \"Necropolis\" and the Dark Judges take over, making Kraken a fifth Dark Judge and corrupting many Judges who can't resist.", "Under their rule, the population is systematically murdered, while some commit suicide to avoid horrific death.", "Finding the retired former Chief Judge McGruder in the Cursed Earth, Dredd recruits her and returns to Mega-City One.", "He then recruits Anderson and others.", "Locating Agee, they kill her, cutting off the Sisters' power and influence.", "Judges Mortis, Fear, and Fire are then captured.", "In the end, 60 million are dead, their bodies buried in a mass grave just outside the walls of Mega-City One.", "Freed from being a slave to the Dark Judges, Kraken welcomes his execution by Dredd.", "With Chief Judge Thomas Silver missing and presumed dead, McGruder returns to the position of Chief Judge but decides not to create a new Council of Five.", "* ''Return of the King'' (progs 733-735).", "In this aftermath to ''Necropolis'', the undead Chief Judge Silver returns to the Grand Hall of Justice.", "After his botched suicide attempt, Silver had been captured and murdered by Judge Death who reanimated him as a zombie (albeit with all his mental faculties intact) and tortured him mercilessly.", "Fearing summary execution by the survivors of the Necropolis, Silver had hidden for months before discovering that, in his absence, his predecessor McGruder had reclaimed the office of chief judge.", "A constitutional crisis breaks out when Silver challenges McGruder's right to be chief judge, pointing out she had resigned the position whereas he had not.", "Silver and McGruder agree to abide by Dredd's decision as to who is the rightful chief judge.", "Since Silver had never resigned or been formally removed from power, Dredd rules in his favour, formally returning Silver to office.", "Dredd then tells Silver he is unfit for command and convicts him of gross dereliction of duty for precipitating the Necropolis and deserting his command in time of war.", "Initially sentencing Silver to twenty years of penal servitude, Dredd defers the sentence to execution.", "Silver pleads for his life but an impassive Dredd incinerates him to ashes, making McGruder chief judge by default.", "* ''The Devil You Know'' and ''Twilight's Last Gleaming'' (progs 750–753 and 754–756).", "The long-running tensions in Mega-City One between the totalitarian Judge system and the movement for the restoration of democracy conclude with a vote.", "A large number of apathetic citizens take no part in the process, while the majority of those who do vote want the Judges to remain in control.", "A pro-democracy protest march of almost 2 million people heads for Justice Central and is ready to riot, but Dredd convinces the leaders the referendum was fair and votes were counted accurately.", "During this time, Dredd undergoes \"rejuve\" treatment for the first time, restoring his damaged skin and muscle from \"The Dead Man\" story and gaining more vitality and youth than a man his age should have.", "* ''Top Dogs'' (''Judge Dredd Annual'' 1991).", "Published in 1990, this is the first crossover between Judge Dredd's stories and another long-running ''2000 AD'' comic strip ''Strontium Dog'' starring Johnny Alpha.", "Mutated by strontium radiation fallout resulting from a nuclear war in 2150, Alpha (like many mutants) works as a Search/Destroy Agent, bounty hunters often referred to as \"S/D\" Agents or \"Strontium Dogs\".", "In this story, Johnny and his partner Wulf Sternhammer time travel from 2176 to pursue fugitives who have escaped to Dredd's time in 2112.Although Dredd realizes Alpha and Sternhammer are time travelers, he doesn't recognize their legal authority and considers their actions criminal.", "After a fight and chase, the S/D Agency transports Johnny, Sternhammer, and their bounty target back to 2176.Dredd regards Alpha and Sternhammer as wanted fugitives.", "Although this story implies Alpha's stories are set in Dredd's future, writer John Wagner later said the world of ''Strontium Dog'' is one of several possible futures for Dredd's reality.", "* ''America'' (''Megazine'' 1.01–1.07).", "Dredd's philosophy is explored when democracy activists resort to terrorism.", "This story introduces the tragic characters America Jara and Bennett Beeny, as well as the terrorist group Total War.", "* ''Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgement on Gotham'', an intercompany crossover story co-published by DC Comics and Fleetway, written by Alan Grant and John Wagner, and featuring painted artwork by Simon Bisley.", "The universe-hopping undead monster Judge Death uses dimension-jump technology to breach the DC Universe and attack Gotham City.", "Batman uses the same technology to travel to Dredd's reality, leading to a battle and then the Dark Knight's arrest.", "After scanning Batman's mind, Judge Anderson realizes they're on the same side and helps him return to Gotham to stop Judge Death and Scarecrow.", "Dredd reluctantly joins forces with Batman, returning home with Anderson once Death is defeated.", "The story was followed by three other crossovers also written by Wagner and Grant but with different artists each time: ''Batman/Judge Dredd: Vendetta in Gotham, Batman/Judge Dredd: The Ultimate Riddle,'' and ''Batman/Judge Dredd: Die Laughing'' #1–2.", "* ''Judgement Day'' (progs 786–799 and ''Megazine'' 2.04–2.09).", "Published in 1992, this was the first story to feature Johnny Alpha of ''Strontium Dog'' after his death in 1990.In this story, the villain Sabbat the Necromagus destroys a world in 2178 (two years before Alpha's Death) then journeys to Dredd's time in 2114.Johnny Alpha pursues him to ensure he doesn't completely alter future history.", "Using a lodestone to tap into Earth's own energy field, Sabbat re-animates most of Earth's dead, including the 60 million buried outside of Mega-City One after \"Necropolis\", and releases zombie armies against the world's Mega-Cities, causing the Fourth World War.", "Many minor supporting characters are killed, including Dredd's former cadet trainee Dekker.", "At an international conference of Judges, Sabbat briefly appears and explains that since he can control the dead, he will kill the entire human race to create a planet-scale army to conquer the galaxy.", "After learning the cities of Brasilia, Djakarta, Mega-City Two, Sino-Cit, and South-Am City have all fallen to Sabbat, Dredd suggests nuking them so the dead won't become new zombie soldiers.", "Although horrified this will kill any survivors still in those cities, the other cities agree and the attacks kill over 2 billion across Earth, with another billion later dying in the surviving cities from the zombies.", "When Sabbat's base is located in the Radlands of Ji (an area of post-nuclear China), Dredd leads a squad to stop him and Johnny Alpha tags along.", "In the end, only he and Dredd survive, decapitating Sabbat and pinning his head to his own magical lodestone so he can't regenerate or leave.", "With Sabbat's power shut down (even though his head lives), the undead armies fall.", "Dredd and Alpha are then forced to walk back to civilization from the Radlands, with Dredd deciding that Alpha's actions have earned him a pardon for crimes in Mega-City One.", "(The end of their journey together, and Johnny Alpha's return to the future, is told in the Big Finish Productions audio play ''Judge Dredd: Pre-Emptive Revenge'' starring Toby Longworth as Dredd and Simon Pegg as Johnny Alpha.", ")* ''Mechanismo'' trilogy (''Megazine'' 2.12–17, 2.22–26 and 2.37–43).", "After \"Necropolis\" and \"Judgment Day\", Mega-City has lost far too many judges.", "To combat this, the Chief Judge test-runs 10 robotic \"Mechanismo\" Judges, with disastrous results.", "* ''Inferno'' (progs 842–853).", "Escaped rogue Judges from Titan take over the city, forcing the Judges into exile out in the Cursed Earth.", "* ''Wilderlands'' storyline (progs 891–894 and 904–918 and ''Megazine'' 2.57–2.67).", "This story introduced Judge Volt and Judge Castillo, revived the Council of Five, and ended many long-running subplots, including the Mechanismo Program and McGruder's second stint as Chief Judge.", "Dredd is exposed as falsifying evidence to shut down the Mechanismo project and is arrested, while Chief Judge McGruder attempts to remain in power and see Mechanismo implemented.", "When a malfunctioning Mechanismo crashes a space cruiser on an alien world in an attempt to kill McGruder, Dredd takes control of the survivors.", "* ''The Pit'' (progs 970–999).", "This story introduced the popular Judge Galen DeMarco, who would become protagonist of her own strip.", "Dredd takes the job of Sector Chief at Sector 301, an isolated area of the city that has become a dumping ground for corrupt and incompetent judges.", "* ''The Doomsday Scenario'' (progs 1141–1164 and 1167, and ''Megazine'' 3.52–3.59).", "The first series to run the same story from different viewpoints concurrently from start to finish, one in ''2000 AD'' and the other in the ''Judge Dredd Megazine''.", "One is told from the viewpoint of Galen DeMarco, now a civilian, as she is caught up in crimelord Nero Narcos' attempt to take over the city with his army of robots.", "The other is told from Dredd's viewpoint as he is taken prisoner by Orlok the Assassin and tried by the East-Meg One government in exile for his war crimes during the Apocalypse War.", "Once Dredd escapes (with Anderson's assistance), he secures the help of Brit-Cit in breaking Narcos' control over his robot hordes.", "The story saw the Judges briefly lose power and Chief Judge Volt commits suicide as a result.", "Hershey replaces him.", "* ''Blood Cadets'' (progs 1186–1188).", "This introduces a new, young clone of Dredd who calls himself Rico (no first name) to try to redeem that name.", "''Blood and Duty'' (progs 1300–1301) saw the return of Dredd's niece Vienna Pasternak.", "With Vienna's reintroduction and the arrival of Judge Rico, Dredd is given a family and several new plot points for future stories, including the Justice Department creating a large number of Dredd clones, and Dredd's problems with trying to connect with his niece.", "* ''Helter Skelter'' (progs 1250-1261).", "Dredd and warp specialist Darien Kenzie battle an invasion from an alliance of alternate universes where Dredd's greatest foes were victorious, led by none other than Chief Judge Cal.", "This story features parallel version of previous Dredd foes such as Cal, Rico Dredd, War Marshal \"Mad Dog\" Kazan, Call-Me-Kenneth, Grampus the Klegg, Fink Angel, and Murd the Oppressor.", "Other non-Dredd characters from ''2000 AD'' also appeared - albeit as background characters - from alternate universes, such as the Norts from Rogue Trooper, D.R.", "& Quinch and the Vampires from Fiends of the Eastern Front.", "* ''Judge Dredd vs. Aliens'' (prog 2003 special and 1322–1335).", "Dredd faces the famous Xenomorphs, with mutant criminal 'Mister Bones' breeding an army thereof to attack the Department of Justice.", "* ''Terror'' and ''Total War'' (progs 1392–1399 and 1408–1419).", "A pair of stories wherein the fanatical organisation 'Total War' smuggles 12 nuclear devices into the city and threatens to detonate them all unless the Judges leave.", "A standard thriller plot made more significant through explorations of Judge Dredd's extended family, including Vienna and another Dredd clone named Nimrod.", "* ''Blood Trails'' (progs 1440–1449).", "Following elements of ''Total War'' and ''Gulag'' (where Dredd led a Judge team to try and free prisoners from the Sov block), a clone of Sov Judge Kazan tries to attack Dredd by targeting Vienna, sending the face-changing assassin Pasha to abduct her.", "In the aftermath of the story, the Kazan clone is cut loose by East-Meg 2 and claims political asylum from Mega-City One.", "Dredd's long-term ally Guthrie is severely injured, losing both legs and an arm, eventually becoming a cyborg.", "Judge Giant and Judge Rico are severely injured.", "* ''Origins'' (progs 1505–1519 and 1529–1535; prologue in 1500–1504).", "Consisting largely of flashbacks, this story lays out the history of the Judges and founder Chief Judge Fargo, as well as scenes from Dredd's childhood during the Third World War.", "* ''Mutants in Mega-City One'' (progs 1542–1545).", "The first in a series of short stories in which Dredd campaigns to change the apartheid laws prohibiting mutants from entering the city.", "This results in Chief Judge Hershey being voted out of office and replaced with Judge Francisco.", "* ''Tour of Duty'' (progs 1650–1693).", "Judge Dredd is posted in the Cursed Earth to oversee the foundations of four new mutant townships.", "The corrupt Judge Martin Sinfield manipulates Francisco so he can become Chief Judge, and promptly becomes the target of repeated assassination attempts.", "Dredd is recalled to lead the investigation into the attacks, which are the work of serial mass-murderer PJ Maybe, who has assumed the identity of Mayor Byron Ambrose.", "* ''Day of Chaos'' (progs 1743–1789) depicts the deaths of 87 per cent of the population of Mega-City One by a biological weapon unleashed by survivors of the Apocalypse War.", "* ''The Cold Deck'' (progs 1806–1811; prologue in 1803, epilogue in 1812).", "A cross-over between ''Dredd'' and the spin-offs ''The Simping Detective'' and ''Low Life'', this story sees the machinations of Black Ops head Judge Bachmann, who is plotting a coup (the three stories together are known as ''Trifecta'').", "Introduces Judge Smiley.", "* ''Every Empire Falls'' (progs 1973–1990 and ''Megazine'' 371–374).", "An attempted coup in Mega-City One by the chief judge of Texas City, Pamela Oswin.", "Dredd is seemingly killed, but this is a deception to hide the fact that he has actually been kidnapped.", "* ''Harvey'' (progs 2024-2029) and ''Machine Law'' (progs 2115-2122).", "This story introduces a new generation of robot judges that prove significantly more reliable than their predecessors and continue to appear in later stories.", "Judge Hershey resigns and is succeeded by Logan as Chief Judge.", "* ''The Carousel'' (''Judge Dredd Megazine'' vol.", "5 #375, published in 2016).", "In the year 2138, Joe Dredd - now 72 years old - is ordered to undergo another \"rejuve treatment\" at the Carousel Clinic (the first rejuve treatment happened soon after \"Necropolis\" due to his injuries in \"The Dead Man\", in the years 2112 when he was 46).", "His entire epidermis, vascular system, and muscular tissue are restructured at a cellular level, giving him somewhat greater youth and vitality than a person his age and condition should have.", "Though he is told he can also have his internal organs and bones rebuilt, he turns this down, satisfied for now.", "* ''The Small House'' (progs 2100-2109).", "The culmination of storylines started in Trifecta, Judge Dredd goes on the hunt for Judge Smiley's black ops unit that's been operating in the walls of the Justice Department for decades.", "Notable for the reveal of Dirty Frank's backstory, Dredd's break with some of his allies including Chief Judge Hershey, and the overt confrontation with the fascist nature of Mega-City One." ], [ "Alternative versions", "Shortly before the release of the 1995 movie, three new comic book titles were released, followed by a one-off comic version of the film story.", ";''Judge Dredd'' (DC Comics)DC Comics published an alternative version of Judge Dredd between 1994 and 1996, lasting 18 issues.", "Continuity and history were different from both the original ''2000 AD'' version and the 1995 film.", "A major difference was that Chief Judge Fargo, portrayed as incorruptible in the original version, was depicted as evil in the DC version.", "Most issues were written by Andrew Helfer, but the last issue was written by Gordon Rennie, who has since written ''Judge Dredd'' for ''2000 AD'' (Note: the DC crossover story ''Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham'' featured the original Dredd, not the version depicted in this title).", ";''Judge Dredd – Legends of the Law''Another DC Comics title, lasting 13 issues between 1994 and 1995.Although these were intended to feature the same version of Judge Dredd as in the other DC title, the first four issues were written by John Wagner and Alan Grant and were consistent with their original ''2000 AD'' version.", ";''Judge Dredd – Lawman of the Future''From the same publishers as ''2000 AD'', this was nevertheless a completely different version of Dredd aimed at younger readers.", "Editor David Bishop prohibited writers from showing Dredd killing anyone, a reluctance which would be completely unfamiliar to readers acquainted with the original version.", "As one reviewer put it years later: \"this was Judge Dredd with two vital ingredients missing: his balls.\"", "It ran fortnightly for 23 issues from 1995 to 1996, plus one ''Action Special''.", ";''Judge Dredd: The Official Movie Adaptation''Written by Andrew Helfer and illustrated by Carlos Ezquerra and Michael Danza.", "Published by DC Comics in 1995, but a different version of Dredd to that in the DC comic books described above.", ";''Shōnen Jump''In Japan, manga comic ''Shōnen Jump Autumn Special'' (1995) included a one-off story featuring a unique version of Judge Dredd which was entirely different to both the comic character and the movie character.", "Set in Tokyo in 2099, Dredd Takeru is a part-time street judge whose day job is working as a primary school teacher.", ";''Heavy Metal Dredd''From the same publishers as ''2000 AD'', this was a series of ultra-violent one-off stories from \"a separate and aggressive Dredd world\".", "The first eight episodes were originally published in ''Rock Power'' magazine, and were all co-written by John Wagner and Alan Grant and illustrated by Simon Bisley.", "These were reprinted, together with 11 new stories (some by other creators), in ''Judge Dredd Megazine''.", "The original eight stories were collected in a trade paperback by Hamlyn in 1993.The complete series was collected by Rebellion Developments in 2009.;''Dredd'' (2012 film continuity)In the week that the 2012 film ''Dredd'' was released in the UK, a 10-page prologue was published in issue #328 of ''Judge Dredd Megazine'', written by its editor, Matt Smith, and illustrated by Henry Flint.", "\"Top of the World, Ma-Ma\" told the backstory of the film's main antagonist, Ma-Ma.", "Five more stories featuring this version of the character were published in ''Judge Dredd Megazine'': \"Underbelly\" in #340–342 (2013), \"Uprise\" in #350–354 (2014), \"Dust\" in #367–371 (2015–'16), \"Furies\" in #386–387 (2017), and \"The Dead World\" in #392–396 (2018) (there were also two ''Judge Anderson'' stories featuring the film version of that character in #377–379).", ";''Judge Dredd'' (IDW Publishing)* In November 2012, IDW Publishing began a new monthly series written by Duane Swierczynski and illustrated by Nelson Daniel.", "It lasted for 30 issues.", "* IDW began a new four-issue miniseries called ''Judge Dredd: Year One'' in March 2013, set during Dredd's first year as a judge.", "* In September 2013, IDW began publishing the four-issue miniseries ''Mars Attacks Judge Dredd''.", "* In January 2014, IDW began another miniseries, ''Judge Dredd: Mega-City Two''.", "There were five issues.", "* In July 2015, IDW announced a new miniseries called ''Judge Dredd: Mega-City Zero'', starting in January 2016.This ran for 12 issues, and then was followed by a sequel, set 10 years later, called ''Judge Dredd: The Blessed Earth'', which lasted for nine issues.", "* IDW and Dark Horse Comics published a four issue miniseries, ''Predator vs. Judge Dredd vs. Aliens'', beginning in July 2016 and ending in June 2017.", "* A one-shot comic called ''Deviations: Howl of the Wolf'' was published in 2017.", "* A four-issue miniseries, ''Under Siege'', began in May 2018.It is not connected with any previous IDW ''Judge Dredd'' series.", "* ''Toxic'' began in October 2018 and ran for four issues.", "* ''False Witness'' was a four-issue miniseries published in 2020." ], [ "In other media", "===Films=======''Judge Dredd'' (1995)====An American film loosely based on the comic strip was released in 1995, starring Sylvester Stallone as Dredd.", "The film received generally negative reviews.", "On Rotten Tomatoes it has a 22% rating, and the site's critical consensus states that \"Director Danny Cannon fails to find the necessary balance to make it work\".", "In deference to its expensive Hollywood star, Dredd's face was shown.", "In the comic, he very rarely removes his helmet, and even then his real face is never revealed.", "Also, the writers largely omitted the ironic humour of the comic strip, and ignored important aspects of the \"Dredd mythology\".", "The co-creator and main writer of the comic character, John Wagner, said: In retrospect the film received some praise for its depiction of Dredd's city, costumes, humour and larger-than-life characters.====''Dredd'' (2012)====Reliance Entertainment produced ''Dredd'', which was released in September 2012.It was positively received by critics with Rotten Tomatoes' rating of 80%.", "It was directed by Pete Travis and written by Alex Garland.", "Michael S. Murphey was co-producer with Travis.", "Karl Urban was cast as Judge Dredd and Olivia Thirlby portrayed Judge Anderson.", "Dredd's costume was radically redesigned for the film, adding armor plates and reducing the size and prominence of the shoulder insignia.The main ''Judge Dredd'' writer John Wagner said:The film was shot in 3-D and filmed in Cape Town and Johannesburg.", "Funding was secured from Reliance Big Entertainment.===Television===On 10 May 2017, ''Entertainment Weekly'' announced that independent entertainment studio IM Global and Rebellion have partnered to develop a live-action TV show called ''Judge Dredd: Mega-City One''.", "The show is planned to be an ensemble drama about a team of Judges as they deal with the challenges of the future-shocked 22nd century.Jason Kingsley, owner of Rebellion, told the ''Guardian'' in May 2017 that the TV show will be far more satirical than the movie adaptions and could become \"one of the most expensive TV shows the UK has ever seen\".According to Karl Urban, the studio's concept is to \"build the show around more rookie judges and young, new judges\", where Dredd himself \"would come in and out\".", "Urban stated that he would be interested in reprising the role for this, on the condition that Dredd's part of the story be implemented in a \"meaningful way\".In November 2018, Rebellion began setting up a new studio in Didcot, Oxfordshire, valued at $100 million, for Film and TV series based on ''2000 AD'' characters, including ''Judge Dredd: Mega City One.", "''===Novels===From 1993 to 1995, Virgin Books published nine Judge Dredd novels.", "They had hoped the series would be a success in the wake of the feature film, but the series was cancelled after insufficient sales.", "In August 2015, these novels were re-released as e-books.", "The books are:* ''Deathmasques'' (Dave Stone, August 1993 )* ''The Savage Amusement'' (David Bishop, August 1993 )* ''Dreddlocked'' (Stephen Marley, October 1993 )* ''Cursed Earth Asylum'' (David Bishop, December 1993 )* ''The Medusa Seed'' (Dave Stone, January 1994 )* ''Dread Dominion'' (Stephen Marley, May 1994 )* ''The Hundredfold Problem'' (John Grant, August 1994 ) (Re-released by BeWrite Books in 2003, rewritten as a non-Dredd novel.", ")* ''Silencer'' (David Bishop, November 1994 )* ''Wetworks'' (Dave Stone, February 1995 )Also in 1995, St. Martin's Press published two novelizations of the film:* ''Judge Dredd'' (Neal Barrett Jr., June 1995 )* ''Judge Dredd: The Junior Novelisation'' (Graham Marks, May 1995 )In 1997, Virgin published a ''Doctor Who'' novel by Dave Stone which had originally been intended to feature Judge Dredd, called ''Burning Heart''.", "However this idea was abandoned after the film was released, and Dredd was replaced by another character called Adjudicator Joseph Craator.From 2003 to 2007, Black Flame published official ''2000 AD'' novels, including a new run of Judge Dredd novels.", "After Black Flame closed in 2007, Rebellion picked up the rights to their \"2000 AD\" titles in 2011, and began republishing them as e-books.", "Their nine Judge Dredd books are:* ''Dredd Vs Death'' (Gordon Rennie, October 2003 )* ''Bad Moon Rising'' (David Bishop, June 2004 )* ''Black Atlantic'' (Peter J. Evans & Simon Jowett, June 2004 )* ''Eclipse'' (James Swallow, August 2004 )* ''Kingdom of the Blind'' (David Bishop, November 2004 )* ''The Final Cut'' (Matt Smith, February 2005 )* ''Swine Fever'' (Andrew Cartmel, May 2005 )* ''Whiteout'' (James Swallow, September 2005 )* ''Psykogeddon'' (Dave Stone, January 2006 )In July 2012, three of these novels – Gordon Rennie's ''Dredd Vs Death'', David Bishop's ''Kingdom of the Blind'', and Matt Smith's ''The Final Cut'' – were republished in a single paperback volume titled ''Dredd'', as a tie-in with the 2012 film of the same title.", "()In August 2012, Rebellion announced a new series of e-books under the series title ''Judge Dredd: Year One'', about Dredd's first year as a judge (the stories in the comic strip having begun in his 20th year when he was already a veteran).", "All three stories were published by Abaddon Books in a paperback book called ''Judge Dredd Year One Omnibus'' in October 2014.", "* ''City Fathers'' (Matthew Smith, August 2012)* ''The Cold Light of Day'' (Michael Carroll, July 2014)* ''Wear Iron'' (Al Ewing, October 2014)In 2016 and 2017, more e-books were published under the series title ''Judge Dredd: Year Two'':* ''The Righteous Man'' (Michael Carroll, January 2016)* ''Down and Out'' (Matthew Smith, September 2016)* ''Alternative Facts'' (Cavan Scott, October 2017)In 2020, more e-books were published under the series title ''Judge Dredd: Year Three'':* ''Fallen Angel'' (Michael Carroll)* ''Machineries of Hate'' (Matthew Smith)* ''Bitter Earth'' (Lauren Sills)====Novels about related characters====As well as novels starring Judge Dredd, there are other novels and novellas in the franchise about other characters.", "For a list of books about Anderson, see Judge Anderson#Novels.Michael Carroll wrote three novellas about Dredd's brother, Rico Dredd, under the series title ''Rico Dredd: The Titan Years''.", "They were originally published as e-books, but the trilogy was published in an omnibus paperback volume by Abaddon Books in 2019.", "* ''The Third Law'' (June 2014)* ''The Process of Elimination'' (October 2018)* ''For I Have Sinned'' (March 2019)Another series of books, collectively called ''Judges'', is about the first generation of judges, and are set six decades before Dredd's first stories to appear in the comic.", "The books, all published by Abaddon Books, are:* ''The Avalanche'' (Michael Carroll, May 2018)* ''When the Light Lay Still'' (Charles J. Eskew, August 2018)* ''Lone Wolf'' (George Mann, January 2019)* ''Golgotha'' (Michael Carroll, July 2019)* ''Psyche'' (Maura McHugh, January 2020)* ''The Patriots'' (Joseph Elliott-Coleman, March 2020)These six books were later republished in two omnibus volumes.", "A seventh book in the series was published in 2021:* ''Necessary Evil'' (Michael Carroll, July 2021)A trilogy about the Dark Judges, ''The Fall of Deadworld'', was written by ''2000 AD'''s editor, Matt Smith, and published by Abaddon Books:* ''Red Mosquito'' (September 2019)* ''Bone White Seeds'' (February 2020)* ''Grey Flesh Flies'' (April 2020)These were collected into an omnibus edition in June 2020.A trilogy of novellas called ''The Apocalypse War'', all written by John Ware, was released in 2022:* \"Pack Instinct\"* \"The World Will End Today\"* \"The Bloody Fist of Justice\"These were collected in an omnibus edition called ''Apocalypse War Dossier''.====Other books====* ''Judge Fear's Big Day Out and Other Stories'' (2020), a collection of short stories by various writers which originally appeared in the ''Judge Dredd Megazine'', edited by Michael Carroll.===Games=======Video games====There have been multiple Judge Dredd games released for various video game consoles and several home computers such as the ZX Spectrum, PlayStation and Commodore 64.The first game, titled ''Judge Dredd'', was released in 1986.Another game, also titled ''Judge Dredd'', was released in 1990.At one time, an arcade game was being developed by Midway Games but it was never released.", "It can however be found online and has three playable levels.A game loosely based on the first live action film, called ''Judge Dredd'' was developed by Probe Software and released by Acclaim for the Genesis, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy, and Game Gear.", "Bally produced a ''Judge Dredd'' pinball machine based on the comics.", "In 1997, Acclaim released a ''Judge Dredd'' arcade game, a rail shooter with 3D graphics and full motion video footage shot specifically for the game.", "''Judge Dredd: Dredd Vs. Death'' was produced by Rebellion Developments and released in early 2003 by Sierra Entertainment for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox, and GameCube.", "The game sees the return of the Dark Judges when Mega-City One becomes overrun with vampires and the undead.", "The player takes control of Judge Dredd, with the optional addition of another Human player in co-operative play.", "The game is a first-person shooter  – with key differences such as the requirement to arrest lawbreakers, and an SJS death squad which will hunt down Dredd should the player kill too many civilians.", "The player can also go up against three friends in the various multiplayer modes which include \"Deathmatch\", \"Team Deathmatch\", \"Elimination\", \"Team Elimination\", \"Informant\", \"Judges Vs. Perps\", \"Runner\" and more.", "A novel was based on the game.A costume set for the PlayStation 3 video game ''LittleBigPlanet'' was released in May 2009, which contained outfits to dress the game's main character Sackboy as five ''2000 AD'' characters, one of which is Judge Dredd.", "Dredd's uniform is also used to create the Judge Anderson costume for the Sackpeople.In 2012, Rebellion released ''Judge Dredd Vs. Zombies'', a game application for iPhone, Android phones, Windows 8 and Windows Phone.====Role-playing games====Games Workshop released a ''Judge Dredd'' role-playing game in 1985.Mongoose Publishing released ''The Judge Dredd Roleplaying Game'' in 2002 and another ''Judge Dredd'' game using the ''Traveller'' system in 2009.Their licence ended in 2016.In February 2017, EN Publishing announced the new ''Judge Dredd & The Worlds of 2000 AD Tabletop Adventure Game'' using the WOIN (''What's OLD is NEW'') role-playing game system.On 17 July 2012, Tin Man Games released a ''Judge Dredd''-themed digital role-playing gamebook titled ''Judge Dredd: Countdown Sector 106'', available for the iOS operating system.====Board games====Games Workshop produced a ''Judge Dredd'' board game based on the comic strip in 1982.In the game players, who represent judges, attempt to arrest perps that have committed crimes in different location in Mega City One.", "A key feature of the game is the different action cards that are collected during play; generally these cards are used when trying to arrest perps although some cards can also be played against other players to hinder their progress.", "The winner of the game is the judge who collected the most points arresting perps.", "Players could sabotage each other's arrest attempts.", "Additionally, there were many amusing card combinations such as arresting Judge Death for selling old comics, as the ''Old Comic Selling'' crime card featured a ''2000 AD'' cover with Judge Death on it.", "The game used characters, locations and artwork from the comic.", "It was re-released by Rebellion in 2022.In 1987, Games Workshop published a second Dredd-inspired board game, \"Block Mania\".", "In this game for two players, players take on the role of rival neighboring blocks at war.", "This was a heavier game than the earlier Dredd board game, focused on tactical combat, in which players control these residents as they use whatever means they can to vandalize and destroy their opponent's block.", "Later the same year, Games Workshop released the Mega-Mania expansion for the game, allowing the game to be played by up to four players.Mongoose Publishing have released a miniatures skirmish game of gang warfare based in Mega-City One called \"Gangs of Mega-City One\", often referred to as GOMC1.The game features judges being called in when a gang challenges another gang that is too tough to fight.", "A wide range of miniatures has been released including box sets for an Ape Gang and an Undercity Gang.", "A Robot Gang was also produced but was released as two blister packs instead of a box set.", "Only one rules expansion has been released, called \"Death on the Streets\".", "The expansion introduced many new rules including usage of the new gangs and the ability to bring Judge Dredd himself into a fight.", "This game went out of print shortly thereafter, but was replaced by the \"Judge Dredd Miniatures Game\", which was published free in many stages as the company sought feedback from fans and players.", "In 2012, an expansion was released called \"Block War!\".", "Miniatures continue to be manufactured at a slow pace.In November 2017, Osprey Games announced their development of a new graphic adventure card game, entitled ''Judge Dredd: The Cursed Earth''.", "The game is designed and based on ''The Lost Expedition'', a game from designer Peer Sylvester.", "In the game, one to five players \"lead a team of judges against dinosaurs, mutants, and the Cursed Earth itself\".", "It was released on 21 February 2019.====Collectible card game====There was a short-lived collectible card game called simply \"Dredd\".", "In the game, players would control a squad of judges and arrest perps.", "The rules system was innovative and the game was well-received by fans and collectors alike, but various issues unrelated to the game's quality caused its early demise.====Pinball====There was a four-player pinball game released in 1993, produced by Bally Manufacturing.===Audio series===\"The Day the Law Died\" and \"The Apocalypse War\" stories were produced by Dirk Maggs and broadcast in three-minute segments (40 for each story) on Mark Goodier's afternoon show on BBC Radio One in 1995.The cast include Lorelei King and Gary Martin.", "They were issued separately on dual cassette and double CD.", "Both titles have since been deleted.", "\"The Apocalypse War\" also contains plot elements from \"Block Mania\", because this story set the scene for the main story.Since then, Big Finish Productions has produced 18 audio plays featuring ''2000 AD'' characters.", "These have mostly featured Judge Dredd, although three have also featured characters from the series ''Strontium Dog''.", "In these, Judge Dredd is played by Toby Longworth, and Johnny Alpha from ''Strontium Dog'' is played by Simon Pegg.The list of ''2000 AD'' audio plays featuring Dredd includes:* 1.Judge Dredd: Wanted: Dredd or Alive by David Bishop* 2.Judge Dredd: Death Trap!", "by David Bishop* 4.Judge Dredd: The Killing Zone by Dave Stone* 5.Judge Dredd: The Big Shot!", "by David Bishop* 6.Judge Dredd: Trapped on Titan by Jonathan Clements* 7.Judge Dredd: Get Karter!", "by David Bishop* 8.Judge Dredd: I Love Judge Dredd by Jonathan Morris* 9.Judge Dredd: Dreddline by James Swallow* 11.Judge Dredd: 99 Code Red!", "by Jonathan Clements* 12.Judge Dredd: War Planet by Dave Stone* 13.Judge Dredd: Jihad by James Swallow* 14.Judge Dredd: War Crimes by David Bishop* 15.Judge Dredd: For King and Country by Cavan Scott* 16.Judge Dredd: Pre-Emptive Revenge by Jonathan Clements (with Strontium Dog)* 17.Judge Dredd: Grud is Dead by James Swallow* 18.Judge Dredd: Solo by Jonathan Clements''Note: 3 and 10 are ''Strontium Dog'' stories that do not feature Dredd.", "''Starting in 2009, four further Judge Dredd titles were released under the banner \"Crime Chronicles\", once more featuring Toby Longworth.", "* 1.1 Judge Dredd: Crime Chronicles – Stranger Than Truth by David Bishop (October 2009)* 1.2 Judge Dredd: Crime Chronicles – Blood Will Tell by James Swallow (November 2009)* 1.3 Judge Dredd: Crime Chronicles – The Devil's Playground by Jonathan Clements (December 2009)* 1.4 Judge Dredd: Crime Chronicles – Double Zero by James Swallow (January 2010)" ], [ "In popular culture", "* The metal band Anthrax included a song about Judge Dredd on their third album (''Among the Living'') entitled \"I Am the Law\".", "It is one of their most popular and well-known songs, and often features as an encore to setlists.", "They also released a 12\" single and a 7\" picture disc, both bearing the image of Dredd.", "One 12\" version featured a fold-out poster of the band dressed as Judges drawn by drummer Charlie Benante.", "* The UK ska/Two-Tone band Madness recorded a tribute single to Dredd under the name of The Fink Brothers, entitled \"Mutants in Mega-City One\".", "Released on the Zarjazz label in February 1985, the record featured a cover drawn by ''2000 AD'' Dredd artist Brian Bolland.", "* The UK band The Human League also wrote a song about Judge Dredd.", "\"I Am the Law\" appeared on the album ''Dare''.", "* The Screaming Blue Messiahs recorded a song entitled \"Mega-City One\" on their final album ''Totally Religious''.", "* The Manic Street Preachers' song \"Judge Yr'Self\" was influenced by the comic, and was intended to appear on the ''Judge Dredd'' film soundtrack.", "It reached the demo stage, but after lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards disappeared, the other members of the band said that a song for a soundtrack was the last thing on their mind.", "Edwards himself was heavily influenced by the Judge Dredd and ''2000 AD'' comics (the slogan \"Be pure.", "Be vigilant.", "Behave\" from the ''2000 AD'' strip ''Nemesis the Warlock'' was included in the song \"P.C.P.\").", "A fully produced mix of \"Judge Yr'Self\" (by long time Manics producer Dave Eringa) was released on the 2003 double-album of B-sides and rarities, ''Lipstick Traces''.", "Richey was a great fan of Judge Dredd and even had one of his drawings published in the comic during his late childhood.", "Richey was later parodied as \"Clarence\" of the \"Crazy Sked Moaners\" in the Dredd story ''Muzak Killer: Live!", "Part 3'' (prog 838, 5 June 1993), in a scene which parodied the infamous 1991 incident of Richey carving 4 REAL into his forearm with a razor (Clarence lasers 4 RALE into his forehead).", "* Simon Pegg is a fan of ''2000 AD'', and Judge Dredd memorabilia (supplied by the comic) appears in the background of several episodes of ''Spaced''.", "* Multiple references to the 1995 movie are made on the sitcom ''Scrubs'', notably by J.D.", "at the end of the episode \"His Story II\", while being wooed by Elliot.", "* The British band Pitchshifter, also fans of ''2000 AD'', released a Judge Dredd t-shirt for their final tour.", "It included the slogan \"13 years punk\", referring to how long the band had been together before they broke up.", "* In the ''Warhammer 40,000'' universe, the Imperium's police force, the Arbites, (Latin; translates as Judge or judgment) were visually based upon Judge Dredd stemming from the time Games Workshop held the rights to Judge Dredd games.", "The original designs for the Space Marine power armour and bikes also drew heavily on the Judges' uniform and Lawmaster bikes.", "In return the original design for the Space Marine jet bike also featured in an episode of Judge Dredd as a Judge antigravity bike.", "A number of artists who have worked on Judge Dredd have also worked for Games Workshop.", "* WizKids / NECA have released four figures of Judge Dredd as part of their HeroClix collectable miniatures game (Rookie, Experienced and Veteran and Promotional versions).", "These were only released in the United Kingdom, alongside other 2000AD related figures, as part of the \"Indy\" expansion to the game.", "This led to something of an outcry from the American fans of both the game and the character, and this style of \"regional\" figure-release was not continued in later sets of HeroClix.", "The \"Promotional\" version is not legal in normal gameplay.", "It has an entirely different blue ringed dial to the standard \"Experienced\" version, and the word \"Promo\" on the base.", "* The video game ''Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War'' features a purchasable Judge Dredd character skin as part of a limited-time bundle.", "The skin is for a playable Operator character, Ingo Beck, and designed after Dredd's comic book appearance, featuring a colored and black-and-white version, as well as weapons themed after Dredd's arsenal." ], [ "See also", "* ''2000 AD'' crossovers.", "Judge Dredd's timeline has crossed over with many other ''2000 AD'' stories." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bishop, David (2007) ''Thrill-Power Overload'', Rebellion Developments, )* Butcher, Mike (1995) ''The A-Z of Judge Dredd: The Complete Encyclopedia from Aaron Aardvark to Zachary Zziiz'', St. Martin's Press, * Jarman, Colin M. and Peter Acton (1995) ''Judge Dredd: The Mega-History'', Lennard Publishing, * Mills, Pat (2017) ''Be Pure!", "Be Vigilant!", "Behave!", "2000AD and Judge Dredd: The Secret History'', Millsverse Books, ** Dredd's universe at the International Catalogue of Superheroes" ], [ "External links", "* Judge Dredd, ''The Guardian'', 5 March 2002* \"The Devil You Know\" by Chloe Maveal at Neotext, 2020* BBC Cult 2000AD audio page* BBC Cult 2000AD comics page* Block Mania boardgame page at BoardGameGeek* Big Finish Productions 2000AD page* Judge Dredd boardgame page at BoardGameGeek* Dredd: The Card game details* 35 Years of 2000AD and Judge Dredd at Comics Bulletin" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "James Flynn (academic)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Robert Flynn''' (28 April 193411 December 2020) was an American-born New Zealand moral philosopher and intelligence researcher.", "Originally from Washington, D.C., and educated at the University of Chicago, Flynn emigrated to Dunedin in 1963, where he taught political studies at the University of Otago.", "He was noted for his publications about the continued year-after-year increase of IQ scores throughout the world, which is now referred to as the Flynn effect.", "In addition to his academic work, he championed social democratic politics throughout his life." ], [ "Early life and education", "James Robert Flynn was born in an Irish-American community in Washington, D.C., on April 28, 1934.His parents were Irish-Americans from Missouri.", "His father, Joseph, left formal schooling at age 12 to work in a factory and later became a \"hard-drinking\" journalist and editor.", "Flynn described his father as a \"keen reader\" who took pride in completing the ''New York Times'' crossword puzzle in pen rather than pencil.", "Flynn's father read classical works to him at a young age, and Flynn said he was \"surrounded by good literature\" as a child.", "Flynn became an avid reader as well; later in life, he wrote a book about world literature, and in a 2010 commencement address, he encouraged graduates to learn by reading \"works of great literature\".", "His mother, Mae, was an office worker and homemaker who trained as a teacher.", "He had a brother, Joseph, who became a non-isothermal kinetics chemist.Raised Roman Catholic, Flynn was a choir boy at Washington, D.C.'s Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle and attended the Catholic private schools St. Paul's Primary School and St. John's Academy.", "Flynn renounced his Catholic religion at age 12 after winning a full set of ''World Book Encyclopedia'' in a city-wide competition and reading about scientific explanations for the creation of the universe that contradicted his creationist education.", "He credited his rejection of Catholicism and his parents' racial views for forming his secular, socialist views on racial and social equality.", "Flynn described himself as an \"atheist, a scientific realist, a social democrat\".Flynn was a lifelong competitive runner who ran for his high school and college and earned six US running medals over the course of his life.In the 1950s, Flynn earned a scholarship to the University of Chicago, where he originally intended to study pure mathematics or theoretical physics \"because they seemed to pose the most difficult problems to solve\", but ended up studying moral and political philosophy, a field with more practical applications.An \"ardent democratic socialist\" and \"man of the left\" throughout his life, Flynn joined the Socialist Party of America in college and, after graduating, became a civil rights activist.While working on his doctorate, he was political action co-chairman for the university branch of the NAACP, where he worked on its social housing initiatives.His doctorate dissertation was entitled, \"Ethics and the Modern Social Scientist.", "\"He met his wife, an attorney whose family was active in the Communist Party USA, at a protest against segregation at Glen Echo Park in Maryland.He was 26 years old at the time, and she was 17.His wife said that Flynn \"ticked the entire list of qualities I wanted in a husband and which I had written down in my diary at the age of 15\": he was tall, smart, funny, held left-wing political views, could stand up to her mother, and had a job with a pension.", "She proposed to him three times: he declined the first two times due to her young age before accepting the third proposal.They named their eldest son, Oxford University maths professor Victor Flynn, after socialist Eugene Victor Debs.The couple also had a daughter, who became a clinical psychologist." ], [ "Early career", "After earning his doctorate in 1958 at age 24, Flynn taught at Eastern Kentucky University in Richmond, Kentucky, where he chaired the local chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), a civil rights organisation in the US South.He was reprimanded by the mayor of Richmond and the university for his anti-segregation activism, and removed as the university's track coach.", "In 1961, he left Kentucky to teach at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, followed by Lake Forest College in Chicago, from which he was fired for giving a lecture on social medicine, working as a peace activist, and being a member of the Socialist Party.By Flynn's own account, in early 1960s America he was consistently fired for his social democratic politics.", "Accordingly, in 1963, aged 29, he emigrated with his family to New Zealand, where he taught at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch and remained active (from afar) in the American civil rights movement.In New Zealand Flynn continued to campaign for left-wing causes, and advised Labour Prime Minister Norman Kirk on foreign policy.", "He was a member of the anti-war Committee on Vietnam and gave lectures against nuclear proliferation.In 1967, he joined the University of Otago in Dunedin as Foundation Professor of Political Studies and head of the university's politics department.In 1973, Flynn published ''Humanism and Ideology: An Aristotelian View''." ], [ "IQ research and the Flynn effect", "In 1978, while working on a refutation of classical racism for an upcoming book about \"humane ideals\", Flynn read University of California, Berkeley educational psychologist Arthur Jensen's 1969 article, \"How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?", "\", which argued that black people scored lower than white people on IQ tests because of genetic differences between the races.Flynn initially planned to spend only a few pages on his book refuting Jensen's work.", "After studying historical IQ tests, Flynn noticed that although the IQ tests were always calibrated so that a score of \"100\" was average, the actual raw scores showed that people's performance on the IQ tests improved over time.", "Flynn calculated that the average American in the year 1900 would have scored a 67 on the version of IQ tests administered in the year 2000, a score that suggested mental impairment.", "Because such an increase in IQ scores over only a few generations could not have been caused by genetic evolution, Flynn concluded that the increases must have been caused by changes in environmental factors, meaning that IQ is influenced more by environment than by genetics.In 1980, Flynn published his research critiquing Jensen's work in his seminal book, ''Race, IQ and Jensen'', which argued that increases in IQ scores over time, and differences in scores between groups of people such as black people and white people, are caused by environmental rather than genetic factors.In 1984, he published an article, \"The Mean IQ of Americans: Massive Gains 1932 to 1978\", examining Stanford-Binet and Wechsler IQ test results, and reported that Americans' average scores increased by 13.8 IQ points in 46 years, almost an entire standard deviation.In response to critics suggesting that the IQ increase could be attributed in increases in education (as opposed to innate intelligence), Flynn examined the results of Raven's Progressive Matrices IQ tests, which use visual patterns rather than words to estimate fluid intelligence or \"on-the-spot problem solving\", irrespective of educational or cultural differences among test-takers.", "Such non-verbal tests can be used to compare diverse populations such as San people and Inuktun.", "In 1987, Flynn published \"Massive IQ Gains in 14 Nations: What IQ Tests Really Measure\", which found that IQ points in 14 countries, as measured by Raven tests, increased between five and 25 points.Test score increases have been continuous and approximately linear from the earliest years of testing to the present.", "For the Raven's Progressive Matrices test, subjects born over a 100-year period were compared in Des Moines, Iowa, and separately in Dumfries, Scotland.", "Improvements were remarkably consistent across the whole period, in both countries.", "This effect of an apparent increase in IQ has also been observed in various other parts of the world, though the rates of increase vary.In 1994, Harvard University psychologist Richard Herrnstein and American Enterprise Institute political scientist Charles Murray published the highly-controversial book ''The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life'', which discussed Flynn's research and dubbed the increase in IQ scores the \"Flynn effect\".Flynn often debated Jensen and Murray, but there was mutual admiration between them, and he defended them against accusations of racism.Flynn believed in racial equality.", "He advocated for open scientific debate about controversial social science claims, and was critical of the suppression of research into race and intelligence.", "He urged those who believe in racial equality to use solid evidence to advance those beliefs.Flynn did not believe genetic differences in intelligence between races existed; he argued that intelligence is influenced by environmental factors that correlate with socioeconomic status.The \"Flynn effect\" is the substantial and long-sustained increase in intelligence test scores measured in many parts of the world.", "When intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are initially standardised using a sample of test-takers, by convention the average of the test results is set to 100 and their standard deviation is set to 15 IQ points.", "When IQ tests are revised they are again standardised using a new sample of test-takers, usually born more recently than the first.", "Again, the average result is set to 100.However, when the new test subjects take the older tests, in almost every case their average scores are significantly above 100.Flynn gained international recognition for the Flynn effect, which has become widely accepted by psychologists and has been documented in large portions of the developed world and several developing countries, at rates too fast and dramatic to be caused by changes in genes, and correlating with environmental changes such as modernisation and improvements in education.Although Flynn was not the first to document increases in IQ or criticise IQ tests, international discussion and acceptance of the Flynn effect sparked a significant reassessment by researchers of IQ tests and the nature of human intelligence.There are numerous proposed explanations of the Flynn effect, as well as some scepticism about its implications.", "Similar improvements have been reported for other cognitions such as semantic and episodic memory.", "Recent research suggests that the Flynn effect may have ended in at least a few developed nations, possibly allowing national differences in IQ scores to diminish if the Flynn effect continues in nations with lower average national IQs.Flynn himself, with co-worker William Dickens, has suggested an explanatory model which points to two-way causality between IQ and environment: a cognitively challenging environment raises an individual's IQ, while in addition, a higher individual IQ makes it more likely that an individual will self-select or be sorted into more cognitively challenging environments." ], [ "Later career", "While teaching at Otago in the 1990s, Flynn became a founding member of the NewLabour and Alliance political parties.", "He stood unsuccessfully as an Alliance candidate for the New Zealand House of Representatives in general elections in the electorate in , , and .", "In 2008 he acted as the Alliance spokesperson for finance and taxation.In 1996, Flynn stepped down as head of the University of Otago's politics department and in 1997, he became Emeritus Professor in the Politics and Psychology departments.In 1999, Flynn had surgery for intestinal cancer, which remained in remission for twenty years.A 1999 article published in ''American Psychologist'' summarised much of his research up to that point.", "On the alleged genetic inferiority of Blacks on IQ tests, he lays out the argument and evidence for such a belief and then contests each point.", "He interprets the direct evidence—when Blacks are raised in settings that are less disadvantageous—as suggesting that environmental factors explain average group differences.", "And yet, he argues that the environmental explanation gained force after the discovery that IQ scores were rising over time.", "Inter-generational IQ differences among Whites and across nations were larger than the Black-White IQ Gap and could not be accounted for by genetic factors, which, if anything, should have reduced IQ, according to scholars he references.", "In that and in later works, he posited that the Black-White IQ score gap can be largely explained by environmental factors if \"the average environment for Blacks in 1995 matches the quality of the average environment for Whites in 1945.", "\"In 2000, Flynn published what he considered his most important book, ''How to Defend Humane Ideals'', which he dedicated to his wife and which was a \"recalibration\" of the \"modern Aristotelianism\" of his earlier 1973 work, ''Humanism and Ideology''.In 2006, with Brookings Institution economist William T. Dickens, Flynn published \"Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: evidence from standardization samples\", which suggested that the difference in IQ scores between blacks and whites narrowed by four to seven points between 1972 and 2002, a conclusion contested by Jensen and controversial University of Ontario psychologist J. Philippe Rushton.Flynn's 2007 book, ''What is Intelligence?", "Beyond the Flynn Effect'', was dedicated to Jensen and revisited and expanded upon his earlier work from the 1980s.During 2007, new research from the 2006 New Zealand census showed that women without a tertiary (college) education had produced 2.57 babies each, compared to 1.85 babies for those women with a higher education.", "During July 2007, ''The Sunday Star-Times'' quoted Flynn as saying that New Zealand risked having a less intelligent population and that a \"persistent genetic trend which lowered the genetic quality for brain physiology would have some effect eventually\".", "He referred to hypothetical eugenicists' suggestions for reversing the trend, including some sort of oral contraceptive \"in the water supply and … an antidote\" to conceive.Flynn later articulated his own views on the ''Close Up'' television programme in an interview with Paul Henry, suggesting that the ''Sunday Star-Times'' had grossly misrepresented his opinions.", "In the article, Flynn argued that he never intended for his suggestion to be taken seriously, as he only said this to illustrate a particular point.Flynn continued teaching and was a prolific author in his later life, publishing almost a book every year in his last decade on a number of topics.Flynn wrote a variety of books.", "His research interests included humane ideals and ideological debate, classics of political philosophy, and race, class and IQ (see race and intelligence).", "His books combined political and moral philosophy with psychology to examine problems such as justifying humane ideals and whether it makes sense to rank races and classes by merit.Despite the success of his work on IQ, Flynn considered himself primarily a philosopher who had simply taken a \"holiday\" in psychology.2008's ''Where have all the liberals gone?", "Race, class, and ideals in America'' argued that American liberalism had lost its way in response to alarmism from American conservatism.In 2010, Flynn published ''The Torchlight List: Around the World in 200 Books'', which analyzed world literature and proposed that a person can learn more from reading great works of literature than they can from going to university.Flynn published three books in 2012.", "''Are We Getting Smarter?", "Rising IQ in the Twenty-First Century'' summarized his past IQ work and responded to criticisms, particularly regarding environmental causes for race and gender IQ gaps.", "''Beyond patriotism: From Truman to Obama (2012)'' critiqued US foreign policy, and suggested people should put allegiance to the world community above national allegiances.", "''Fate & philosophy: A journey through life's great questions'' discussed science, ethics, religion, and free will.In July 2012, several media outlets reported Flynn as saying that women had, for the first time in a century, surpassed men on IQ tests based on a study he conducted in 2010.However, Flynn announced that the media had seriously distorted his results and went beyond his findings, revealing that he had instead discovered that the differences between men and women on one particular test, the Raven's Progressive Matrices, had become minimal in five modernised nations (whereas before 1982 women had scored significantly lower).", "Women, he argued, caught up with men in these nations as a result of exposure to modernity by entering the professions and being allowed greater educational access.", "Therefore, he said, when a total account of the Flynn effect is considered, women's closing the gap had moved them up in IQ slightly faster than men as a result.", "Flynn had previously documented this same trend among ethnic minorities and other disadvantaged groups.", "According to Flynn, the sexes are \"dead equal on cognitive factors ... in their ability to deal with using logic on the abstract problems of Raven's\", but that temperamental differences in the way boys and girls take the tests likely account for the tiny variations in mean scores, rather than any difference in intellectual ability.Flynn's 2013 TED talk, \"Why our IQ levels are higher than our grandparents'\", has been viewed millions of times.In 2016, Flynn published ''No Place to Hide: Climate Change: A short introduction for New Zealanders'', in which he advocated climate engineering as a way to delay the effects of climate change until renewable energy becomes available.In 2019, Flynn was told that his latest book, originally titled ''In Defense of Free Speech: The University as Censor'', which examined whether modern universities continued to advance free inquiry and critical thinking, would not be published by the English publisher Emerald Group Publishing, who had previously accepted it and scheduled it for publication.", "Despite Flynn's stating that he was only summarizing the positions of others with whom he disagreed, the book was originally thought too incendiary to be published.", "Dozens of academics, including Murray, defended Flynn, and a United States publisher, Academica Press, later published the book under the title ''A Book Too Risky to Publish: Free Speech and Universities''.In the preface, Flynn stated that it was thought too controversial by Emerald under the United Kingdom's laws about hate speech as the intent is irrelevant if it is thought likely that \"racial hatred could be stirred up as a result of the work.", "\"He became an Honorary Fellow for life of the New Zealand Psychological Society and in 1998 received its Special Award.In 2002, he was awarded the university's gold medal for Distinguished Career Research.", "In 2007, he became a Distinguished Contributor of the International Society for Intelligence Research.", "He received an honorary Doctorate of Science from the University of Otago in 2010.He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand and in 2011 received its Aronui Medal,Distinguished Visiting Fellow at the Hoover Institution, Distinguished Visiting Speaker at Cornell University, and Distinguished Associate of The Psychometrics Centre at Cambridge University.Flynn was a member of the editorial board of ''Intelligence'' and on the Honorary International Advisory Editorial Board of the Mens Sana Monographs.Flynn retired in 2020.His cancer returned, and he underwent liver surgery that May.", "Flynn's wife described his final year as \"difficult\".", "Flynn died of intestinal cancer at Yvette Williams Retirement Village in Dunedin on 11 December 2020, aged 86." ], [ "Partial bibliography", "* * - Reviews the debate, as of 1980, about the research of Arthur Jensen and his critics.", "* * * * * * * * * * *** * * *** * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Otago University staff page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Hay" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Milton Hay''' (October 8, 1838July 1, 1905) was an American statesman and official whose career in government stretched over almost half a century.", "Beginning as a private secretary and an assistant for Abraham Lincoln, he became a diplomat.", "He served as United States Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt.", "Hay was also a biographer of Lincoln, and wrote poetry and other literature throughout his life.Born in Salem, Indiana to an anti-slavery family that moved to Warsaw, Illinois, Hay showed great potential from an early age, and his family sent him to Brown University.", "After graduation in 1858, Hay read law in his uncle's office in Springfield, Illinois, adjacent to that of Lincoln.", "Hay worked for Lincoln's successful presidential campaign and became one of his private secretaries in the White House.", "Throughout the American Civil War, Hay was close to Lincoln and stood by his deathbed after the President was shot.", "In addition to his other literary works, Hay co-authored, with John George Nicolay, a ten-volume biography of Lincoln that helped shape the assassinated president's historical image.After Lincoln's death, Hay spent several years at diplomatic posts in Europe, then worked for the ''New-York Tribune'' under Horace Greeley and Whitelaw Reid.", "Hay remained active in politics, and from 1879 to 1881 served as Assistant Secretary of State.", "Afterward, he returned to the private sector, remaining there until President McKinley, of whom he had been a major backer, made him the Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1897.Hay became the Secretary of State the following year.Hay served for nearly seven years as Secretary of State under President McKinley and, after McKinley's assassination, under Theodore Roosevelt.", "Hay was responsible for negotiating the Open Door Policy, which kept China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis, with international powers.", "By negotiating the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty with the United Kingdom, the (ultimately unratified) Hay–Herrán Treaty with Colombia, and finally the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the newly independent Republic of Panama, Hay also cleared the way for the building of the Panama Canal." ], [ "Early life", "===Family and youth===Hay-Morrison House, birthplace of John Hay, Salem, IndianaJohn Milton Hay was born in Salem, Indiana, on October 8, 1838.He was the third son of Dr. Charles Hay and the former Helen Leonard.", "Charles Hay, born in Lexington, Kentucky, hated slavery and moved to the North in the early 1830s.", "A doctor, he practiced in Salem.", "Helen's father, David Leonard, had moved his family west from Assonet, Massachusetts, in 1818, but died en route to Vincennes, Indiana, and Helen relocated to Salem in 1830 to teach school.", "They married there in 1831.Charles was not successful in Salem, and moved, with his wife and children, to Warsaw, Illinois, in 1841.John attended the local schools, and in 1849 his uncle Milton Hay invited John to live at his home in Pittsfield, Pike County, and attend a well-regarded local school, the John D. Thomson Academy.", "Milton was a friend of Springfield attorney Abraham Lincoln and had read law in the firm Stuart and Lincoln.", "In Pittsfield, John first met John Nicolay, who was at the time a 20-year-old newspaperman.", "Once John Hay completed his studies there, the 13-year-old was sent to live with his grandfather in Springfield and attend school there.", "His parents and uncle Milton (who financed the boy's education) sent him to Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, ''alma mater'' of his late maternal grandfather.===Student and Lincoln supporter===Hay enrolled at Brown in 1855.Although he enjoyed college life, he did not find it easy: his Western clothing and accent made him stand out; he was not well prepared academically and was often sick.", "Hay gained a reputation as a star student and became a part of Providence's literary circle that included Sarah Helen Whitman and Nora Perry.", "He wrote poetry and experimented with hashish.", "Hay received his Master of Arts degree in 1858, and was, like his grandfather before him, Class Poet.", "He returned to Illinois.", "Milton Hay had moved his practice to Springfield, and John became a clerk in his firm, where he could study law.Milton Hay's firm was one of the most prestigious in Illinois.", "Lincoln maintained offices next door and was a rising star in the new Republican Party.", "Hay recalled an early encounter with Lincoln:Hay was not a supporter of Lincoln for president until after his nomination in 1860.Hay then made speeches and wrote newspaper articles boosting Lincoln's candidacy.", "When Nicolay, who had been made Lincoln's private secretary for the campaign, found he needed help with the huge amounts of correspondence, Hay worked full-time for Lincoln for six months.After Lincoln was elected, Nicolay, who continued as Lincoln's private secretary, recommended that Hay be hired to assist him at the White House.", "Lincoln is reported to have said, \"We can't take all Illinois with us down to Washington\" but then \"Well, let Hay come\".", "Kushner and Sherrill were dubious about \"the story of Lincoln's offhand appointment of Hay\" as fitting well into Hay's self-image of never having been an office-seeker, but \"poorly into the realities of Springfield politics of the 1860s\"—Hay must have expected some reward for handling Lincoln's correspondence for months.", "Hay biographer John Taliaferro suggests that Lincoln engaged Nicolay and Hay to assist him, rather than more seasoned men, both \"out of loyalty and surely because of the competence and compatibility that his two young aides had demonstrated\".", "Historian Joshua Zeitz argues that Lincoln was moved to hire Hay when Milton agreed to pay his nephew's salary for six months." ], [ "American Civil War", "===Secretary to Lincoln===Hay in 1862Milton Hay desired that his nephew go to Washington as a qualified attorney, and John Hay was admitted to the bar in Illinois on February 4, 1861.On February 11, he embarked with President-elect Lincoln on a circuitous journey to Washington.", "By this time, several Southern states had seceded to form the Confederate States of America in reaction to the election of Lincoln, seen as an opponent of slavery.", "When Lincoln was sworn in on March 4, Hay and Nicolay moved into the White House, sharing a shabby bedroom.", "As there was only authority for payment of one presidential secretary (Nicolay), Hay was appointed to a post in the Interior Department at $1,600 per year, seconded to service at the White House.", "They were available to Lincoln 24 hours a day.", "As Lincoln took no vacations as president and worked seven days a week, often until 11 pm (or later, during crucial battles) the burden on his secretaries was heavy.Hay and Nicolay divided their responsibilities, Nicolay tending to assist Lincoln in his office and in meetings, while Hay dealt with the correspondence, which was voluminous.", "Both men tried to shield Lincoln from office-seekers and others who wanted to meet with the President.", "Unlike the dour Nicolay, Hay, with his charm, escaped much of the hard feelings from those denied Lincoln's presence.", "Abolitionist Thomas Wentworth Higginson described Hay as \"a nice young fellow, who unfortunately looks about seventeen and is oppressed with the necessity of behaving like seventy.\"", "Hay continued to write, anonymously, for newspapers, sending in columns calculated to make Lincoln appear a sorrowful man, religious and competent, giving of his life and health to preserve the Union.", "Similarly, Hay served as what Taliaferro deemed a \"White House propagandist,\" in his columns explaining away losses such as that at First Bull Run in July 1861.Lincoln and his secretaries.", "Hay is on the right.Despite the heavy workload—Hay wrote that he was busy 20 hours a day—he tried to make as normal a life as possible, eating his meals with Nicolay at Willard's Hotel, going to the theater with Abraham and Mary Todd Lincoln, and reading ''Les Misérables'' in French.", "Hay, still in his early 20s, spent time both in barrooms and at cultured get-togethers in the homes of Washington's elite.", "The two secretaries often clashed with Mary Lincoln, who resorted to various stratagems to get the dilapidated White House restored without depleting Lincoln's salary, which had to cover entertainment and other expenses.", "Despite the secretaries' objections, Mrs. Lincoln was generally the victor and managed to save almost 70% of her husband's salary in his four years in office.After the death of Lincoln's 11-year-old son Willie in February 1862 (an event not mentioned in Hay's diary or correspondence), \"it was Hay who became, if not a surrogate son, then a young man who stirred a higher form of parental nurturing that Lincoln, despite his best intentions, did not successfully bestow on either of his surviving children\".", "According to Hay biographer Robert Gale, \"Hay came to adore Lincoln for his goodness, patience, understanding, sense of humor, humility, magnanimity, sense of justice, healthy skepticism, resilience and power, love of the common man, and mystical patriotism\".", "Speaker of the House Galusha Grow stated, \"Lincoln was very much attached to him\"; writer Charles G. Halpine, who knew Hay then, later recorded that \"Lincoln loved him as a son\".Hay and Nicolay accompanied Lincoln to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, for the dedication of the cemetery there, where were interred many of those who fell at the Battle of Gettysburg.", "Although they made much of Lincoln's brief Gettysburg Address in their 1890 multi-volume biography of Lincoln, Hay's diary states \"the President, in a firm, free way, with more grace than is his wont, said his half-dozen lines of consecration.", "\"===Presidential emissary===Hay as a young man.", "Portrait by Mathew Brady.Lincoln sent Hay away from the White House on various missions.", "In August 1861, Hay escorted Mary Lincoln and her children to Long Branch, New Jersey, a resort on the Jersey Shore, both as their caretaker and as a means of giving Hay a much-needed break.", "The following month, Lincoln sent him to Missouri to deliver a letter to Union General John C. Frémont, who had irritated the President with military blunders and by freeing local slaves without authorization, endangering Lincoln's attempts to keep the border states in the Union.In April 1863, Lincoln sent Hay to the Union-occupied South Carolina coast to report back on the ironclad vessels being used in an attempt to recapture Charleston Harbor.", "Hay then went on to the Florida coast.", "He returned to Florida in January 1864, after Lincoln had announced his Ten Percent Plan, that if ten percent of the 1860 electorate in a state took oaths of loyalty and to support emancipation, they could form a government with federal protection.", "Lincoln considered Florida, with its small population, a good test case, and made Hay a major, sending him to see if he could get sufficient men to take the oath.", "Hay spent a month in the state during February and March 1864, but Union defeats there reduced the area under federal control.", "Believing his mission impractical, he sailed back to Washington.In July 1864, New York publisher Horace Greeley sent word to Lincoln that there were Southern peace emissaries in Canada.", "Lincoln doubted that they actually spoke for Confederate President Jefferson Davis, but had Hay journey to New York to persuade the publisher to go to Niagara Falls, Ontario, to meet with them and bring them to Washington.", "Greeley reported to Lincoln that the emissaries lacked accreditation by Davis, but were confident they could bring both sides together.", "Lincoln sent Hay to Ontario with what became known as the Niagara Manifesto: that if the South laid down its arms, freed the slaves, and reentered the Union, it could expect liberal terms on other points.", "The Southerners refused to come to Washington to negotiate.===Assassination of Lincoln===By the end of 1864, with Lincoln reelected and the victorious war winding down, both Hay and Nicolay let it be known that they desired different jobs.", "Soon after Lincoln's second inauguration in March 1865, the two secretaries were appointed to the US delegation in Paris, Nicolay as consul and Hay as secretary of legation.", "Hay wrote to his brother Charles that the appointment was \"entirely unsolicited and unexpected\", a statement that Kushner and Sherrill found unconvincing given that Hay had spent hundreds of hours during the war with Secretary of State William H. Seward, who had often discussed personal and political matters with him, and the close relationship between the two men was so well known that office-seekers cultivated Hay as a means of getting to Seward.", "The two men were also motivated to find new jobs by their deteriorating relationship with Mary Lincoln, who sought their ouster, and by Nicolay's desire to wed his intended—he could not bring a bride to his shared room at the White House.", "They remained at the White House pending the arrival and training of replacements.Hay did not accompany the Lincolns to Ford's Theatre on the night of April 14, 1865, but remained at the White House, drinking whiskey with Robert Lincoln.", "When the two were informed that the President had been shot, they hastened to the Petersen House, a boarding house where the stricken Lincoln had been taken.", "Hay remained by Lincoln's deathbed through the night and was present when he died.", "At the moment of Lincoln's death, Hay observed \"a look of unspeakable peace came upon his worn features\".", "He heard War Secretary Edwin Stanton's declaration, \"Now he belongs to the ages.", "\"According to Kushner and Sherrill, \"Lincoln's death was for Hay a personal loss, like the loss of a father ... Lincoln's assassination erased any remaining doubts Hay had about Lincoln's greatness.\"", "In 1866, in a personal letter, Hay deemed Lincoln, \"the greatest character since Christ\".", "Taliaferro noted that \"Hay would spend the rest of his life mourning Lincoln ... wherever Hay went and whatever he did, Lincoln would ''always'' be watching\"." ], [ "Early diplomatic career", "Hay sailed for Paris at the end of June 1865.There, he served under U.S. Minister to France John Bigelow.", "The workload was not heavy, and Hay found time to enjoy the pleasures of Paris.", "When Bigelow resigned in mid-1866, Hay, as was customary, submitted his resignation, though he was asked to remain until Bigelow's successor was in place, and stayed until January 1867.He consulted with Secretary of State Seward, asking him for \"anything worth having\".", "Seward suggested the post of Minister to Sweden, but reckoned without the new president, Andrew Johnson, who had his own candidate.", "Seward offered Hay a job as his private secretary, but Hay declined, and returned home to Warsaw, Illinois.Initially happy to be home, Hay quickly grew restive, and he was glad to hear, in early June 1867, that he had been appointed secretary of legation to act as chargé d'affaires at Vienna.", "He sailed for Europe the same month, and while in England visited the House of Commons, where he was greatly impressed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli.", "The Vienna post was only temporary, until Johnson could appoint a chargé d'affaires and have him confirmed by the Senate, and the workload was light, allowing Hay, who was fluent in German, to spend much of his time traveling.", "It was not until July 1868 that Henry Watts became Hay's replacement.", "Hay resigned, spent the remainder of the summer in Europe, then went home to Warsaw.Unemployed again, in December 1868 Hay journeyed to the capital, writing to Nicolay that he \"came to Washington in the peaceful pursuit of a fat office.", "But there is nothing just now available\".", "Seward promised to \"wrestle with Andy for anything that turns up\", but nothing did prior to the departure of both Seward and Johnson from office on March 4, 1869.In May, Hay went back to Washington from Warsaw to press his case with the new Grant administration.", "The next month, due to the influence of his friends, he obtained the post of secretary of legation in Spain.Although the salary was low, Hay was interested in serving in Madrid both because of the political situation there—Queen Isabella II had recently been deposed—and because the U.S. Minister was the swashbuckling former congressman, General Daniel Sickles.", "Hay hoped to assist Sickles in gaining U.S. control over Cuba, then a Spanish colony.", "Sickles was unsuccessful and Hay resigned in May 1870, citing the low salary, but remaining in his post until September.", "Two legacies of Hay's time in Madrid were magazine articles he wrote that became the basis of his first book, ''Castilian Days'', and his lifelong friendship with Sickles's personal secretary, Alvey A. Adee, who would be a close aide to Hay at the State Department." ], [ "Wilderness years (1870–1897)", "===''Tribune'' and marriage===Clara Louise StoneWhile still in Spain, Hay had been offered the position of assistant editor at the ''New-York Tribune''—both the editor, Horace Greeley, and his managing editor, Whitelaw Reid, were anxious to hire Hay.", "He joined the staff in October 1870.The ''Tribune'' was the leading reform newspaper in New York, and through mail subscriptions, the largest-circulating newspaper in the nation.", "Hay wrote editorials for the ''Tribune'', and Greeley soon proclaimed him the most brilliant writer of \"breviers\" (as such editorials were called) that he had ever had.With his success as an editorial writer, Hay's duties expanded.", "In October 1871, he journeyed to Chicago after the great fire there, interviewing Mrs. O'Leary, whose cow was said to have started the blaze, describing her as \"a woman with a lamp who went to the barn behind the house, to milk the cow with the crumpled temper, that kicked the lamp, that spilled the kerosene, that fired the straw that burned Chicago\".", "His work at the ''Tribune'' came as his fame as a poet was reaching its peak, and one colleague described it as \"a liberal education in the delights of intellectual life to sit in intimate companionship with John Hay and watch the play of that well-stored and brilliant mind\".", "In addition to writing, Hay was signed by the prestigious Boston Lyceum Bureau, whose clients included Mark Twain and Susan B. Anthony, to give lectures on the prospects for democracy in Europe, and on his years in the Lincoln White House.By the time President Grant ran for reelection in 1872, Grant's administration had been rocked by scandal, and some disaffected members of his party formed the Liberal Republicans, naming Greeley as their candidate for president, a nomination soon joined in by the Democrats.", "Hay was unenthusiastic about the editor-turned-candidate, and in his editorials mostly took aim at Grant, who, despite the scandals, remained untarred, and who won a landslide victory in the election.", "Greeley died only weeks later, a broken man.", "Hay's stance endangered his hitherto sterling credentials in the Republican Party.By 1873, Hay was wooing Clara Stone, daughter of Cleveland multimillionaire railroad and banking mogul Amasa Stone.", "Their marriage in 1874 made the salary attached to office a small consideration for the rest of his life.", "Amasa Stone needed someone to watch over his investments, and wanted Hay to move to Cleveland to fill the post.", "Although the Hays initially lived in John's New York apartment and later in a townhouse there, they moved in June 1875 to Stone's ornate home on Cleveland's Euclid Avenue, \"Millionaire's Row\", and a mansion was quickly under construction for the Hays next-door.", "The Hays had four children, Helen Hay Whitney, Adelbert Stone Hay, Alice Evelyn Hay Wadsworth Boyd (who married James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.), and Clarence Leonard Hay.", "Their father proved successful as a money manager, though he devoted much of his time to literary and political activities, writing to Adee that \"I do nothing but read and yawn\".On December 29, 1876, a bridge over Ohio's Ashtabula River collapsed.", "The bridge had been built from metal cast at one of Stone's mills, and was carrying a train owned and operated by Stone's Lake Shore and Michigan Railway.", "Ninety-two people died; it was the worst rail disaster in American history up to that point.", "Blame fell heavily on Stone, who departed for Europe to recuperate and left Hay in charge of his businesses.", "The summer of 1877 was marked by labor disputes; a strike over wage cuts on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad soon spread to the Lake Shore, much to Hay's outrage.", "He blamed foreign agitators for the dispute, and vented his anger over the strike in his only novel, ''The Bread-Winners'' (1883).===Return to politics===James A. Garfield: the second president to be assassinated whom Hay advisedHay remained disaffected from the Republican Party in the mid-1870s.", "Seeking a candidate of either party he could support as a reformer, he watched as his favored Democrat, Samuel Tilden, gained his party's nomination, but his favored Republican, James G. Blaine, did not, falling to Ohio Governor Rutherford B. Hayes, whom Hay did not support during the campaign.", "Hayes's victory in the election left Hay an outsider as he sought a return to politics, and he was initially offered no place in the new administration.", "Nevertheless, Hay attempted to ingratiate himself with the new president by sending him a gold ring with a strand of George Washington's hair, a gesture that Hayes deeply appreciated.", "Hay spent time working with Nicolay on their Lincoln biography, and traveling in Europe.", "When Reid, who had succeeded Greeley as editor of the ''Tribune'', was offered the post of Minister to Germany in December 1878, he turned it down and recommended Hay.", "Secretary of State William M. Evarts indicated that Hay \"had not been active enough in political efforts\", to Hay's regret, who told Reid that he \"would like a second-class mission uncommonly well\".From May to October 1879, Hay set out to reconfirm his credentials as a loyal Republican, giving speeches in support of candidates and attacking the Democrats.", "In October, President and Mrs. Hayes came to a reception at Hay's Cleveland home.", "When Assistant Secretary of State Frederick W. Seward resigned later that month, Hay was offered his place and accepted, after some hesitancy because he was considering running for Congress.In Washington, Hay oversaw a staff of eighty employees, renewed his acquaintance with his friend Henry Adams, and substituted for Evarts at Cabinet meetings when the Secretary was out of town.", "In 1880, he campaigned for the Republican nominee for president, his fellow Ohioan, Congressman James A. Garfield.", "Hay felt that Garfield did not have enough backbone, and hoped that Reid and others would \"inoculate him with the gall which I fear he lacks\".", "Garfield consulted Hay before and after his election as president on appointments and other matters, but offered Hay only the post of private secretary (though he promised to increase its pay and power), and Hay declined.", "Hay resigned as assistant secretary effective March 31, 1881, and spent the next seven months as acting editor of the ''Tribune'' during Reid's extended absence in Europe.", "Garfield's death in September and Reid's return the following month left Hay again on the outside of political power, looking in.", "He would spend the next fifteen years in that position.===Wealthy traveler (1881–1897)=======Author and dilettante====After 1881, Hay did not again hold public office until 1897.Amasa Stone committed suicide in 1883; his death left the Hays very wealthy.", "They spent several months in most years traveling in Europe.", "The Lincoln biography absorbed some of Hay's time, the hardest work being done with Nicolay in 1884 and 1885; beginning in 1886, portions began appearing serially, and the ten-volume biography was published in 1890.In 1884, Hay and Adams commissioned architect Henry Hobson Richardson to construct houses for them on Washington's Lafayette Square; these were completed by 1886.Hay's house, facing the White House and fronting on Sixteenth Street, was described even before completion as \"the finest house in Washington.\"", "The price for the combined tract, purchased from William Wilson Corcoran, was $73,800, of which Adams paid a third for his lot.", "Hay budgeted the construction cost at $50,000; his ornate, mansion eventually cost over twice that.", "Despite their possession of two lavish houses, the Hays spent less than half the year in Washington and only a few weeks a year in Cleveland.", "They also spent time at The Fells, their summer residence in Newbury, New Hampshire.", "According to Gale, \"for a full decade before his appointment in 1897 as ambassador to England, Hay was lazy and uncertain.", "\"Hay continued to devote much of his energy to Republican politics.", "In 1884, he supported Blaine for president, donating considerable sums to the senator's unsuccessful campaign against New York Governor Grover Cleveland.", "Many of Hay's friends were unenthusiastic about Blaine's candidacy, to Hay's anger, and he wrote to editor Richard Watson Gilder, \"I have never been able to appreciate the logic that induces some excellent people every four years because they cannot nominate the candidate they prefer to vote for the party they don't prefer.\"", "In 1888, Hay had to follow his own advice as his favored candidate, Ohio Senator John Sherman, was unsuccessful at the Republican convention.", "After some reluctance, Hay supported the nominee, former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison, who was elected.", "Though Harrison appointed men whom Hay supported, including Blaine, Reid, and Robert Lincoln, Hay was not asked to serve in the Harrison administration.", "In 1890, Hay spoke for Republican congressional candidates, addressing a rally of 10,000 people in New York City, but the party was defeated, losing control of Congress.", "Hay contributed funds to Harrison's unsuccessful re-election effort, in part because Reid had been made Harrison's 1892 running mate.====McKinley backer====Hay was an early supporter of Ohio's William McKinley and worked closely with McKinley's political manager, Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna.", "In 1889, Hay supported McKinley in his unsuccessful effort to become Speaker of the House.", "Four years later, McKinley—by then Governor of Ohio—faced a crisis when a friend whose notes he had imprudently co-signed went bankrupt during the Panic of 1893.The debts were beyond the governor's means to pay, and the possibility of insolvency threatened McKinley's promising political career.", "Hay was among those Hanna called upon to contribute, buying up $3,000 of the debt of over $100,000.Although others paid more, \"Hay's checks were two of the first, and his touch was more personal, a kindness McKinley never forgot\".", "The governor wrote, \"How can I ever repay you & other dear friends?", "\"Hay supported William McKinley in the 1896 presidential election.The same panic that nearly ruined McKinley convinced Hay that men like himself must take office to save the country from disaster.", "By the end of 1894, he was deeply involved in efforts to lay the groundwork for the governor's 1896 presidential bid.", "It was Hay's job to persuade potential supporters that McKinley was worth backing.", "Nevertheless, Hay found time for a lengthy stay in New Hampshire—one visitor at The Fells in mid-1895 was Rudyard Kipling—and later in the year wrote, \"The summer wanes and I have done nothing for McKinley.\"", "He atoned with a $500 check to Hanna, the first of many.", "During the winter of 1895–96, Hay passed along what he heard from other Republicans influential in Washington, such as Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge.Hay spent part of the spring and early summer of 1896 in the United Kingdom, and elsewhere in Europe.", "There was a border dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana, and Cleveland's Secretary of State, Richard Olney, supported the Venezuelan position, announcing the Olney interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine.", "Hay told British politicians that McKinley, if elected, would be unlikely to change course.", "McKinley was nominated in June 1896; still, many Britons were minded to support whoever became the Democratic candidate.", "This changed when the 1896 Democratic National Convention nominated former Nebraska congressman William Jennings Bryan on a \"free silver\" platform; he had electrified the delegates with his Cross of Gold speech.", "Hay reported to McKinley when he returned to Britain after a brief stay on the Continent during which Bryan was nominated in Chicago: \"they were all scared out of their wits for fear Bryan would be elected, and very polite in their references to you.", "\"Once Hay returned to the United States in early August, he went to The Fells and watched from afar as Bryan barnstormed the nation in his campaign while McKinley gave speeches from his front porch.", "Despite an invitation from the candidate, Hay was reluctant to visit McKinley at his home in Canton.", "\"He has asked me to come, but I thought I would not struggle with the millions on his trampled lawn\".", "In October, after basing himself at his Cleveland home and giving a speech for McKinley, Hay went to Canton at last, writing to Adams,Hay was disgusted by Bryan's speeches, writing in language that Taliaferro compares to ''The Bread-Winners'' that the Democrat \"simply reiterates the unquestioned truths that every man with a clean shirt is a thief and ought to be hanged: that there is no goodness and wisdom except among the illiterate & criminal classes\".", "Despite Bryan's strenuous efforts, McKinley won the election easily, with a campaign run by himself and Hanna, and well-financed by supporters like Hay.", "Henry Adams later wondered, \"I would give sixpence to know how much Hay paid for McKinley.", "His politics must have cost.\"" ], [ "Ambassador", "===Appointment===In the post-election speculation as to who would be given office under McKinley, Hay's name figured prominently, as did that of Whitelaw Reid; both men sought high office in the State Department, either as secretary or one of the major ambassadorial posts.", "Reid, in addition to his vice-presidential run, had been Minister to France under Harrison.", "An asthmatic, he handicapped himself by departing for Arizona Territory for the winter, leading to speculation about his health.Mark HannaHay was faster than Reid to realize that the race for these posts would be affected by Hanna's desire to be senator from Ohio, as with one of the state's places about to be occupied by the newly elected Joseph B. Foraker, the only possible seat for him was that held by Senator Sherman.", "As the septuagenarian senator had served as Treasury Secretary under Hayes, only the secretaryship of state was likely to attract him and cause a vacancy that Hanna could fill.", "Hay knew that with only eight cabinet positions, only one could go to an Ohioan, and so he had no chance for a cabinet post.", "Accordingly, Hay encouraged Reid to seek the State position, while firmly ruling himself out as a possible candidate for that post, and quietly seeking the inside track to be ambassador in London.", "Zeitz states that Hay \"aggressively lobbied\" for the position.According to Taliaferro, \"only after the deed was accomplished and Hay was installed as the ambassador to the Court of St. James's would it be possible to detect just how subtly and completely he had finessed his ally and friend, Whitelaw Reid\".", "A telegraph from Hay to McKinley in the latter's papers, dated December 26 (most likely 1896) reveals the former's suggestion that McKinley tell Reid that the editor's friends had insisted that Reid not endanger his health through office, especially in London's smoggy climes.", "The following month, in a letter, Hay set forth his own case for the ambassadorship, and urged McKinley to act quickly, as suitable accommodations in London would be difficult to secure.", "Hay gained his object (as did Hanna), and shifted his focus to appeasing Reid.", "Taliaferro states that Reid never blamed Hay, but Kushner and Sherrill recorded, \"Reid was certain that he had been wronged\" by Hay, and the announcement of Hay's appointment nearly ended their 26-year friendship.Reaction in Britain to Hay's appointment was generally positive, with George Smalley of ''The Times'' writing to him, \"we want a man who is a true American yet not anti-English\".", "Hay secured a Georgian house on Carlton House Terrace, overlooking Horse Guards Parade, with 11 servants.", "He brought with him Clara, their own silver, two carriages, and five horses.", "Hay's salary of $17,000 \"did not even begin to cover the cost of their extravagant lifestyle\".===Service===Caricature of Hay in ''Vanity Fair'', 1897During his service as ambassador, Hay attempted to advance the relationship between the U.S. and Britain.", "The United Kingdom had long been seen negatively by many Americans, a legacy of its role during the American Revolution that was refreshed by its neutrality in the American Civil War, when it allowed merchant raiders such as the ''Alabama'' to be constructed in British ports, which then preyed on US-flagged ships.", "In spite of these past differences, according to Taliaferro, \"rapprochement made more sense than at any time in their respective histories\".", "In his Thanksgiving Day address to the American Society in London in 1897, Hay echoed these points, \"The great body of people in the United States and England are friends ... sharing that intense respect and reverence for order, liberty, and law which is so profound a sentiment in both countries\".", "Although Hay was not successful in resolving specific controversies in his year and a third as ambassador, both he and British policymakers regarded his tenure as a success, because of the advancement of good feelings and cooperation between the two nations.An ongoing dispute between the U.S. and Britain was over the practice of pelagic sealing, that is, the capture of seals offshore of Alaska.", "The U.S. considered them American resources; the Canadians (Britain was still responsible for that dominion's foreign policy) contended that the mammals were being taken on the high seas, free to all.", "Soon after Hay's arrival, McKinley sent former Secretary of State John W. Foster to London to negotiate the issue.", "Foster quickly issued an accusatory note to the British that was printed in the newspapers.", "Although Hay was successful in getting Lord Salisbury, then both Prime Minister and Foreign Secretary, to agree to a conference to decide the matter, the British withdrew when the U.S. also invited Russia and Japan, rendering the conference ineffective.", "Another issue on which no agreement was reached was that of bimetallism: McKinley had promised silver-leaning Republicans to seek an international agreement varying the price ratio between silver and gold to allow for free coinage of silver, and Hay was instructed to seek British participation.", "The British would only join if the Indian colonial government (on a silver standard until 1893) was willing; this did not occur, and coupled with an improving economic situation that decreased support for bimetallism in the United States, no agreement was reached.Hay had little involvement in the crisis over Cuba that culminated in the Spanish–American War.", "He met with Lord Salisbury in October 1897 and gained assurances Britain would not intervene if the U.S. found it necessary to go to war against Spain.", "Hay's role was \"to make friends and to pass along the English point of view to Washington\".", "Hay spent much of early 1898 on an extended trip to the Middle East, and did not return to London until the last week of March, by which time the USS ''Maine'' had exploded in Havana harbor.", "During the war, he worked to ensure U.S.–British amity, and British acceptance of the U.S. occupation of the Philippines—Salisbury and his government preferred that the U.S. have the islands than have them fall into the hands of the Germans.", "Hay succeeded in making sure that the British were kept \"in the loop\" with regards to the U.S. invasion of Cuba, and in both reassuring the British that none of their interests in Cuba would be harmed by the invasion, while simultaneously communicating those interests to the McKinley administration (McKinley was himself keen on maintaining a good relationship with the British).In its early days, Hay described the war \"as necessary as it is righteous\".", "In July, writing to former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, who had gained wartime glory by leading the Rough Riders volunteer regiment, Hay made a description of the war for which, according to Zeitz, he \"is best remembered by many students of American history\":Secretary Sherman had resigned on the eve of war, and been replaced by his first assistant, William R. Day.", "One of McKinley's Canton cronies, with little experience of statecraft, Day was never intended as more than a temporary wartime replacement.", "With America about to splash her flag across the Pacific, McKinley needed a secretary with stronger credentials.", "On August 14, 1898, Hay received a telegram from McKinley that Day would head the American delegation to the peace talks with Spain, and that Hay would be the new Secretary of State.", "After some indecision, Hay, who did not think he could decline and still remain as ambassador, accepted.", "British response to Hay's promotion was generally positive, and Queen Victoria, after he took formal leave of her at Osborne House, invited him again the following day, and subsequently pronounced him, \"the most interesting of all the Ambassadors I have known.\"" ], [ "Secretary of State", "===McKinley years===Treaty of Paris, 1899.John Hay was sworn in as Secretary of State on September 30, 1898.He needed little introduction to Cabinet meetings, and sat at the President's right hand.", "Meetings were held in the Cabinet Room of the White House, where he found his old office and bedroom each occupied by several clerks.", "Now responsible for 1,300 federal employees, he leaned heavily for administrative help on his old friend Alvey Adee, the second assistant.", "Hay believed that America's most valuable foreign relationship \"by far\" was its relationship with Great Britain.", "As Secretary of State he did everything he could to cultivate a positive relationship with London.", "Eventually this proved successful, one example of this success being the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty.", "Hay formed a habit of confiding in the British, and sharing sensitive intelligence with them, while at the same time shutting out the governments of Spain, France, Germany and Russia.", "Senator Mark Hanna remarked that \"Hay and McKinley are ''outrageously'' pro-British.\"", "The French ambassador remarked that \"Hay is friendly to the British and unfriendly to us, we should regard him with much suspicion.", "\"By the time Hay took office, the war was effectively over and it had been decided to strip Spain of her overseas empire and transfer at least part of it to the United States.", "At the time of Hay's swearing-in, McKinley was still undecided whether to take the Philippines, but in October finally decided to do so, and Hay sent instructions to Day and the other peace commissioners to insist on it.", "Spain yielded, and the result was the Treaty of Paris, narrowly ratified by the Senate in February 1899 over the objections of anti-imperialists.====Open Door Policy====By the 1890s, China had become a major trading partner for Western nations and newly westernized Japan.", "China had had its army severely weakened by several disastrous wars, and several foreign nations took the opportunity to negotiate treaties with China that allowed them to control various coastal cities-known as treaty ports-for use as military bases or trading centers.", "Within those jurisdictions, the nation in possession often gave preference to its own citizens in trade or in developing infrastructure such as railroads.", "Although the United States did not claim any parts of China, a third of the China trade was carried in American ships, and having an outpost near there was a major factor in deciding to retain the former Spanish colony of the Philippines in the Treaty of Paris.Hay had been concerned about the Far East since the 1870s.", "As Ambassador, he had attempted to forge a common policy with the British, but the United Kingdom was willing to acquire territorial concessions in China (such as Hong Kong) to guard its interests there, whereas McKinley was not.", "In March 1898, Hay warned that Russia, Germany, and France were seeking to exclude Britain and America from the China trade, but he was disregarded by Sherman, who accepted assurances to the contrary from Russia and Germany.McKinley was of the view that equality of opportunity for American trade in China was key to success there, rather than colonial acquisitions; that Hay shared these views was one reason for his appointment as Secretary of State.", "Many influential Americans, seeing coastal China being divided into spheres of influence, urged McKinley to join in; still, in his annual message to Congress in December 1898, he stated that as long as Americans were not discriminated against, he saw no need for the United States to become \"an actor in the scene\".As Secretary of State, it was Hay's responsibility to put together a workable China policy.", "He was advised by William Rockhill, an old China hand.", "Also influential was Charles Beresford, a British Member of Parliament who gave a number of speeches to American businessmen, met with McKinley and Hay, and in a letter to the secretary stated that \"it is imperative for American interests as well as our own that the policy of the 'open door' should be maintained\".", "Assuring that all would play on an even playing field in China would give the foreign powers little incentive to dismember the Chinese Empire through territorial acquisition.In mid-1899, the British inspector of Chinese maritime customs, Alfred Hippisley, visited the United States.", "In a letter to Rockhill, a friend, he urged that the United States and other powers agree to uniform Chinese tariffs, including in the enclaves.", "Rockhill passed the letter on to Hay, and subsequently summarized the thinking of Hippisley and others, that there should be \"an open market through China for our trade on terms of equality with all other foreigners\".", "Hay was in agreement, but feared Senate and popular opposition, and wanted to avoid Senate ratification of a treaty.", "Rockhill drafted the first Open Door note, calling for equality of commercial opportunity for foreigners in China.Hay formally issued his Open Door note on September 6, 1899.This was not a treaty, and did not require the approval of the Senate.", "Most of the powers had at least some caveats, and negotiations continued through the remainder of the year.", "On March 20, 1900, Hay announced that all powers had agreed, and he was not contradicted.", "Former secretary Day wrote to Hay, congratulating him, \"moving at the right time and in the right manner, you have secured a diplomatic triumph in the 'open door' in China of the first importance to your country\".====Boxer Rebellion====Little thought was given to the Chinese reaction to the Open Door note; the Chinese minister in Washington, Wu Ting-fang, did not learn of it until he read of it in the newspapers.", "Among those in China who opposed Western influence there was a movement in Shantung Province, in the north, that became known as the Fists of Righteous Harmony, or Boxers, after the martial arts they practiced.", "The Boxers were especially angered by missionaries and their converts.", "As late as June 1900, Rockhill dismissed the Boxers, contending that they would soon disband.", "By the middle of that month, the Boxers, joined by imperial troops, had cut the railroad between Peking and the coast, killed many missionaries and converts, and besieged the foreign legations.", "Hay faced a precarious situation; how to rescue the Americans trapped in Peking, and how to avoid giving the other powers an excuse to partition China, in an election year when there was already Democrat opposition to what they deemed American imperialism.As American troops were sent to China to relieve the nation's legation, Hay sent a letter to foreign powers (often called the Second Open Door note), stating while the United States wanted to see lives preserved and the guilty punished, it intended that China not be dismembered.", "Hay issued this on July 3, 1900, suspecting that the powers were quietly making private arrangements to divide up China.", "Communication between the foreign legations and the outside world had been cut off, and the personnel there were falsely presumed slaughtered, but Hay realized that Minister Wu could get a message in, and Hay was able to establish communication.", "Hay suggested to the Chinese government that it now cooperate for its own good.", "When the foreign relief force, principally Japanese but including 2,000 Americans, relieved the legations and sacked Peking, China was made to pay a huge indemnity but there was no cession of land.====Death of McKinley====McKinley's vice president, Garret Hobart, had died in November 1899.Under the laws then in force, this made Hay next in line to the presidency should anything happen to McKinley.", "There was a presidential election in 1900, and McKinley was unanimously renominated at the Republican National Convention that year.", "He allowed the convention to make its own choice of running mate, and it selected Roosevelt, by then governor of New York.", "Senator Hanna bitterly opposed that choice, but nevertheless raised millions for the McKinley/Roosevelt ticket, which was elected.Hay accompanied McKinley on his nationwide train tour in mid-1901, during which both men visited California and saw the Pacific Ocean for the only times in their lives.", "The summer of 1901 was tragic for Hay; his older son Adelbert, who had been consul in Pretoria during the Boer War and was about to become McKinley's personal secretary, died in a fall from a hotel window.Secretary Hay was at The Fells when McKinley was shot by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, on September 6 in Buffalo.", "With Vice President Roosevelt and much of the cabinet hastening to the bedside of McKinley, who had been operated on (it was thought successfully) soon after the shooting, Hay planned to go to Washington to manage the communication with foreign governments, but presidential secretary George Cortelyou urged him to come to Buffalo.", "He traveled to Buffalo on September 10; hearing on his arrival an account of the President's recovery, Hay responded that McKinley would die.", "He was more cheerful after visiting McKinley, giving a statement to the press, and went to Washington, as Roosevelt and other officials also dispersed.", "Hay was about to return to New Hampshire on the 13th, when word came that McKinley was dying.", "Hay remained at his office and the next morning, on the way to Buffalo, the former Rough Rider received from Hay his first communication as head of state, officially informing President Roosevelt of McKinley's death.===Theodore Roosevelt administration=======Staying on====Theodore RooseveltHay, again next in line to the presidency, remained in Washington as McKinley's body was transported to the capital by funeral train, and stayed there as the late president was taken to Canton for interment.", "He had admired McKinley, describing him as \"awfully like Lincoln in many respects\" and wrote to a friend, \"what a strange and tragic fate it has been of mine—to stand by the bier of three of my dearest friends, Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley, three of the gentlest of men, all risen to be head of the State, and all done to death by assassins\".By letter, Hay offered his resignation to Roosevelt while the new president was still in Buffalo, amid newspaper speculation that Hay would be replaced.", "When Hay met the funeral train in Washington, Roosevelt greeted him at the station and immediately told him he must stay on as secretary.", "According to Zeitz, \"Roosevelt's accidental ascendance to the presidency made John Hay an essential anachronism ... the wise elder statesman and senior member of the cabinet, he was indispensable to TR, who even today remains the youngest president ever\".The deaths of his son and of McKinley were not the only griefs Hay suffered in 1901—on September 26, John Nicolay died after a long illness, as did Hay's close friend Clarence King on Christmas Eve.====Panama====Hay's involvement in the efforts to have a canal joining the oceans in Central America went back to his time as Assistant Secretary of State under Hayes, when he served as translator for Ferdinand de Lesseps in his efforts to interest the American government in investing in his canal company.", "President Hayes was only interested in the idea of a canal under American control, which de Lesseps's project would not be.", "By the time Hay became Secretary of State, de Lesseps's project in Panama (then a Colombian province) had collapsed, as had an American-run project in Nicaragua.", "The 1850 Clayton–Bulwer Treaty (between the United States and Britain) forbade the United States from building a Central American canal that it exclusively controlled, and Hay, from early in his tenure, sought the removal of this restriction.", "But the Canadians, for whose foreign policy Britain was still available, saw the canal matter as their greatest leverage to get other disputes resolved in their favor, persuaded Salisbury not to resolve it independently.", "Shortly before Hay took office, Britain and the U.S. agreed to establish a Joint High Commission to adjudicate unsettled matters, which met in late 1898 but made slow progress, especially on the Canada-Alaska boundary.The Alaska issue became less contentious in August 1899 when the Canadians accepted a provisional boundary pending final settlement.", "With Congress anxious to begin work on a canal bill, and increasingly likely to ignore the Clayton-Bulwer restriction, Hay and British Ambassador Julian Pauncefote began work on a new treaty in January 1900.The first Hay–Pauncefote Treaty was sent to the Senate the following month, where it met a cold reception, as the terms forbade the United States from blockading or fortifying the canal, that was to be open to all nations in wartime as in peace.", "The Senate Foreign Relations Committee added an amendment allowing the U.S. to fortify the canal, then in March postponed further consideration until after the 1900 election.", "Hay submitted his resignation, which McKinley refused.", "The treaty, as amended, was ratified by the Senate in December, but the British would not agree to the changes.Despite the lack of agreement, Congress was enthusiastic about a canal, and was inclined to move forward, with or without a treaty.", "Authorizing legislation was slowed by discussion on whether to take the Nicaraguan or Panamanian route.", "Much of the negotiation of a revised treaty, allowing the U.S. to fortify the canal, took place between Hay's replacement in London, Joseph H. Choate, and the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Lansdowne, and the second Hay–Pauncefote Treaty was ratified by the Senate by a large margin on December 6, 1901.Seeing that the Americans were likely to build a Nicaragua Canal, the owners of the defunct French company, including Philippe Bunau-Varilla, who still had exclusive rights to the Panama route, lowered their price.", "Beginning in early 1902, President Roosevelt became a backer of the latter route, and Congress passed legislation for it, if it could be secured within a reasonable time.", "In June, Roosevelt told Hay to take personal charge of the negotiations with Colombia.", "Later that year, Hay began talks with Colombia's acting minister in Washington, Tomás Herrán.", "The Hay–Herrán Treaty, granting $10 million to Colombia for the right to build a canal, plus $250,000 annually, was signed on January 22, 1903, and ratified by the United States Senate two months later.", "In August, however, the treaty was rejected by the Colombian Senate.Roosevelt was minded to build the canal anyway, using an earlier treaty with Colombia that gave the U.S. transit rights in regard to the Panama Railroad.", "Hay predicted \"an insurrection on the Isthmus of Panama against that regime of folly and graft ... at Bogotá\".", "Bunau-Varilla gained meetings with both men, and assured them that a revolution, and a Panamanian government more friendly to a canal, was coming.", "In October, Roosevelt ordered Navy ships to be stationed near Panama.", "The Panamanians duly revolted in early November 1903, with Colombian interference deterred by the presence of U.S. forces.", "By prearrangement, Bunau-Varilla was appointed representative of the nascent nation in Washington, and quickly negotiated the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, signed on November 18, giving the United States the right to build the canal in a zone wide, over which the U.S. would exercise full jurisdiction.", "This was less than satisfactory to the Panamanian diplomats who arrived in Washington shortly after the signing, but they did not dare renounce it.", "The treaty was approved by the two nations, and work on the Panama Canal began in 1904.Hay wrote to Secretary of War Elihu Root, praising \"the perfectly regular course which the President did follow\" as much preferable to armed occupation of the isthmus.====Relationship with Roosevelt, other events====Hay had met the President's father, Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., during the Civil War, and during his time at the ''Tribune'' came to know the adolescent \"Teddy\", twenty years younger than himself.", "Although before becoming president Roosevelt often wrote fulsome letters of praise to Secretary Hay, his letters to others then and later were less complimentary.", "Hay felt Roosevelt too impulsive, and privately opposed his inclusion on the ticket in 1900, though he quickly wrote a congratulatory note after the convention.As President and Secretary of State, the two men took pains to cultivate a cordial relationship.", "Roosevelt read all ten volumes of the Lincoln biography and in mid-1903, wrote to Hay that by then \"I have had a chance to know far more fully what a really great Secretary of State you are\".", "Hay for his part publicly praised Roosevelt as \"young, gallant, able, and brilliant\", words that Roosevelt wrote that he hoped would be engraved on his tombstone.Privately, and in correspondence with others, they were less generous: Hay grumbled that while McKinley would give him his full attention, Roosevelt was always busy with others, and it would be \"an hour's wait for a minute's talk\".", "Roosevelt, after Hay's death in 1905, wrote to Senator Lodge that Hay had not been \"a great Secretary of State ... under me he accomplished little ... his usefulness to me was almost exclusively the usefulness of a fine figurehead\".", "Nevertheless, when Roosevelt successfully sought election in his own right in 1904, he persuaded the aging and infirm Hay to campaign for him, and Hay gave a speech linking the administration's policies with those of Lincoln: \"there is not a principle avowed by the Republican party to-day which is out of harmony with his Lincoln's teaching or inconsistent with his character.\"", "Kushner and Sherrill suggested that the differences between Hay and Roosevelt were more style than ideological substance.In December 1902, the German government asked Roosevelt to arbitrate its dispute with Venezuela over unpaid debts.", "Hay did not think this appropriate, as Venezuela also owed the U.S. money, and quickly arranged for the International Court of Arbitration in The Hague to step in.", "Hay supposedly said, as final details were being worked out, \"I have it all arranged.", "If Teddy will keep his mouth shut until tomorrow noon!\"", "Hay and Roosevelt also differed over the composition of the Joint High Commission that was to settle the Alaska boundary dispute.", "The commission was to be composed of \"impartial jurists\" and the British and Canadians duly appointed notable judges.", "Roosevelt appointed politicians, including Secretary Root and Senator Lodge.", "Although Hay was supportive of the President's choices in public, in private he protested loudly to Roosevelt, complained by letter to his friends, and offered his resignation.", "Roosevelt declined it, but the incident confirmed him in his belief that Hay was too much of an Anglophile to be trusted where Britain was concerned.", "The American position on the boundary dispute was imposed on Canada by a 4–2 vote, with the one English judge joining the three Americans.Political cartoon on the Perdicaris affairOne incident involving Hay that benefitted Roosevelt politically was the kidnapping of Greek-American playboy Ion Perdicaris in Morocco by chieftain Mulai Ahmed er Raisuli, an opponent of Sultan Abdelaziz.", "Raisuli demanded a ransom, but also wanted political prisoners to be released and control of Tangier in place of the military governor.", "Raisuli supposed Perdicaris to be a wealthy American, and hoped United States pressure would secure his demands.", "In fact, Perdicaris, though born in New Jersey, had renounced his citizenship during the Civil War to avoid Confederate confiscation of property in South Carolina, and had accepted Greek naturalization, a fact not generally known until years later, but that decreased Roosevelt's appetite for military action.", "The sultan was ineffective in dealing with the incident, and Roosevelt considered seizing the Tangier waterfront, source of much of Abdelaziz's income, as a means of motivating him.", "With Raisuli's demands escalating, Hay, with Roosevelt's approval, finally cabled the consul-general in Tangier, Samuel Gummeré:Hay, circa 1904The 1904 Republican National Convention was in session, and the Speaker of the House, Joseph Cannon, its chair, read the first sentence of the cable—and only the first sentence—to the convention, electrifying what had been a humdrum coronation of Roosevelt.", "\"The results were perfect.", "This was the fighting Teddy that America loved, and his frenzied supporters—and American chauvinists everywhere—roared in delight.\"", "In fact, by then the sultan had already agreed to the demands, and Perdicaris was released.", "What was seen as tough talk boosted Roosevelt's election chances.====Final months and death====Hay never fully recovered from the death of his son Adelbert, writing in 1904 to his close friend Lizzie Cameron that \"the death of our boy made my wife and me old, at once and for the rest of our lives\".", "Gale described Hay in his final years as a \"saddened, slowly dying old man\".Although Hay gave speeches in support of Roosevelt, he spent much of the fall of 1904 at his New Hampshire house or with his younger brother Charles, who was ill in Boston.", "After the election, Roosevelt asked Hay to remain another four years.", "Hay asked for time to consider, but the President did not allow it, announcing to the press two days later that Hay would stay at his post.", "Early 1905 saw futility for Hay, as a number of treaties he had negotiated were defeated or amended by the Senate—one involving the British dominion of Newfoundland due to Senator Lodge's fears it would harm his fisherman constituents.", "Others, promoting arbitration, were voted down or amended because the Senate did not want to be bypassed in the settlement of international disputes.By Roosevelt's inauguration on March 4, 1905, Hay's health was so bad that both his wife and his friend Henry Adams insisted on his going to Europe, where he could rest and get medical treatment.", "Presidential doctor Presley Rixey issued a statement that Hay was suffering from overwork, but in letters the secretary hinted his conviction that he did not have long to live.", "An eminent physician in Italy prescribed medicinal baths for Hay's heart condition, and he duly journeyed to Bad Nauheim, near Frankfurt, Germany.", "Kaiser Wilhelm II was among the monarchs who wrote to Hay asking him to visit, though he declined; Belgian King Leopold II succeeded in seeing him by showing up at his hotel, unannounced.", "Adams suggested that Hay retire while there was still enough life left in him to do so, and that Roosevelt would be delighted to act as his own Secretary of State.", "Hay jokingly wrote to sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens that \"there is nothing the matter with me except old age, the Senate, and one or two other mortal maladies\".After the course of treatment, Hay went to Paris and began to take on his workload again by meeting with the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé.", "In London, King Edward VII broke protocol by meeting with Hay in a small drawing room, and Hay lunched with Whitelaw Reid, ambassador in London at last.", "There was not time to see all who wished to see Hay on what he knew was his final visit.On his return to the United States, despite his family's desire to take him to New Hampshire, the secretary went to Washington to deal with departmental business and \"say ''Ave Caesar!''", "to the President\", as Hay put it.", "He was pleased to learn that Roosevelt was well on his way to settling the Russo-Japanese War, an action for which the President would win the Nobel Peace Prize.", "Hay left Washington for the last time on June 23, 1905, arriving in New Hampshire the following day.", "He died there on July 1 of his heart ailment and complications.", "Hay was interred in Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland, near the grave of Garfield, in the presence of Roosevelt and many dignitaries, including Robert Lincoln." ], [ "Literary career", "===Early works===Hay wrote some poetry while at Brown University, and more during the Civil War.", "In 1865, early in his Paris stay, Hay penned \"Sunrise in the Place de la Concorde\", a poem attacking Napoleon III for his reinstitution of the monarchy, depicting the Emperor as having been entrusted with the child Democracy by Liberty, and strangling it with his own hands.", "In \"A Triumph of Order\", set in the breakup of the Paris Commune, a boy promises soldiers that he will return from an errand to be executed with his fellow rebels.", "Much to their surprise, he keeps his word and shouts to them to \"blaze away\" as \"The Chassepots tore the stout young heart,/And saved Society.", "\"In poetry, he sought the revolutionary outcome for other nations that he believed had come to a successful conclusion in the United States.", "His 1871 poem, \"The Prayer of the Romans\", recites Italian history up to that time, with the ''Risorgimento'' in progress: liberty cannot be truly present until \"crosier and crown pass away\", when there will be \"One freedom, one faith without fetters,/One republic in Italy free!\"", "His stay in Vienna yielded \"The Curse of Hungary\", in which Hay foresees the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.", "After Hay's death in 1905, William Dean Howells suggested that the Europe-themed poems expressed \"(now, perhaps, old-fashioned) American sympathy for all the oppressed.\"", "''Castilian Days'', souvenir of Hay's time in Madrid, is a collection of seventeen essays about Spanish history and customs, first published in 1871, although several of the individual chapters appeared in ''The Atlantic'' in 1870.It went through eight editions in Hay's lifetime.", "The Spanish are depicted as afflicted by the \"triple curse of crown, crozier, and saber\"—most kings and ecclesiastics are presented as useless—and Hay pins his hope in the republican movement in Spain.", "Gale deems ''Castilian Days'' \"a remarkable, if biased, book of essays about Spanish civilization\".", "''Pike County Ballads'', a grouping of six poems published (with other Hay poetry) as a book in 1871, brought him great success.", "Written in the dialect of Pike County, Illinois, where Hay went to school as a child, they are approximately contemporaneous with pioneering poems in similar dialect by Bret Harte and there has been debate as to which came first.", "The poem that brought the greatest immediate reaction was \"Jim Bludso\", about a boatman who is \"no saint\" with one wife in Mississippi and another in Illinois.", "Yet, when his steamboat catches fire, \"He saw his duty, a dead-sure thing,—/And went for it, ther and then.\"", "Jim holds the burning steamboat against the riverbank until the last passenger gets ashore, at the cost of his life.", "Hay's narrator states that, \"And Christ ain't a-going to be too hard/On a man that died for men.\"", "Hay's poem offended some clergymen, but was widely reprinted and even included in anthologies of verse.===''The Bread-Winners''===First edition cover of ''The Bread-Winners'' (1883)''The Bread-Winners'', one of the first novels to take an anti-labor perspective, was published anonymously in 1883 (published editions did not bear Hay's name until 1916) and he may have tried to disguise his writing style.", "The book examines two conflicts: between capital and labor, and between the ''nouveau riche'' and old money.", "In writing it, Hay was influenced by the labor unrest of the 1870s, that affected him personally, as corporations belonging to Stone, his father-in-law, were among those struck, at a time when Hay had been left in charge in Stone's absence.", "According to historian Scott Dalrymple, \"in response, Hay proceeded to write an indictment of organized labor so scathing, so vehement, that he dared not attach his name to it.", "\"The major character is Arthur Farnham, a wealthy Civil War veteran, likely based on Hay.", "Farnham, who inherited money, is without much influence in municipal politics, as his ticket is defeated in elections, symbolic of the decreasing influence of America's old-money patricians.", "The villain is Andrew Jackson Offitt (true name Ananias Offitt), who leads the Bread-winners, a labor organization that begins a violent general strike.", "Peace is restored by a group of veterans led by Farnham, and, at the end, he appears likely to marry Alice Belding, a woman of his own class.Although unusual among the many books inspired by the labor unrest of the late 1870s in taking the perspective of the wealthy, it was the most successful of them, and was a sensation, gaining many favorable reviews.", "It was also attacked as an anti-labor polemic with an upper-class bias.", "There were many guesses as to authorship, with the supposed authors ranging from Hay's friend Henry Adams to New York Governor Grover Cleveland, and the speculation fueled sales.===Lincoln biography===Early in his presidency, Hay and Nicolay requested and received permission from Lincoln to write his biography.", "By 1872, Hay was \"convinced that we ought to be at work on our 'Lincoln.'", "I don't think the time for publication has come, but the time for preparation is slipping away.\"", "Robert Lincoln in 1874 formally agreed to let Hay and Nicolay use his father's papers; by 1875, they were engaged in research.", "Hay and Nicolay enjoyed exclusive access to Lincoln's papers, which were not opened to other researchers until 1947.They gathered documents written by others, as well as many of the Civil War books already being published.", "They at rare times relied on memory, such as Nicolay's recollection of the moment at the 1860 Republican convention when Lincoln was nominated, but for much of the rest relied on research.Hay began his part of the writing in 1876; the work was interrupted by illnesses of Hay, Nicolay, or family members, or by Hay's writing of ''The Bread-Winners''.", "By 1885, Hay had completed the chapters on Lincoln's early life, and they were submitted to Robert Lincoln for approval.", "Sale of the serialization rights to ''The Century'' magazine, edited by Hay's friend Richard Gilder, helped give the pair the impetus to bring what had become a massive project to an end.The published work, ''Abraham Lincoln: A History'', alternates parts in which Lincoln is at center with discussions of contextual matters, such as legislative events or battles.", "The first serial installment, published in November 1886, received positive reviews.", "When the ten-volume set emerged in 1890, it was not sold in bookstores, but instead door-to-door, then a common practice.", "Despite a price of $50, and the fact that a good part of the work had been serialized, five thousand copies were quickly sold.", "The books helped forge the modern view of Lincoln as great war leader, against competing narratives that gave more credit to subordinates such as Seward.", "According to historian Joshua Zeitz, \"it is easy to forget how widely underrated Lincoln the president and Lincoln the man were at the time of his death and how successful Hay and Nicolay were in elevating his place in the nation's collective historical memory.\"" ], [ "Assessment and legacy", "Hay in portrait by John Singer SargentIn 1902, Hay wrote that when he died, \"I shall not be much missed except by my wife.\"", "Nevertheless, due to his premature death at age 66, he was survived by most of his friends.", "These included Adams, who although he blamed the pressures of Hay's office, where he was badgered by Roosevelt and many senators, for the Secretary of State's death, admitted that Hay had remained in the position because he feared being bored.", "He memorialized his friend in the final pages of his autobiographical ''The Education of Henry Adams'': with Hay's death, his own education had ended.Gale pointed out that Hay \"accomplished a great deal in the realm of international statesmanship, and the world may be a better place because of his efforts as secretary of state ... the man was a scintillating ambassador\".", "Yet, Gale felt, any assessment of Hay must include negatives as well, that after his marriage to the wealthy Clara Stone, Hay \"allowed his deep-seated love of ease triumph over his Middle Western devotion to work and a fair shake for all.\"", "Despite his literary accomplishments, Hay \"was often lazy.", "His first poetry was his best.\"", "Taliaferro suggests that \"if Hay put any ... indelible stamp on history, perhaps it was that he demonstrated how the United States ought to comport itself.", "He, not Roosevelt, was the adult in charge when the nation and the State Department attained global maturity.\"", "He quotes John St. Loe Strachey, \"All that the world saw was a great gentleman and a great statesman doing his work for the State and for the President with perfect taste, perfect good sense, and perfect good humour\".", "''Posthumous bust of John Hay'' (1915–17), by J. Massey Rhind, inside the National McKinley Birthplace MemorialHay's efforts to shape Lincoln's image increased his own prominence and reputation in making his association (and that of Nicolay) with the assassinated president ever more remarkable and noteworthy.", "According to Zeitz, \"the greater Lincoln grew in death, the greater they grew for having known him so well, and so intimately, in life.", "Everyone wanted to know them if only to ask what it had been like—what ''he'' had been like.\"", "Their answer to that, expressed in ten volumes of biography, Gale wrote, \"has been incredibly influential\".", "In 1974, Lincoln scholar Roy P. Basler stated that later biographers such as Carl Sandburg did not \"make revisions of the essential story told by N.icolay & H.ay.", "Zeitz concurs, \"Americans today understand Abraham Lincoln much as Nicolay and Hay hoped that they would.", "\"Hay brought about more than 50 treaties, including the Canal-related treaties, and settlement of the Samoan dispute, as a result of which the United States secured what became known as American Samoa.", "In 1900, Hay negotiated a treaty with Denmark for the cession of the Danish West Indies.", "That treaty failed in the Danish parliament on a tied vote.In 1923 Mount Hay, also known as ''Boundary Peak 167'' on the Canada–United States border, was named after John Hay in recognition of his role in negotiating the US-Canada treaty resulting in the Alaska Boundary Tribunal.", "Brown University's John Hay Library is named for him as well.", "Hay's New Hampshire estate has been conserved by various organizations.", "Although he and his family never lived there (Hay died while it was under construction), the Hay-McKinney House, home to the Cleveland History Center and thousands of artifacts, serves to remind Clevelanders of John Hay's lengthy service.", "During World War II the Liberty ship was built in Panama City, Florida, and named in his honor.", "Camp John Hay a United States military base established in 1903 in Baguio, Philippines, was named for John Hay, and the base name was maintained by the Philippine government even after its 1991 turnover to Philippine authorities.According to historian Lewis L. Gould, in his account of McKinley's presidency," ], [ "See also", "* History of U.S. foreign policy, 1897–1913" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books===* * * * * * * * * * ===Journals and other sources===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*Michael Burlingame, ed.", "(2021).", "''Abraham Lincoln: The Observations of John G. Nicolay and John Hay''.", "Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.", "* Philip McFarland, ''John Hay, Friend of Giants: The Man and Life Connecting Abraham Lincoln, Mark Twain, Henry James, and Theodore Roosevelt'' (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017)* Patricia O'Toole, ''The Five of Hearts: An Intimate Portrait of Henry Adams and His Friends, 1880-1918'' (New York: Clarkson Potter, 1990)* Warren Zimmermann, ''First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power'' (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002)* Mark Zwonitzer, ''The Statesman and the Storyteller: John Hay, Mark Twain, and the Rise of American Imperialism'' (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2016)" ], [ "External links", "* John Hay Biography* John Hay Land Studies Center * John Hay National Wildlife Refuge * The Fells Reservation* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joy Division" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joy Division''' were an English rock band formed in Salford in 1976.The group consisted of vocalist, guitarist and lyricist Ian Curtis, guitarist/keyboardist Bernard Sumner, bassist Peter Hook and drummer Stephen Morris.Sumner and Hook formed the band after attending a June 1976 Sex Pistols concert.", "While Joy Division's first recordings were heavily influenced by early punk, they soon developed a sparse sound and style that made them one of the pioneering groups of the post-punk movement.", "Their self-released 1978 debut EP ''An Ideal for Living'' drew the attention of the Manchester television personality Tony Wilson, who signed them to his independent label Factory Records.", "Their debut album ''Unknown Pleasures'', recorded with producer Martin Hannett, was released in 1979.Frontman Curtis struggled with personal problems including a failing marriage, depression, and epilepsy.", "As the band's popularity grew, Curtis's health condition made it increasingly difficult for him to perform; he occasionally experienced seizures on stage.", "He died by suicide on the eve of what would have been the band's first North American tour in May 1980, aged 23.Joy Division's second and final album, ''Closer'', was released two months later; it and the single \"Love Will Tear Us Apart\" became their highest-charting releases.Between July and October 1980 the remaining members, with the addition of Gillian Gilbert, regrouped under the name New Order.", "They were successful throughout the next decade, blending post-punk with electronic and dance music influences.", "In 2023, both Joy Division and New Order were nominated as one act for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame." ], [ "History", "=== Formation ===On 4 June 1976, childhood friends Bernard Sumner and Peter Hook separately attended a Sex Pistols show at the Manchester Lesser Free Trade Hall.", "Both were inspired by the Pistols' performance.", "Sumner said that he felt the Pistols \"destroyed the myth of being a pop star, of a musician being some kind of god that you had to worship\".", "The following day Hook borrowed £35 from his mother to buy a bass guitar.", "They formed a band with Terry Mason, who had also attended the gig; Sumner bought a guitar, and Mason a drum kit.", "After their schoolfriend Martin Gresty declined an invitation to join as vocalist after getting a job at a factory, the band placed an advertisement for a vocalist in the Manchester Virgin Records shop.", "Ian Curtis, who knew them from earlier gigs, responded and was hired without audition.", "Sumner said that he \"knew he was all right to get on with and that's what we based the whole group on.", "If we liked someone, they were in.", "\"Buzzcocks manager Richard Boon and frontman Pete Shelley have both been credited with suggesting the band name \"Stiff Kittens\", but the band settled on \"Warsaw\" shortly before their first gig, a reference to David Bowie's song \"Warszawa\".", "Warsaw debuted on 29 May 1977 at the Electric Circus, supporting the Buzzcocks, Penetration and John Cooper Clarke.", "Tony Tabac played drums that night after joining the band two days earlier.", "Reviews in the ''NME'' by Paul Morley and in ''Sounds'' by Ian Wood brought them immediate national exposure.", "Mason became the band's manager and Tabac was replaced on drums in June 1977 by Steve Brotherdale, who also played in the punk band the Panik.", "Brotherdale tried to get Curtis to leave the band and join the Panik, and even had Curtis audition.", "On 18 July 1977, Warsaw recorded five demo tracks at Pennine Sound Studios, Oldham.", "Uneasy with Brotherdale's aggressive personality, the band fired him soon after the sessions.", "Driving home from the studio, they pulled over and asked Brotherdale to check on a flat tyre; when he got out of the car, they drove off.In August 1977, Warsaw placed an advertisement in a music shop window seeking a replacement drummer.", "Stephen Morris, who had attended the same school as Curtis, was the sole respondent.", "Deborah Curtis, Ian's wife, stated that Morris \"fitted perfectly\" with the band, and that with his addition Warsaw became a \"complete 'family.", "To avoid confusion with the London punk band Warsaw Pakt, the band renamed themselves Joy Division in early 1978, borrowing the name from the sexual slavery wing of a Nazi concentration camp mentioned in the 1955 novel ''House of Dolls''.", "On 14 December, the group recorded their debut EP, ''An Ideal for Living'', at Pennine Sound Studio and played their final gig as Warsaw on New Year's Eve at the Swinging Apple in Liverpool.", "Billed as Warsaw to ensure an audience, the band played their first gig as Joy Division on 25 January 1978 at Pip's Disco in Manchester.=== Early releases ===Joy Division were approached by RCA Records to record a cover of Nolan \"N.F.\"", "Porter's \"Keep on Keepin' On\" at a Manchester recording studio.", "The band spent late March and April 1978 writing and rehearsing material.", "During the Stiff/Chiswick Challenge concert at Manchester's Rafters club on 14 April, they caught the attention of TV music presenter Tony Wilson and manager Rob Gretton.", "Curtis berated Wilson for not putting the group on his Granada Television show ''So It Goes''; Wilson responded that Joy Division would be the next band he would showcase on TV.", "Gretton, the venue's resident DJ, was so impressed by the band's performance that he convinced them to take him on as their manager.", "Gretton, whose \"dogged determination\" was later credited for much of the band's public success, contributed the business skills to provide Joy Division with a better foundation for creativity.", "Joy Division spent the first week of May 1978 recording at Manchester's Arrow Studios.", "The band were unhappy with the Grapevine Records head John Anderson's insistence on adding synthesiser into the mix to soften the sound, and asked to be dropped from the contract with RCA.Joy Division made their recorded debut in June 1978 when the band self-released ''An Ideal for Living'', and two weeks later their track \"At a Later Date\" was featured on the compilation album ''Short Circuit: Live at the Electric Circus'' (which had been recorded live in October 1977).", "In the ''Melody Maker'' review, Chris Brazier said that it \"has the familiar rough-hewn nature of home-produced records, but they're no mere drone-vendors—there are a lot of good ideas here, and they could be a very interesting band by now, seven months on\".", "The packaging of ''An Ideal for Living''—which featured a drawing of a Hitler Youth member on the cover—coupled with the nature of the band's name fuelled speculation about their political affiliations.", "While Hook and Sumner later said they were intrigued by fascism at the time, Morris believed that the group's dalliance with Nazi imagery came from a desire to keep memories of the sacrifices of their parents and grandparents during World War II alive.", "He argued that accusations of neo-Nazi sympathies merely provoked the band \"to keep on doing it, because that's the kind of people we are\".On 20 September 1978, Joy Division made their television debut performing \"Shadowplay\" on ''So It Goes'', with an introduction by Wilson.", "In October, Joy Division contributed two tracks recorded with producer Martin Hannett to the compilation double-7\" EP ''A Factory Sample'', the first release by Tony Wilson's record label, Factory Records.", "In the ''NME'' review of the EP, Paul Morley praised the band as \"the missing link\" between Elvis Presley and Siouxsie and the Banshees.", "Joy Division joined Factory's roster, after buying themselves out of the RCA deal.", "Gretton was made a label partner to represent the interests of the band.", "On 27 December, during the drive home from a gig at the Hope and Anchor in London, Curtis had his first recognised severe epileptic seizure and was hospitalised.", "Meanwhile, Joy Division's career progressed, and Curtis appeared on the 13 January 1979 cover of ''NME''.", "That month the band recorded their session for BBC Radio 1 DJ John Peel.", "According to Deborah Curtis, \"Sandwiched in between these two important landmarks was the realisation that Ian's illness was something we would have to learn to accommodate\".=== ''Unknown Pleasures'' and breakthrough ===Joy Division's debut album, ''Unknown Pleasures'', was recorded at Strawberry Studios, Stockport, in April 1979.Producer Martin Hannett significantly altered their live sound, a fact that greatly displeased the band at the time; however, in 2006, Hook said that in retrospect Hannett had done a good job and \"created the Joy Division sound\".", "The album cover was designed by Peter Saville, who went on to provide artwork for future Joy Division and New Order releases.", "''Unknown Pleasures'' was released in June and sold through its initial pressing of 10,000 copies.", "Wilson said the success turned the indie label into a true business and a \"revolutionary force\" that operated outside of the major record label system.", "Reviewing the album for ''Melody Maker'', writer Jon Savage described the album as an \"opaque manifesto\" and declared it \"one of the best, white, English, debut LPs of the year\".Joy Division performed on Granada TV again on 20 July 1979, and made their only nationwide TV appearance on 15 September on BBC2's ''Something Else''.", "They supported the Buzzcocks in a 24-venue UK tour that began that October, which allowed the band to quit their regular jobs.", "The non-album single \"Transmission\" was released in November.", "Joy Division's burgeoning success drew a devoted following who were stereotyped as \"intense young men dressed in grey overcoats\".=== ''Closer'' and Curtis's health problems ===Joy Division toured Europe in January 1980.Although the schedule was demanding, Curtis experienced only two grand mal seizures, both in the final two months of the tour.", "That March, the band recorded their second album, ''Closer,'' with Hannett at London's Britannia Row Studios.", "That month they released the \"Licht und Blindheit\" single, with \"Atmosphere\" as the A-side and \"Dead Souls\" as the B-side, on the French independent label Sordide Sentimental.A lack of sleep and long hours destabilised Curtis's epilepsy, and his seizures became almost uncontrollable.", "He often had seizures during performances, which some audience members believed were part of the performance.", "The seizures left him feeling ashamed and depressed, and the band became increasingly worried about Curtis's condition.", "On 7 April 1980, Curtis attempted suicide by overdosing on his anti-seizure medication, phenobarbitone.", "The following evening, Joy Division were scheduled to play a gig at the Derby Hall in Bury.", "Curtis was too ill to perform, so at Gretton's insistence the band played a combined set with Alan Hempsall of Crispy Ambulance and Simon Topping of A Certain Ratio singing on the first few songs.", "When Topping came back towards the end of the set, some audience members threw bottles at the stage.", "Curtis's ill health led to the cancellation of several other gigs that April.", "Joy Division's final live performance was held at the University of Birmingham's High Hall on 2 May, and included their only performance of \"Ceremony\", one of the last songs written by Curtis.Hannett's production has been widely praised.", "However, as with ''Unknown Pleasures'', both Hook and Sumner were unhappy with the production.", "Hook said that when he heard the final mix of \"Atrocity Exhibition\" he was disappointed that the abrasiveness had been toned down.", "He wrote; \"I was like, head in hands, 'Oh fucking hell, it's happening again ... Martin had fucking melted the guitar with his Marshall Time Waster.", "Made it sound like someone strangling a cat and, to my mind, absolutely killed the song.", "I was so annoyed with him and went in and gave him a piece of my mind but he just turned round and told me to fuck off.", "\"=== Curtis's suicide and aftermath ===Joy Division were scheduled to commence their first US/Canada tour in May 1980.Curtis had expressed enthusiasm about the tour, but his relationship with his wife, Deborah, was under strain; Deborah was excluded from the band's inner circle and objected to Curtis being close to Belgian journalist and music promoter Annik Honoré, whom he met on tour in Europe in 1979.He was also anxious about how American audiences would react to his epilepsy.The evening before the band were due to depart for America, Curtis returned to his Macclesfield home to talk to Deborah.", "He asked her to drop an impending divorce suit, and asked her to leave him alone in the house until he caught a train to Manchester the following morning.", "Early on 18 May 1980, having spent the night watching the Werner Herzog film ''Stroszek'' and listening to Iggy Pop's 1977 album ''The Idiot'', Curtis hanged himself in his kitchen.", "Deborah discovered his body later that day when she returned.The suicide shocked the band and their management.", "In 2005, Wilson said: \"I think all of us made the mistake of not thinking his suicide was going to happen ... We all completely underestimated the danger.", "We didn't take it seriously.", "That's how stupid we were.\"", "Music critic Simon Reynolds said Curtis's suicide \"made for instant myth\".", "Jon Savage's obituary said that \"now no one will remember what his work with Joy Division was like when he was alive; it will be perceived as tragic rather than courageous\".", "In June 1980, Joy Division's single \"Love Will Tear Us Apart\" was released, which hit number thirteen on the UK Singles Chart.", "In July 1980, ''Closer'' was released, and peaked at number six on the UK Albums Chart.", "''NME'' reviewer Charles Shaar Murray wrote, \"''Closer'' is as magnificent a memorial (for 'Joy Division' as much as for Ian Curtis) as any post-Presley popular musician could have.", "\"Morris said that even without Curtis's death, it is unlikely that Joy Division would have endured.", "The members had made a pact long before Curtis's death that, should any member leave, the remaining members would change the band name.", "The band re-formed as New Order, with Sumner on vocals; they later recruited Morris's girlfriend Gillian Gilbert as keyboardist and second guitarist.", "Gilbert had befriended the band and played guitar at a Joy Division performance when Curtis had been unable to play.New Order's debut single, \"Ceremony\" (1981), was formed from the last two songs written with Curtis.", "New Order struggled in their early years to escape the shadow of Joy Division, but went on to achieve far greater commercial success with a different, more upbeat and dance-orientated sound.Various Joy Division outtakes and live material have been released.", "''Still'', featuring live tracks and rare recordings, was issued in 1981.Factory issued the ''Substance'' compilation in 1988, including several out-of-print singles.", "''Permanent'' was released in 1995 by London Records, which had acquired the Joy Division catalogue after Factory's 1992 bankruptcy.", "The comprehensive box set ''Heart and Soul'' was released in 1997." ], [ "Musical style", "=== Sound ===Joy Division took time to develop their style and quickly evolved from their punk roots.", "Their sound during their early inception as Warsaw was described as fairly generic and \"undistinguished punk-inflected hard-rock\".", "Critic Simon Reynolds observed how the band's originality only \"really became apparent as the songs got slower\", and their music took on a \"sparse\" quality.", "According to Reynolds, \"Hook's bass carried the melody, Bernard Sumner's guitar left gaps rather than filling up the group's sound with dense riffage and Steve Morris's drums seemed to circle the rim of a crater.\"", "According to music critic Jon Savage, \"Joy Division were not punk but they were directly inspired by its energy\".", "In 1994 Sumner said the band's characteristic sound \"came out naturally: I'm more rhythm and chords, and Hooky was melody.", "He used to play high lead bass because I liked my guitar to sound distorted, and the amplifier I had would only work when it was at full volume.", "When Hooky played low, he couldn't hear himself.", "Steve has his own style which is different to other drummers.", "To me, a drummer in the band is the clock, but Steve wouldn't be the clock, because he's passive: he would follow the rhythm of the band, which gave us our own edge.\"", "By ''Closer'', Curtis had adopted a low baritone voice, drawing comparisons to Jim Morrison of the Doors (one of Curtis's favourite bands).Sumner largely acted as the band's director, a role he continued in New Order.", "While Sumner was the group's primary guitarist, Curtis played the instrument on a few recorded songs and during a few shows.", "Curtis hated playing guitar, but the band insisted he do so.", "Sumner said, \"He played in quite a bizarre way and that to us was interesting, because no one else would play like Ian\".", "During the recording sessions for ''Closer'', Sumner began using self-built synthesisers and Hook used a six-string bass for more melody.Producer Martin Hannett \"dedicated himself to capturing and intensifying Joy Division's eerie spatiality\".", "Hannett believed punk rock was sonically conservative because of its refusal to use studio technology to create sonic space.", "The producer instead aimed to create a more expansive sound on the group's records.", "Hannett said, \"Joy Division were a gift to a producer, because they didn't have a clue.", "They didn't argue\".", "Hannett demanded clean and clear \"sound separation\" not only for individual instruments, but even for individual pieces of Morris's drumkit.", "Morris recalled, \"Typically on tracks he considered to be potential singles, he'd get me to play each drum on its own to avoid any bleed-through of sound\".", "Music journalist Richard Cook noted that Hannett's role was \"crucial\".", "There are \"devices of distance\" in his production and \"the sound is an illusion of physicality\".=== Lyrics ===Curtis was the band's sole lyricist.", "He typically composed his lyrics in a notebook, independently of the eventual music to evolve.", "The music itself was largely written by Sumner and Hook as the group jammed during rehearsals.", "Curtis's imagery and word choice often referenced \"coldness, pressure, darkness, crisis, failure, collapse, loss of control\".", "In 1979, ''NME'' journalist Paul Rambali wrote, \"The themes of Joy Division's music are sorrowful, painful and sometimes deeply sad.\"", "Music journalist Jon Savage wrote that \"Curtis's great lyrical achievement was to capture the underlying reality of a society in turmoil, and to make it both universal and personal,\" while noting that \"the lyrics reflected, in mood and approach, his interest in romantic and science-fiction literature.\"", "Critic Robert Palmer wrote that William S. Burroughs and J. G. Ballard were \"obvious influences\" to Curtis, and Morris also remembered the singer reading T. S. Eliot.", "Deborah Curtis also remembered Curtis reading works by writers such as Fyodor Dostoevsky, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, Franz Kafka, and Hermann Hesse.Curtis was unwilling to explain the meaning behind his lyrics and Joy Division releases were absent of any lyric sheets.", "He told the fanzine ''Printed Noise'', \"We haven't got a message really; the lyrics are open to interpretation.", "They're multidimensional.", "You can read into them what you like.\"", "The other Joy Division members have said that at the time, they paid little attention to the contents of Curtis's lyrics.", "In a 1987 interview with ''Option'', Morris said that they \"just thought the songs were sort of sympathetic and more uplifting than depressing.", "But everyone's got their own opinion.\"", "Deborah Curtis recalled that only with the release of ''Closer'' did many who were close to the singer realise \"his intentions and feelings were all there within the lyrics\".", "The surviving members regret not seeing the warning signs in Curtis's lyrics.", "Morris said that \"it was only after Ian died that we sat down and listened to the lyrics...you'd find yourself thinking, 'Oh my God, I missed this one'.", "Because I'd look at Ian's lyrics and think how clever he was putting himself in the position of someone else.", "I never believed he was writing about himself.", "Looking back, how could I have been so bleedin' stupid?", "Of course he was writing about himself.", "But I didn't go in and grab him and ask, 'What's up?'", "I have to live with that\".=== Live performances ===In contrast to the relatively polished sound of their studio recordings, Joy Division typically played loudly and aggressively during live performances.", "The band were especially unhappy with Hannett's mix of ''Unknown Pleasures'', which reduced the abrasiveness of their live sound for a more cerebral and ghostly sound.", "According to Sumner \"the music was loud and heavy, and we felt that Martin had toned it down, especially with the guitars\".The group did not typically interact with the audience during concerts.", "According to Paul Morley, \"During a Joy Division set, outside of the songs, you'll be lucky to hear more than two or three words.", "Hello and goodbye.", "No introductions, no promotion.\"", "Curtis would often perform what became known as his \"'dead fly' dance\", as if imitating a seizure; his arms would \"start flying in a semicircular, hypnotic curve\".", "Simon Reynolds noted that Curtis's dancing style was reminiscent of an epileptic seizure, and that he was dancing in the manner for some months before he was diagnosed with epilepsy.Curtis' diagnosis made live performances difficult for the band.", "Sumner later reflected in 2007, \"We didn't have flashing lights, but sometimes a particular drum beat would do something to him.", "He'd go off in a trance for a bit, then he'd lose it and have an epileptic fit.", "We'd have to stop the show and carry him off to the dressing room where he'd cry his eyes out because this appalling thing had just happened to him.", "\"===Influences===Sumner wrote that Curtis was inspired by artists such as the Doors, Iggy Pop, David Bowie, Kraftwerk, the Velvet Underground and Neu!.", "Hook has also related that Curtis was particularly influenced by Iggy Pop's chaotic stage persona.", "The group were inspired by Kraftwerk's \"marriage between humans and machines\", and the inventiveness of their electronic music.", "Joy Division played ''Trans-Europe Express'' through the PA before they went on stage, \"to get a momentum\".", "Bowie's \"Berlin Trilogy\" elaborated with Brian Eno, influenced them; the \"cold austerity\" of the synthesisers on the b-sides of ''\"Heroes\"'' and ''Low'' albums, was a \"music looking at the future\".", "Morris cited the \"unique style\" of Velvet Underground's Maureen Tucker and the motorik drum beats, from Neu!", "and Can.", "Morris also credited Siouxsie and the Banshees because their \"first drummer Kenny Morris played mostly toms\" and \"the sound of cymbals was forbidden\".", "Hook said that \"Siouxsie and the Banshees were one of our big influences...", "The way the guitarist and the drummer played was a really unusual way of playing\".", "Hook drew inspiration from the style of bassist Jean-Jacques Burnel and his early material with the Stranglers; he also credited Carol Kaye and her musical basslines on early 1970s work of the Temptations.", "Sumner mentioned \"the raw, nasty, unpolished edge\" in the guitars of the Rolling Stones, the simple riff of \"Vicious\" on Lou Reed's ''Transformer'', and Neil Young.", "His musical horizon went up a notch with Jimi Hendrix, he realised \"it wasn't about little catchy tunes ... it was what you could do sonically with a guitar.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Despite their short career, Joy Division have exerted a wide-reaching influence and achieved widespread critical acclaim.", "John Bush of AllMusic argues that Joy Division \"became the first band in the post-punk movement by ... emphasizing not anger and energy but mood and expression, pointing ahead to the rise of melancholy alternative music in the '80s.", "\"The band's dark and gloomy sound, which Martin Hannett described in 1979 as \"dancing music with Gothic overtones\", presaged in part the gothic rock genre.", "While the term \"gothic\" originally described a \"doomy atmosphere\" in music of the late 1970s, the term was soon applied to specific bands like Bauhaus that followed in the wake of Joy Division and Siouxsie and the Banshees.", "Standard musical fixtures of early gothic rock bands included \"high-pitched post-Joy Division basslines usurping the melodic role\" and \"vocals that were either near operatic and Teutonic or deep, droning alloys of Jim Morrison and Ian Curtis.", "\"Joy Division have been dramatised in two biopics.", "''24 Hour Party People'' (2002) is a fictionalised account of Factory Records in which members of the band appear as supporting characters.", "Tony Wilson said of the film, \"It's all true, it's all not true.", "It's not a fucking documentary,\" and that he favoured the \"myth\" over the truth.", "The 2007 film ''Control'', directed by Anton Corbijn, is a biography of Ian Curtis (portrayed by Sam Riley) that uses Deborah Curtis's biography of her late husband, ''Touching from a Distance'' (1995), as its basis.", "''Control'' had its international premiere on the opening night of Director's Fortnight at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival, where it was critically well received.", "That year Grant Gee directed the band documentary ''Joy Division''.Joy Division have influenced many bands, including their contemporaries the Cure and U2.Joy Division was an influence on Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark on their 1980 album ''Organisation'', and on Tears for Fears 1983 debut album ''The Hurting''.", "Later acts that cite inspiration from Joy Division include among others Bloc Party, Editors, Interpol, the Proclaimers, and Soundgarden.", "In 1980, U2 singer Bono said that Joy Division were \"one of the most important bands of the last four or five years\".", "Rapper Danny Brown named his album ''Atrocity Exhibition'' after the Joy Division song, whose title was partially inspired by the 1970 J. G. Ballard collection of condensed novels of the same name.", "In 2005 both New Order and Joy Division were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame." ], [ "Band members", ";Principal lineup* Ian Curtis – lead vocals, melodica (1976–1980; his death); guitar (1979-1980)* Bernard Sumner – guitar, keyboards (1976–1980); bass (1980)* Peter Hook – bass, backing and occasional lead vocals (1976–1980); guitar (1980)* Stephen Morris – drums, percussion (1977–1980);Early members* Terry Mason – drums (1976–1977)* Tony Tabac – drums (1977)* Steve Brotherdale – drums (1977)=== Timeline ===" ], [ "Discography", "* ''Unknown Pleasures'' (1979)* ''Closer'' (1980)" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Jacobite" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''Jacobite''' is a follower of someone named Jacob or James, from the Latin ''Jācōbus''.", "Jacobite or '''Jacobitism''' may refer to:" ], [ "Religion", "* Arminianism, the theology of Jacobus Arminius* Jacobites, followers of Saint Jacob Baradaeus (died 578).", "Churches in the Jacobite tradition and sometimes called Jacobite include:** Syriac Orthodox Church, sometimes colloquially known as the Jacobite Church** Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, autonomous branch of the Syriac Orthodox Church in Kerala, India** Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, an autocephalous Jacobite church based in Kerala, India* Jacobite, follower of Henry Jacob (1563–1624), English clergyman* Jacobites, Biblical name for descendants of Jacob" ], [ "Stuart succession", "Jacobite succession is the line through which the British ''crown in pretence'' of the Stuart kingship has descended since 1688* Followers of Jacobitism, the political movement to resurrect the Stuart line, 1688–1780s* Jacobite risings, series of rebellions in Great Britain and Ireland, 1688–1746* Jacobite consorts, those who were married to Jacobite pretenders since 1688* Jacobite Peerage, peers and baronetcies granted by Jacobite claimants since 1688* Neo-Jacobite Revival, political movement aimed at reviving Jacobite ambitions, 1886-1914* Scottish Jacobite Party, political party which distanced itself from Jacobitism's monarchist origins, 2005–2011* Jacobite Gold, 1745 shipment of Spanish gold to Scotland, rumoured to still be hidden at Loch Arkaig" ], [ "Other", "* The Jacobite (steam train), a train in Scotland===Music===* \"Ye Jacobites by Name\", Scottish folk song originating in the Jacobite Risings* ''Jacobite Relics'', collection of songs related to the Jacobite risings, compiled by James Hogg in 1817* Jacobites (band), English rock band formed in 1982" ], [ "See also", "* Jacob (disambiguation)* Jacobin (disambiguation)* Jacobian (disambiguation)* Jacobean (disambiguation)* Jacobus (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Johnny Bench" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Lee Bench''' (born December 7, 1947) is an American former professional baseball player.", "He played his entire Major League Baseball career, which lasted from to , with the Cincinnati Reds, primarily as a catcher.", "Bench was the leader of the Reds team known as the Big Red Machine that dominated the National League in the mid-1970s, winning six division titles, four National League pennants and two World Series championships.A fourteen-time All-Star and a two-time National League Most Valuable Player, Bench excelled on offense as well as on defense, twice leading the National League in home runs and three times in runs batted in.", "At the time of his retirement in 1983, he held the major league record for most home runs hit by a catcher.", "He was also the first catcher in history to lead the league in home runs.", "He hit 45 home runs in 1970, which was a single-season record for catchers until Salvador Perez hit 48 in 2021.His 389 home runs and 1,376 runs batted in remain the most in Cincinnati Reds history.On defense, Bench was a ten-time Gold Glove Award winner who skillfully handled pitching staffs and possessed a strong, accurate throwing arm.", "He caught 100 or more games for 13 consecutive seasons.", "In 1986, Bench was inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame.", "He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1989.ESPN has called him the greatest catcher in baseball history." ], [ "Early life", "Born and raised in Oklahoma, Bench is one-eighth Choctaw; he played baseball and basketball and was class valedictorian at Binger-Oney High School His father told him that the fastest route to becoming a major leaguer was as a catcher." ], [ "Professional career", "===Draft and minor leagues===As a 17-year-old, Bench was selected 36th overall by the Cincinnati Reds in the second round of the 1965 amateur draft, playing for the minor-league Buffalo Bisons in the 1966 and 1967 seasons.", "During the 1967 season, he hit a grand slam against Jim Palmer, who would go on to never allow a grand slam in 19 years in the Major Leagues.===Cincinnati Reds (1967–1983)===Bench was called up to the Reds in August 1967.He hit only .163, but impressed many people with his defense and strong throwing arm, among them Hall of Famer Ted Williams.", "Williams signed a baseball for him and predicted that the young catcher would be a \"Hall of Famer for sure!\"", "Williams' prophecy became fact 22 years later in 1989 when Bench was elected to Cooperstown.During a 1968 spring training game, Bench was catching right-hander Jim Maloney, an eight-year veteran.", "Maloney was once a hard thrower, but injuries had dramatically reduced the speed of his fastball.", "Maloney nevertheless insisted on repeatedly \"shaking off\" his younger catcher by throwing fastballs instead of the breaking balls that Bench had called for.", "When an exasperated Bench bluntly told Maloney, \"Your fastball's not popping,\" Maloney replied with an epithet.", "To prove to Maloney that his fastball was no longer effective, Bench called for a fastball, and after Maloney released the ball, Bench dropped his catcher's mitt and caught the fastball barehanded.", "Bench was the Reds' catcher on April 30, 1969, when Maloney pitched a no hitter against the In 1968, the 20-year-old Bench impressed many in his first he won the National League Rookie of the Year Award, batting .275 with 15 home runs and 82 RBIs.", "This marked the first time that the award had been won by a catcher.", "He also won the 1968 National League Gold Glove Award for catchers, which was the first time that the award had been won by a rookie.", "He made 102 assists in 1968, which marked the first time in 23 years that a catcher had more than 100 assists in a season.", "During the Vietnam War, Bench served in the United States Army Reserve as a member of the 478th Engineer Battalion, which was based across the Ohio River from Cincinnati at Fort Thomas, Kentucky.", "This unit included several of his teammates, among them Pete Rose, Bobby Tolan and Darrel Chaney.", "In the winter of 1970–1971 he was part of Bob Hope's USO Tour of Vietnam.===1970s===In 1970, Bench had his finest statistical season.", "At age 22, he became the youngest player to win the National League Most Valuable Player Award.", "He hit .293, led the National League with 45 home runs and a franchise-record 148 runs batted in as the Reds won the NL West Division.", "The Reds swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in the National League Championship Series, but lost to the Baltimore Orioles in five games in the World Series.Bench in 1977Bench had another strong year in 1972, winning the MVP Award for a second time.", "He led the National League in home runs (40) and RBI (125) to help propel the Reds to another National League West Division title and won the NL pennant in the deciding fifth game over the Pittsburgh Pirates.", "One of his more dramatic home runs was likely his ninth-inning, lead off, opposite field home run in that fifth NLCS game.", "The solo shot tied the game at three; the Reds won later in the inning on a wild pitch, 4–3.It was hailed after the game as \"one of the great clutch home runs of all time.\"", "However, the Reds lost the World Series to a strong Oakland Athletics team in seven games.", "After the 1972 season, Bench underwent surgery to remove a lesion from his lung, out of concern that it might be cancerous.", "The lesion would prove to be benign however, Bench stated in an interview that he was never the same player after the surgery.", "“They cut the ribs, they cut the bones, they cut the nerves, and so I never was the same player afterwards.” He remained productive, but never again hit 40 home runs in a season.In 1973, Bench hit 25 home runs and 104 RBI and helped the Reds rally from a 10-game deficit to the Los Angeles Dodgers in early July to lead the majors with 99 wins and claim another NL West Division crown.", "In the NLCS, Cincinnati met a New York Mets team that won the NL East with an unimpressive record, 16 games behind the Reds.", "The Mets boasted three of the better starting pitchers in the NL, future Hall of Famer Tom Seaver, Jerry Koosman, and Jon Matlack.", "Bench's bottom of the ninth-inning home run off Seaver in the first game propelled the Reds to victory, but Seaver would get the best of the Reds and Bench in the deciding Game 5, winning to put the Mets into the World Series against the Oakland A's.In 1974, Bench led the league with 129 RBI and scored 108 runs, becoming only the fourth catcher in major league history with 100 or more runs and RBI in the same season.", "The Reds won the second-most games in the majors (98) but lost the West Division to the Los Angeles Dodgers.", "In 1975, the Reds finally broke through in the post season.", "Bench contributed 28 home runs and 110 RBI.", "Cincinnati swept the Pirates in three games to win the NLCS, and defeated the Boston Red Sox in a memorable seven-game World Series.Bench circa 1980Bench struggled with ailing shoulders in 1976, and had one of his least productive years, with only 16 home runs and 74 RBI.", "He finished with an excellent postseason, starting with a 4-for-12 (.333) performance in the NLCS sweep over the Philadelphia Phillies.", "The World Series provided a head-to-head match-up with the Yankees' all-star catcher, Thurman Munson.", "Bench rose to the occasion, hitting .533 with two home runs, while Munson also hit well, with a .529 average.", "The Reds won in a four-game sweep and Bench was named the Series' MVP.", "At the post-World Series press conference, Reds manager Sparky Anderson was asked by a journalist to compare Munson with his catcher.", "Anderson replied, \"I don't want to embarrass any other catcher by comparing him to Johnny Bench.\"", "Bench bounced back in 1977 to hit 31 home runs and 109 RBI but the Dodgers won two straight NL pennants.", "The Reds reached the postseason just once more in his career, in 1979, but were swept in three straight in the NLCS by the Pittsburgh Pirates.===1980s===For the last three seasons of his career, Bench moved out from behind the plate, catching only 13 games, while primarily becoming a corner infielder (first or third base).", "The Cincinnati Reds proclaimed Saturday, September 17, 1983, \"Johnny Bench Night\" at Riverfront Stadium, in which he hit his 389th and final home run, a line drive to left in the third inning, before a record crowd.", "He retired at the end of the season at age 35." ], [ "MLB career statistics", "Bench had 2,048 hits for a .267 career batting average with 389 home runs and 1,376 RBI during his 17-year Major League career, all spent with the Reds.", "He retired as the career home run leader for catchers, a record which stood until surpassed by Carlton Fisk and the current record holder, Mike Piazza.", "Bench still holds the Major League record for the most grand slam home runs by a catcher, with 10.In his career, Bench earned 10 Gold Gloves, was named to the National League All-Star team 14 times, and won two Most Valuable Player Awards.", "He led the National League three times in caught stealing percentage and ended his career with a .990 fielding percentage at catcher and an overall .987 fielding percentage.", "He caught 118 shutouts during his career, ranking him 12th all-time among major league catchers.", "Bench also won such awards as the Lou Gehrig Award (1975), the Babe Ruth Award (1976), and the Hutch Award (1981).Bench popularized the hinged catcher's mitt, first introduced by Randy Hundley of the Chicago Cubs.", "He began using the mitt after a stint on the disabled list in 1966 for a thumb injury on his throwing hand.", "The mitt allowed Bench to tuck his throwing arm safely to the side when receiving the pitch.", "By the turn of the decade, the hinged mitt became standard catchers' equipment.", "Having huge hands (a famous photograph features him holding seven baseballs in his right hand), Bench also tended to block breaking balls in the dirt by scooping them with one hand instead of the more common and fundamentally proper way: dropping to both knees and blocking the ball using the chest protector to keep the ball in front." ], [ "Personal life", "Bench has been married four times.", "Once hailed as \"baseball's most-eligible bachelor,\" he shed that distinction before the 1975 season when he married Vickie Chesser, a toothpaste model who had dated Joe Namath.", "Four days after they met, Bench proposed, and they were married on February 21, 1975.Quickly, the pair realized they were incompatible, especially after Bench suggested that his wife accept ''Hustler'' magazine's offer for her to pose nude for $25,000.They broke up at the end of the season (Bench reportedly said to her, \"Now I'm done with two things I hate: baseball and you\"), divorcing after just 13 months.", "\"I tried.", "I even hand-squeezed orange juice,\" Chesser told Phil Donahue in December 1975.", "\"I don't think either of us had any idea what marriage was really like.\"", "After returning to Manhattan, Chesser said, \"Johnny Bench is a great athlete, a mediocre everything else, and a true tragedy as a person.", "\"Before Christmas 1987, Bench married Laura Cwikowski, an Oklahoma City model and aerobics instructor.", "They had a son, Bobby Binger Bench (named after Bob Hope and Bobby Knight, and Bench's hometown), before divorcing in 1995.They shared custody of their son.", "\"He was, and is, a great dad,\" according to Bobby, who works in Cincinnati as a production operator on Reds broadcasts.", "Bench's third marriage, to Elizabeth Benton, took place in 1997.Johnny filed for divorce in 2000 on grounds of marital infidelity.", "His fourth marriage took place in 2004, to 31-year-old Lauren Baiocchi, the daughter of pro golfer Hugh Baiocchi.", "After living in Palm Springs with their two sons, Johnny wished to return to South Florida, where he lived from 2014 to 2017.However, Lauren would not relocate to Florida, leading to their divorce.", "As of 2018, Bench has primary custody of their sons." ], [ "Honors and post-career activities", "Bench's statue at Great American Ball ParkBench was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York, in 1989 alongside Carl Yastrzemski.", "He was elected in his first year of eligibility, and appeared on 96% of the ballots, the third-highest percentage at that time.", "Three years earlier, Bench had been inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame and his uniform No.", "5 was retired by the team.", "He is currently on the board of directors for the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame.", "In 1989, he became the first individual baseball player to appear on a Wheaties box, a cereal he ate as a child.For a time in the 1980s Bench was a commercial spokesman for Krylon paint, featuring a memorable catchphrase: \"I'm Johnny Bench, and this is Johnny Bench's bench.\"", "In 1985, Bench starred as Joe Boyd/Joe Hardy in a Cincinnati stage production of the musical ''Damn Yankees'', which also included Gwen Verdon and Gary Sandy.", "He also hosted the television series ''The Baseball Bunch'' from 1982 to 1985.A cast of boys and girls from the Tucson, Arizona, area would learn the game of baseball from Bench and other current and retired greats.", "The Chicken provided comic relief and former Los Angeles Dodgers manager Tommy Lasorda appeared as \"The Dugout Wizard.", "\"In 1986, Bench and Don Drysdale did the backup contests or ABC's Sunday afternoon baseball telecasts (Al Michaels and Jim Palmer were the primary commentating crew).", "Keith Jackson, usually working with Tim McCarver did the No.", "2 Monday night games.", "Bench took a week off in June (with Steve Busby filling in), and also worked one game with Michaels as the networks switched the announcer pairings.", "While Drysdale worked the All-Star Game in Houston as an interviewer he did not resurface until the playoffs.", "Bench simply disappeared, ultimately going to CBS Radio to help Brent Musburger call that year's National League Championship Series.", "Bench would later serve as color commentator CBS Radio's World Series coverage alongside Jack Buck and later Vin Scully from 1989–1993.In 1994, Bench served as a field reporter for NBC/The Baseball Network's coverage of the All-Star Game from Pittsburgh.After turning 50, Bench was a part-time professional golfer and played in several events on the Senior PGA Tour.", "He has a home at the Mission Hills-Gary Player Course in Rancho Mirage, California.In 1999, Bench ranked Number 16 on ''The Sporting News'' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players.", "He was the highest-ranking catcher.", "Bench was also elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team as the top vote-receiving catcher.", "As part of the Golden Anniversary of the Rawlings Gold Glove Award, Bench was selected to the All-Time Rawlings Gold Glove Team.From the 2000 college baseball season until 2018, the best collegiate catcher annually received the Johnny Bench Award.", "Notable winners include Buster Posey of Florida State University, Kelly Shoppach of Baylor University, Ryan Garko of Stanford University, and Kurt Suzuki of Cal State Fullerton.", "The award was renamed the Buster Posey Award for the 2019 season onwards.In 2003, he guest starred on an episode of ''Yes, Dear'' as himself, along with Ernie Banks and Frank Robinson.Bench signs autographs in Houston in May 2014.In 2008, Bench co-wrote the book ''Catch Every Ball: How to Handle Life's Pitches'' with Paul Daugherty, published by Orange Frazer Press.", "An autobiography published in 1979 called ''Catch You Later'' was co-authored with William Brashler.", "Bench has also broadcast games on television and radio, and is an avid golfer, having played in several Champions Tour tournaments.Bench was interviewed by Heidi Watney of the New England Sports Network during a September 2008 Boston Red Sox game at Fenway Park.", "While knuckleballer Tim Wakefield was on the mound for the Red Sox, Bench related a story that then-Reds manager Sparky Anderson told him that he was thinking of trading for knuckleballer Phil Niekro.", "Bench replied that Anderson had better trade for Niekro's catcher, too.On September 17, 2011, the Cincinnati Reds unveiled a statue of Bench at the entrance way of the Reds Hall of Fame at Great American Ball Park.", "The larger-than-life bronze statue by Tom Tsuchiya, shows Bench in the act of throwing out a base runner.", "Bench called the unveiling of his statue his \"greatest moment.\"", "In 2016, he was inducted into the International Sports Hall of Fame.", "He was also the Hall of Fame recipient of the Bob Feller Act of Valor Award in 2018, for his service and continued support of the United States Military." ], [ "See also", "* Cincinnati Reds award winners and league leaders* List of Gold Glove Award winners at catcher* List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders* List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders* List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders* List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders* List of Major League Baseball career intentional bases on balls leaders* List of Major League Baseball career putouts as a catcher leaders* List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders* List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders* List of Major League Baseball retired numbers* List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise* List of members of the Baseball Hall of Fame* Sporting News Rookie of the Year Award" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** johnnybench.com Official Website* Baseball's Greatest Catcher* Bench, Johnny ''Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture''* \"Johnny Bench: Number 1 Home Run Hitter of All Catchers\" ''Baseball Digest'', December 1980* \"Johnny Bench: From Binger to Cooperstown\" ''Baseball Digest'', February 2000*** Voices of Oklahoma interview with Johnny Bench.", "First person interview conducted on March 28, 2012, with Johnny Bench." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jasmuheen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jasmuheen''' (born '''Ellen Greve'''; 1957) is a proponent of \"pranic nourishment\" or breatharianism, the practice of living without food or fluid of any sort and regarded by the scientific community as a lethal pseudoscience.", "She makes appearances at New Age conferences worldwide, has hosted spiritual retreats in Thailand and has released books and audio recordings." ], [ "Early life", "Jasmuheen was born in 1957 in New South Wales, Australia, of post-war Norwegian migrant parents." ], [ "Breatharianism", "Jasmuheen developed financial and business management skills working full-time in the finance industry.", "In 1992, she began combining her experience in business and finance with meditation, selling access to workshops and seminars on the topic and, by deed poll, changed her name to Jasmuheen.The Australian television programme ''60 Minutes'' challenged Jasmuheen to demonstrate how she could live without food and water.", "The supervising medical professional Dr. Beres Wenck found that, after 48 hours, Jasmuheen displayed symptoms of acute dehydration, stress, and high blood pressure.", "Jasmuheen claimed that this was a result of \"polluted air\".", "On the third day, she was moved to a mountainside retreat about 15 miles from the city, where she was filmed enjoying the fresh air, claiming she could now successfully practice inedia.", "But as filming progressed, Jasmuheen's speech slowed, her pupils dilated, and she lost over a stone (6 kg or 14 lb) in weight.", "After four days, she acknowledged that she had lost weight, but stated that she felt fine.", "Dr. Wenck stated: \"You are now quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%.\"", "The doctor continued: \"Her pulse is about double what it was when she started.", "The risk if she goes any further is kidney failure.\"", "Jasmuheen's condition continued to deteriorate rapidly due to acute dehydration, despite her contrary insistence.", "Dr. Wenck concluded that continuing the experiment would ultimately prove fatal.", "The film crew agreed with this assessment and stopped filming.Regarding her intake of food, Jasmuheen said: \"Generally not much at all.", "Maybe a few cups of tea and a glass of water, but now and then if I feel a bit bored and I want some flavour, then I will have a mouthful of whatever it is I'm wanting the flavour of.", "So it might be a piece of chocolate or it might be a mouthful of a cheesecake or something like that.\"", "In the aftermath of the ''60 Minutes'' broadcast, Kathy Marks noted in ''The Independent'', \"Visitors to her large villa in the prosperous Chapel Hill area of Brisbane invariably find her refrigerator generously stocked with food, all of it destined, she insists, for the stomach of her second husband, Jeff Ferguson, a convicted fraudster\".Jasmuheen has stated that she has lived on approximately 300 calories per day for the past fourteen years, maintaining full health through supplementing a fluid intake with \"cosmic particles\" or \"micro-food\", which she describes as prana.", "She has stated that she has not yet mastered the ability to be fluid-free for more than short periods.Jasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (\"presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle\").", "She was also awarded the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for her book ''Pranic Nourishment – Living on Light'', \"which explains that although some people do eat food, they don't ever really need to.", "\"Jasmuheen maintains that some of her beliefs are based on the writings and \"more recent channelled material\" of the Count of St Germain.", "She states that her DNA expanded from 2 to 12 strands to take up more hydrogen.", "The extra strands of DNA have not been scientifically verified.", "When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, Jasmuheen stated \"you cannot view spiritual energy under a microscope\".", "She claimed that such a challenge would be a deliberate attack on her beliefs, and that she refuses to act as an example of her alleged paranormal attributes.In 2005, James Randi offered her the James Randi Educational Foundation US$1 million prize to demonstrate her claims.", "In 2010, she appeared in the documentaries ''3 Magic Words'' and ''In the Beginning There Was Light''.=== Deaths of followers ===, five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism and Jasmuheen's publications.", "Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for the deaths.Lani Marcia Roslyn Morris, a 53-year-old Melbourne resident, died in 1999 while attempting the breatharian \"diet\" advocated by Jasmuheen.", "Jim Vadim Pesnak, 63, and his wife Eugenia, 60, were jailed for six years and two years, respectively, on charges of manslaughter for their involvement in the death of Morris.", "Pesnak had delayed seeking medical attention.", "Referring this case, Jasmuheen commented that Morris's practice of inedia perhaps was \"not coming from a place of integrity and did not have the right motivation\".Jasmuheen offered similar defence in response to the death of Verity Linn, who died of hypothermia and dehydration with lack of nutrition while practising inedia in Scotland, her diary mentioning Jasmuheen's teachings.", "Linn's body was found in a tent.", "In 2012, it was reported that a Swiss woman died of starvation after having attempted to survive purely on light, as taught in one of Jasmuheen's books.", "In 2017, a Dutch woman living in a household of four practitioners of breatharianism inspired by Jasmuheen died under mysterious circumstances.", "The three remaining members of the household are suspected of withholding the malnourished woman adequate medical care.In 1999, Michelle Shirley, spokeswoman for the Cult Information Centre, told the BBC that the centre had been contacted five times in the previous 12 months by concerned friends and family members of Breatharians and that \"although Breatharianism is not strictly a cult, the centre has been monitoring its activities\".", "She added, \"We are particularly concerned about any implication that if it doesn't work, it is the person's fault.", "That implies there is nothing wrong with the Breatharians' teachings.", "\"In the end of 2017, 22-year-old German citizen Finn Bogumil died on the Caribbean island of Dominica, reportedly of fasting.", "According to witnesses, he was not eating or drinking for several days ahead of his death, and had told friends and family members of his plans to only live off of sunlight.", "German news station NDR also released a documentary about this case in March 2019.Jasmuheen has written that \"If you haven't found the light that will nourish you, you may have the intention to become a breatharian, but in fact you may be putting yourself through food deprivation.", "There is one known case where a person died when trying to become a breatharian.\"" ], [ "Publications", "* ''The Prana Program – Eliminating Global Health & Hunger Challenges''* ''Harmonious Healing and the Immortal's Way''* ''The Law of Love & Its Fabulous Frequency of Freedom''* ''The Food of Gods''* ''In Resonance''* ''Pranic Nourishment – Living on Light''* ''Ambassadors of Light – World Health & World Hunger Project''* ''Divine Radiance: On the Road With the Masters of Magic''* ''Four Body Fitness: Biofields & Bliss''* ''Co-creating Paradise''* ''The Madonna Frequency Planetary Peace Program''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jasmuheen's personal website* Jasmuheen's Cosmic Internet Academy* Jasmuheen on YouTube* ''Living on Light'' at Google Videos – episode of '' 60 Minutes (Australian TV program)'' (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jell-O" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jell-O''', stylised as JELL-O, is an American brand offering a variety of powdered gelatin dessert (fruit-flavored gels/jellies), pudding, and no-bake cream pie mixes.", "The original gelatin dessert (genericized as '''jello''') is the signature of the brand.", "\"Jell-O\" is a registered trademark of Kraft Heinz, and is based in Chicago, Illinois.The dessert was especially popular in the first half of the 20th century, remaining popular in certain demographics.", "The original gelatin dessert began in Le Roy, New York, in 1897, when Pearle Bixby Wait trademarked the name ''Jell-O''.", "He and his wife May had made the product by adding strawberry, raspberry, orange, and lemon flavoring to sugar and granulated gelatin (which had been patented in 1845).", "The powder is mixed with boiling water and then cooled to produce a gel." ], [ "Description", "Jell-O is sold prepared (ready-to-eat), or in powder form, and is available in various colors and flavors.", "The powder contains powdered gelatin and flavorings, including sugar or artificial sweeteners.", "It is dissolved in hot water, then chilled and allowed to set.", "Fruit, vegetables, and whipped cream can be added to make elaborate snacks that can be molded into shapes.Some non-gelatin pudding and pie-filling products are sold under the Jell-O brand.", "Ordinary Jell-O pudding is cooked on the stove top (with milk) then eaten warm or chilled, whereas Jell-O instant pudding is mixed with cold milk and chilled; it sets up without cooking.", "To make pie fillings, the same pudding products are prepared with less liquid." ], [ "History", "===Early history===Gelatin, a protein produced from collagen extracted from boiled bones, connective tissues, and other animal products, has been a component of food, particularly desserts, since the 15th century.Gelatin was popularized in New York in the Victorian era with spectacular and complex jelly molds.", "Gelatin was sold in sheets and had to be purified, which was time-consuming.", "Gelatin desserts were the province of royalty and the relatively well-to-do.", "In 1845, a patent for powdered gelatin was obtained by industrialist Peter Cooper, who built the first American steam-powered locomotive, the ''Tom Thumb''.", "This powdered gelatin was easy to manufacture and easier to use in cooking.In 1897, in LeRoy, New York, carpenter and cough syrup manufacturer Pearle Bixby Wait trademarked a gelatin dessert called \"Jell-O\".", "Wait and his wife, May, added strawberry, raspberry, orange, and lemon flavoring to granulated gelatin and sugar.", "In 1899, Wait sold Jell-O to \"Orator Francis Woodward\", whose Genesee Pure Food Company produced the successful Grain-O health drink.", "Part of the legal agreement between Woodward and Wait dealt with the similar Jell-O name.thumb===Going mainstream===Various elements were key to Jell-O becoming a mainstream product: new technologies, such as refrigeration, powdered gelatin and machine packaging, home economics classes, and the company's marketing.Initially, Woodward struggled to sell the powdered product.", "Beginning in 1902, to raise awareness, Woodward's Genesee Pure Food Company placed advertisements in the ''Ladies' Home Journal'' proclaiming Jell-O to be \"America's Most Famous Dessert.\"", "Jell-O was a minor success until 1904, when Genesee Pure Food Company sent armies of salesmen into the field to distribute free Jell-O cookbooks, a pioneering marketing tactic.", "\"America's Most Famous Dessert\", 1910s advertisementWithin a decade, Genesee Pure Food Company added three new flavors, chocolate (discontinued in 1927), cherry, and peach, and it launched the brand in Canada.", "Celebrity testimonials and recipes appeared in advertisements featuring actress Ethel Barrymore and opera singer Ernestine Schumann-Heink.", "Some Jell-O illustrated advertisements were painted by Maxfield Parrish.In 1923, the newly rechristened Jell-O Company launched \"D-Zerta\", an artificially sweetened version of Jell-O.", "Two years later, Postum and Genesee merged, and in 1927 Postum acquired Clarence Birdseye's frozen foods company to form the General Foods Corporation.", "''Quick, Easy Jell-O Wonder Dishes'', Jell-O Cookbook of 1930By 1930, there appeared a vogue in American cuisine for congealed salads, and the company introduced lime-flavored Jell-O, to complement the add-ins that cooks across the country were combining in these aspics and salads.", "Popular Jell-O recipes often included ingredients like cabbage, celery, green peppers, and even cooked pasta.In 1934, sponsorship from Jell-O made comedian Jack Benny the dessert's spokesperson.", "At this time Post introduced a jingle (\"featured\" by the agency Young & Rubicam) that was familiar over several decades, in which the spelling \"J-E-L-L-O\" was (or could be) sung over a rising five-note musical theme.The jingle was written by Don Bestor, who, at the time, was the bandleader on Jack Benny's radio show, \"The Jell-O Program Starring Jack Benny.", "\"In 1936, chocolate returned to the Jell-O lineup, as an instant pudding made with milk.", "It proved enormously popular, and over time other pudding flavors were added such as vanilla, tapioca, coconut, pistachio, butterscotch, egg custard, flan, and rice pudding.By the 1950s, salads became so popular that Jell-O responded with savory and vegetable flavors such as celery, Italian, mixed vegetable, and seasoned tomato.", "These flavors have since been discontinued.===Baby boom===Though much of the elaborate and dainty tea time fare served between the 1920s and 1950s was luxurious and decorative, using fancy ingredients like caviar or lobster, Jell-O became an affordable ornamental ingredient that women were able to use to create feminine, light, delicate dishes that were the standard of refined tea time fare during that period.", "By the Jazz Age nearly 1/3 of salad recipes in an average cookbook were gelatin-based recipes including varied fillings of fruit, vegetables or even cream cheese.Typical recipes from the early 20th century included exotic fruits like figs, dates and bananas, or lemon flavored jello paired with maraschino cherries and other ingredients like marshmallows and almonds.", "One sweet gelatin-based fruit dessert called only \"Good Salad\" includes vanilla pudding, tapioca pudding, pineapple, mandarin oranges and orange gelatin.", "The pudding mixes are made with the reserved juice from the canned fruit and the flavored gelatin, the fruits are added and the dessert salad is allowed to set in the fridge and served cool.One savory recipe collected by the ''Des Moines Register'', published in Iowa, is for a tomato soup gelatin salad.", "The salad, served chilled, is made from lemon gelatin, tomato soup, cream cheese, stuffed olives combined with various other ingredients and seasonings.The baby boom saw a significant increase in sales for Jell-O.", "Young mothers didn't have the supporting community structures of earlier generations, so marketers were quick to promote easy-to-prepare prepackaged foods.", "By this time, creating a Jell-O dessert required simply boiling water, combining the water with Jell-O, and putting the mixture into Tupperware molds and refrigerating it for a short time.New flavors were continually added and unsuccessful flavors were removed: in the 1950s and 1960s, apple, black cherry, black raspberry, grape, lemon-lime, mixed fruit, orange-banana, pineapple-grapefruit, blackberry, strawberry-banana, tropical fruit, and more intense \"wild\" versions of the venerable strawberry, raspberry, and cherry.", "In 1966, the Jell-O \"No-Bake\" dessert line was launched, which allowed a cheesecake to be made in 15 minutes.", "In 1969, Jell-O 1∗2∗3 (later Jell-O 1•2•3), a gelatin dessert that separated into three layers as it cooled, was unveiled.", "Until 1987, Jell-O 1•2•3 was readily found in grocery stores throughout most of the United States, but the dessert is now rare.", "In 1971 packaged prepared pudding called Jell-O Pudding Treats were introduced.", "Jell-O Whip 'n Chill, a mousse-style dessert, was introduced and widely promoted; it remains available in limited areas today.", "A similar dessert called Jell-O Soft Swirl was introduced in 1972, flavors included Chocolate Creme, Strawberry Creme, Vanilla Creme, and Peach Creme.", "Florence Henderson appeared in TV ads for this product.===Sales decline and turnaround===Lime Jell-OIn 1964, the slogan \"There's always room for Jell-O\" was introduced, promoting the product as a \"light dessert\" that could easily be consumed even after a heavy meal.Throughout the 1960s through the 1980s, Jell-O's sales steadily decreased.", "Many Jell-O dishes, such as desserts and Jell-O salads, became special occasion foods rather than everyday items.", "Marketers blamed this decline on decreasing family sizes, a \"fast-paced\" lifestyle and women's increasing employment.", "By 1986, a market study concluded that mothers with young children rarely purchased Jell-O.To turn things around, Jell-O hired Dana Gioia to stop the decline.", "The marketing team revisited the Jell-O recipes published in past cookbooks and rediscovered Jigglers, although the original recipe did not use that name.", "Jigglers are Jell-O snacks molded into fun shapes and eaten as finger food.", "Jell-O launched a massive marketing campaign, notably featuring Bill Cosby as spokesman.", "The campaign was a huge success, causing a significant market gain.Cosby became the brand's spokesperson in 1974, and he continued as the voice of Jell-O for almost thirty years.", "Over his tenure as the mouthpiece for the company, he helped introduce new products such as frozen Jell-O Pops (in gelatin and pudding varieties); the new Sugar-Free Jell-O, which replaced D-Zerta in 1984 and was sweetened with NutraSweet; Jell-O Jigglers concentrated gummi snacks; and Sparkling Jell-O, a carbonated version of the dessert touted as the \"Champagne of Jell-O\".", "In 2010, Cosby returned as Jell-O spokesperson in an on-line web series called ''OBKB''.In 1990, General Foods was merged into Kraft Foods Inc. by parent company Philip Morris (now the Altria Group).", "New flavors were introduced: watermelon, blueberry, cranberry, margarita, and piña colada, among others.", "In 2001, the state Senate of Utah recognized Jell-O as a favorite snack food of Utah, recognizing the fundamental basis of Jell-O in Mormon cuisine such as Jell-O salad, and Governor Michael O. Leavitt declared an annual \"Jell-O Week.\"", "During the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, the souvenir pins included one depicting green Jell-O.In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Jell-O's family-friendly reputation was slightly tarnished by Jell-O shots and Jell-O wrestling.The original Jell-O Factory in Le Roy, New York, pictured in 2014, there were over 420 million boxes of Jell-O gelatin and over 1 billion Jell-O cups sold in the United States each year.", ", there were more than 110 products sold under the Jell-O brand name.Jell-O is used as a substantial ingredient in a well-known dessert, the \"Jell-O mold\", which requires a mold designed to hold gelatin, and the depositing of small quantities of chopped fruit, nuts, and other ingredients before it hardens to its typical form.", "Fresh pineapple, papaya, kiwifruit, and ginger root cannot be used because they contain enzymes that prevent gelatin from \"setting\".", "In the case of pineapple juice and the enzyme bromelain that it contains though, the enzyme can be inactivated without denaturing through excessive heating and thus altering the flavor by the addition of a small measured amount of capsaicin sourced from hot chilies." ], [ "Jell-O shots", "Tray of jello shotsAn alternative recipe calls for the addition of an alcoholic beverage to the mix, contributing approximately one third to one half of the liquid added after the gelatin has dissolved in a boil.", "A serving of the resulting mixture is called a \"Jell-O shot\", or the genericized \"Jello shot\", at parties.", "The quantity and timing of the addition of the liquor are vital aspects; it is not possible to make Jell-O shots with liquor alone, as the colloidal proteins in dry gelatin consist of chains which require a hot liquid to denature them before they can then reform as a semisolid colloidal suspension.", "Pure alcohol cannot be heated sufficiently to break down these proteins, as it evaporates.Vodka or rum is commonly used in Jell-O shots, but the shots can be made with almost any liquor or blends of multiple liquors.", "It is important to adjust the proportions of alcohol and cold water to ensure that the mixture sets when experimenting with various liquors.", "The Jell-O shots can be served in shot glasses and/or small paper or plastic cups; the paper or plastic cups are easier to eat from, but shot glasses are more attractive.", "The alcohol in Jell-O shots is contained within the Jell-O, so the body absorbs it more slowly, causing people to underestimate how much alcohol they have consumed.", "Drinkers must monitor their intake because of this.American singer-songwriter Tom Lehrer claims to have invented the Jell-O shot in the 1950s to circumvent restrictions on alcoholic beverages at the army base where he was stationed.", "An early published recipe for an alcoholic gelatin drink dates from 1862, found in ''How to Mix Drinks, or The Bon Vivant's Companion'' by Jerry Thomas: his recipe for \"Punch Jelly\" calls for the addition of isinglass or other gelatin to a punch made from cognac, rum, and lemon juice.", "Thomas warns that strength of the punch is \"artfully concealed\" by the gelatin." ], [ "Manufacturing and tourism", "Jell-O Museum in LeRoy, New York, LeRoy, New York, is known as the home of Jell-O and has the only Jell-O Museum in the world, located on the main road through the small town.", "Jell-O was manufactured here until General Foods closed the plant in 1964 and relocated manufacturing to Dover, Delaware.", "The Jell-O Gallery museum is operated by the Le Roy Historical Society at the Le Roy House and Union Free School, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.At the museum, visitors can learn about the history of the dessert from its inception.", "Visitors starting on East Main Street, follow Jell-O Brick Road, whose stones are inscribed with the names of former factory employees.", "The museum offers looks at starting materials for Jell-O, such as sturgeon bladder and calves' hooves, and various molds.The Jell-O plant in Mason City, Iowa, produces America's supply of ready-to-eat Jell-O gelatin dessert and pudding cups." ], [ "Advertising", "Jell-O's early advertising campaign, initially directed by William E. Humelbaugh and later Frank LaBounty, first appeared in the ''Ladies' Home Journal'' in 1904.The print ads were often accompanied by recipes and color illustrations and became very popular.", "Artists such as Rose O'Neill, Maxfield Parrish, Coles Phillips, Norman Rockwell, Linn Ball, and Angus MacDonall contributed to the campaign.", "Franklin King, working for ad agency Dauchy Company, depicted his daughter Elizabeth in many of the illustrations, making her the recognizable \"Jell-O Girl\".Jack Benny's top-rated radio program began its Jell-O sponsorship in 1934.The show did not break for commercials; instead, announcer Don Wilson incorporated speeches about Jell-O into the program at appropriate places, to Jack's feigned comic annoyance.", "The first show originated the five-note \"J-E-L-L-O!\"", "jingle retained in Jell-O's later advertising.", "Lucille Ball's ''My Favorite Husband'', the radio predecessor to TV's ''I Love Lucy'', was another popular program sponsored by Jell-O for much of its 124-episode run, beginning January 7, 1949.Ball's character Liz Cooper often opened the program with the lively greeting, \"Jell-O, everybody!", "\"Comedian Bill Cosby is associated with Jell-O and, more famously, Jell-O pudding, and he appeared in many commercials promoting both.", "Later shows like ''Mad TV'', ''The Simpsons'' and ''Saturday Night Live'' parody Cosby, using Jell-O references like \"pudding pop\".", "In the 1960s, the cast of the sitcom ''Hogan's Heroes'' did a commercial with Carol Channing featuring Colonel Hogan, his men, Kommandant Klink and Sergeant Shultz having Jell-O and Dream Whip for dessert.", "Also, in the first few seasons of the first of Lucille Ball's two 1960s television series, ''The Lucy Show'', cast members including Vivian Vance often did commercials for Jell-O.In 1995, Jell-O carried the tagline \"It's alive!\"", "and had the phrase \"J-E-L-L-OOOOOOO!", "\".In August 2018, Jell-O released an animated series on YouTube and Amazon Prime Video titled \"JELL-O Wobz\" in partnership with DreamWorksTV." ], [ "Religious considerations" ], [ "In culture", "Jell-O is mentioned in the 1936 popular song \"A Fine Romance\" by Dorothy Fields (with music by Jerome Kern), where it is humorously referred to as a mundane alternative to the excitement of romantic love.", "In 1980, the American composer William Bolcom wrote a popular humorous song about Jell-O, \"Lime Jello Marshmallow Cottage Cheese Surprise\", satirising its use in combined sweet and savory dishes such as Jello salad.In 1992, Ivette Bassa won the second ever Ig Nobel Prize in chemistry for inventing blue Jell-O.The rock group Green Jellÿ was originally named Green Jellö, but had to change their name due to a lawsuit by Kraft Foods which claimed that the band was infringing the trademark for Jell-O.===Mormonism===Jell-O is especially popular among Mormons, so much so that the Mormon Corridor region is nicknamed the ''Jell-O Belt''.", "Jell-O was recognized in 2001 as \"a favorite snack food of Utah\" by the Utah Senate, observing that Utah had had the highest per-capita consumption of Jell-O for many years, and how citizens of Utah had rallied to \"Take Back the Title\" after Des Moines, Iowa, exceeded Utah in Jell-O consumption in 1999.The culture of Utah, petitions by Utahns, and campaigning by students of Brigham Young University were also mentioned as reasons for recognizing Jell-O.", "Bill Cosby, longtime spokesperson for the Jell-O brand, appeared before the Utah Legislature in support of the resolution.", "\"He told the assembly that he believes the reason people in Utah love Jell-O is that the snack is perfect for families – and the people of Utah are all about family.", "\"The stereotype of Mormons loving Jell-O does not have a long history.", "Media reports in 1969 and 1988 on foods popular among Mormons or in Utah make no mention of Jell-O, and a 1988 article mentions Jell-O as a Lutheran tradition.", "In the late 1980s, Jell-O had a marketing campaign promoting the snack and its Jigglers recipe as fun for children and easy for parents, which played well among family-oriented Mormons.", "In 1997, Kraft released sales figures revealing Salt Lake City to have the highest per-capita Jell-O consumption." ], [ "Current flavors", "The following are the flavors of Jell-O products that are currently being produced:===Gelatin===* Apricot* Berry Blue* Black Cherry* Blueberry Pomegranate* Cherry* Cherry Lemonade* Cranberry* Fruit Punch* Grape* Lemon* Lime* Mango* Margarita* Melon Fusion* Mixchief Grape Color-Changing* Mixchief Juice* Mixchief Soda Pop* Orange* Peach* Piña Colada* Pineapple* Raspberry* Strawberry* Strawberry Daiquiri* Strawberry-Banana* Tropical Fusion* Watermelon* Jolly Rancher Sour Green Apple===Pudding===* Banana Cream* Boston Cream Pie* Butterscotch* Candy Cane* Caramel* Cheesecake* Chocolate* Chocolate Fudge* Chocolate-Vanilla Swirl* Classic Turtle* Coconut Cream* Crème brûlée* Custard* Dark Chocolate* Devil's Food* Double Chocolate* Dulce De Leche* Flan* French Vanilla* Gingerbread* Lemon* Mixchief Vanilla Color-Changing* Orange Ice Cream* Oreo Cookies 'n Creme* Pistachio* Pumpkin Spice* Red Velvet* Rice Pudding* S'more pudding* Strawberry Cheesecake* Strawberry Crème* Strawberry Ice Cream* Tapioca* Vanilla* White ChocolateAlso available in a sugar free/low calorie product.Available seasonally.Only available as a prepared product." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Jell-O Gallery Museum* ''How to Make Jello''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jelly" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jelly''' may refer to:__NOTOC__" ], [ "Food", "* Jelly (fruit preserves), a clear or translucent fruit spread or preserve* Jelly (dessert), a clear or translucent dessert" ], [ "Entertainment", "* The Jellys, an English punk/pop band* \"Jelly\" (song), a 2006 song by Japanese electronic duo Capsule* Mr. Jelly, title character of the 1976 book ''Mr.", "Jelly'', in the Mr. Men children's book series* Nickname of Sergeant Jelal, a character in the 1959 novel ''Starship Troopers'' by Robert A. Heinlein* Shadowmoor, a ''Magic: the Gathering'' expansion set, codenamed \"Jelly\" in development* ''The Jellies!", "'', an American adult animated television series" ], [ "Other uses", "* Jelly (name), a list of people with the nickname or surname* Gelignite, also known as blasting jelly or simply jelly* Temazepam, a powerful hypnotic drug, street name \"jellies\"* Jellyfish, also known as jellies* Apache Jelly, a Java- and XML-based scripting and processing engine for turning XML into executable code* Petroleum jelly * Jelly (app), an app, and the company behind it" ], [ "See also", "* Jelli, a California-based advertising technology firm" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Javier Saviola" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Javier Pedro Saviola Fernández''' (; born 11 December 1981) is an Argentine former professional footballer who played as a forward.He represented both Barcelona and Real Madrid, also having notable spells with Benfica and Olympiacos, and was named as the youngest player on Pelé's FIFA 100 list of the 125 greatest living footballers in 2004.Due to his ancestry he also holds Spanish nationality since 2004, and he amassed La Liga totals of 196 games and 70 goals over the course of eight seasons; he started and finished his career at River Plate.Saviola won league titles in Argentina, Spain, Portugal and Greece during his playing career, as well as a UEFA Cup.", "An Argentine international for seven years, he represented his country at the 2006 World Cup and the 2004 Copa América, where Argentina reached the final.", "He also won a gold medal at the 2004 Olympics in Athens." ], [ "Club career", "===River Plate===Nicknamed ''El Conejo'' (''The Rabbit''), Buenos Aires-born Saviola made his debut for Club Atlético River Plate at the age of 16, and went on to be a prolific goalscorer for the club.He helped River to the 1999 ''Apertura'' and 2000 ''Clausura'' championships, and earned the 1999 South American Footballer of the Year award.", "Still only 18, he gained a reputation as a phenomenal prospect, and was even regarded as a potential heir to Diego Maradona, in particular after he broke the latter's 1978 record by becoming the youngest player to win the Golden Boot award.===Barcelona===In 2001, aged 19, Saviola moved abroad to play for FC Barcelona in a £15 million transfer.", "He obtained Spanish citizenship shortly after, thereby not being restricted by the Spanish league maximum on the number of non-European Union citizens allowed in each team; under coach Carles Rexach, he scored 17 goals in his first season, finishing joint-fourth top scorer in La Liga.Barcelona in 2007Saviola's second year at the Camp Nou did not start well, as he only scored two goals in the first half of the season.", "Radomir Antić became the new coach after Louis van Gaal was fired, and he went on to net 11 goals in the latter half of the campaign; Frank Rijkaard was subsequently appointed as new manager for 2003–04, and the player scored 14 times in the league alone, but was deemed surplus at the club as was longtime attacking partner Patrick Kluivert.Saviola was sent on loan in the summer of 2004, moving to AS Monaco FC in Ligue 1.As he did not fit into Rijkaard's plans he was again loaned out the following year, this time to Sevilla FC who were seeking to replace Real Madrid-bound Júlio Baptista; with the Andalusians he won his first title in Europe, conquering the UEFA Cup — he also scored nine times in the league, good enough for fifth.Saviola returned to Barcelona for 2006–07, playing in 18 league games, six as a starter, and netting five goals.", "He benefited greatly from injuries to teammates, most notably to Samuel Eto'o, and added five in as many matches in that season's Copa del Rey, notably a hat-trick against Deportivo Alavés (3–2 win at home, 5–2 aggregate).===Real Madrid===On 10 July 2007, Real Madrid signed Saviola after his Barcelona contract expired, on a three-year deal.", "Although on a financially lucrative contract, he endured a difficult time at Real, being mainly restricted to cup matches and sporadic appearances (mainly as a substitute) in the league and the UEFA Champions League.The arrival of Klaas-Jan Huntelaar limited Saviola's opportunities even more, and he finished his Real Madrid spell with five goals in 28 overall appearances.===Benfica===Saviola celebrating a goal for Benfica, 2011On 26 June 2009, S.L.", "Benfica and Real Madrid agreed on a €5 million deal that would see Saviola play in Portugal for the next three years, with an option for one more; a €30 million clause was added.", "On 16 July, he scored two goals to send his team into the Guadiana Trophy finals after defeating Athletic Bilbao.Saviola netted twice on 22 October 2009, guiding his side to a 5–0 victory over Everton for the UEFA Europa League (he would also score in their 2–0 win in Liverpool in the second match), adding another brace four days later in a 6–1 routing of C.D.", "Nacional for the Primeira Liga.On 6 December 2009, Saviola scored through a chip shot against Académica de Coimbra in a 4–0 home win.", "On 20 December he netted the game's only goal as Benfica defeated rivals FC Porto at home; during the victorious campaign, he formed a deadly attacking partnership with Paraguayan Óscar Cardozo, with the pair combining for more than 50 goals overall.On 3 January 2010, shortly before receiving the SJPF Player of the Month award, Saviola scored another winning goal against Nacional, now for the Taça da Liga, again being the game's only scorer in an away defeat of Rio Ave FC, netting in the 48th minute.", "He scored his 19th goal overall in a 3–1 home triumph against F.C.", "Paços de Ferreira on 7 March, and the Lisbon club was eventually crowned league champions===Málaga===In the last hours of the 2012–13 summer transfer window, Saviola agreed on a move to Málaga CF.", "He played 45 minutes in his first appearance, a 1–0 win at Real Zaragoza on 1 September.On 15 September 2012, Saviola scored once and provided one assist in a 3−1 home win against Levante UD.", "He continued with his streak the following game, Málaga's first-ever in the Champions League group stage, netting in a 3–0 home win over FC Zenit Saint Petersburg.===Olympiacos===On 25 July 2013, Saviola signed a two-year contract with Greek champions Olympiacos FC.", "He scored his first goal in the Superleague on 25 August, coming on at half-time and helping his team come from behind to win 2–1 at home to Atromitos F.C.", "On 10 December he netted a brace – and also missed a penalty – in a 3–1 success over R.S.C.", "Anderlecht also at the Karaiskakis Stadium in the group stage's last round, which helped the Piraeus team finish second and qualify at the expense of former side Benfica.===Verona===On 2 September 2014, Saviola joined Serie A club Hellas Verona FC.", "He made his official debut on 22 September, starting in a 2–2 home draw against Genoa CFC, and scored his first goal on 2 December, netting the only in a home win over Perugia Calcio for the Coppa Italia.", "His sole goal of the league season came on 25 January 2015, the only one in a home victory over Atalanta BC.===Return to River===On 30 June 2015, River Plate announced that Saviola had returned to the club.", "He left in January of the following year, after failing to find the net in his second spell, and subsequently retired from professional football at the age of 34.===Retirement, coaching, and futsal career===Immediately after retiring, Saviola settled in Andorra with his family and was appointed assistant manager at FC Ordino in the Primera Divisió.", "In February 2018, he joined local futsal team Encamp.", "In April of that year, he won the principality's futsal league with the side." ], [ "International career", "Saviola in the Argentina national team, 2007Saviola starred in the 2001 edition of the FIFA U-20 World Cup, held in Argentina.", "He was top scorer and was voted player of the tournament, as the national team won the competition; with 11 goals in seven games, he became the record goal-scorer in the tournament's history.Two years later, Saviola played in the 2004 Olympic Games and won the gold medal.", "Under coach Marcelo Bielsa he was given few playing opportunities for the senior team but, after the former's resignation in 2004, new manager José Pékerman, who also worked with him at youth level, turned the tide in the player's favour; he was also a member of the squads that reached final of the 2004 Copa América and the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup, netting three times in the former tournament and one in the latter.Saviola was called up to represent Argentina at the 2006 World Cup – Luciano Figueroa and Luciano Galletti were also in contention for a place on the roster, but his excellent form for Sevilla secured his place in the squad.", "He scored against Ivory Coast in the country's opening game, and made two assists in the 6–0 victory over Serbia and Montenegro also in the group phase.Saviola retired from international football on 5 December 2009, although not yet 28.He stated that he felt his career as an Argentina player had come to an end, and that he wanted to concentrate on club football." ], [ "Style of play", "Saviola was known for his speed, agility, dribbling and ability to score from almost any attacking position on the field.", "A diminutive, talented, and prolific forward, with a slender build, he was capable of playing as a striker, in a more creative role as a second striker, or even in a playmaking role as an attacking midfielder.", "Throughout his career, Saviola was nicknamed ''El Conejo'' (''The Rabbit'', in Spanish), due to his appearance, and also ''El Pibito'' (''The Little Kid'', in Spanish), a reference to compatriot Diego Maradona, who was nicknamed ''El Pibe de Oro'' (''The Golden Kid'', in Spanish), and to whom Saviola was often compared in his youth." ], [ "Media", "Saviola was sponsored by sportswear company Nike, and appeared in commercials for the brand.", "In a global advertising campaign in the run-up to the 2002 World Cup in Korea and Japan, he starred in a \"Secret Tournament\" commercial (branded \"Scopion KO\") directed by Terry Gilliam, appearing alongside footballers such as Luís Figo, Thierry Henry, Hidetoshi Nakata, Roberto Carlos, Ronaldinho, Ronaldo and Francesco Totti, with former player Eric Cantona the tournament \"referee\"." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueNational cupLeague cupContinentalTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsRiver Plate1998–99Argentine Primera División196 ——1961999–20003319 ——33192000–013420 ——3420Total86——8645Barcelona2001–02La Liga361710—11448212002–03361310—14751202003–04331452—7345192006–0718555—102410Total1234912700331416870Monaco (loan)2004–05Ligue 12975610744217Sevilla (loan)2005–06La Liga29900—1364215Real Madrid2007–08La Liga9360—201732008–098121—20122Total174810040295Benfica2009–10Primeira Liga2711214111644192010–11249633112145142011–12184215160316Total692410512329712039Málaga2012–13La Liga27840—61379Olympiacos2013–14Super League Greece251240—5234142014–151000—0010Total261240—523514Verona2014–15Serie A15111——162River Plate2015Argentine Primera División13000—20150Career total43415944201339934590216===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsArgentina2000102001002002302003832004105200581200651200741Total3911:''Scores and results list Argentina's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Saviola goal''.+ List of international goals scored by Javier SaviolaNo.DateVenueOpponentScoreResultCompetition1 20 April 2003 June 11, Tripoli, Libya Libya 1–0 3–1 Friendly2 8 June 2003 Nagai Stadium, Osaka, Japan 1–0 4–1 Friendly3 11 June 2003 Seoul World Cup, Seoul, South Korea 1–0 1–0 Friendly4 30 June 2004 Giants Stadium, New Jersey, United States 2–0 2–1 Friendly5 7 July 2004 Elías Aguirre, Chiclayo, Peru 2–1 6–1 2004 Copa América6 3–1 7 4–1 8 17 November 2004 El Monumental, Buenos Aires, Argentina 3–1 3–2 2006 World Cup qualification9 15 June 2005 RheinEnergieStadion, Cologne, Germany 2–0 2–1 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup10 10 June 2006 Imtech Arena, Hamburg, Germany 2–0 2–1 2006 FIFA World Cup11 7 February 2007 Stade de France, Saint-Denis, France 1–0 1–0 Friendly" ], [ "Honours", "'''River Plate'''*Argentine Primera División: 1999 Apertura, 2000 Clausura*Copa Libertadores: 2015*Suruga Bank Championship: 2015*FIFA Club World Cup runner-up: 2015'''Sevilla'''*UEFA Cup: 2005–06'''Real Madrid'''*La Liga: 2007–08*Supercopa de España: 2008'''Benfica'''*Primeira Liga: 2009–10*Taça da Liga: 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12*Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira runner-up: 2010'''Olympiacos'''*Super League Greece: 2013–14'''Argentina'''*FIFA U-20 World Cup: 2001*Summer Olympic Games: 2004*Copa América runner-up: 2004*FIFA Confederations Cup runner-up: 2005'''Individual'''*Argentine Primera División: 1999 Apertura Top scorer*South American Footballer of the Year: 1999*South American Team of the Year: 1999*Player of the Year of Argentina: 1999*FIFA World Youth Championship: Golden Shoe 2001*FIFA World Youth Championship: Golden Ball 2001*Trofeo EFE: 2001–02*Copa del Rey Top scorer: 2006–07*Primeira Liga: Player of the Month December 2009*Portuguese Golden Ball: 2010*FIFA 100" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Junkers Ju 87" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Junkers Ju 87''', popularly known as the '''\"Stuka\"''', is a German dive bomber and ground-attack aircraft.", "Designed by Hermann Pohlmann, it first flew in 1935.The Ju 87 made its combat debut in 1937 with the Luftwaffe's Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939 and served the Axis in World War II from beginning to end (1939–1945).The aircraft is easily recognisable by its inverted gull wings and fixed spatted undercarriage.", "Upon the leading edges of its faired main gear legs were mounted ram-air sirens known as Jericho trumpets, which became a propaganda symbol of German air power and of the so-called ''Blitzkrieg'' victories of 1939–1942, as well as providing Stuka pilots with audible feedback as to speed.", "The Stuka's design included several innovations, including automatic pull-up dive brakes under both wings to ensure that the aircraft recovered from its attack dive even if the pilot blacked out from the high g-forces, or suffered from target fixation.The Ju 87 operated with considerable success in close air support and anti-shipping roles at the outbreak of World War II.", "It led air assaults in the invasion of Poland in September 1939.Stukas proved critical to the rapid conquest of Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France in 1940.Though sturdy, accurate, and very effective against ground targets, the Stuka was, like many other dive bombers of the period, vulnerable to fighter aircraft.", "During the Battle of Britain of 1940–1941, its lack of manoeuvrability, speed, or defensive armament meant that it required a heavy fighter escort to operate effectively.After the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe deployed Stuka units in the Balkans Campaign, the African and the Mediterranean theatres and in the early stages of the Eastern Front war, where it was used for general ground support, as an effective specialised anti-tank aircraft and in an anti-shipping role.", "Once the Luftwaffe lost air superiority, the Stuka became an easy target for enemy fighters, but it continued being produced until 1944 for lack of a better replacement.", "By 1945 ground-attack versions of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 had largely replaced the Ju 87, but it remained in service until the end of the war in 1945.Germany built an estimated 6,000 Ju 87s of all versions between 1936 and August 1944.", "''Oberst'' Hans-Ulrich Rudel became the most successful Stuka pilot and the most highly decorated German pilot of the war." ], [ "Development", "===Early design===The Ju 87's principal designer, Hermann Pohlmann, held the opinion that any dive-bomber design needed to be simple and robust.", "This led to many technical innovations, such as the retractable undercarriage being discarded in favour of one of the Stuka's distinctive features, its fixed and \"spatted\" undercarriage.", "Pohlmann continued to carry on developing and adding to his ideas and those of Dipl Ing Karl Plauth (Plauth was killed in a flying accident in November 1927), and produced the Ju A 48, which underwent testing on 29 September 1928.The military version of the Ju A 48 was designated the Ju K 47.Ernst Udet; proponent of the dive-bomber and the Ju 87 (1928 photo)After the Nazis came to power, the design was given priority.", "Despite initial competition from the Henschel Hs 123, the ''Reichsluftfahrtministerium'' (RLM, the German aviation ministry) turned to the designs of Herman Pohlmann of Junkers and co-designer of the K 47, Karl Plauth.", "During the trials with the K 47 in 1932, double vertical stabilisers were introduced to give the rear gunner a better field of fire.", "The main, and what was to be the most distinctive, feature of the Ju 87 was its double-spar inverted gull wings.After Plauth's death, Pohlmann continued the development of the Junkers dive bomber.", "The Ju A 48 registration D-ITOR, was originally fitted with a BMW 132 engine, producing 450 kW (600 hp).", "The machine was also fitted with dive brakes for dive testing.", "The aircraft was given a good evaluation and \"exhibited very good flying characteristics\".Ernst Udet took an immediate liking to the concept of dive-bombing after flying the Curtiss F11C Goshawk.", "When Walther Wever and Robert Ritter von Greim were invited to watch Udet perform a trial flight in May 1934 at the Jüterbog artillery range, it raised doubts about the capability of the dive bomber.", "Udet began his dive at and released his bombs at , barely recovering and pulling out of the dive.", "The chief of the ''Luftwaffe'' Command Office Walther Wever, and the Secretary of State for Aviation Erhard Milch, feared that such high-level nerves and skill could not be expected of \"average pilots\" in the ''Luftwaffe''.", "Nevertheless, development continued at Junkers.", "Udet's \"growing love affair\" with the dive bomber pushed it to the forefront of German aviation development.", "Udet went so far as to advocate that all medium bombers should have dive-bombing capabilities, which initially doomed the only dedicated, strategic heavy bomber design to enter German front-line service during the war years—the 30-metre wingspan Heinkel He 177A—into having an airframe design (due to Udet examining its design details in November 1937) that could perform \"medium angle\" dive-bombing missions, until ''Reichsmarschall'' Hermann Göring exempted the He 177A, Germany's only operational heavy bomber, in September 1942 from being given the task of such a mismatched mission profile for its large airframe.===Evolution===The design of the Ju 87 had begun in 1933 as part of the ''Sturzbomber-Programm''.", "The Ju 87 was to be powered by the British Rolls-Royce Kestrel engine.", "Ten engines were ordered by Junkers on 19 April 1934 for £20,514, two shillings and sixpence.", "The first Ju 87 prototype was built by AB Flygindustri in Sweden and secretly brought to Germany in late 1934.It was to have been completed in April 1935, but, due to the inadequate strength of the airframe, construction took until October 1935.The mostly complete Ju 87 V1 W.Nr.", "4921 (less non-essential parts) took off for its maiden flight on 17 September 1935.The aircraft was later given the registration D-UBYR.", "The flight report, by ''Hauptmann'' Willy Neuenhofen, stated the only problem was with the small radiator, which caused the engine to overheat.The Ju 87 V1, powered by a Rolls-Royce Kestrel V12 cylinder liquid-cooled engine, and with a twin tail, crashed on 24 January 1936 at Kleutsch near Dresden, killing Junkers' chief test pilot, Willy Neuenhofen, and his engineer, Heinrich Kreft.", "The square twin fins and rudders proved too weak; they collapsed and the aircraft crashed after it entered an inverted spin during the testing of the terminal dynamic pressure in a dive.", "The crash prompted a change to a single vertical stabiliser tail design.", "To withstand strong forces during a dive, heavy plating, along with brackets riveted to the frame and longeron, was fitted to the fuselage.", "Other early additions included the installation of hydraulic dive brakes that were fitted under the leading edge and could rotate 90°.The Stuka had inverted gull wings, as shown in this photograph.", "Also visible are the two separate sliding \"hoods\" of the canopy.The RLM was still not interested in the Ju 87 and was not impressed that it relied on a British engine.", "In late 1935, Junkers suggested fitting a DB 600 inverted V-12 engine, with the final variant to be equipped with the Jumo 210.This was accepted by the RLM as an interim solution.", "The reworking of the design began on 1 January 1936.The test flight could not be carried out for over two months due to a lack of adequate aircraft.", "The 24 January crash had already destroyed one machine.", "The second prototype was also beset by design problems.", "It had its twin stabilisers removed and a single tail fin installed due to fears over stability.", "Due to a shortage of engines, instead of a DB 600, a BMW \"Hornet\" engine was fitted.", "All these delays set back testing until 25 February 1936.By March 1936, the second prototype, the V2, was finally fitted with the Jumo 210Aa engine, which a year later was replaced by a Jumo 210 G (W.Nr.", "19310).", "The testing went well, and the pilot, Flight Captain Hesselbach, praised its performance.", "However, Wolfram von Richthofen, in charge of developing and testing new aircraft in the Technisches Amt, or Technical Service, told the Junkers representative and Construction Office chief engineer Ernst Zindel that the Ju 87 stood little chance of becoming the Luftwaffe's main dive bomber, as it was underpowered in his opinion.", "On 9 June 1936, the RLM ordered cessation of development in favour of the Heinkel He 118, a rival design.", "Udet cancelled the order the next day, and development continued.On 27 July 1936, Udet crashed the He 118 prototype, He 118 V1 D-UKYM.", "That same day, Charles Lindbergh was visiting Ernst Heinkel, so Heinkel could communicate with Udet only by telephone.", "According to this version of the story, Heinkel warned Udet about the propeller's fragility.", "Udet failed to consider this, so in a dive, the engine oversped and the propeller broke away.", "Immediately after this incident, Udet announced the Stuka the winner of the development contest.===Refinements===Despite being chosen, the design was still lacking and drew frequent criticism from Wolfram von Richthofen.", "Testing of the V4 prototype (A Ju 87 A-0) in early 1937 revealed several problems.", "The Ju 87 could take off in and climb to in eight minutes with a bomb load, and its cruising speed was .", "Richthofen pushed for a more powerful engine.", "According to the test pilots, the Heinkel He 50 had a better acceleration rate, and could climb away from the target area much more quickly, avoiding enemy ground and air defences.", "Richthofen stated that any maximum speed below was unacceptable for those reasons.", "Pilots also complained that navigation and powerplant instruments were mixed together, and were not easy to read, especially in combat.", "Despite this, pilots praised the aircraft's handling qualities and strong airframe.These problems were to be resolved by installing the DB 600 engine, but delays in development forced the installation of the Jumo 210 D inverted V-12 engine.", "Flight testing began on 14 August 1936.Subsequent testing and progress fell short of Richthofen's hopes, although the machine's speed was increased to at ground level and at , while maintaining its good handling ability." ], [ "Design", "===Basic design (based on the B series)===The Ju 87 was a single-engined all-metal cantilever monoplane.", "It had a fixed undercarriage and could carry a two-person crew.", "The main construction material was duralumin, and the external coverings were made of duralumin sheeting.", "Parts that were required to be of strong construction, such as the wing flaps, were made of Pantal (a German aluminium alloy containing titanium as a hardening element) and its components made of Elektron.", "Bolts and parts that were required to take heavy stress were made of steel.The Ju 87 was fitted with detachable hatches and removable coverings to aid and ease maintenance and overhaul.", "The designers avoided welding parts wherever possible, preferring moulded and cast parts instead.", "Large airframe segments were interchangeable as a complete unit, which increased speed of repair.The airframe was also subdivided into sections to allow transport by road or rail.", "The wings were of standard Junkers double-wing construction.", "This gave the Ju 87 considerable advantage on take-off; even at a shallow angle, large lift forces were created through the aerofoil, reducing take-off and landing runs.In accordance with the Aircraft Certification Centre for \"Stress Group 5\", the Ju 87 had reached the acceptable structural strength requirements for a dive bomber.", "It was able to withstand diving speeds of and a maximum level speed of near ground level, and a flying weight of .", "Performance in the diving attack was enhanced by the introduction of dive brakes under each wing, which allowed the Ju 87 to maintain a constant speed and allow the pilot to steady his aim.", "It also prevented the crew from suffering extreme g forces and high acceleration during \"pull-out\" from the dive.The fuselage had an oval cross-section and housed, in most examples, a Junkers Jumo 211 water-cooled inverted V-12 engine.", "The cockpit was protected from the engine by a firewall ahead of the wing centre section where the fuel tanks were located.", "At the rear of the cockpit, the bulkhead was covered by a canvas cover which could be breached by the crew in an emergency, enabling them to escape into the main fuselage.", "The canopy was split into two sections and joined by a strong welded steel frame.", "The canopy itself was made of Plexiglas and each compartment had its own \"sliding hood\" for the two crew members.The engine was mounted on two main support frames that were supported by two tubular struts.", "The frame structure was triangulated and emanated from the fuselage.", "The main frames were bolted onto the engine's top quarter.", "In turn, the frames were attached to the firewall by universal joints.", "The firewall itself was constructed from asbestos mesh with dural sheets on both sides.", "All conduits passing through had to be arranged so that no harmful gases could penetrate the cockpit.The fuel system comprised two fuel tanks between the main (forward) and rear spars of the (inner) anhedral wing section of the port and starboard wings, each with capacity.", "The tanks also had a predetermined limit which, if passed, would warn the pilot via a red warning light in the cockpit.", "The fuel was injected via a pump from the tanks to the engine.", "Should this shut down, it could be pumped manually using a hand-pump on the fuel cock armature.", "The powerplant was cooled by a , ring-shaped aluminium water container situated between the propeller and engine.", "A further container of was positioned under the engine.The control surfaces operated in much the same way as other aircraft, with the exception of the innovative automatic pull-out system.", "Releasing the bomb initiated the pull-out, or automatic recovery and climb, upon the deflection of the dive brakes.", "The pilot could override the system by exerting significant force on the control column and taking manual control.The RAF Museum's Ju 87, 2016, partially disassembled, showing the four attachment points for the outer wing sectionThe wing was the most unusual feature.", "It consisted of a single centre section and two outer sections installed using four universal joints.", "The centre section had a large negative dihedral (anhedral) and the outer surfaces a positive dihedral.", "This created the inverted gull, or \"cranked\", wing pattern along the leading edge.", "The shape of the wing improved the pilot's ground visibility and also allowed a shorter undercarriage height.", "The centre section protruded by only on either side.The offensive armament was two 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns fitted one in each wing outboard of undercarriage, operated by a mechanical pneumatics system from the pilot's control column.", "The rear gunner/radio operator operated one 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 15 machine gun for defensive purposes.The engine and propeller had automatic controls, and an auto-trimmer made the aircraft tail-heavy as the pilot rolled over into his dive, lining up red lines at 60°, 75° or 80° on the cockpit side window with the horizon and aiming at the target with the sight of the fixed gun.", "The heavy bomb was swung down clear of the propeller on crutches prior to release.===Diving procedure===Ju 87 diving procedureFlying at , the pilot located his target through a bombsight window in the cockpit floor.", "The pilot moved the dive lever to the rear, limiting the \"throw\" of the control column.", "The dive brakes were activated automatically, the pilot set the trim tabs, reduced his throttle and closed the coolant flaps.", "The aircraft then rolled 180°, automatically nosing the aircraft into a dive.", "Red tabs protruded from the upper surfaces of the wing as a visual indicator to the pilot that, in case of a g-force induced black-out, the automatic dive recovery system would be activated.", "The Stuka dived at a 60–90° angle, holding a constant speed of due to dive-brake deployment, which increased the accuracy of the Ju 87's aim.When the aircraft was reasonably close to the target, a light on the contact altimeter (an altimeter equipped with an electrical contact which triggers at a preset altitude) came on to indicate the bomb-release point, usually at a minimum height of .", "The pilot released the bomb and initiated the automatic pull-out mechanism by depressing a knob on the control column.", "An elongated U-shaped crutch located under the fuselage swung the bomb out of the way of the propeller, and the aircraft automatically began a 6g pullout.", "Once the nose was above the horizon, dive brakes were retracted, the throttle was opened, and the propeller was set to climb.", "The pilot regained control and resumed normal flight.", "The coolant flaps had to be reopened quickly to prevent overheating.", "The automatic pull-out was not liked by all pilots.", "Helmut Mahlke later said that he and his unit disconnected the system because it allowed the enemy to predict the Ju 87's recovery pattern and height, making it easier for ground defences to hit an aircraft.Physical stress on the crew was severe.", "Human beings subjected to more than 5g in a seated position will suffer vision impairment in the form of a grey veil known to Stuka pilots as \"seeing stars\".", "They lose vision while remaining conscious; after five seconds, they black out.", "The Ju 87 pilots experienced the visual impairments most during \"pull-up\" from a dive.Eric \"Winkle\" Brown RN, a British test pilot and Commanding Officer of No.", "1426 Flight RAF (the captured enemy aircraft Flight), tested the Ju 87 at RAE Farnborough.", "He said of the Stuka, \"I had flown a lot of dive-bombers and it's the only one that you can dive truly vertically.", "Sometimes with the dive-bombers ... maximum dive is usually in the order of 60 degrees ...", "When flying the Stuka, because it's all automatic, you are really flying vertically ...", "The Stuka was in a class of its own.", "\"===G-force test at Dessau===Extensive tests were carried out by the Junkers works at their Dessau plant.", "It was discovered that the highest load a pilot could endure was 8.5 g for three seconds, when the aircraft was pushed to its limit by the centrifugal forces.", "At less than 4 g, no visual problems or loss of consciousness were experienced.", "Above 6 g, 50% of pilots suffered visual problems, or ''greyout''.", "With 40%, vision vanished altogether from 7.5 g upwards and black-out sometimes occurred.", "Despite this blindness, the pilot could maintain consciousness and was capable of \"bodily reactions\".", "After more than three seconds, half the subjects passed out.", "The pilot would regain consciousness two or three seconds after the centrifugal forces had dropped below 3 g and had lasted no longer than three seconds.", "In a crouched position, pilots could withstand 7.5 g and were able to remain functional for a short duration.", "In this position, Junkers concluded that of pilots could withstand 8 g and perhaps 9 g for three to five seconds without vision defects which, under war conditions, was acceptable.", "During tests with the Ju 87 A-2, new technologies were tried out to reduce the effects of g. The pressurised cabin was of great importance during this research.", "Testing revealed that at high altitude, even 2 g could cause death in an unpressurised cabin and without appropriate clothing.", "This new technology, along with special clothing and oxygen masks, was researched and tested.", "When the United States Army occupied the Junkers factory at Dessau on 21 April 1945, they were both impressed at and interested in the medical flight tests with the Ju 87.===Other designs===The concept of dive bombing became so popular among the leadership of the Luftwaffe that it became almost obligatory in new aircraft designs.", "Later bomber models like the Junkers Ju 88 and the Dornier Do 217 were equipped for dive bombing.", "The Heinkel He 177 strategic bomber was initially supposed to have dive bombing capabilities, a requirement that contributed to the failure of the design, with the requirement not rescinded until September 1942 by Göring.Once the Stuka became too vulnerable to fighter opposition on all fronts, work was done to develop a replacement.", "None of the dedicated close-support designs on the drawing board progressed far due to the impact of the war and technological difficulties.", "So the Luftwaffe settled on the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 fighter aircraft, with the Fw 190F becoming the ground-attack version.", "The Fw 190F started to replace the Ju 87 for day missions in 1943, but the Ju 87 continued to be used as a night nuisance-raider until the end of the war." ], [ "Variants", "===Ju 87 A===Formation of Ju 87 A dive-bombers, with the A's characteristic large wheel \"trousers\", each having one transverse bracing strutThe second prototype had a redesigned single vertical stabiliser and a Jumo 210 A engine installed, and later the Jumo 210Da.", "The first A series variant, the A-0, was of all-metal construction, with an enclosed cockpit under a \"greenhouse\" well-framed canopy; bearing twin radio masts on its aft sections, diagonally mounted to either side of the airframe's planform centreline and unique to the -A version.", "To ease the difficulty of mass production, the leading edge of the wing was straightened out and the ailerons' two aerofoil sections had smooth leading and trailing edges.", "The pilot could adjust the elevator and rudder trim tabs in flight, and the tail was connected to the landing flaps, which were positioned in two parts between the ailerons and fuselage.", "The A-0 also had a flatter engine cowling, which gave the pilot a much better field of vision.", "In order for the engine cowling to be flattened, the engine was set down nearly .", "The fuselage was also lowered along with the gunner's position, allowing the gunner a better field of fire.The RLM ordered seven A-0s initially, but then increased the order to 11.Early in 1937, the A-0 was tested with varied bomb loads.", "The underpowered Jumo 210A, as pointed out by von Richthofen, was insufficient, and was quickly replaced with the Jumo 210D engine.The A-1 differed from the A-0 only slightly.", "As well as the installation of the Jumo 210D, the A-1 had two fuel tanks built into the inner wing, but it was not armoured or protected.", "The A-1 was also intended to be fitted with four MG 17 machine guns in its wings, but two of these—one per side—were omitted due to weight concerns; the pair that remained were fed a total of 500 rounds of ammunition, stored in the design's characteristic transverse strut-braced, large-planform undercarriage \"trousers\", not used on the Ju 87B versions and onward.", "The pilot relied on the Revi C 21C gun sight for the two MG 17s.", "The gunner had a single MG 15, with 14 drums of ammunition, each containing 75 rounds.", "This represented a 150-round increase in this area over the Ju 87 A-0.The A-1 was also fitted with a larger propeller.The Ju 87 was capable of carrying a bomb, but only if not carrying the rear gunner/radio operator as, even with the Jumo 210D, the Ju 87 was still underpowered for operations with more than a bomb load.", "All Ju 87 As were restricted to weapons (although during the Spanish Civil War missions were conducted without the gunner).The Ju 87 A-2 was retrofitted with the Jumo 210Da fitted with a two-stage supercharger.", "The only further significant difference between the A-1 and A-2 was the H-PA-III controllable-pitch propeller.", "By mid-1938, 262 Ju 87 As had been produced, 192 from the Junkers factory in Dessau and a further 70 from Weser Flugzeugbau (\"Weserflug\" – WFG) in Lemwerder near Bremen.", "The new, more powerful, Ju 87B model started to replace the Ju 87A at this time.The Ju 87 V4 prototype in 1936.", "'''Prototypes'''* '''Ju 87 V1''' : W.Nr 4921.Flown on 17 September 1935* '''Ju 87 V2''' : W.Nr 4922, registration D-IDQR.", "Flown on 25 February 1936.Flown again as registration D-UHUH on 4 June 1937* '''Ju 87 V3''' : W.Nr 4923.Flown on 27 March 1936* '''Ju 87 V4''' : W.Nr 4924.Flown on 20 June 1936* '''Ju 87 V5''' : W.Nr 4925.Flown on 14 August 1936'''Production variants'''* '''Ju 87 A-0''' : Ten pre-production aircraft, powered by a 640 PS () Jumo 210C engine.", "* '''Ju 87 A-1''' : Initial production version.", "* '''Ju 87 A-2''' : Production version fitted with an improved 680 PS () Jumo 210E engine.===Ju 87 B===Junkers Ju 87 B parked at Schiphol airport in the Netherlands, 1940.The Ju 87 B series was to be the first mass-produced variant.", "A total of six pre-production Ju 87 B-0 were produced, built from Ju 87 A airframes.", "The first production version was the Ju 87 B-1, with a considerably larger engine, its Jumo 211D generating 1,200 PS (), and completely redesigned fuselage and landing gear, replacing the twin radio masts of the \"A\" version with a single mast mounted further forward on the \"greenhouse\" canopy, and much simpler, lighter-weight wheel \"spats\" used from the -B version onwards, discarding the transverse strut bracing of the \"A\" version's maingear design.", "This new design was again tested in Spain, and after proving its abilities there, production was ramped up to 60 per month.", "As a result, by the outbreak of World War II, the Luftwaffe had 336 Ju 87 B-1s on hand.The B-1 was also fitted with \"Jericho trumpets\", essentially sirens driven by propellers with a diameter of The devices caused a loss of 20–25 km/h (10–20 mph) through drag, and over time the sirens were no longer installed on many units, although they remained in use to various extent.", "As an alternative, some bombs were fitted with whistles on the fin to produce the noise after release.", "The trumpets were a suggestion from Udet, but some authors say the idea originated from Adolf Hitler.The Ju 87 B-2s that followed had some improvements and were built in several variants that included ski-equipped versions (the B-1 also had this modification) and at the other end, with a tropical operation kit called the Ju 87 B-2 trop.", "Italy's Regia Aeronautica received B-2s and named them the \"Picchiatello\", while others went to the other members of the Axis, including Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania.", "The B-2 also had an oil hydraulic system for closing the cowling flaps.", "This continued in all the later designs.Production of the Ju 87 B started in 1937.89 B-1s were to be built at Junkers' factory in Dessau and another 40 at the Weserflug plant in Lemwerder by July 1937.Production would be carried out by the Weserflug company after April 1938, but Junkers continued producing Ju 87 up until March 1940.=== Ju 87 R ===A long range version of the Ju 87 B was also built, known as the Ju 87 R, the letter being an abbreviation for ''Reichweite'', \"(operational) range\".", "They were primarily intended for anti-shipping missions.", "The Ju 87 R had a B-series airframe with an additional oil tank and fuel lines to the outer wing stations to permit the use of two standardised capacity under-wing drop tanks, used by a wide variety of Luftwaffe aircraft through most of the war.", "This increased fuel capacity to (500 litres in main fuel tank of which 480 litres were usable + 600 litres from drop tanks).", "To prevent overload conditions, bomb carrying ability was often restricted to a single bomb if the aircraft was fully loaded with fuel.The Ju 87 R-1 had a B-1 airframe with the exception of a modification in the fuselage which enabled an additional oil tank.", "This was installed to feed the engine due to the increase in range with the extra fuel tanks.A Ju-87 towing a DFS 230 over ItalyThe Ju 87 R-2 had the same airframe as the B-2, and strengthened to ensure it could withstand dives of .", "The Jumo 211D in-line engine was installed, replacing the R-1s Jumo 211A.", "Due to an increase in overall weight by , the Ju 87 R-2 was slower than the Ju 87 B-1 and had a lower service ceiling.", "The Ju 87 R-2 had an increased range advantage of .", "The R-3 and R-4 were the last R variants developed.", "Only a few were built.", "The R-3 was an experimental tug for gliders and had an expanded radio system so the crew could communicate with the glider crew by way of the tow rope.", "The R-4 differed from the R-2 in the Jumo 211J powerplant.The powerplant; a Jumo 211D installed in a Ju 87 B – the \"Jericho Trumpet\" siren housing is faired over on the maingear leg'''Known prototypes'''* '''Ju 87 V6''' : W.Nr 0870027.Flown on 14 June 1937 (A-0 to B-0 conversion)* '''Ju 87 V7''' : W.Nr 0870028.Prototype of the Ju 87B, powered by a 1,000 PS () Jumo 211A.", "Flown on 23 August 1937 (A-0 to B-0 conversion)* '''Ju 87 V8''' : W.Nr 4926.Flown on 11 November 1937* '''Ju 87 V9''' : W.Nr 4927.Flown on 16 February 1938 as D-IELZ.", "Flown again as WL-IELZ on 16 October 1939* '''Ju 87 V15''': W.Nr 0870321.Registration D-IGDK.", "Destroyed in a crash in 1942.", "* '''Ju 87 V16''': W.Nr 0870279.", "''Stammkennzeichen'' code of GT+AX.", "* '''Ju 87 V17''' and '''Ju 87 V18''' may never have been built.=== Ju 87 C ===On 18 August 1937, the RLM decided to introduce the Ju 87 Tr(C).", "The Ju 87 C was intended to be a dive and torpedo bomber for the Kriegsmarine.", "The type was ordered into prototype production and available for testing in January 1938.Testing was given two months and was to begin in February and end in April 1938.The prototype V10 was to be a fixed wing test aircraft, while the following V11 would be modified with folding wings.", "The prototypes were Ju 87 B-0 airframes powered by Jumo 211 A engines.", "Owing to delays, the V10 was not completed until March 1938.It first flew on 17 March and was designated Ju 87 C-1.On 12 May, the V11 also flew for the first time.", "By 15 December 1939, 915 arrested landings on dry land had been made.", "It was found that the arresting gear winch was too weak and had to be replaced.", "Tests showed the average braking distance was .", "The Ju 87 V11 was designated C-0 on 8 October 1938.It was fitted out with standard Ju 87 C-0 equipment and better wing-folding mechanisms.", "The \"carrier Stuka\" was to be built at the Weserflug Company's Lemwerder plant between April and July 1940.Among the \"special\" equipment of the Ju 87 C was a two-seat rubber dinghy with a flare gun, signal ammunition and other emergency supplies.", "A quick fuel dump mechanism and two inflatable 750 L (200 US gal) bags in each wing and a further two 500 L (130 US gal) bags in the fuselage enabled the Ju 87 C to remain afloat for up to three days in calm seas.", "On 6 October 1939, with the war already underway, 120 of the planned Ju 87 Tr(C)s on order at that point were cancelled.", "Despite the cancellation, the tests continued using catapults.", "The Ju 87 C had a takeoff weight of and a speed of on departure.", "The Ju 87 could be launched with a SC bomb and four SC bombs under the fuselage.", "The C-1 was to have two MG 17s mounted in the wing with a MG 15 operated by the rear gunner.", "On 18 May 1940, production of the C-1 was switched to the R-1.", "'''Known prototypes'''* '''Ju 87 V10''': Registration D-IHFH (changed to ''Stammkennzeichen'' of TK+HD).", "W.Nr 4928.First flown 17 March 1938* '''Ju 87 V11''': ''Stammkennzeichen'' of TV+OV.", "W.Nr 4929.First flown 12 May 1938=== Ju 87 D ===Despite the Stuka's vulnerability to enemy fighters having been exposed during the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe had no choice but to continue its development, as there was no replacement aircraft in sight.", "The result was the D-series.", "In June 1941, the RLM ordered five prototypes, the Ju 87 V21–25.A Daimler-Benz DB 603 powerplant was to be installed in the Ju 87 D-1, but it did not have the power of the Jumo 211 and performed \"poorly\" during tests and was dropped.", "The Ju 87 D-series featured two coolant radiators underneath the inboard sections of the wings, while the oil cooler was relocated to the position formerly occupied by the single, undernose \"chin\" coolant radiator.", "The D-series also introduced an aerodynamically refined cockpit with better visibility and space.", "Armour protection was increased and a new dual-barrel 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 81Z machine gun with an extremely high rate of fire was installed in the rear defensive position.", "Engine power was increased again, the Jumo 211J now delivering 1,420 PS ().Bomb carrying ability was nearly quadrupled from in the B-version to in the D-version (max.", "load for short ranges, overload condition), a typical bomb load ranged from .Ju 87Ds, Soviet Union, January/February 1943The internal fuel capacity of the Ju 87 D was raised to 800 L (of which 780 L were usable) by adding wing tanks while retaining the option to carry two 300 L drop tanks.", "Tests at Rechlin-Lärz Airfield revealed it made possible a flight duration of 2 hours and 15 minutes.", "With an extra two 300 L (80 US gal) fuel tanks, it could achieve four hours flight time.The D-2 was a variant used as a glider tug by converting older D-series airframes.", "It was intended as the tropical version of the D-1 and had heavier armour to protect the crew from ground fire.", "The armour reduced its performance and caused the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe to \"place no particular value on the production of the D-2\".", "The D-3 was an improved D-1 with more armour for its ground-attack role.", "Some Ju 87 D-3s were designated D-3N or D-3 trop and fitted with night or tropical equipment.", "The D-4 designation applied to a prototype torpedo-bomber version, which could carry a aerial torpedo on a PVC 1006 B rack—this setup would have had the capacity to carry the ''Luftorpedo'' LT 850, the German version of the well-proven Japanese Type 91 aerial torpedo of 848 kg (1,870 lb).", "The D-4 was to be converted from D-3 airframes and, in place of the carrier-specific Ju 87C series designs, operated from the aircraft carrier ''''.", "Other modifications included a flame eliminator and, unlike earlier D variants, two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon, while the radio operator/rear gunner's ammunition supply was increased by 1,000 to 2,000 rounds.A pair of Ju 87Ds following a landing with air brakes still deployed.The Ju 87 D-5 was based on the D-3 design and was unique in the Ju 87 series as it had wings 0.6 metres (2 ft) longer than previous variants.", "The two 7.92 mm MG 17 wing guns were exchanged for more powerful 20 mm MG 151/20s to better suit the aircraft's ground-attack role.", "The window in the floor of the cockpit was reinforced and four, rather than the previous three, aileron hinges were installed.", "Higher diving speeds were obtained of up to .", "The range was recorded as at ground level and at .The D-6, according to \"Operating instructions, works document 2097\", was built in limited numbers to train pilots on \"rationalised versions\".", "Due to shortages in raw materials, it did not go into mass production.", "The D-7 was another ground attack aircraft based on D-1 airframes upgraded to D-5 standard (armour, wing cannons, extended wing panels), while the D-8 was similar to the D-7 but based on D-3 airframes.", "The D-7 and D-8 were both were fitted with exhaust flame dampers, and could conduct night operations.Production of the D-1 variant started in 1941 with 495 ordered.", "These aircraft were delivered between May 1941 and March 1942.The RLM wanted 832 machines produced from February 1941.The Weserflug company was tasked with their production.", "From June to September 1941, 40 Ju 87 Ds were expected to be built, increasing to 90 thereafter.", "Various production problems were encountered.", "One of the planned 48 was produced in July.", "Of the 25 the RLM hoped for in August 1941, none were delivered.", "In September did the first two of the planned 102 Ju 87s came off the production lines.", "The shortfalls continued to the end of 1941.During this time, the WFG plant in Lemwerder moved production to Berlin.", "Over 165 Ju 87s had not been delivered and production was only 23 Ju 87 Ds per month out of the 40 expected.", "By the spring of 1942 to the end of production in 1944, 3,300 Ju 87s, mostly D-1s, D-2s and D-5s had been manufactured.In January 1943, a variety of Ju 87 Ds became \"test beds\" for the Ju 87 G variants.", "At the start of 1943, the coastal Luftwaffe ''Erprobungsstelle'' test centre at Tarnewitz tested this combination from a static position.", "''Oberst'' G. Wolfgang Vorwald noted the experiments were not successful, and suggested the cannon be installed on the Messerschmitt Me 410.Testing continued, and on 31 January 1943, Ju 87 D-1 W.Nr 2552 was tested by ''Hauptmann'' Hans-Karl Stepp near the Briansk training area.", "Stepp noted the increase in drag, which reduced the aircraft's speed to .", "Stepp also noted that the aircraft was also less agile than the existing D variants.", "D-1 and D-3 variants operated in combat with the BK 37 cannon in 1943.", "'''Known prototypes'''* Ju 87 V 21.Registration D-INRF.", "W.Nr 0870536.Airframe conversion from B-1 to D-1.First flown on 1 March 1941.", "* Ju 87 V 22 ''Stammkennzeichen'' of SF+TY.", "W.Nr 0870540.Also airframe conversion from B-1 to D-1.First flown on 1 March 1941.", "* Ju 87 V 23 ''Stammkennzeichen'' of PB+UB.", "W.Nr 0870542.Also airframe conversion from B-1 to D-1.First flown on 1 March 1941.", "* Ju 87 V 24 ''Stammkennzeichen'' of BK+EE.", "W.Nr 0870544.Also airframe conversion from B-1 to D-1/D-4.First flown on 1 March 1941.", "* Ju 87 V 25 ''Stammkennzeichen'' of BK+EF.", "W.Nr 0870530.Also airframe conversion from B-1 to D-4 trop.", "First flown on 1 March 1941.", "* Ju 87 V 30, the only known prototype of the Ju 87 D-5.W.Nr 2296.First flown on 20 June 1943.", "* Ju 87 V 26-28, Ju 87 V 31, and V 42-47 were experiments of unknown variants.=== Ju 87 G ===Ju 87 G-1 \"''Kanonenvogel''\" with its twin Bordkanone underwing gun podsWith the G variant, the ageing airframe of the Ju 87 found new life as an anti-tank aircraft.", "This was the final operational version of the Stuka, and was deployed on the Eastern Front.", "The reverse in German military fortunes after 1943 and the appearance of huge numbers of well-armoured Soviet tanks caused Junkers to adapt the existing design to combat this new threat.", "The Henschel Hs 129 had proved a potent ground attack weapon, but its large fuel tanks made it vulnerable to enemy fire, prompting the RLM to say, \"that in the shortest possible time a replacement of the Hs 129 type must take place.\"", "With Soviet tanks the priority targets, the development of a further variant as a successor to the Ju 87D began in November 1942.On 3 November, Milch raised the question of replacing the Ju 87, or redesigning it altogether.", "It was decided to keep the design as it was, but the power-plant was upgraded to a Junkers Jumo 211J, and two cannons were added.", "The variant was also designed to carry a free-fall bomb load.", "Furthermore, the armoured protection of the Ilyushin Il-2 ''Sturmovik'' was copied to protect the crew from ground fire now that the Ju 87 would be required to conduct low level attacks.Hans-Ulrich Rudel's Ju 87 G-1 in May 1944A technician servicing the 3.7 cm gun pod.Hans-Ulrich Rudel, a Stuka ace, had suggested using two 37 mm (1.46 in) Flak 18 guns, each one in a self-contained under-wing gun pod, as the ''Bordkanone BK 3,7'', after achieving success against Soviet tanks with the 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon.", "These gun pods were fitted to a Ju 87 D-1, W.Nr 2552.The first flight of the machine took place on 31 January 1943, piloted by Stepp.", "The continuing problems with about two dozen of the Ju 88P-1 and slow development of the Henschel Hs 129 B-3, both designs using the large, 7.5 cm Pak 40-based, autoloading Bordkanone 7,5 7.5 cm (2.95 in) cannon in a conformal gun pod beneath the fuselage, meant the Ju 87G was put into production.", "In April 1943, the first production Ju 87 G-1s were delivered to front line units.", "The two 37 mm (1.46 in) ''Bordkanone'' BK 3,7 cannons were mounted in under-wing gun pods, each loaded with two six-round magazines of armour-piercing tungsten carbide-cored ammunition.", "With these weapons, the ''Kanonenvogel'' (\"cannon-bird\"), as it was nicknamed, proved very successful in the hands of Stuka aces such as Rudel.", "The G-1 was converted from older D-series airframes, retaining the smaller wing, but without the dive brakes.", "The G-2 was similar to the G-1 except for use of the extended wing of the D-5.208 G-2s were built and at least a further 22 more were converted from D-3 airframes.", "Only a handful of production Gs were committed in the Battle of Kursk.", "On the opening day of the offensive, Hans-Ulrich Rudel flew the only \"official\" Ju 87 G, although a significant number of Ju 87 D variants were fitted with the 37 mm (1.46 in) cannon, and operated as unofficial Ju 87 Gs before the battle.", "In June 1943, the RLM ordered 20 Ju 87Gs as production variants.=== Night-harassment variants ===The Ju 87 had been used in the night intruder role in 1940 and 1941 during The Blitz, but the Soviet Air Force practice of harassing German ground forces using antiquated Polikarpov Po-2 and R-5 biplanes at night to drop flares and fragmentation bombs, inspired the Luftwaffe to form its own ''Störkampfstaffeln'' (harassment squadrons).", "On 23 July 1942, Junkers offered the Ju 87 B-2, R-2 and R-4s with ''Flammenvernichter'' (\"flame eliminators\").", "On 10 November 1943, the RLM GL/C-E2 Division finally authorised the design in directive No.", "1117.The need to equip night units and the phasing out of Ju 87s from ground attack groups in favour of the Fw 190, enabled the use of D-5 airframes awaiting repair and D-7 and 8s already in conversion units.", "The latter variants were either conversions or modified D-1 and D-3 air frames.", "Adding the necessary equipment, radios and dampeners was a requirement regardless of whether the aircraft was a production D-5 or a D-1 or 3 that had undergone wing changes.", "The change in designations due to conversions was not readily apparent, for with wing changes, the serial number and designation was applied to the fuselage by the manufacture which remained unaltered by wing changes.", "Some sub-contractors added an \"N\" designation (Nacht) for clarity on D-3 and 5s .", "Others added the roman numeral VII to the D-7s, perhaps to reflect that the aircraft was fitted with the FuG 7 radio.", "A great deal of confusion exists concerning the D-7.Its existence has been questioned, but the type is listed in Junkers company records and in the ''Der Reichsminister der Luftfahrt'' and ''Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe Technisches Amt''.", "There was no production \"nacht stuka\", and modifications could vary according to the sub-contractor and depending on what parts were available.A Stuka repair centre was set up at Wels-Lichtenegg.", "From May 1940 to November 1944, 746 were repaired and flight-tested there.", "In the winter 1943/44, the ''Metal Works Lower Saxony Brinckmann und Mergell'' company (Menibum) converted approximately 300 Ju 87D-3 and 5s to night versions.", "Dive-brakes were removed there, while gun muzzles and dampers were installed to eliminate exhaust and muzzle flash.", "The Jumo 211P engine was installed in some cases.", "It took 2,170 technicians and workers to carry out the conversions.", "Total figures for conversions to night flying operations are unknown.", "The company's equipment was seized by the Soviet Union at the end of the war, and the records were lost or destroyed.", "A main piece of equipment, hereto not installed in the Ju 87, was the FuG 101 Electronic Radio Altimeter.", "This was used to measure height.", "Some Ju 87s also used FuG 16Z transmitter/receiver set to augment the FuG 25 IFF (Identification Friend or Foe).Pilots were also asked to complete the new \"Blind Flying Certificate 3\", which was especially introduced for this new type of operation.", "Pilots were trained at night, over unfamiliar terrain, and forced to rely on their instruments for direction.", "The Ju 87's standard Revi C12D gunsight was replaced with the new ''Nachtrevi'' (\"Night revi\") C12N.", "On some Ju 87s, the Revi 16D was exchanged for the Nachtrevi 16D.", "To help the pilot see his instrument panel, a violet light was installed.On 15 November 1942, the Auxiliary ''Staffel'' was created.", "By mid-1943, ''Luftflotte'' 1 was given four ''Staffeln'' while ''Luftflotte'' 4 and ''Luftwaffe Kommando Ost'' (Luftwaffe Command East) were given six and two respectively.", "In the first half of 1943, 12 ''Nachtschlachtgruppen'' (\"night battle groups\"—NSGr) had been formed, flying a multitude of different types of aircraft, including the Ju 87, which proved itself ideally suited to the low-level slow flying needed.", "NSGr 1 and 2 fought with some success on the Western Front during the Battle of Normandy and Battle of the Bulge.", "NSGr 7 operated in \"anti-partisan\" role from bases in Albania from July 1944, replacing their use of German trainers.", "The 3rd and 4th group served on the Eastern Front, the 8th in the Arctic and the 9th in Italy.", "NSGr 20 fought against the Western Allied invasion of Germany in 1945.Photographic evidence exists of 16 NSGr 20 Ju 87s lining up to take-off in the woods circling the Lippe airfield, Germany while under attack from Republic P-47 Thunderbolts of the USAAF IX Tactical Air Command.", "The unit operated against the Ludendorff Bridge during the Battle of Remagen." ], [ "Production", "Despite initial production issues with the Ju 87, the RLM ordered 216 Ju 87 A-1s into production and wanted to receive delivery of all machines between January 1936 and 1938.The Junkers production capacity was fully occupied and licensing to other production facilities became necessary.", "The first 35 Ju 87 A-1s were therefore produced by the Weser Flugzeugbau (WFG).", "By 1 September 1939, 360 Ju 87 As and Bs had been built by the Junkers factories at Dessau and Weserflug factory in Lemwerder near Bremen.", "By 30 September 1939, Junkers had received 2,365,196 Reichsmark (RM) for Ju 87 construction orders.", "The RLM paid another 243,646 RM for development orders.", "According to audit records in Berlin, by the end of the financial year on 30 September 1941, 3,059,000 RM had been spent on Ju 87 airframes.", "By 30 June 1940, 697 Ju 87 B-1s and 129 B-2s alone had been produced.", "Another 105 R-1s and seven R-2s had been built.A Ju 87D during wing installationThe range of the B-2 was insufficient, and dropped in favor of the Ju 87 R long-range versions in the second half of 1940.The 105 R-1s were converted to R-2 status and a further 616 production R-2s were ordered.", "In May 1941, the development of the D-1 was planned and was ordered into production by March 1942.The expansion of the Ju 88 production lines to compensate for the withdrawal of Dornier Do 17 production delayed production of the Ju 87 D. The Weserflug plant in Lemwerder experienced production shortfalls.", "This prompted Milch to visit and threaten the company into meeting the RLM's Ju 87 D-1 requirements on 23 February 1942.To meet these demands, 700 skilled workers were needed.", "Skilled workers had been called up for military service in the Wehrmacht.", "Junkers were able to supply 300 German workers to the Weserflug factory, and as an interim solution, Soviet prisoners of war and Soviet civilians deported to Germany.", "Working around the clock, the shortfall was made good.", "WFG received an official commendation.", "By May 1942, demand increased further.", "Chief of Procurement General Walter Herthel found that each unit needed 100 Ju 87s as standard strength and an average of 20 per month to cover attrition.", "Not until June–December 1942 did production capacity increase, and 80 Ju 87s were produced per month.By 17 August 1942, production had climbed rapidly after Blohm & Voss BV 138 production was scaled down and licence work had shut down at WFG.", "Production now reached 150 Ju 87 D airframes per month, but spare parts were failing to reach the same production levels.", "Undercarriage parts were in particularly short supply.", "Milch ordered production to 350 Ju 87s per month in September 1942.This was not achievable due to the insufficient production capacity in the Reich.The RLM considered setting up production facilities in Slovakia.", "But this would delay production until the buildings and factories could be furnished with the machine tools.", "These tools were also in short supply, and the RLM hoped to purchase them from Switzerland and Italy.", "The Slovaks could provide 3,500–4,000 workers, but no technical personnel.", "The move would produce only another 25 machines per month at a time when demand was increasing.", "In October, production plans were dealt another blow when one of WFGs plants burned down, leaving a chronic shortage of tailwheels and undercarriage parts.", "Junkers director and member of the Luftwaffe industry council Carl Frytag reported that by January 1943 only 120 Ju 87s could be produced at Bremen and 230 at Berlin-Tempelhof.===Decline and end of production===After evaluating Ju 87 operations on the Eastern Front, Göring ordered production limited to 200 per month in total. ''''", "(\"General of Ground Attack\") Ernst Kupfer decided continued development would \"hardly bring any further tactical value\".", "Adolf Galland, a fighter pilot with operational and combat experience in ground attack, said that abandoning development would be premature, but 150 machines per month would be sufficient.", "Two Junkers Ju 87 Ds near completionOn 28 July 1943, strike and bomber production was to be scaled down, and fighter and bomber destroyer production given priority.", "On 3 August 1943, Milch contradicted this and declared that this increase in fighter production would not affect production of the Ju 87, Ju 188, Ju 288 and Ju 290.This was an important consideration as the life expectancy of a Ju 87 had been reduced (since 1941) from 9.5 months to 5.5 months to just 100 operational flying hours.", "On 26 October, Kupfer reported the Ju 87 could no longer survive in operations and that the Focke-Wulf Fw 190F should take its place.", "Milch finally agreed and ordered the minimal continuance of Ju 87 D-3 and D-5 production for a smooth transition period.In May 1944, production wound down.", "78 Ju 87s were built in May and 69 rebuilt from damaged machines.", "In the next six months, 438 Ju 87 Ds and Gs were added to the Ju 87 force as new or repaired aircraft.", "It is unknown whether any Ju 87s were built from parts unofficially after December 1944 and the end of production.Overall, 550 Ju 87 As and B2s were completed at the Junkers factory in Dessau.", "Production of the Ju 87 R and D variants was transferred to the Weserflug company, which produced 5,930 of the 6,500 Ju 87s produced in total.", "During the course of the war, little damage was done to the WFG plant at Lemwerder.", "Attacks throughout 1940-45 caused little lasting damage and succeeded only in damaging some Ju 87 airframes, in contrast to the Focke-Wulf plant in Bremen.", "At Berlin-Tempelhof, little delay or damage was caused to Ju 87 production, despite the heavy bombings and large-scale destruction inflicted on other targets.", "The WFG again went unscathed.", "The Junkers factory at Dessau was heavily attacked, but not until Ju 87 production had ceased.", "The Ju 87 repair facility at the Wels aircraft works was destroyed on 30 May 1944, and the site abandoned Ju 87 links." ], [ "Operational history", "===Spanish Civil War===Spanish Nationalist markingsAmong the many German aircraft designs that participated in the Condor Legion, and as part of other German involvement in the Spanish Civil War, a single Ju 87 A-0 (the V4 prototype) was allocated serial number 29-1 and was assigned to the VJ/88, the experimental ''Staffel'' of the Legion's fighter wing.", "The aircraft was secretly loaded onto the ship ''Usaramo'' and departed Hamburg harbour on the night of 1 August 1936, arriving in Cádiz five days later.", "The only known information pertaining to its combat career in Spain is that it was piloted by ''Unteroffizier'' Herman Beuer, and took part in the Nationalist offensive against Bilbao in 1937.Presumably the aircraft was then secretly returned to Germany.In January 1938, three Ju 87 As from the Legion Condor arrived.", "Several problems became evident—the spatted undercarriage sank into muddy airfield surfaces, and the spats were temporarily removed.", "The maximum bomb load could only be carried if the gunner vacated his seat, therefore the bomb load was restricted to .", "These aircraft supported the Nationalist forces and carried out anti-shipping missions until they returned to Germany in October 1938.During the Catalonia Offensive in January 1939, the Junkers Ju 87 returned to Spain.", "On the morning of 21 January 1939, 34 Heinkel He 111, along with some escorts and three Ju 87B, attacked the Port of Barcelona, five days before the city was captured by the Nationalists.", "29 Republican fighters were defending the city.", "There were more than 100 aircraft operating over the city and, while a Ju 87 was dive-bombing a ship, a Republican Polikarpov I-15 pilot, Francisco Alférez Jiménez, claimed it destroyed near El Vendrell, in Comarruga, but the Stuka was capable of landing on the beach without crashing.", "That was the only time a Stuka attacked the capital of Catalonia.", "On 24 January 1939, a group of Stukas prevented the destruction of a bridge near Barcelona by strafing the demolition engineers on Molins de Rei.", "During the attack the Republican ground defenders, equipped with a quadruple PM M1910 mounting, hit one pilot (Heinz Bohne) in both legs and the Stuka crashed, seriously injuring Bohne, and his machine gunner, Albert Conrad.", "Those two were the only Stuka casualties of the war.As with the Ju 87 A-0, the B-1s were returned discreetly to the Reich.", "The experience of the Spanish Civil War proved invaluable—air and ground crews perfected their skills, and equipment was evaluated under combat conditions.", "The Ju 87 had however not been tested against numerous and well-coordinated fighter opposition; this lesson was learned later at great cost to the Stuka crews.===Second World War===All Stuka units were moved to Germany's eastern border in preparation for the invasion of Poland.", "On the morning of 15 August 1939, during a mass-formation dive-bombing demonstration for high-ranking commanders of the Luftwaffe at Neuhammer training grounds near Sagan, 13 Ju 87s and 26 crew members were lost when they crashed into the ground almost simultaneously.", "The planes dived through clouds, expecting to release their practice bombs and pull out of the dive once below the cloud ceiling.", "They were unaware that the ceiling was too low and unexpected ground mist formed, leaving them no time to pull out of the dive.====Poland====Ju 87 Bs over Poland, September/October 1939On 1 September 1939, the Wehrmacht invaded Poland, beginning World War II.", "''Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe'' records indicate a total force of 366 Ju 87 A and Bs were available for operations on 31 August 1939.The first Ju 87 operation was to destroy Polish demolition charges fixed to the rail bridges over the Vistula, that linked Eastern Germany to the Danzig corridor and East Prussia as well as Polish Pomerania.", "To do this, Ju 87s were ordered to perform a low-level attack on the Polish Army Garrison headquarters.", "II.", "and III./StG 1 targeted the cables along the embankment, the electricity plant and signal boxes at Dirschau (now Tczew, Poland.", "At exactly 04:26 CET, a ''Kette'' (\"chain\" or flight of three) of Ju 87s of 3./StG 1 led by ''Staffelkapitän'' ''Oberleutnant'' Bruno Dilly carried out the first bombing attack of the war.", "The Stukas attacked 11 minutes before the official German declaration of hostilities and hit the targets.", "The Ju 87s achieved complete success.", "The mission failed as the German Army delayed their advance allowing the Poles to carry out repairs and destroy all but one of the bridges before the Germans could reach them.A Ju 87 achieved the first air victory during World War II on the morning of 1 September 1939, when ''Rottenführer'' ''Leutnant'' Frank Neubert of I./StG 2 \"Immelmann\" shot down a Polish PZL P.11c fighter while it was taking off from Balice airfield; its pilot, Captain Mieczysław Medwecki, was killed.", "In air-to-air combat, Ju 87 formations were well protected by German fighter aircraft and losses were light against the tenacious, but short lived opposition.The Ju 87s reverted to ground attack missions for the campaign after the opening air attacks.", "Ju 87s were involved in the controversial but effective attacks at Wieluń.", "The lack of anti-aircraft artillery in the Polish Army magnified the impact of the Ju 87.At Piotrków Trybunalski I./StG 76 and I./StG 2 destroyed a Polish infantry division de-training there.", "Troop trains were also easy targets.", "StG 77 destroyed one such target at Radomsko.", "During the Battle of Radom six Polish divisions trapped by encircling German forces were forced to surrender after a relentless four-day bombardment by StG 51, 76 and 77.Employed in this assault were fragmentation bombs, which caused appalling casualties to the Polish ground troops.", "Demoralised, the Poles surrendered.", "The Stukas also participated in the Battle of Bzura which resulted in the breaking of Polish resistance.", "The dive bomber wings (''Sturzkampfgeschwader'') alone dropped 388 tonnes (428 tons) of bombs during this battle.", "During the Siege of Warsaw and the Battle of Modlin, the Ju 87 wings contributed to the defeat of well-entrenched and resolute Polish forces.", "IV(Stuka)./LG 1 was particularly effective in destroying the fortified Modlin.The ''Luftwaffe'' had a few anti-shipping naval units such as 4.", "(St)/TrGr 186 to deal with Polish naval forces.", "This unit performed effectively, sinking the 1540-ton destroyer ''Wicher'' and the minelayer ''Gryf'' of the Polish Navy (both moored in a harbour).", "The torpedo boat ''Mazur'' (412 tons) was sunk at Oksywie; the gunboat ''General Haller'' (441 tons) was sunk in Hel Harbour on 6 September—during the Battle of Hel—along with the minesweeper ''Mewa'' (183 tons) and its sister ships ''Czapla'' and ''Jaskolka'' with several auxiliaries.", "The Polish naval units trapped in the Baltic were destroyed by Ju 87 operations.", "Once again, enemy air opposition was light, and the ''Stukawaffe'' (Stuka force) lost 31 aircraft during the campaign.====Norway====Erhard Milch addressing a Ju 87 ''staffel'' on a Norwegian airfieldOperation Weserübung began on 9 April 1940 with the invasions of Norway and Denmark.", "Denmark capitulated within the day; Norway continued to resist with British and French help.", "The campaign was not a ''Blitzkrieg'' of fast-moving armoured divisions supported by air power as the mountainous terrain ruled out close Panzer/Stuka cooperation.", "Instead, the Germans relied on paratroops transported by Junkers Ju 52s and specialised ski troops.", "The Ju 87s were given the role of ground attack and anti-shipping missions; they proved to be the most effective weapon in the Luftwaffe's armoury carrying out the latter task.On 9 April, the first Stukas took off at 10:59 from occupied airfields to destroy Oscarsborg Fortress, after the loss of the German cruiser ''Blücher'', which disrupted the amphibious landings in Oslo through Oslofjord.", "The 22 Ju 87s had helped suppress the Norwegian defenders during the ensuing Battle of Drøbak Sound, but the defenders did not surrender until after Oslo had been captured.", "As a result, the German naval operation failed.", "StG 1 caught the 735 ton Norwegian destroyer ''Æger'' off Stavanger and hit her in the engine room.", "''Æger'' was run aground and scuttled.", "The Stuka wings were now equipped with the new Ju 87 R, which differed from the Ju 87 B by having increased internal fuel capacity and two 300l underwing drop tanks for more range.The Stukas had numerous successes against Allied naval vessels and in particular the Royal Navy which posed a formidable threat to German naval and coastal operations.", "The British heavy cruiser HMS ''Suffolk'' was attacked on 17 April.", "Her stern was virtually destroyed but she limped back to Scapa Flow with 33 dead and 38 wounded crewmen.", "The light cruiser squadron consisting of the sister ships ''Curacoa'' and ''Curlew'' were subjected to lengthy attacks which badly damaged the former for one Ju 87 lost.", "A witness later said, \"they threatened to take our masthead with them in every screaming nerve-racking dive\".", "The same fate nearly befell the sloop ''Black Swan''.", "On 27 April, a bomb passed through the quarterdeck, a wardroom, a water tank and 4-inch (10.2 cm) ammunition magazine and out through the hull to explode in the fjord.", "The muffled explosion limited the damage to her hull.", "''Black Swan'' fired 1,000 rounds, but failed to shoot down any of her attackers.", "The sloop was sunk on 30 April.", "The French large destroyer ''Bison'' was sunk along with by ''Sturzkampfgeschwader'' 1 on 3 May 1940 during the evacuation from Namsos.", "''Bison''s forward magazine was hit, killing 108 of the crew.", "''Afridi'', which had taken off some of ''Bison''s survivors, was sunk in a later attack with the loss of 63 sailors.", "49 officers and men, 13 soldiers and 33 survivors from ''Bison'' were lost aboard ''Afridi''.", "All ships were targeted.", "Armed trawlers were used under the German air umbrella in an attempt to make smaller targets.", "Such craft were not armoured or armed.", "The Ju 87s demonstrated this on 30 April when they sank the ''Jardine'' (452 tons) and ''Warwickshire'' (466 tons).", "On 15 May, the Polish troopship ''Chrobry'' (11,442 tons) was sunk.The ''Stukas'' also had an operational effect, even when little damage was done.", "On 1 May 1940, Vice Admiral Lionel Wells commanded a Home Fleet expedition of seven destroyers, the heavy cruiser ''Berwick'', the aircraft carriers ''Glorious'' and ''Ark Royal'', and the battleship ''Valiant''.", "The carriers mounted fighter patrols over the ships evacuating troops from Andalsnes.", "The ''Stuka'' waves (accompanied by He 111s) achieved several near misses, but were unable to obtain a hit.", "Nevertheless, Wells ordered that no ship was to operate within range of the Ju 87s' Norwegian airfields.", "The Ju 87s had, in effect, driven British sea power from the Norwegian coast.", "Moreover, Victor reported to the Commander-in-Chief of the Home Fleet, Admiral Charles Forbes, that carrier operations were no longer practical under the current conditions.In the following weeks, StG 1 continued their sea operations.", "Off Namsos on 5 May 1940, they caught and sank the Royal Norwegian Navy transports ''Aafjord'' (335 tons) and ''Blaafjeld'' (1,146 tons).", "The Ju 87s then took to bombing the town and the airstrip to support the German forces under the command of Eduard Dietl.", "The town fell in the first week of May.", "In the remaining four weeks of the campaign in Norway, the Ju 87s supported German forces in containing the Allied land forces in Narvik until they withdrew in early June.====France and the Low Countries====Campaign in the Low CountriesThe Ju 87 units had learned lessons from the Polish and Norwegian campaigns.", "The failures in Poland, and of the ''Stukas'' of I./StG 1 to silence the Oscarsborg fort, ensured even more attention was paid to pin-point bombing during the Phoney War period.", "This was to pay off in the Western campaign.When ''Fall Gelb'' (Case Yellow) began on 10 May 1940, the ''Stuka'' helped swiftly neutralise the fortress of Eben Emael, Belgium.", "The headquarters of the commander responsible for ordering the destruction of the Belgian Army-held bridges along the Albert Canal was stationed in the village of Lanaken (14 km/ mi to the north).", "The ''Stuka'' demonstrated its accuracy when the small building was destroyed by four direct hits.", "As a result, only one of the three bridges was destroyed, allowing the German Army to rapidly advance in the opening days of the Battle of Belgium.", "The Ju 87 proved to be a useful asset to Army Group B in the Low Countries.", "In pitched battles against French armoured forces at Hannut and Gembloux, Ju 87s effectively neutralised artillery and armour.The Ju 87s also assisted German forces in the Battle of the Netherlands.", "The Dutch Navy in concert with the British were evacuating the Dutch royal family and Dutch gold reserves through the country's ports.", "Ju 87s sank the Dutch ships ''Jan Van Galen'' (1,316 tons) and ''Johan Maurits Van Nassau'' (1,520 tons) as they provided close-shore artillery support at Waalhaven and the Afsluitdijk.", "The British ''Valentine'' was crippled, beached and scuttled while ''Winchester'', ''Whitley'' and ''Westminster'' were damaged.", "''Whitley'' was later beached and scuttled after an air attack on 19 May.The Ju 87 units were also instrumental in the Battle of France.", "It was here that most of the Ju 87-equipped units were concentrated.", "They assisted in the breakthrough at Sedan, the critical and first major land battle of the war on French territory.", "The ''Stukawaffe'' flew 300 sorties against French positions, with StG 77 alone flying 201 individual missions.", "The Ju 87s benefited from heavy fighter protection from Messerschmitt Bf 109 units.", "When resistance was organised, the Ju 87s could be vulnerable.", "For example, on 12 May, near Sedan, six French Curtiss H-75s from Groupe de Chasse I/5 (Group Interception) attacked a formation of Ju 87s, claiming 11 out of 12 unescorted Ju 87s without loss (the Germans recorded six losses over Sedan entire).", "For the most part, Allied opposition was disorganised.", "During the battles of Montcornet, Arras, Bolougne, and Calais, Ju 87 operations broke up counterattacks and offered pin-point aerial artillery support for German infantry.The Luftwaffe benefited from excellent ground-to-air communications throughout the campaign.", "Radio equipped forward liaison officers could call upon the Stukas and direct them to attack enemy positions along the axis of advance.", "In some cases the Stukas responded in 10–20 minutes.", "Hans Seidemann (Richthofen's Chief of Staff) said that \"never again was such a smoothly functioning system for discussing and planning joint operations achieved.", "\"During the Battle of Dunkirk, many Allied ships were lost to Ju 87 attacks while evacuating British and French troops.", "The French destroyer was sunk on 21 May 1940, followed by the paddle steamer ''Crested Eagle'' on 28 May.", "The French Channel-steamer ''Côte d'Arzur'' (3,047) followed.", "The Ju 87s operated to maximum effectiveness when the weather allowed.", "RAF fighter units were held back and Allied air cover was patchy at best.", "On 29 May the Royal Navy destroyer HMS ''Grenade'' was severely damaged by a Ju 87 attack within Dunkirk's harbour, and subsequently sank.", "The French destroyer ''Mistral'' was crippled by bomb damage the same day.", "''Jaguar'' and ''Verity'' were badly damaged while the trawlers ''Calvi'' and ''Polly Johnson'' (363 and 290 tons) disintegrated under bombardment.", "The merchant ship ''Fenella'' (2,376 tons) was sunk having taken on 600 soldiers.", "The attacks brought the evacuation to a halt for a time.", "The ferries ''Lorina'' and ''Normannia'' (1,564 and 1,567 tons) were sunk also.", "By 29 May, the Allies had lost 31 vessels sunk and 11 damaged.", "On 1 June the Ju 87s sank the ''Halcyon''-class minesweeper ''Skipjack'' while the destroyer ''Keith'' was sunk and ''Basilisk'' was crippled before being scuttled by ''Whitehall''.", "''Whitehall'' was later badly damaged and along with ''Ivanhoe'', staggered back to Dover.", "''Havant'', commissioned for just three weeks, was sunk and in the evening the French destroyer ''Foudroyant'' sank after a mass-attack.", "Further victories against shipping were claimed before nightfall on 1 June.", "The steamer ''Pavon'' was lost while carrying 1,500 Dutch soldiers most of whom were killed.", "The oil tanker ''Niger'' was also destroyed.", "A flotilla of French minesweepers were also lost—''Denis Papin'' (264 tons), the ''Le Moussaillon'' (380 tons) and ''Venus'' (264 tons).In total, 89 merchantmen (of 126,518 grt) were lost, and of 40 RN destroyers used in the battle, eight were sunk (one to an E-boat and one to a submarine), and a further 23 damaged and out of service.The campaign ended after the French surrender on 25 June 1940.Allied air power had been ineffective and disorganised, and as a result, ''Stuka'' losses were mainly due to ground fire.", "120 machines, one-third of the Stuka force, were destroyed or damaged by all causes from 10 May to 25 June 1940.====Battle of Britain====For the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe's order of battle included bomber wings equipped with the Ju 87.Lehrgeschwader 2's IV.", "(St), Sturzkampfgeschwader 1's III.", "Gruppe and Sturzkampfgeschwader 2's III.", "Gruppe, Sturzkampfgeschwader 51 and Sturzkampfgeschwader 3's I. Gruppe were committed to the battle.", "As an anti-shipping weapon, the Ju 87 proved a potent weapon in the early stages of the battle.", "On 4 July 1940, StG 2 made a successful attack on a convoy in the English Channel, sinking four freighters: ''Britsum'', ''Dallas City'', ''Deucalion'' and ''Kolga''.", "Six more were damaged.", "That afternoon, 33 Ju 87s delivered the single most deadly air assault on British territory in history, when 33 Ju 87s of III./StG 51, avoiding Royal Air Force (RAF) interception, sank the 5,500 ton anti-aircraft ship in Portland Harbour, killing 176 of its 298 crew.", "One of ''Foylebank's'' gunners, Leading Seaman John F. Mantle continued to fire on the Stukas as the ship sank.", "He was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for remaining at his post despite being mortally wounded.", "Mantle may have been responsible for the single Ju 87 lost during the raid.During August, the Ju 87s also had some success.", "On 13 August the opening of the main German attacks on airfields took place; it was known to the Luftwaffe as ''Adlertag'' (\"Eagle Day\").", "Bf 109s of Jagdgeschwader 26 (JG 26) were sent out in advance of the main strike and drew off RAF fighters, allowing 86 Ju 87s of StG 1 to attack RAF Detling in Kent unhindered.", "The attack killed the station commander, destroyed 20 RAF aircraft on the ground and a great many of the airfield's buildings.", "Detling was not an RAF Fighter Command station.The Battle of Britain proved for the first time that the Junkers Ju 87 was vulnerable in hostile skies against well-organised and determined fighter opposition.", "The Ju 87, like other dive bombers, was slow and possessed inadequate defences.", "Furthermore, it could not be effectively protected by fighters because of its low speed, and the very low altitudes at which it ended its dive bomb attacks.", "The Stuka depended on air superiority, the very thing being contested over Britain.", "It was withdrawn from attacks on Britain in August after prohibitive losses, leaving the Luftwaffe without precision ground-attack aircraft.Steady losses had occurred throughout their participation in the battle.", "On 18 August, known as the Hardest Day because both sides suffered heavy losses, the Stuka was withdrawn after 16 were destroyed and many others damaged.", "According to the Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe, 59 Stukas had been destroyed and 33 damaged to varying degrees in six weeks of operations.", "Over 20% of the total Stuka strength had been lost between 8 and 18 August; and the myth of the Stuka shattered.", "The Ju 87s did succeed in sinking six warships, 14 merchant ships, badly damaging seven airfields and three Chain Home radar stations, and destroying 49 British aircraft, mainly on the ground.On 19 August, the units of VIII.", "Fliegerkorps moved up from their bases around Cherbourg-Octeville and concentrated in the Pas de Calais under Luftflotte 2, closer to the area of the proposed invasion of Britain.", "On 13 September, the Luftwaffe targeted airfields again, with a small number of Ju 87s crossing the coast at Selsey and heading for Tangmere.", "After a lull, anti-shipping operations attacks were resumed by some Ju 87 units from 1 November 1940, as part of the new winter tactic of enforcing a blockade.", "Over the next 10 days, seven merchant ships were sunk or damaged, mainly in the Thames Estuary, for the loss of four Ju 87s.", "On 14 November 19 Stukas from III./St.G 1 with escort drawn from JG 26 and JG 51 went out against another convoy; as no targets were found over the estuary, the Stukas attacked Dover, their alternative target.Bad weather resulted in a decline of anti-shipping operations, and before long the Ju 87 groups began re-deploying to Poland, as part of the concealed build-up for Operation Barbarossa.", "By spring 1941, only St.G 1 with 30 Ju 87s remained facing the United Kingdom.", "Operations on a small scale continued throughout the winter months into March.", "Targets included ships at sea, the Thames Estuary, the Chatham naval dockyard and Dover and night-bomber sorties made over the Channel.", "These attacks were resumed the following winter.====North Africa and the Mediterranean====A Ju 87 B of 5/StG 2 is examined by British troops after making an emergency landing in the North African desert, December 1941.After the Italian defeats in the Italo-Greek War and Operation Compass in North Africa, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ordered the deployment of German forces to these theatres.", "Amongst the Luftwaffe contingent deployed was the command unit StG 3, which touched down in Sicily in December 1940.In the next few days, two groups—80 Stukas—were deployed under X. Fliegerkorps.The first task of the ''Korps'' was to attack British shipping passing between Sicily and Africa, in particular the convoys aimed at re-supplying Malta.", "The Ju 87s first made their presence felt by subjecting the British aircraft carrier to heavy attack.", "The crews were confident that they could sink it as the flight deck had an area of about .", "On 10 January 1941, the Stuka crews were told that four direct hits with bombs would be enough to sink the carrier.", "The Ju 87s delivered six and three damaging near-misses but the ship's engines were untouched and she reached the besieged harbour of Malta.The ''Regia Aeronautica'' was equipped for a while with the Stukas.", "In 1939, the Italian government asked the RLM to supply 100 Ju 87s.", "Italian pilots were sent to Graz in Austria to be trained for dive-bombing aircraft.", "In the spring of 1940, between 72 and 108 Ju 87 B-1s, some of them ex-Luftwaffe aircraft, were delivered to 96° ''Gruppo Bombardamento a Tuffo''.", "The Italian Stuka, renamed ''Picchiatello'', was in turn assigned to ''Gruppi'' 97°, 101° and 102°.", "The ''Picchiatelli'' were used against Malta, Allied convoys in Mediterranean and in North Africa (where they took part in conquering Tobruk).", "They were used by the Regia Aeronautica up to 1942.Some of the ''Picchiatelli'' saw action in the opening phase of the Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940.Their numbers were low and ineffective in comparison to German operations.", "The Italian forces were quickly pushed back.", "By early 1941, the Greeks had pushed into Italian-occupied Albania.", "Once again, Hitler decided to send military aid to his ally.", "Before the Luftwaffe could intervene, the Italian Ju 87s achieved some successes.", "97 ''Gruppo'' (group) and its 239 ''Squadriglia'' (squadron) sinking the Hellenic Navy freighter ''Susanah'' off Corfu on 4 April 1941 while the torpedo boat ''Proussa'' was sunk later in the day.", "On 21 April the Greek freighter ''Ioanna'' was sunk and they accounted for the British tanker ''Hekla'' off Tobruk on 25 May and then the Royal Australian Navy destroyer ''Waterhen'' on 20 June.", "The British gunboat ''Cricket'' and supply submarine ''Cachalot'' became victims.", "The former was crippled and later sunk by Italian warships.In March, the pro-German Yugoslav government was toppled.", "A furious Hitler ordered the attack to be expanded to include Yugoslavia.", "Operation Marita commenced on 7 April.", "The Luftwaffe committed StG 1, 2 and 77 to the campaign.", "The Stuka once again spearheaded the air assault, with a front line strength of 300 machines, against minimal Yugoslav resistance in the air, allowing the Stukas to develop a fearsome reputation in this region.", "Operating unmolested, they took a heavy toll of ground forces, suffering only light losses to ground fire.", "The effectiveness of the dive bombers helped bring about Yugoslav capitulation in ten days.", "The Stukas also took a peripheral part in Operation Punishment, Hitler's retribution bombing of Belgrade.", "The dive bombers were to attack airfields and anti-aircraft gun positions as the level bombers struck civilian targets.", "Belgrade was badly damaged, with 2,271 people killed and 12,000 injured.In Greece, despite British aid, little air opposition was encountered.", "As the Allies withdrew and resistance collapsed, the Allies began evacuating to Crete.", "The Stukas inflicted severe damage on Allied shipping.", "On 22 April, the 1,389 ton destroyers ''Psara'' and ''Ydra'' were sunk.", "In the next two days, the Greek naval base at Piraeus lost 23 vessels to Stuka attack.During the Battle of Crete, the Ju 87s also played a significant role.", "On 21–22 May 1941, the Germans attempted to send in reinforcements to Crete by sea but lost 10 vessels to \"Force D\" under the command of Rear Admiral Irvine Glennie.", "The force, consisting of the cruisers , and , forced the remaining German ships to retreat.", "The Stukas were called upon to deal with the British naval threat.", "On 21 May, the destroyer was sunk and the next day the battleship was damaged and the cruiser was sunk, with the loss of 45 officers and 648 ratings.", "The Ju 87s also crippled the cruiser that morning, (she was later finished off by Bf 109 fighter bombers) while sinking the destroyer with one hit.", "As the Battle of Crete drew to a close, the Allies began yet another withdrawal.", "On 23 May, the Royal Navy lost the destroyers and , followed by on 26 May; ''Orion'' and ''Dido'' were also severely damaged.", "''Orion'' had been evacuating 1,100 soldiers to North Africa; 260 of them were killed and another 280 wounded.The dive bomber wing supported ''Generalfeldmarschall'' Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps in its two-year campaign in North Africa; its other main task was attacking Allied shipping.", "In 1941, Ju 87 operations in North Africa were dominated by the Siege of Tobruk, which lasted for over seven months.", "It served during the Battle of Gazala and the First Battle of El Alamein, as well as the decisive Second Battle of El Alamein, which drove Rommel back to Tunisia.", "As the tide turned and Allied air power grew in the autumn of 1942, the Ju 87 became very vulnerable and losses were heavy.", "The entry of the Americans into North Africa with the Operation Torch invasion of French North Africa made the situation far worse; the Stuka was obsolete in what was now a fighter-bomber's war.", "The Bf 109 and Fw 190 could at least fight enemy fighters on equal terms after dropping their ordnance but the Stuka could not.", "The Ju 87's vulnerability was demonstrated on 11 November 1942, when 15 Ju 87Ds were shot down by United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Curtiss P-40Fs in minutes.", "According to Ring and Shores there were 15 Ju 87s on the mission, 2 Squadron SAAF shot down eight with four probable and three were shot down by 57th Fighter Group.", "Two South-African and one American lost shot down by German fighter escort.", "Three Stuka crews were captured, one was wounded.By 1943, the Allies enjoyed air supremacy in North Africa.", "The Ju 87s ventured out in ''Rotte'' strength only, often jettisoning their bombs at the first sight of enemy aircraft.", "Adding to this trouble, the German fighters had only enough fuel to cover the Ju 87s on takeoff, their most vulnerable point.", "After that, the Stukas were on their own.The dive bombers continued operations in southern Europe; after the Italian surrender in September 1943, the Ju 87 participated in the last campaign-sized victory over the Western Allies, the Dodecanese Campaign.", "The Dodecanese Islands had been occupied by the British; the Luftwaffe committed 75 Stukas of StG 3 based in Megara (I./StG 3) and Argos (II.StG 3; from 17 October on Rhodes), to recover the islands.", "With the RAF bases away, the Ju 87 helped the German landing forces rapidly conquer the islands.", "On 5 October the minelayer ''Lagnano'' was sunk along with a patrol vessel, a steam ship and the auxiliary landing ship ''Porto Di Roma''.", "On 24 October Ju 87s sank the landing craft LCT-115 and cargo ship ''Taganrog'' at Samos.", "On 31 October the light cruiser ''Aurora'' was put out of action for a year.", "The light cruisers ''Penelope'' and ''Carlisle'' were badly damaged by StG 3 and the destroyer ''Panther'' was also sunk by Ju 87s before the capitulation of the Allied force.", "It proved to be the Stuka's final victory against the British.====Eastern front=========Barbarossa; 1941=====The Eastern Front brought new challenges.", "A Ju 87 B-2 is fitted with ski undercarriage to cope with the winter weather, 22 December 1941.On 22 June 1941, the Wehrmacht commenced Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union.", "The Luftwaffe order of battle of 22 June 1941 contained four dive bomber wings.", "''VIII.", "Fliegerkorps'' was equipped with units ''Stab'', II.", "and III./StG 1.Also included were ''Stab'', I., II.", "and III.", "of ''Sturzkampfgeschwader 2'' Immelmann.", "Attached to ''II.", "Fliegerkorps'', under the command of ''General der Flieger'' Bruno Loerzer, were ''Stab'', I., II.", "and III.", "of StG 77.", "''Luftflotte 5'', under the command of ''Generaloberst'' Hans-Jürgen Stumpff, operating from Norway's Arctic Circle, were allotted IV.", "''Gruppe'' (St)/''Lehrgeschwader 1'' (''LG 1'').The first Stuka loss on the Soviet-German front occurred early at 03:40–03:47 in the morning of 22 June.", "While being escorted by Bf 109s from JG 51 to attack Brest Fortress, ''Oberleutnant'' Karl Führing of StG 77 was shot down by an I-153.The dive bomber wing suffered only two losses on the opening day of Barbarossa.", "As a result of the Luftwaffe's attention, the Soviet Air Force in the western Soviet Union was nearly destroyed.", "The official report claimed 1,489 Soviet aircraft destroyed.", "Even Göring was unable to believe such a high total and ordered this checked.", "After picking their way through the wreckage across the front, Luftwaffe officers found that the tally exceeded 2,000.In the next two days, the Soviets reported the loss of another 1,922 aircraft.The Ju 87 took a huge toll on Soviet ground forces, helping to break up counterattacks of Soviet armour, eliminating strongpoints and disrupting the enemy supply lines.", "A demonstration of the Stukas effectiveness occurred on 5 July, when StG 77 knocked out 18 trains and 500 vehicles.", "As the 1st and 2nd Panzer Groups forced bridgeheads across the Dnieper river and closed in on Kyiv, the Ju 87s again rendered invaluable support.", "On 13 September, Stukas from StG 1 destroyed the rail network in the vicinity as well as inflicting heavy casualties on escaping Red Army columns, for the loss of one Ju 87.On 23 September, Rudel (who was to become the most decorated serviceman in the Wehrmacht) of StG 2, helped sink the Soviet battleship ''Marat'', during an air attack on Kronstadt harbour near Leningrad, which was struck by two bombs.", "During this action, ''Leutnant'' Egbert Jaeckel sank the destroyer ''Minsk'', while the destroyer ''Steregushchiy'' and submarine ''M-74'' were also sunk.", "The Stukas also crippled the battleship ''Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya'' and the destroyers ''Silnyy'' and ''Grozyashchiy'' in exchange for two Ju 87s shot down.Elsewhere on the Eastern front, the Junkers assisted Army Group Centre in its drive toward Moscow.", "From 13 to 22 December 420 vehicles and 23 tanks were destroyed by StG 77, greatly improving the morale of the German infantry, who were by now on the defensive.", "StG 77 finished the campaign as the most effective dive bomber wing.", "It had destroyed 2,401 vehicles, 234 tanks, 92 artillery batteries and 21 trains for the loss of 25 Ju 87s to hostile action.", "At the end of Barbarossa, StG 1 had lost 60 Stukas in aerial combat and one on the ground.", "StG 2 lost 39 Ju 87s in the air and two on the ground, StG 77 lost 29 of their dive-bombers in the air and three on the ground (25 to enemy action).", "IV.", "(St)/LG1, operating from Norway, lost 24 Ju 87s, all in aerial combat.=====Fall Blau to Stalingrad; 1942=====Ju 87B over StalingradIn early 1942, the Ju 87s gave the Heer yet more valuable support.", "On 29 December 1941, the Soviet 44th Army landed on the Kerch Peninsula.", "The Luftwaffe was only able to dispatch meager reinforcements of four bomber groups (''Kampfgruppen'') and two dive bomber groups belonging to StG 77.With air superiority, the Ju 87s operated with impunity.", "In the first 10 days of the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula, half the landing force was destroyed, while sea lanes were blocked by the Stukas inflicting heavy losses on Soviet shipping.", "The Ju 87's effectiveness against Soviet armour was not yet potent.", "Later versions of the T-34 tank could withstand Stuka attacks in general, unless a direct hit was scored but the Soviet 44th Army had only obsolescent types with thin armour which were nearly all destroyed.", "During the Battle of Sevastopol, the Stukas repeatedly bombed the trapped Soviet forces.", "Some Ju 87 pilots flew up to 300 sorties against the Soviet defenders.", "StG 77 (Luftflotte 4) flew 7,708 combat sorties dropping 3,537 tonnes of bombs on the city.", "Their efforts help secure the capitulation of Soviet forces on 4 July.For the German summer offensive, ''Fall Blau'', the Luftwaffe had concentrated 1,800 aircraft into ''Luftflotte 4'' making it the largest and most powerful air command in the world.", "The ''Stukawaffe'' strength stood at 151.During the Battle of Stalingrad, Stukas flew thousands of sorties against Soviet positions in the city.", "StG 1, 2 and 77 flew 320 sorties on 14 October 1942.As the German Sixth Army pushed the Soviets into a 1,000-metre enclave on the west bank of the Volga River, 1,208 Stuka sorties were flown against this small strip of land.", "The intense air attack, though causing horrific losses on Soviet units, failed to destroy them.", "The Luftwaffe's Stuka force made a maximum effort during this phase of the war.", "They flew an average of 500 sorties per day and caused heavy losses among Soviet forces, losing an average of only one Stuka per day.", "The Battle of Stalingrad marked the high point in the fortunes of the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka.", "As the strength of the Soviet Air Forces grew, they gradually wrested control of the skies from the Luftwaffe.", "From this point onward, Stuka losses increased.=====Kursk and decline; 1943=====The Stuka was also heavily involved in Operation Citadel, the Kursk offensive.", "The Luftwaffe committed I, II, III./St.G 1 and III./StG 3 under the command of Luftflotte 6.I., II, III.", "of StGs 2 and 3 were committed under the command of ''Fliegerkorps'' VIII.", "Rudel's cannon-equipped Ju 87 Gs had a devastating effect on Soviet armour at Orel and Belgorod.", "The Ju 87s participated in a huge aerial counter-offensive lasting from 16 to 31 July against a Soviet offensive at Khotynets and saved two German armies from encirclement, reducing the attacking Soviet 11th Guards Army to 33 tanks by 20 July.", "The Soviet offensive had been completely halted from the air although losses were considerable.", "Fliegerkorps VIII lost eight Ju 87s on 8 July, six on 9 July, six on 10 July and another eight on 11 July.", "The Stuka arm also lost eight of their Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross holders.", "StG 77 lost 24 Ju 87s in the period 5–31 July (StG had lost 23 in July–December 1942), while StG 2 lost another 30 aircraft in the same period.", "In September 1943, three of the Stuka units were re-equipped with the Fw 190F and G (ground attack versions) and began to be renamed ''Schlachtgeschwader'' (attack wings).", "In the face of overwhelming air opposition, the dive-bomber required heavy protection from German fighters to counter Soviet fighters.", "Some units like SG 2 ''Immelmann'' continued to operate with great success throughout 1943–45, operating the Ju 87 G variants equipped with 37 mm cannons, which became tank killers, although in increasingly small numbers.Ju 87 Ds over the Eastern Front, 22 December 1943In the wake of the defeat at Kursk, Ju 87s played a vital defensive role on the southern wing of the Eastern Front.", "To combat the Luftwaffe, the Soviets could deploy 3,000 fighter aircraft.", "As a result, the Stukas suffered heavily.", "SG 77 lost 30 Ju 87s in August 1943 as did SG 2 ''Immelmann'', which also reported the loss of 30 aircraft in combat operations.", "Despite these losses, Ju 87s helped the XXIX Army Corps break out of an encirclement near the Sea of Azov.", "The Battle of Kiev also included substantial use of the Ju 87 units, although again, unsuccessful in stemming the advances.", "Stuka units were with the loss of air superiority, becoming vulnerable on the ground as well.", "Some Stuka aces were lost this way.", "In the aftermath of Kursk, Stuka strength fell to 184 aircraft in total.", "This was well below 50 per cent of the required strength.", "On 18 October 1943, StG 1, 2, 3, 5 and 77 were renamed ''Schlachtgeschwader'' (SG) wings, reflecting their ground-attack role, as these combat wings were now also using ground-attack aircraft, such as the Fw 190F-series aircraft.", "The Luftwaffe's dive-bomber units had ceased to exist.A few Ju 87s were also retained for anti-shipping operations in the Black Sea, a role it had proved successful in when operating in the Mediterranean.", "In October 1943, this became evident again when StG 3 carried out several attacks against the Soviet Black Sea Fleet.", "On 6 October 1943 the most powerful flotilla in the fleet comprising the ''Leningrad'' class destroyers ''Kharkov'', ''Besposhchadny'' and ''Sposobny'' were caught and sunk by dive-bombing.", "After the disaster, Josef Stalin decreed that no more ships were to pass within range of German aircraft without his personal permission.=====Operation Bagration to Berlin 1944–1945=====Towards the end of the war, as the Allies gained air supremacy, the Stuka was being replaced by ground-attack versions of the Fw 190.By early 1944, the number of Ju 87 units and operational aircraft terminally declined.", "For the Soviet summer offensive, Operation Bagration, 12 Ju 87 groups and five mixed groups (including Fw 190s) were on the Luftwaffe's order of battle on 26 June 1944.Gefechtsverband Kuhlmey, a mixed aircraft unit, which included large numbers of Stuka dive bombers, was rushed to the Finnish front in the summer of 1944 and was instrumental in halting the Soviet fourth strategic offensive.", "The unit claimed 200 Soviet tanks and 150 Soviet aircraft destroyed for 41 losses.", "By 31 January 1945, only 104 Ju 87s remained operational with their units.", "The other mixed ''Schlacht'' units contained a further 70 Ju 87s and Fw 190s between them.", "Chronic fuel shortages kept the Stukas grounded and sorties decreased until the end of the war in May 1945.In the final months of the war the ground attack groups were still able to impose operational constraints upon the enemy.", "Most notably the aircraft participated in the defence of Berlin.", "On 12 January 1945 the 1st Belorussian Front initiated the Vistula–Oder Offensive.", "The offensive made rapid progress.", "The Soviets eventually outran their air support, which was unable to use forward, quagmire-filled, airfields.", "The Germans, who had fallen back on airbases with good facilities and concrete runways, were able to mount uninterrupted attacks against Soviet army columns.", "Reminiscent of the early years, the ''Luftwaffe'' was able to inflict high losses largely unopposed.", "Over 800 vehicles were destroyed within two weeks.", "In the first three days of February 1945, 2,000 vehicles and 51 tanks were claimed to be lost to German air attacks.", "The Ju 87 participated in these intense battles in small numbers.", "It was the largest concentration of German air power since 1940 and even in February 1945 the Germans were able to achieve and challenge for air superiority on the Eastern Front.", "The air offensive was instrumental in saving Berlin, albeit only for three months.", "The effort exhausted German fuel reserves.", "The contribution of the Ju 87 was exemplified by Rudel, who claimed 13 enemy tanks on 8 February 1945.Post-war research revealed that generally, bombing pilots were far less effective than they claimed.", "The German Luftwaffe, in particular, did not do a scientific analysis of the Ju 87 pilot claims in 1939–1945 but instead relied on pre-war tests and assumptions, contrary to the Allies who did such research during the war, which showed that pilots, for a number of reasons, misjudged most of their tank kills and revealed the ineffectiveness of dive-bombers as an anti-tank weapon, except for the suppression effect of the bombing." ], [ "Operators", "; * Bulgarian Air Force - Bulgaria received 12 Ju 87 R-2 and R-4s and 40 Ju 87 D-5s.", "; * Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske Croatia received Ju 87s, delivered to the ''Lucko'' bomber unit in January 1944.; Czechoslovakia* The Czechoslovakian Air Force operated captured aircraft postwar, five Ju 87 D-5s registrations OK-XAA – OK-XAE - OK-KAC.", "These were operated by the Czechs under the “B-37\" designation.", "; * Luftwaffe; * Royal Hungarian Air Force - received 33/34 Ju 87 D-3/D-5s and 11/12 B-1 and B-2s.", "; * Regia Aeronautica - ''Regia Aeronautica'' received a delivery of 46 Ju 87 D-2 and D-3 dive bombers and some Ju 87 R-2s.", "; * Imperial Japanese Army Air Force - Purchased two aircraft from Germany for evaluation.", "Japan received the Ju 87 A-1 (called a Ju 87 K-1);* Royal Romanian Air Force - 90 Ju 87 D-3 and D-5s.", "; Slovak Republic* Slovak Air Force - Operated 6 Ju 87 D-1s and 5 more Ju 87s of an unknown variant from 1943.; Spain * Spanish Air Force; * Royal Air Force tested various captured variants during and after the war.", "; * United States Army Air Forces tested various captured variants during and after the war.", "; * SFR Yugoslav Air Force operated captured aircraft." ], [ "Surviving aircraft", "Two intact Ju 87s survive, with a third being restored:;Ju 87 G-2, Werk Nr.", "''494083''Ju 87G-2 ''494083'' displayed at RAF Chivenor in 1970 wearing inaccurate wing code W8-A, with \"W8\" belonging to a Messerschmitt Me 321 cargo glider unit A later, ground-attack variant, this is displayed at the Royal Air Force Museum in London; it was captured by British forces at Eggebek, Schleswig-Holstein in May 1945.It is thought to have been built in 1943–1944 as a D-5 before being rebuilt as a G-2 variant, possibly by fitting G-2 outer wings to a D-5 airframe.", "The wings have the hard-points for ''Bordkanone BK 3,7'' gun-pods, but these are not fitted.", "It was one of 12 captured German aircraft selected by the British for museum preservation and assigned to the Air Historical Branch.", "The aircraft was stored and displayed at various RAF sites until 1978, when it was moved to the RAF Museum.", "In 1967, permission was given to use the aircraft in the film ''Battle of Britain'' and it was repainted and modified to resemble a 1940 variant of the Ju 87.The engine was found to be in excellent condition and there was little difficulty in starting it, but returning the aircraft to airworthiness was considered too costly for the filmmakers and, ultimately, models were used in the film to represent Stukas.", "In 1998, the film modifications were removed, and the aircraft returned to the original G-2 configuration.", ";Ju 87 R-2/Trop.", "Werk Nr.", "''5954''Ju 87 R-2/Trop ''5954'' at the Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago (2014)This aircraft is displayed in the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry.", "It was abandoned in North Africa and found by British forces in 1941.The Ju 87 was donated by the British government and sent to the US during the war.", "It was fully restored in 1974 by the EAA of Wisconsin.One Ju 87 is under restoration:;Ju 87 R-4, Werk Nr.", "''6234'' (incorporating ''857509'')One aircraft is being restored to airworthy condition from two wrecks, owned by Paul Allen's Flying Heritage & Combat Armor Museum.", "The project takes its identification from Ju 87 R-4 Werk Nr.", "''6234'', which was built in 1941 and served with Stukageschwader 5.Shot down in April 1942 on a mission to bomb Murmansk, it was recovered in 1992.The wreck was purchased by New Zealand collector Tim Wallis, who originally planned for a rebuild to airworthy status, and later went to the Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin.", "Parts from a second airframe, a Ju 87 R-2 ''Werknummer'' 857509 which served bearing the ''Stammkennzeichen'' of code LI+KU from 1./St.G.5, and was recovered to the United Kingdom in 1998, have also been incorporated.", "The project was displayed in November 2018 and the restoration was stated to take between 18 months and two years to complete.", "Work will be conducted in a display hangar to allow the public to observe the work underway.Other aircraft survive as wreckage at or recovered from crash sites:* A ‘Stuka’ wreck was discovered in 2014 near the island of Žirje in Croatia.", "It belonged to JU 87R-2 group from 239 squad of the Italian Royal Air Force.", "On April 12, 1941, during the Balkans Campaign in World War II, it was attacking the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's torpedo boats together with two more Stukas when it was shot down.", "Today the wreck is a visiting site for many scuba divers, lying at a depth of 28 meters.", "* The Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin has the wreckage of two complete aircraft that were recovered from separate crash sites near Murmansk in 1990 and 1994.These wrecks were purchased from New Zealand collector Tim Wallis, who originally planned for the remains to be restored to airworthy, in 1996.", "* The Sinsheim Auto & Technik Museum displays the remains of an aircraft that crashed near Saint-Tropez in 1944 and was raised from the seabed in 1989.", "* In October 2006, a Ju 87 D-3/Trop.", "was recovered underwater, near Rhodes.", "The aircraft is now in the Hellenic Air Force Museum* Junkers Ju 87 B-2, Code 98+01, Werk Nr.", "870406, is on display at the Yugoslav Aeronautical Museum, Belgrade.", "The parts of three others have been found (S2+??", "StG 77; H4+??", "''Luftlandegeschwader 1''; 5B+??", "''Nachtschlachtgruppe 10'')* Junkers Ju 87 B-3 Werk Nr.", "''110757'' found in the village Krościenko Wyżne in Poland in October 2015.File:Junkers JU 87 ‘Stuka’ airplane wreck from World War II.jpg|Ju 87 underwater wreck, Adriatic sea, Croatia (2021)File:Junkers Ju 87 wreck Auto- und Technikmuseum Sinsheim.jpg|Ju 87 wreck, Sinsheim Auto & Technik Museum (2008)File:Ju 87 Berliner Technikmuseum.JPG|Deutsches Technikmuseum, with a veteran gunner speaking of his combat in North AfricaFile:Luftwaffe Ju-87 \"Stuka\" Hellenic Air Museum, Tatoi-Dekelia.jpg|The Ju 87 at the Hellenic Air Force Museum, GreeceFile:Junkers 87 D G-2, RAF Museum London.jpg|Junkers 87 D G-2, RAF Museum London=== Replicas ===Replicas at 7/10 scale were built by Louis Langhurst and Richard H. Kurzenberger.", "Langhurst's aircraft ended up with the Commemorative Air Force.", "Kurzenburger's was written off in a crash that killed the pilot in 2000." ], [ "Specifications (Ju 87D-1)", "Junkers Ju 87B-2" ], [ "In popular culture", "According to Richard King, the Jericho trumpets sound \"is often used in movies and TV shows as the classic dive bomber sound, plane crashing sound, or for an anvil dropping on Wile E. Coyote’s head\"." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * **" ], [ "Further reading", "* de Zeng, H.L., D.G.", "Stanket and E.J.", "Creek.", "''Bomber Units of the Luftwaffe 1933–1945: A Reference Source'', Volume 1.London: Ian Allan Publishing, 2007.", "* de Zeng, H.L., D.G.", "Stanket and E.J.", "Creek.", "''Bomber Units of the Luftwaffe 1933–1945: A Reference Source'', Volume 2.London: Ian Allan Publishing, 2007.", "* Eisenbach, Hans Peter.", "''Fronteinsätze eines Stuka-Fliegers: Mittelmeer und Ostfront 1943/1944'' (in German).", "Berlin: Helios Verlag, 2009." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Book of Jarom" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The Book of Jarom''' () is the fifth book in the Book of Mormon.", "According to the text it was written by Jarom, who was the son of Enos and a descendant of Jacob, the brother of the prophet Nephi.The Book of Jarom is very short, consisting of only fifteen verses covering the years from 399 to 361 BC.", "Jarom was the son of Enos, and the grandson of Jacob, and the great-grandson of Lehi.", "He kept the commandment of his father to preserve the plates, and in turn he commanded his son Omni to preserve the plates.", "In the meantime, he inscribed these few verses on them." ], [ "Narrative", "Jarom declares that he will not write his prophesies and revelations because there is nothing he can add to the plan of salvation that his forefathers didn't already write first.", "Besides which, Jarom explains, there is not enough room left on the plates to write very much.", "But Jarom recommends that his readers go to the other plates that have all the records of the wars between the Nephites and Lamanites.Jarom says most of the Nephites have stiff necks (i.e., like a stubborn ox which will not turn), but God is merciful to them and he has not destroyed them yet.", "And there are even some Nephites who do not have stiff necks, and they have communion with the Holy Spirit.", "Despite having stiff necks, the Nephites have grown in population and keep the law of Moses.", "At the same time, the Nephites withstand numerous assaults by the Lamanites, and fortify their cities against them." ], [ "Record Legacy", "The record (a metal book written on sheets of gold) was passed through generations.", "Nephi, who wrote First and Second Nephi, forged the plates to write prophecies and spiritual teachings.", "Nephi passed them to his brother Jacob (Jacob 1:1-4), who passed them to his son Enos (Jacob 7:27), who passed them to his son Jarom (Jarom 1:1).", "(See Omni for more generations)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''The Book of Jarom'' from The official website of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Keanu Reeves" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Keanu Charles Reeves''' ( ; born September 2, 1964) is a Canadian actor.", "Born in Beirut and raised in Toronto, he made his acting debut in the Canadian television series ''Hangin' In'' (1984), before making his feature film debut in ''Youngblood'' (1986).", "Reeves had his breakthrough role in the science fiction comedy ''Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure'' (1989), and he reprised his role in its sequels.", "He gained praise for playing a hustler in the independent drama ''My Own Private Idaho'' (1991) and established himself as an action hero with leading roles in ''Point Break'' (1991) and ''Speed'' (1994).Following several box office failures, Reeves's performance in the horror film ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997) was well received.", "Greater stardom came for playing Neo in the science fiction series ''The Matrix'', beginning in 1999.He played John Constantine in ''Constantine'' (2005) and starred in the romantic drama ''The Lake House'' (2006), the science fiction thriller ''The Day the Earth Stood Still'' (2008), and the crime thriller ''Street Kings'' (2008).", "Following another commercially down period, Reeves made a successful comeback by playing the titular assassin in the ''John Wick'' film series, beginning in 2014.", "''Time'' named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2022.In addition to acting, Reeves has directed the film ''Man of Tai Chi'' (2013).", "He plays bass guitar for the band Dogstar and pursued other endeavours such as writing and philanthropy." ], [ "Early life", "Reeves was born in Beirut, Lebanon, on September 2, 1964, the son of Patricia (), a costume designer and performer, and Samuel Nowlin Reeves Jr. His mother is English, originating from Essex.", "His American father is from Hawaii, and is of Native Hawaiian, Chinese, English, Irish, and Portuguese descent.", "Reeves's paternal grandmother is of Chinese and Hawaiian descent.", "His mother was working in Beirut when she met his father, who abandoned his wife and family when Reeves was three years old.", "Reeves last met his father on the Hawaiian island of Kauai when he was 13.After his parents divorced in 1966, his mother moved the family to Sydney, and then to New York City, where she married Paul Aaron, a Broadway and Hollywood director, in 1970.The couple moved to Toronto and divorced in 1971.When Reeves was nine, he took part in a theatre production of ''Damn Yankees''.", "Aaron remained close to Reeves, offering him advice and recommending him a job at the Hedgerow Theatre in Pennsylvania.", "Reeves's mother married Robert Miller, a rock music promoter, in 1976; the couple divorced in 1980.Reeves and his sisters grew up primarily in the Yorkville neighbourhood of Toronto, with a nanny caring for them frequently.", "Because of his grandmother's Chinese ethnicity, Reeves grew up with Chinese art, furniture, and cuisine.", "Reeves watched British comedy shows such as ''The Two Ronnies'', and his mother imparted English manners that he has maintained into adulthood.Describing himself as a \"private kid\", Reeves attended four different high schools, including the Etobicoke School of the Arts, from which he was expelled.", "Reeves said he was expelled because he was \"just a little too rambunctious and shot my mouth off once too often...", "I was not generally the most well-oiled machine in the school\".", "Reeves has dyslexia and has said, \"Because I had trouble reading, I wasn't a good student\".", "At De La Salle College, he was a successful ice hockey goalkeeper.", "Reeves had aspirations to play for the Canadian Olympic team but decided to become an actor when he was 15.After leaving De La Salle College, he attended Avondale Secondary Alternative School, which allowed him to get an education while working as an actor.", "Reeves dropped out of high school when he was 17.He obtained a green card through his American stepfather and moved to Los Angeles three years later.", "Reeves holds only Canadian citizenship." ], [ "Career", "===1984–1990: Early work===Reeves in 1986In 1984, Reeves was a correspondent for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) youth television program ''Going Great''.", "That same year, he made his acting debut in an episode of the television series, called ''Hangin' In''.", "In 1985, he played Mercutio in a stage production of ''Romeo and Juliet'' at the Leah Posluns Theatre in North York, Ontario.", "He made further appearances on stage, including Brad Fraser's cult hit ''Wolfboy'' in Toronto.", "He also appeared in a Coca-Cola commercial in 1983, and in the National Film Board of Canada (NFB) coming-of-age, short film ''One Step Away''.Reeves later said that, when he was looking for work in the mid-1980s, his agents advised him to go by a different name because his first name was \"too ethnic.\"", "He briefly initialized his first and middle name and attended auditions as \"K. C.\" or \"Casey\" Reeves before reverting to Keanu.Reeves made a foray into television films in 1986, including NBC's ''Babes in Toyland, Act of Vengeance'' and ''Brotherhood of Justice''.", "He made his first motion picture appearances in Peter Markle's ''Youngblood'' (1986), in which he played a goalkeeper, and in the low-budget romantic drama, ''Flying''.", "He was cast as Matt in ''River's Edge'', a crime drama about a group of high school friends dealing with a murder case, loosely based on the 1981 murder of Marcy Renee Conrad.", "The film premiered in 1986 at the Toronto International Film Festival to a largely positive response.", "Janet Maslin of ''The New York Times'' describes the performances of the young cast as \"natural and credible\", with Reeves being described as \"affecting and sympathetic\".Towards the end of the 1980s, Reeves starred in several dramas aimed at teen audiences, including as the lead in ''The Night Before'' (1988), a comedy starring opposite Lori Loughlin, ''The Prince of Pennsylvania'' (1988) and ''Permanent Record'' (1988).", "Although the latter received mixed reviews, ''Variety'' magazine praised Reeves's performance, \"which opens up nicely as the drama progresses\".", "His other acting efforts included a supporting role in ''Dangerous Liaisons'' (1988), which earned seven nominations at the 61st Academy Awards, winning three: Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Costume Design, and Best Production Design.", "This was followed by ''Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure'' (1989), in which he portrays a slacker who travels through time with a friend (portrayed by Alex Winter), to assemble historical figures for a school presentation.", "The film was generally well received by critics and grossed $40.5 million at the worldwide box office.", "Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 79% approval rating with the critical consensus: \"Keanu Reeves and Alex Winter are just charming, goofy, and silly enough to make this fluffy time-travel Adventure work\".In 1989, Reeves starred in the comedy-drama ''Parenthood'' directed by Ron Howard.", "Nick Hilditch of the BBC gave the film three out of five stars, calling it a \"feelgood movie\" with an \"extensive and entertaining ensemble cast\".", "In 1990, Reeves gave two acting performances; he portrayed an incompetent hitman in the black comedy ''I Love You to Death'', and played Martin, a radio station employee in the comedy ''Tune in Tomorrow''.", "He also appeared in Paula Abdul's music video for ''Rush Rush'' which featured a ''Rebel Without a Cause'' motif, with him in the James Dean role.===1991–1994: Breakthrough with adult roles===In 1991, Reeves starred in ''Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey'', a sequel to ''Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure'', with his co-star Alex Winter.", "Michael Wilmington of the ''Los Angeles Times'' wrote that the sequel was \"more imaginative, more opulent, wilder and freer, more excitingly visualized\", praising the actors for their \"fuller\" performances.", "Film critic Roger Ebert thought it was \"a riot of visual invention and weird humour that works on its chosen sub-moronic level ...", "It's the kind of movie where you start out snickering in spite of yourself, and end up actually admiring the originality that went into creating this hallucinatory slapstick\".", "The rest of 1991 marked a significant transition for Reeves's career as he undertook adult roles.", "Co-starring with River Phoenix as a street hustler in the adventure ''My Own Private Idaho'', the characters embark on a journey of personal discovery.", "The story was written by Gus Van Sant, and is loosely based on Shakespeare's ''Henry IV, Part 1'', ''Henry IV, Part 2'', and ''Henry V''.", "The film premiered at the 48th Venice International Film Festival, followed by a theatrical release in the United States on September 29, 1991.The film earned $6.4 million at the box office.", "''My Own Private Idaho'' was positively received, with Owen Gleiberman of ''Entertainment Weekly'' describing the film as \"a postmodern road movie with a mood of free-floating, trance-like despair... a rich, audacious experience\".", "''The New York Times'' complimented Reeves and Phoenix for their insightful performances.Reeves starred alongside Patrick Swayze, Lori Petty and Gary Busey in the action thriller ''Point Break'' (1991), directed by Kathryn Bigelow.", "He plays an undercover FBI agent tasked with investigating the identities of a group of bank robbers.", "To prepare for the film, Reeves and his co-stars took surfing lessons with professional surfer Dennis Jarvis in Hawaii; Reeves had never surfed before.", "Upon its release, ''Point Break'' was generally well-received, and a commercial success, earning $83.5 million at the box office.", "Reeves's performance was praised by ''The New York Times'' for \"considerable discipline and range\", adding, \"He moves easily between the buttoned-down demeanour that suits a police procedural story and the loose-jointed manner of his comic roles\".", "Writing for ''The Washington Post'', Hal Hinson called Reeves the \"perfect choice\" and praised the surfing scenes, but opined that \"the filmmakers have their characters make the most ludicrously illogical choices imaginable\".", "At the 1992 MTV Movie Awards, Reeves won the Most Desirable Male award.In 1991, Reeves developed an interest in a music career; he formed an alternative rock band called Dogstar, consisting of members Robert Mailhouse, Gregg Miller and Bret Domrose.", "Reeves played the bass guitar.", "A year later, he played Jonathan Harker in Francis Ford Coppola's Gothic horror ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'', based on Stoker's 1897 novel ''Dracula''.", "Starring alongside Gary Oldman, Winona Ryder and Anthony Hopkins, the film was critically and commercially successful.", "It grossed $215.8 million worldwide.", "For his role, Reeves was required to speak with an English accent, which drew some ridicule; \"Overly posh and entirely ridiculous, Reeves's performance is as painful as it is hilarious\", wrote Limara Salt of Virgin Media.", "In a retrospective interview in 2015, director Coppola said, \"Reeves tried so hard ...", "He wanted to do it perfectly and in trying to do it perfectly it came off as stilted\".", "''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' was nominated for four Academy Awards, winning three in Best Costume Design, Best Sound Editing and Best Makeup.", "The film also received four nominations at the British Academy Film Awards.In 1993, he had a role in ''Much Ado About Nothing'', based on Shakespeare's play of the same name.", "The film received positive reviews, although Reeves was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor.", "''The New Republic'' magazine thought his casting was \"unfortunate\" because of his amateur performance.", "In that same year, he starred in two more drama films, ''Even Cowgirls Get the Blues'' and ''Little Buddha'', both of which garnered a mixed-to-negative reception.", "''The Independent'' critic gave ''Little Buddha'' a mixed review but opined that Reeves's part as a prince was \"credible\".", "The film also left an impression on Reeves; he later said, \"When I played this innocent prince who starts to suspect something when he has the first revelations about old age, sickness and death, it hit me.", "... That lesson has never left me.", "\"He starred in the action thriller ''Speed'' (1994) alongside Sandra Bullock and Dennis Hopper.", "He plays police officer Jack Traven, who must prevent a bus from exploding by keeping its speed above 50 mph.", "''Speed'' was the directorial debut of Dutch director Jan de Bont.", "Several actors were considered for the lead role, but Reeves was chosen because Bont was impressed with his ''Point Break'' performance.", "To look the part, Reeves shaved all his hair off and spent two months in the gym to gain muscle mass.", "During production, Reeves's friend River Phoenix (and co-star in ''My Own Private Idaho'') died, resulting in adjustments to the filming schedule to allow him to mourn.", "''Speed'' was released on June 10 to a critically acclaimed response.", "Gene Siskel of the ''Chicago Tribune'' lauded Reeves, calling him \"absolutely charismatic ... giving a performance juiced with joy as he jumps through elevator shafts ... and atop a subway train\".", "David Ansen, writing for ''Newsweek'', summarized ''Speed'' as, \"Relentless without being overbearing, this is one likely blockbuster that doesn't feel too big for its britches.", "It's a friendly juggernaut\".", "The film grossed $350 million from a $30 million budget and won two Academy Awards in 1995Best Sound Editing and Best Sound.===1995–1998: Continued acting efforts===Reeves's next leading role came in the 1995 cyberpunk action thriller ''Johnny Mnemonic,'' directed by artist Robert Longo and based on the 1981 story of the same name by William Gibson.", "Set in 2021, it is about a man who has a cybernetic brain implant and must deliver a data package before he dies or is killed by the yakuza.", "The film received mainly negative reviews and critics felt Reeves was \"woefully miscast\".", "Roger Ebert opined that the film is one of the \"great goofy gestures of recent cinema, a movie that doesn't deserve one nanosecond of serious analysis but has a kind of idiotic grandeur that makes you almost forgive it.\"", "As part of the film studio's marketing efforts, a CD-ROM video game was also released.He next appeared in the romantic drama ''A Walk in the Clouds'' (1995), which also garnered mixed-to-negative reviews.", "Reeves plays a young soldier returning home from World War II, trying to settle down with a woman he married impulsively just before he enlisted.", "Film critic Mick LaSalle opined that \"''A Walk in the Clouds'' is for the most part a beautiful, well-acted and emotionally rich picture\", whereas Hal Hinson from ''The Washington Post'' said, \"The film has the syrupy, Kodak magic-moment look of a Bo Derek movie, and pretty much the same level of substance\".Besides film work, Reeves retreated briefly to the theatre playing Prince Hamlet in a 1995 Manitoba Theatre Centre production of ''Hamlet'' in Winnipeg, Manitoba.", "''The Sunday Times'' critic Roger Lewis believed his performance, writing he \"quite embodied the innocence, the splendid fury, the animal grace of the leaps and bounds, the emotional violence, that form the Prince of Denmark ...", "He is one of the top three Hamlets I have seen, for a simple reason: he ''is'' Hamlet\".Reeves was soon drawn to science fiction roles, appearing in ''Chain Reaction'' (1996) with co-stars Morgan Freeman, Rachel Weisz, Fred Ward, Kevin Dunn and Brian Cox.", "He plays a researcher of a green energy project, who has to go on the run when he is framed for murder.", "''Chain Reaction'' was not a critical success and gained mostly a negative reaction; review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave it a rating of 16% and described it as \"a man-on-the-run thriller that mostly sticks to generic formula\".", "Reeves's film choices after ''Chain Reaction'' were also critical disappointments.", "He starred in the independent crime comedy ''Feeling Minnesota'' (1996), with Vincent D'Onofrio and Cameron Diaz, which was described as \"shoddily assembled, and fundamentally miscast\" by Rotten Tomatoes.", "In that year, he turned down an offer to star in ''Speed 2: Cruise Control'', despite being offered a salary of $12 million.", "According to Reeves, this decision caused 20th Century Fox to sever ties with him for a decade.Instead, Reeves toured with his band Dogstar, and appeared in the drama ''The Last Time I Committed Suicide'' (1997), based on a 1950 letter written by Neal Cassady to Jack Kerouac.", "Reeves's performance gained mixed reviews; Paul Tatara of CNN called him \"void of talent ... here he is again, reciting his lines as if they're non-related words strung together as a memory exercise\", whereas ''Empire'' magazine thought \"Reeves gives the nearest thing to a performance in his career as the enthusiastic feckless drunk\".", "He starred in the 1997 supernatural horror ''The Devil's Advocate'' alongside Al Pacino and Charlize Theron; Reeves agreed to a pay cut of several million dollars so that the film studio could afford to hire Pacino.", "Based on Andrew Neiderman's novel of the same name, the feature is about a successful young lawyer invited to New York City to work for a major firm, who discovers the owner of the firm is a devil.", "''The Devil's Advocate'' attracted positive reviews from critics.", "Film critic James Berardinelli called the film \"highly enjoyable\" and wrote, \"There are times when Reeves lacks the subtlety that would have made this a more multi-layered portrayal, but it's nevertheless a solid job\".===1999–2004: Stardom with ''The Matrix'' franchise and comedies===The Day the Earth Stood Still'' in Mexico, 2008|alt=Reeves promoting The Day the Earth Stood Still in Mexico, 2008In 1999, Reeves starred in the critically acclaimed science fiction film ''The Matrix'', the first installment in what would become ''The Matrix'' franchise.", "Reeves portrays computer programmer Thomas Anderson, a hacker using the alias \"Neo\", who discovers humanity is trapped inside a simulated reality created by intelligent machines.", "To prepare for the film, which was written and directed by the Wachowskis, Reeves had read Kevin Kelly's ''Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems, and the Economic World'', and Dylan Evans's ideas on evolutionary psychology.", "The principal cast underwent months of intense training with martial arts choreographer Yuen Woo-ping to prepare for the fight scenes.", "''The Matrix'' proved to be a box office success; several critics considered it to be one of the best science fiction films of all time.", "Kenneth Turan of the ''Los Angeles Times'' felt it was a \"wildly cinematic futuristic thriller that is determined to overpower the imagination\", despite perceiving weaknesses in the film's dialogue.", "Janet Maslin of ''The New York Times'' credited Reeves for being a \"strikingly chic Prada model of an action hero\", and thought the martial arts stunts were the film's strongest feature.", "''The Matrix'' received Academy Awards for Best Film Editing, Best Sound Editing, Best Visual Effects, and Best Sound.After the success of ''The Matrix'', Reeves avoided another blockbuster in favour of a lighthearted sports comedy, ''The Replacements'' (2000).", "He agreed to a pay cut to enable Gene Hackman to co-star in the film.", "Against his wishes, Reeves starred in the thriller ''The Watcher'' (2000), playing a serial killer who stalks a retired FBI agent.", "He said that a friend forged his signature on a contract, which he could not prove; he appeared in the film to avoid legal action.", "Upon its release, the film was critically panned.", "That year, he had a supporting role in another thriller, Sam Raimi's ''The Gift'', a story about a woman (played by Cate Blanchett) with extrasensory perception asked to help find a young woman who disappeared.", "The film grossed $44 million worldwide.", "Film critic Paul Clinton of CNN thought the film was fairly compelling, saying of Reeves's acting: \"Raimi managed to get a performance out of Reeves that only occasionally sounds like he's reading his lines from the back of a cereal box.", "\"In 2001, Reeves continued to explore and accept roles in a diverse range of genres.", "The first was a romantic drama, ''Sweet November'', a remake of the 1968 film of the same name.", "This was his second collaboration with Charlize Theron; the film was met with a generally negative reception.", "Desson Thompson of ''The Washington Post'' criticized it for its \"syrupy cliches, greeting-card wisdom and over-the-top tragicomedy\", but commended Reeves for his likability factor in every performance he gives.", "''Hardball'' (2001) marked Reeves's attempt in another sports comedy.", "Directed by Brian Robbins, it is based on the book ''Hardball: A Season in the Projects'' by Daniel Coyle.", "Reeves plays Conor O'Neill, a troubled young man who agrees to coach a Little League team from the Cabrini Green housing project in Chicago as a condition of obtaining a loan.", "Film critic Roger Ebert noted the film's desire to tackle difficult subjects and baseball coaching, but felt it lacked depth, and Reeves's performance was \"glum and distant\".By 2002, his professional music career had come to an end when Dogstar disbanded.", "The band had released two albums during their decade together; ''Our Little Visionary'' in 1996 and ''Happy Ending'' in 2000.Sometime afterwards, Reeves performed in the band Becky for a year, founded by Dogstar band-mate Rob Mailhouse, but quit in 2005, citing a lack of interest in a serious music career.", "After being absent from the screen in 2002, Reeves returned to ''The Matrix'' sequels in 2003 with ''The Matrix Reloaded'' and ''The Matrix Revolutions'', released in May and November, respectively.", "Principal photography for both films was completed back-to-back, primarily at Fox Studios in Australia.", "''The Matrix Reloaded'' garnered mostly favourable reviews; John Powers of ''LA Weekly'' praised the \"dazzling pyrotechnics\" but was critical of certain machine-like action scenes.", "Of Reeves's acting, Powers thought it was somewhat \"wooden\" but felt he has the ability to \"exude a charmed aura\".", "Andrew Walker, writing for the ''Evening Standard'', praised the cinematography (\"visually it gives full value as a virtuoso workout for your senses\") but he was less taken by the film's \"dime-store philosophy\".", "The film grossed $739 million worldwide.", "''The Matrix Revolutions'', the third instalment, was met with mixed reception.", "According to review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the consensus was that \"characters and ideas take a back seat to the special effects\".", "Paul Clinton, writing for CNN, praised the special effects but felt Reeves's character was unfocused.", "In contrast, the ''San Francisco Chronicle''s Carla Meyer was highly critical of the special effects, writing, \"The Wachowskis computer-generated imagery goes from dazzling to deadening in action scenes that favor heavy, clanking weaponry over the martial-arts moves that thrilled viewers of ''The Matrix'' and ''The Matrix Reloaded''.\"", "Nevertheless, the film grossed a healthy $427 million worldwide, although less than the two previous films.", "''Something's Gotta Give'', a romantic comedy, was Reeves's last release of 2003.He co-starred with Jack Nicholson and Diane Keaton, and played Dr. Julian Mercer in the film.", "''Something's Gotta Give'' received generally favourable reviews.===2005–2013: Thrillers, documentaries and directorial debut===Reeves at the alt=Reeves, dressed in a grey suit, waving to the crowd at the Berlin Film Festival, February 2009In 2005, Reeves played the title role in ''Constantine'', an occult detective film, about a man who has the ability to perceive and communicate with half-angels and half-demons.", "The film was a respectable box office hit, grossing $230 million worldwide from a $100 million budget but attracted mixed-to-positive reviews.", "''The Sydney Morning Herald''s critic wrote that \"''Constantine'' isn't bad, but it doesn't deserve any imposing adjectives.", "It's occasionally cheesy, sometimes enjoyable, intermittently scary, and constantly spiked with celestial blatherskite\".", "He next appeared in ''Thumbsucker'', which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2005.A comedy adapted from the 1999 Walter Kirn novel of the same name, the story follows a boy with a thumb-sucking problem.", "Reeves and the cast garnered positive critical reviews, with ''The Washington Post'' describing it as \"a gently stirring symphony about emotional transition filled with lovely musical passages and softly nuanced performances\".Reeves appeared in the Richard Linklater-directed animated science fiction thriller ''A Scanner Darkly'', which premiered at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival.", "Reeves played Bob Arctor/Fred, an undercover agent in a futuristic dystopia under high-tech police surveillance.", "Based on the novel of the same name by Philip K. Dick, the film was a box office failure.", "However, the film attracted generally favourable reviews; Paul Arendt of the BBC thought the film was \"beautiful to watch\", but Reeves was outshone by his co-star Robert Downey Jr. His next role was Alex Wyler in ''The Lake House'' (2006), a romantic drama adaptation of the South Korean film ''Il Mare'' (2000), which reunited him with Sandra Bullock.", "Despite its box office success, Mark Kermode of ''The Guardian'' was highly critical, writing \"this syrup-drenched supernatural whimsy achieves stupidity at a genuinely international level ...", "The last time Bullock and Reeves were together on screen the result was ''Speed''.", "This should have been entitled Stop\".", "Towards the end of 2006, he co-narrated ''The Great Warming'' with Alanis Morissette, a documentary about climate change mitigation.Next in 2008, Reeves collaborated with director David Ayer on the crime thriller ''Street Kings''.", "He played an undercover policeman who must clear his name after the death of another officer.", "Released on April 11, the film grossed a moderate $66 million worldwide.", "The film's plot and Reeves' performance, however, were met with mostly unenthusiastic reviews.", "Paul Byrnes of ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' stated, \"It's full of twists and turns, a dead body in every reel, but it's not difficult to work out who's betraying whom, and that's just not good enough\".", "''The Guardian'' opined that \"Reeves is fundamentally blank and uninteresting\".", "Reeves starred in another science fiction film, ''The Day the Earth Stood Still'', a loose adaptation of the 1951 film of the same name.", "He portrayed Klaatu, an alien sent from outer space to try to change human behaviour or eradicate humans because of their environmental impact.", "At the 2009 Razzie Awards, the film was nominated for Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel.", "Many critics were unimpressed with the heavy use of special effects; ''The Telegraph'' credited Reeves' ability to engage the audience, but thought the cinematography was abysmal and the \"sub-Al-Gore environment lecture leaves you light-headed with tedium\".Tiger Chen and Reeves at the Fantastic Fest film festival, 2013Rebecca Miller's ''The Private Lives of Pippa Lee'' was Reeves' sole release of 2009, which premiered at the 59th Berlin International Film Festival.", "The romantic comedy and its ensemble received an amicable review from ''The Telegraph''s David Gritten; \"Miller's film is a triumph.", "Uniformly well acted, it boasts a psychologically knowing script, clearly written by a smart, assertive human\".", "In 2010, he starred in another romantic comedy, ''Henry's Crime'', about a man who is released from prison for a crime he did not commit, but then targets the same bank with his former cellmate.", "The film was not a box office hit.", "Reeves' only work in 2011 was an adult picture book titled ''Ode to Happiness'', which he wrote, complemented by Alexandra Grant's illustrations.", "Reeves co-produced and appeared in a 2012 documentary, ''Side by Side''.", "He interviewed filmmakers including James Cameron, Martin Scorsese, and Christopher Nolan; the feature investigated digital and photochemical film creation.", "Next, Reeves starred in ''Generation Um...'' (2012), an independent drama which was critically panned.In 2013, Reeves starred in his own directorial debut, the martial arts film ''Man of Tai Chi''.", "The film has multilingual dialogue and follows a young man drawn to an underground fight club, partially inspired by the life of Reeves' friend Tiger Chen.", "Principal photography took place in China and in Hong Kong.", "Reeves was also assisted by Yuen Woo-ping, the fight choreographer of ''The'' ''Matrix'' films.", "''Man of Tai Chi'' premiered at the Beijing Film Festival and the Cannes Film Festival, and received praise from director John Woo.", "A wider, warm response followed suit; Bilge Ebiri of ''Vulture'' thought the fight sequences were \"beautifully assembled\", and Reeves showed restraint with the film editing to present the fighters' motion sequences.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' wrote, \"The brutally efficient shooting style Reeves employs to film master choreographer Yuen Woo-ping's breathtaking fights ... is refreshingly grounded and old-school kinetic\", while Dave McGinn of ''The Globe and Mail'' called the film \"ambitious but generic\".", "At the box office, ''Man of Tai Chi'' was a commercial disappointment, grossing only $5.5 million worldwide from a budget of $25 million.", "Also in 2013, Reeves played Kai in the 3D fantasy ''47 Ronin'', a Japanese fable about a group of rogue samurai.", "The film premiered in Japan but failed to gain traction with audiences; reviews were not positive, causing Universal Pictures to reduce advertising for the film elsewhere.", "''47 Ronin'' was a box office flop and was mostly poorly received.===2014–present: Resurgence with ''John Wick''===Reeves in 2015After this series of commercial failures, Reeves' career rebounded in 2014.He played the title role in the action thriller ''John Wick'', directed by Chad Stahelski.", "In the first instalment of the ''John Wick'' franchise, Reeves plays a retired hitman seeking vengeance.", "He worked closely with the screenwriter to develop the story; \"We all agreed on the potential of the project.", "I love the role, but you want the whole story, the whole ensemble to come to life\", Reeves said.", "Filmed on location in the New York City area, the film was eventually released on October 24 in the United States.", "''The Hollywood Reporter'' was impressed by the director's \"confident, muscular action debut\", and Reeves' \"effortless\" performance, which marked his return to the action genre.", "Jeannette Catsoulis of ''The New York Times'' praised Reeves' fight scenes and wrote he is \"always more comfortable in roles that demand cool over hot, attitude over emotion\".", "''John Wick'' proved to be a box office success, grossing $86 million worldwide.", "Next, Reeves starred in a smaller-scale horror feature, ''Knock Knock'' (2015), a remake of the 1977 film ''Death Game''.", "Described as \"over-the-top destruction\" by the ''Toronto Star'', Reeves plays a father, home alone, when two young women show up and start a game of cat and mouse.", "His other releases in 2015 were the documentaries ''Deep Web'', about crime on the dark web, and ''Mifune: The Last Samurai'', about the life of a Japanese actor (Toshiro Mifune) famous for playing samurai characters.", "He narrated both films.Reeves appeared in five film releases in 2016.The first was ''Exposed'', a crime thriller about a detective who investigates his partner's death and discovers police corruption along the way.", "The film received negative reviews for its confused plot, and Reeves was criticized for displaying limited facial expressions.", "His next release, the comedy ''Keanu'', was better received.", "In it he voiced the eponymous kitten.", "Reeves then had a minor role in ''The Neon Demon'', a psychological horror directed by Nicolas Winding Refn.", "He played Hank, a lustful motel owner who appears in Jesse's (played by Elle Fanning) nightmare.", "In his fourth release, he played a charismatic leader of a settlement in ''The Bad Batch''.", "His final release of the year was ''The Whole Truth'', featuring Gabriel Basso, Gugu Mbatha-Raw, Renée Zellweger, and Jim Belushi.", "He played Richard, a defence attorney.", "Noel Murray of ''The A.V.", "Club'' described it as \"moderately clever, reasonably entertaining courtroom drama\", with a skilled cast but overall a \"mundane\" film.", "Reeves also appeared in ''Swedish Dicks'', a two-season web television series.In 2017, Reeves agreed to reprise his role for a sequel in the ''John Wick'' franchise, ''John Wick: Chapter 2''.", "The story carries on from the first film and follows ''John Wick'' as he goes on the run when a bounty is placed on him.", "The film was a critical and commercial success, grossing $171.5 million worldwide, more than its predecessor.", "Chris Hewitt of ''Empire'' magazine praised Reeves' performance, which complemented his previous action roles (''Point Break'' and ''Speed)''.", "However, Justin Chang of the ''Los Angeles Times'' described the picture as \"a down-and-dirty B-picture with a lustrous A-picture soul\".", "Besides to this large-scale feature, Reeves starred in a drama, ''To the Bone'', in which he plays a doctor helping a young woman with anorexia.", "It premiered at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival, followed by distribution on Netflix in July.", "Early reviews were positive, with praise for its non-glamorized portrayal of anorexia, although the ''New Statesman'' magazine thought it was irresponsible.", "That year, Reeves also made cameo appearances in the films ''A Happening of Monumental Proportions'' and ''SPF-18''.", "Guillermo Amoedo and Reeves on the set of ''Knock Knock'', in 2014Reeves reunited with Winona Ryder in the 2018 comedy ''Destination Wedding'', about wedding guests who develop a mutual affection for each other.", "They had worked together previously in ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'', ''A Scanner Darkly'' and ''The Private Lives of Pippa Lee''.", "Reeves also co-produced and starred in two thrillers.", "''Siberia'', in which he plays a diamond trader who travels to Siberia to search for his Russian partner, and ''Replicas'', which tells the story of a neuroscientist who violates laws and bioethics to bring his family back to life after they die in a car crash.", "''Siberia'' was critically panned; reviewers thought the plot was nonsensical and Reeves had little chemistry with co-star Ana Ularu.", "''Replicas'' did not fare well with critics either; ''The A.V.", "Club'' praised Reeves' performance, but gave the film a grade D−, adding it is \"garbage\".", "It was also a box office failure, earning $9.3 million from a budget of $30 million.", "Returning to the ''John Wick'' franchise, Reeves starred in ''John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum'' (2019), the third feature in the series directed by Stahelski.", "The film takes place immediately after the events of ''John Wick: Chapter 2'' and features new cast members including Halle Berry.", "The film was another box office hit, grossing $171 million in the United States and more than $155 million internationally.", "''The Globe and Mail''s reviewer gave the film three out of four stars, praising the fight scenes, but felt there was \"aesthetic overindulgence\" with the cinematography.", "''The Guardian''s Cath Clarke questioned Reeves' acting; she wrote that \"he keeps his face statue-still ... three movies in, franchise bloat is beginning to set in\".", "Reeves was nominated for Favorite Male Movie Star of 2019 in the People's Choice Awards, and the film itself was nominated for Best Contemporary Film in the Art Directors Guild Awards.", "Reeves then voiced Duke Caboom in 2019's ''Toy Story 4'', the fourth instalment of Pixar's ''Toy Story'' franchise.", "In that same year on April 27 and 28, a film festival was held in his honour, called KeanuCon, hosted in Glasgow, Scotland.", "Over two days, nine of his films were screened for guests.", "Also in 2019, Reeves played a supporting role as himself in the Ali Wong-led romantic comedy Always Be My Maybe.", "As early as 2008, Reeves and Alex Winter had shown enthusiasm for a third ''Bill & Ted'' film, but the project went into development limbo.", "Finally in 2020, ''Bill & Ted Face the Music'', the third film in the franchise was released.", "The critic from ''Salon'' magazine was disappointed in Reeves' performance, but praised the film for its message that \"music has the power to unite the world\".", "Leah Greenblatt of ''Entertainment Weekly'' gave the film a grade B, and complimented the onscreen chemistry between Reeves and Winter.", "He also appeared in ''The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run'' as a tumbleweed named Sage.", "Reeves appears as Johnny Silverhand in the video game ''Cyberpunk 2077.''", "In December 2021, Reeves returned to the screen for the fourth film in ''The Matrix'' franchise: ''The Matrix Resurrections''.", "Carrie-Anne Moss also reprised her role as Trinity.", "''The Matrix Resurrections'' was a box office disappointment; one critic praised Reeves' and Moss' performances, but thought the film was \"no game-changer\".Lionsgate's ''John Wick: Chapter 4'' premiered on March 24, 2023; Reeves reprised his role as the title character.", "He also reprised his role as Johnny Silverhand in the ''Cyberpunk 2077'' expansion, ''Phantom Liberty''.====Upcoming projects====In 2019, Reeves travelled to São Paulo to produce a Netflix series, ''Conquest''.", "Details are being kept secret.", "A comic book series, ''BRZRKR'', co-written by Reeves was published in March 2021.He is expected to star in a film adaptation of it.", "A fifth sequel to ''John Wick'' was planned, but Stahelski said he would like to give the franchise a \"rest\" for the time being.", "In January 2024, Reeves announced that he was co-authoring a new book with speculative fiction writer China Miéville titled \"The Book of Elsewhere\".", "The book takes place in the same universe as Reeves's comic book series ''BRZRKR'', and is set for release in July 2024 by Del Rey Books and Boom!", "Studios.In 2023, Reeves was cast alongside Seth Rogen and Aziz Ansari in the latter's directorial debut, ''Good Fortune''.", "The project began filming in January 2024, with Keke Palmer revealing on her Instagram page that she had joined Reeves as part of the cast that same month.", "In the 2024 ''John Wick'' spin-off film ''Ballerina'', Reeves is set to reprise his franchise role." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1998, Reeves met director David Lynch's assistant Jennifer Syme at a party thrown for his band Dogstar, and they started dating.", "On December 24, 1999, Syme gave birth eight months into her pregnancy to the couple's child, who was stillborn.", "The couple broke up several weeks afterward, but later reconciled.", "On April 2, 2001, Syme was killed when her vehicle collided with three parked cars on Cahuenga Boulevard in Los Angeles.", "Syme was impaired, and also not belted in.", "Reeves told investigators that they were back together, and had brunch together in San Francisco the day before the accident.", "Reeves acted as a pallbearer for Syme, who was buried next to their daughter.", "He was scheduled to film the sequels to ''The Matrix'' the following spring, but sought \"peace and time\", according to friend Bret Domrose of Dogstar.Reeves has also been romantically linked to longtime friend and filmmaker Brenda Davis, to whose child he is godfather, and model-actress China Chow.", "In 2009, Reeves met Alexandra Grant at a dinner party; they went on to collaborate on two books together.", "They went public with their relationship in November 2019.Reeves is discreet about his spiritual beliefs, saying that it is something \"personal and private\".", "When asked if he was a spiritual person, he said that he believes \"in God, faith, inner faith, the self, passion, and things\", and that he is \"very spiritual\".", "Although he does not formally practice Buddhism, the religion has left a strong impression on him, especially after filming ''Little Buddha''.", "He said, \"Most of the things I've come away with from Buddhism have been human—understanding feelings, impermanence, and trying to understand other people and where they're coming from.", "\"When asked on ''The Late Show with Stephen Colbert'' in 2019 about his views on what happens after death, Reeves replied, \"I know that the ones who love us will miss us\".In 2023, the lipopeptide Keanumycin, a substance deadly to fungi, was named in honor of Reeves." ], [ "Business and philanthropy", "Mural of Reeves in Santiago de ChileReeves supports several charities and causes.", "In response to his sister's battle with leukemia, he founded a private cancer foundation, which aids children's hospitals and provides cancer research.", "In June 2020, he volunteered for Camp Rainbow Gold, an Idaho children's cancer charity.", "Reeves was also recognized as one of the 100 Influential Celebrities in Oncology by OncoDaily.", "Reeves has said, \"Money is the last thing I think about.", "I could live on what I have already made for the next few centuries\".", "It was rumoured that Reeves gave away a substantial portion, estimated to be $35–$125 million, of his earnings from ''The Matrix'' to the special effects and makeup crews.", "However, this has been significantly embellished; Reeves negotiated a smaller deal, relinquishing his contractual right to a percentage of the sequels' profits in exchange for a more extensive special effects budget.After filming ''John Wick: Chapter 4'', Reeves, Chad Stahelski and Brazilian jiu-jitsu instructor Dave Camarillo, signed an exclusive training uniform that was put up for auction in March 2023 to raise money for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.Reeves co-founded a production company, Company Films, with friend Stephen Hamel.", "In 2011, Reeves, an avid motorcyclist, co-founded Arch Motorcycle Company, which builds and sells custom motorcycles, with Gard Hollinger.", "In 2017, Reeves, Jessica Fleischmann, and Alexandra Grant founded book publisher, X Artists' Books (also known as XAB).", "He has written two books: ''Ode to Happiness'' and ''Shadows'', both of which are collaborations with Grant; he provided the text to her photographs and art." ], [ "Censorship", "In 2022, Reeves's recitation of the Beat poem \"Pull My Daisy\" for a virtual benefit concert for Tibet House US, a nonprofit organization affiliated with the exiled Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, angered Chinese nationalists.", "Reeves's films have been banned from streaming platforms in China such as iQiyi, Tencent Video and Youku." ], [ "In the media", "alt=Reeves' star on the Hollywood Walk of FameIn a 2005 article for ''Time'' magazine, Lev Grossman called Reeves \"Hollywood's ultimate introvert\".", "He has been described as a workaholic, charming and \"excruciatingly shy\".", "During the production of ''Constantine'', director Francis Lawrence commented on his personality, calling him \"hardworking\" and \"generous\".", "His co-star Shia LaBeouf said, \"I've worked with him for a year and a couple of months, but I don't really know him that much\".", "Erwin Stoff of 3 Arts Entertainment has served as Reeves's agent and manager since he was 16, and produced many of his films.", "Stoff said Reeves \"is a really private person\" and keeps his distance from other people.In 2010, an image of Reeves became an internet meme after photographs of him were published, sitting on a park bench with a sad facial expression.", "The images were posted on the 4chan discussion board and were soon distributed via several blogs and media outlets, leading to the \"Sad Keanu\" meme being spread on the internet.", "An unofficial holiday was created when a Facebook fan page declared June 15 as \"Cheer-up Keanu Day\".", "He would later downplay the photo, saying, \"Man, I was eating a sandwich.", "I was thinking—I had some stuff going on.", "I was hungry.", "\"Reeves's casual persona and ability to establish rapport have been observed by the public, leading him to be dubbed the \"Internet's boyfriend\".", "In 2019, ''Vox'' cited Reeves's unorthodox filmography and ability to appeal to nerd culture as the primary reasons for his internet popularity.", "While filming ''Bill & Ted Face the Music'' in July 2019, Reeves and other cast members came across a house with a banner reading \"You're Breathtaking\" and \"Mini Keanu\", two memes that had come out of Reeves's appearance at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2019 for the game ''Cyberpunk 2077''.", "Reeves took time to sign the banner, and talk to the family.Reeves appeared on ''Forbes'' annual Celebrity 100 list in 2001 and 2002, at number 36 and 49, respectively.", "In 2005, Reeves received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the motion picture industry.", "In 2016, ''The Hollywood Reporter'' calculated that Reeves had earned $250 million for ''The Matrix'' franchise, making him one of the highest-paid actors.", "In 2020, ''The New York Times'' ranked him at number four on its list of the 25 Greatest Actors of the 21st Century." ], [ "Filmography and awards", "Prolific in film since 1985, Reeves's most acclaimed and highest-grossing films, according to the review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, include: ''River's Edge'' (1987), ''Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure'' (1989), ''My Own Private Idaho'' (1991), ''Much Ado About Nothing'' (1993), ''Speed'' (1994), ''The Matrix'' (1999), ''John Wick'' (2014), ''John Wick: Chapter2'' (2017), ''John Wick: Chapter 3Parabellum'' (2019), and ''Toy Story 4'' (2019).", "Reeves has won four MTV Movie Awards, and received two Best Actor nominations at the Saturn Awards.", "He was nominated twice for a People's Choice Award: Favorite Male Movie Star and Favorite Action Movie Star, for his performance in ''John Wick: Chapter 3Parabellum'' (2019).In September 2021, ''Tae Kwon Do Life Magazine'' deemed Reeves the \"#1 Martial Arts movie star in the world\" based upon his multiple films in the genre, their popularity, and sheer box office gross." ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *''BRZRKR'' (with Matt Kindt and Ron Garney, 12-issue mini-series, Boom!", "Studios, 2021, )" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * Reeves performs \"Pull My Daisy\" on the 35th Annual Tibet House Benefit Concert March 3, 2022" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Keyboard" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Keyboard''' may refer to:" ], [ "Text input", "* Keyboard, part of a typewriter * Computer keyboard** Keyboard layout, the software control of computer keyboards and their mapping** Keyboard technology, computer keyboard hardware and firmware" ], [ "Music", "* Musical keyboard, a set of adjacent keys or levers used to play a musical instrument** Manual (music), a keyboard played with hands, as opposed to;** Pedalboard or pedal keyboard, played with feet** Enharmonic keyboard, one of several layouts that incorporate more than 12 tones per octave* Keyboard instrument, a musical instrument played using a keyboard** Synthesizer; can be controlled by an electronic keyboard** Electronic keyboard, a synthesizer** Keyboard percussion instrument, a family of pitched percussion instruments arranged in the layout of a keyboard=== Publications ===* Keyboard (magazine), a magazine dedicated to keyboard instruments and digital music" ], [ "See also", "* Input method* Keypad" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Koto (instrument)" ], [ "Introduction", "The is a Japanese plucked half-tube zither instrument, and the national instrument of Japan.", "It is derived from the Chinese and , and similar to the Mongolian , the Korean and , the Vietnamese , the Sundanese and the Kazakh .", "Koto are roughly in length, and made from Paulownia wood (''Paulownia tomentosa'', known as ).", "The most common type uses 13 strings strung over movable bridges used for tuning, different pieces possibly requiring different tuning.", "17-string koto are also common, and act as bass in ensembles.", "Koto strings are generally plucked using three fingerpicks (), worn on the first three fingers of the right hand." ], [ "Names and types", "The character for ''koto'' is , although is often used.", "However, (''koto'') is the general term for all string instruments in the Japanese language, including instruments such as the , , , , , and so on.", "When read as , it indicates the Chinese instrument .", "The term is used today in the same way.The term ''koto'' appears in the in reference to an ancient string instrument in this usage.", "Variations of the instrument were eventually created, and eventually a few of them would become the standard variations for modern day koto.", "The four types of koto () were all created by different subcultures, but also adapted to change the playing style." ], [ "History", "The ancestor of the koto was the Chinese .", "It was first introduced to Japan from China in the 7th and 8th century.", "The first known version had five strings, which eventually increased to seven strings.", "The Japanese koto belongs to the Asian zither family that also comprises the Chinese (ancestral to the other zithers in the family), the Korean , and the Vietnamese .", "This variety of instrument came in two basic forms, a zither that had bridges and a zither without bridges.An 1878 depiction by Settei Hasegawa of a woman playing the kotoWhen the koto was first imported to Japan, the native word koto was a generic term for any and all Japanese stringed instruments.", "As the number of different stringed instruments in Japan grew, the once-basic definition of koto could not describe the wide variety of these instruments and so the meanings changed.", "The or was called the , the was called the , and the ( being an older pronunciation of ) was called the or koto.The modern koto originates from the used in Japanese court music ().", "It was a popular instrument among the wealthy; the instrument was considered a romantic one.", "Some literary and historical records indicate that solo pieces for koto existed centuries before , the music of the solo koto genre, was established.", "According to Japanese literature, the koto was used as imagery and other extra music significance.", "In one part of ''The Tale of Genji'', the titular character falls deeply in love with a mysterious woman whom he has never seen before, after hearing her playing the koto from a distance.The koto of the was made for the tradition, originally intended only for blind men.", "Women were forbidden from playing the instrument in the professional world, nor were they allowed to teach it.", "When these strict rules were relieved, women began to play the koto, with the exception of the , as its design for the blind led to a decline in use; other koto proved more useful.", "The two main koto varieties still used today are the and .", "These two have relatively stayed the same, with the exception of material innovations such as the use of plastic, as well as modern material for the strings.", "The is the newest addition to the koto family, surfacing in the 19th century.", "It was purposefully created to extend the range of the instrument and advance the style of play.", "These were made with 17, 21, and 31 strings.Perhaps the most important influence on the development of koto was Yatsuhashi Kengyo (1614–1685).", "Yatsuhashi was a gifted blind musician from Kyoto who vastly extended the limited selection of only six traditional koto songs to a brand-new style of koto music which he called .", "Yatsuhashi changed the tunings, which were based on the older ways of tuning; and with this change, a new style of koto was born.", "Yatsuhashi is now known as the \"Father of Modern Koto\".A smaller influence in the evolution of the koto is found in the inspiration of a woman named Keiko Nosaka.", "Nosaka (a musician who won Grand Prize in Music from the Japanese Ministry of Culture in 2002), felt confined by playing a koto with just 13 strings, and created new versions of the instrument with 20 or more strings.Fumie Hihara playing a 13-string kotoJapanese developments in bridgeless zithers include the one-stringed koto () and two-stringed koto ( or ).", "Around the 1920s, Goro Morita created a new version of the two-stringed koto.", "On this koto, one would push down buttons above the metal strings like the western autoharp.", "It was named the after the Taishō period.At the beginning of the Meiji Period (1868–1912), Western music was introduced to Japan.", "Michio Miyagi (1894–1956), a blind composer, innovator, and performer, is considered to have been the first Japanese composer to combine western music and traditional koto music.", "Miyagi is largely regarded as being responsible for keeping the koto alive when traditional Japanese arts were being forgotten and replaced by Westernization.", "He wrote over 300 new works for the instrument before his death in a train accident at the age of 62.He also invented the popular 17-string bass koto, created new playing techniques, advanced traditional forms, and most importantly increased the koto's popularity.", "He performed abroad and by 1928 his piece for koto and , (\"Spring Sea\") had been transcribed for numerous instruments.", "is even played to welcome each New Year in Japan.Since Miyagi's time, many composers such as Kimio Eto (1924–2012) and Tadao Sawai (1937–1997) have written and performed works that continue to advance the instrument.", "Sawai's widow Kazue Sawai, who as a child was Miyagi's favored disciple, has been the largest driving force behind the internationalization and modernization of the koto.", "Her arrangement of composer John Cage's prepared piano duet \"Three Dances\" for four prepared bass koto was a landmark in the modern era of koto music.For about 150 years after the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese shirked their isolationist ideals and began to openly embrace American and European influences, the most likely explanation for why the koto has taken on many different variations of itself." ], [ "Construction", "Detail of kotoA koto is typically made of Paulownia wood (known as ), although treatment of the wood varies tremendously between artisans.", "A koto may or may not be adorned.", "Adornments include inlays of ivory and ebony, tortoise shell, metal figures, etc.", "The wood is also cut into two patterns, (also called ), which has a swirling pattern, or straight-lined .", "The straight lined pattern is easier to manufacture, so the swirl raises the cost of production, and is therefore reserved for decorative and elegant models.The body of a traditional koto is made of Paulownia wood.", "Every piece of the instrument comes with cultural significance, especially since the koto is the national instrument.", "The wood is dried and cut into precise measurements.", "The size of the soundboard on a standard modern koto has remained approximately , where in the past it ranged from .The bridges () used to be made of ivory, but nowadays are typically made of plastic, and occasionally made of wood.", "One can alter the pitch of a string by manipulating or moving the bridge.", "For some very low notes, there are small bridges made, as well as specialty bridges with three different heights, depending on the need of the tuning.", "When a small bridge is unavailable for some very low notes, some players may, as an emergency measure, use a bridge upside down, though this is unstable and not ideal.", "Bridges have been known to break during playing, and with some older instruments which have the surface where the bridges rest being worn due to much use, the bridges may fall during playing, especially when pressing strings.", "There are, of course, various sorts of patch materials sold to fill the holes which cause the legs of a bridge to rest on an unstable area.", "About long and wide, the koto is traditionally placed on the floor in front of the player, who kneels.", "(bridge)The strings are made from a variety of materials.", "Various types of plastic strings are popular.", "Silk strings, typically yellow in color, are still made, despite their higher price and lower durability than modern strings; some musicians prefer them, perceiving a difference in sound quality to modern strings.", "The strings are tied with a half hitch to a roll of paper or cardboard, about the size of a cigarette butt, strung through the holes at the head of the koto, threaded through the holes at the back, tightened, and tied with a special knot.", "Strings can be tightened by a special machine, but often are tightened by hand, and then tied.", "One can tighten by pulling the string from behind, or sitting at the side of the koto, although the latter is much harder and requires much arm strength.", "Some instruments may have tuning pins (like a piano) installed, to make tuning easier.The , the silk thread used in the instrument, is a pivotal part of its construction.", "This feature was not seen on the speculated nobility-style instruments because they used a more tension of theirs and valued the relict nature of their instruments.", "The commoners did all the innovations that made the koto not only a sturdy instrument, but more sonically adept.", "The was used in paper so the fine silk was in abundance in Japan.", "As of the beginning of the 19th century, an ivory called became the standard for the koto.For every part of the koto, there is a traditional name which connects with the opinion that the body of a koto resembles that of a dragon.", "Thus, the top part is called the , while the bottom part is called the .", "One end of the koto, noticeable because of the removable colorful fabricshell, is known as the , consisting of parts such as the – the saddle of the bridge or the – , and – the space above the .", "The other end of the koto is called the ; the string nut is called the ." ], [ "Koto today", "Koto concert at in 2009Michiyo Yagi playing a 21-string kotoThe influence of Western pop music has made the koto less prominent in Japan, although it is still developing as an instrument.", "The 17-string bass koto () has become more prominent over the years since its development by Michio Miyagi.", "There are also 20-, 21-, and 25-string koto.", "Works are being written for 20- and 25-string koto and 17-string bass koto.", "Reiko Obata has also made the koto accessible to Western music readers with the publication of two books for solo koto using Western notation.", "The current generation of koto players, such as American performers Reiko Obata and Miya Masaoka, Japanese master Kazue Sawai, and Michiyo Yagi, are finding places for the koto in today's jazz, experimental music and even pop music.", "The members of the band Rin' are popular 17-string koto players in the modern music scene.June Kuramoto of the jazz fusion group Hiroshima was one of the first koto performers to popularize the koto in a non-traditional fusion style.", "Reiko Obata, founder of East West Jazz, was the first to perform and record an album of jazz standards featuring the koto.", "Obata also produced the first-ever English language koto instructional DVD, titled \"You Can Play Koto\".", "Obata is one of the few koto performers to perform concertos with United States orchestras, having done so on multiple occasions, including with Orchestra Nova for San Diego's KPBS in 2010.Other solo performers outside Japan include award-winning recording artist Elizabeth Falconer, who also studied for a decade at the Sawai Koto School in Tokyo, and Linda Kako Caplan, Canadian (grandmaster) and member of Fukuoka's Chikushi Koto School for over two decades.", "Another Sawai disciple, Masayo Ishigure, holds down a school in New York City.", "Yukiko Matsuyama leads her KotoYuki band in Los Angeles.", "Her compositions blend the timbres of world music with her native Japanese culture.", "She performed on the Grammy-winning album ''Miho: Journey to the Mountain'' (2010) by the Paul Winter Consort, garnering additional exposure to Western audiences for the instrument.", "In November 2011, worldwide audiences were further exposed to the koto when she performed with Shakira at the Latin Grammy Awards.In March 2010, the koto received widespread international attention when a video linked by the Grammy Award-winning hard rock band Tool on its website became a viral hit.", "The video showed Tokyo-based ensemble Soemon playing member Brett Larner's arrangement of the Tool song \"Lateralus\" for six bass and two bass koto.", "Larner had previously played koto with John Fahey, Jim O'Rourke, and members of indie rock groups including Camper Van Beethoven, Deerhoof, Jackie O Motherfucker, and Mr. Bungle.In older pop and rock music, David Bowie used a koto in the instrumental piece \"Moss Garden\" on his album ''\"Heroes\"'' (1977).", "The multi-instrumentalist, founder, and former guitarist of The Rolling Stones Brian Jones played the koto in the song \"Take It Or Leave It\" on the album ''Aftermath'' (1966).Paul Gilbert, a popular guitar virtuoso, recorded his wife Emi playing the koto on his song \"Koto Girl\" from the album ''Alligator Farm'' (2000).", "Rock band Kagrra, are well known for using traditional Japanese musical instruments in many of their songs, an example being , a song in which the koto has a prominent place.", "Winston Tong, the singer of Tuxedomoon, uses it on his 15-minute song \"The Hunger\" from his debut solo album ''Theoretically Chinese'' (1985).The rock band Queen used a (toy) koto in \"The Prophet's Song\" on their 1975 album ''A Night at the Opera''.", "Ex-Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett used a koto on the instrumental song \"The Red Flower of Tachai Blooms Everywhere\" from the album ''Spectral Mornings'' (1979), and Genesis keyboardist Tony Banks sampled a koto using an Emulator keyboard for the band's song \"Mama\".", "A koto played by Hazel Payne is featured in A Taste of Honey's 1981 English cover of the Japanese song \"Sukiyaki\".", "A synthesized koto appears in their cover of The Miracles' \"I'll Try Something New\".", "Steve Howe used a koto in the instrumental break of Asia's single \"Heat of the Moment\", from their self-titled 1982 album.", "Howe also played a koto on the Yes song \"It Will Be a Good Day (The River)\", from the 1999 album ''The Ladder''.Dr.", "Dre's 1999 album ''2001'' prominently features a synthesized koto on two of its tracks, \"Still D.R.E.\"", "and \"The Message\".", "A 2020 acoustic cover of Led Zeppelin's \"The Battle of Evermore\" by PianoRock feat.", "Dean McNeill also prominently features a synthesized koto." ], [ "Recordings", "* / ALM Records ALCD-76 (2008)" ], [ "See also", "*17-string koto*********" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Edmonds, Richard Louis et al.", "\"Japan\".", "Grove Art Online.", "Oxford Art Online.", "July 30, 2008.", "*Johnson, H. (2004).", "''The Koto: A Traditional Instrument in Contemporary Japan.''", "Amsterdam: Hotei.", "*Malm, W. P. (2000).", "''Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments.''", "(Rev.", "ed.).", "New York, NY: Kodansha International.", "*Sachs, C. (1940).", "''The History of Musical Instruments.''", "New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company.", "Inc. Publishers." ], [ "Further reading", "* The : A Traditional Instrument in Contemporary Japan, by Henry Johnson (, 2004)*The and Traditions of Japanese Music, by Willem Adriaansz (University of California Press, 1973)" ], [ "External links", "* Koto, early 17th century, Japan at The Metropolitan Museum of Art* Koto no Koto – Koto no koto: the website with general information" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Kinetics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Kinetics''' (, ''movement'' or ''to move'') may refer to:" ], [ "Science and medicine", "* Kinetics (physics), the study of motion and its causes** Rigid body kinetics, the study of the motion of rigid bodies* Chemical kinetics, the study of chemical reaction rates** Enzyme kinetics, the study of biochemical reaction rates catalysed by an enzyme*** Michaelis–Menten kinetics, the widely accepted general model of enzyme kinetics*** Goldbeter–Koshland kinetics, describe a steady-state solution for a 2-state biological system*** Langmuir–Hinshelwood kinetics** Receptor–ligand kinetics, a branch of chemical kinetics in which the kinetic species are defined by different non-covalent bindings and/or conformations of the molecules involved, which are denoted as ''receptor(s)'' and ''ligand(s)''*** Hill kinetics* Pharmacokinetics, the study of the processes a substance undergoes in the animal body, particularly the rates at which it is absorbed, distributed, metabolised and excreted** One-compartment kinetics, for a chemical compound specifies that the uptake in the compartment is proportional to the concentration outside the compartment, and the elimination is proportional to the concentration inside the compartment** Flip-flop kinetics, the pharmacokinetics of sustained-release or extended-release drug formulations** Toxicokinetics, the branch of pharmacokinetics dealing with compounds that are toxic or can be administered in toxic doses* Human kinetics or kinesiology, the study of human biomechanical movement* C0t analysis, also known as ''DNA recombination kinetics''" ], [ "Companies", "* Kinetics (company), a technology company* KinetX, an aerospace engineering company* ST Kinetics, a weaponry and specialty vehicle manufacturer* Color Kinetics, a former lighting company, now part of the Philips group of companies" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* Kinetics (rapper), rapper and songwriter from New York City" ], [ "Other uses", "* Kinetics Internet Protocol (KIP), an AppleTalk network protocol* NASCAR Kinetics, a semester-long experiential program offered to several American universities* Kinetic sculpture race, human-powered art vehicle contest started in California* Kinetic activity (military terminology)" ], [ "See also", "* Dynamics (disambiguation)* Kinetic (disambiguation)* Kinematics, a branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of particles (alternatively \"points\"), objects (\"bodies\"), and groups of objects (\"systems of bodies\") without considering the mass of each or the forces that caused the motion* Analytical mechanics, a collection of closely related alternative formulations of classical mechanics* Analytical dynamics, concerned about the relationship between motion of bodies and its causes, namely the forces acting on the bodies and the properties of the bodies (particularly mass and moment of inertia)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Kludge" ], [ "Introduction", "Part of the Miles Glacier Bridge, with a \"kludge\" (temporary fix) to make the bridge usable after earthquake damage.A '''kludge''' or '''kluge''' () is a workaround or quick-and-dirty solution that is clumsy, inelegant, inefficient, difficult to extend, and hard to maintain.", "This term is used in diverse fields such as computer science, aerospace engineering, Internet slang, evolutionary neuroscience, and government.", "It is similar in meaning to the naval term ''jury rig''." ], [ "Etymology", "The word has alternate spellings (''kludge'' and ''kluge''), pronunciations ( and , rhyming with ''judge'' and ''stooge'', respectively), and several proposed etymologies.=== Jackson W. Granholm ===The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (2nd ed., 1989), cites Jackson W. Granholm's 1962 \"How to Design a Kludge\" article in the American computer magazine ''Datamation''.", "''OED'' defines these two ''kludge'' cognates as: ''bodge'' 'to patch or mend clumsily' and ''fudge'' 'to fit together or adjust in a clumsy, makeshift, or dishonest manner'.", "The ''OED'' entry also includes the verb ''kludge'' ('to improvise with a kludge or kludges') and ''kludgemanship'' ('skill in designing or applying kludges').Granholm humorously imagined a fictitious source for the term:Although ''OED'' accepts Granholm's coinage of the term (not the fanciful pseudo-etymology quoted above), there are examples of its use before the 1960s.=== Germanic sources ===American Yiddish speakers use () to mean 'too smart by half', the reflected meaning of German ('clever').", "This may explain the idea of 'clever but clumsy and temporary', as well as the pronunciation variation from German.", "A reasonable translation of ''kludge'' into German yields i.e.", "'crutch'.Cf.", "German ('clod', diminutive ), Low Saxon , , Dutch , perhaps related to Low German diminutive ('dumpling', 'clod'), standard Danish ('mess, disorder') and Danish Jutland dialect ('piece of bad workmanship'),.Arguments against the derivation from German :* There is no equivalent usage in German* Both English pronunciations contain the soft ''g'' () not present in German* The word emerges in English only in the 20th century* The alleged Swedish translation, , is incorrect and would properly be spelled .An alternative etymology suggests that the ''kludge'' spelling in particular derives ultimately from a word in Scots (a language closely related to English): or meaning 'toilet' (in either the room or device sense), with the ''kluge'' spelling possibly deriving from German, until the two terms were confused in the mid-20th century, as British and American (respectively) military slang.", "=== Paper feeder ===Another hypothesis dates to 1907, \"when John Brandtjen convinced two young machinists from Oslo, Norway named Abel and Eneval Kluge to service and install presses for his fledgling printing equipment firm\".", "In 1919, the brothers invented an automatic feeder for printing presses which was a success, though \"temperamental, subject to frequent breakdowns, and devilishly difficult to repair — but oh, so clever!\"", "The Kluge brothers continued to innovate, and the company remained active as of 2020.Given that the feeder bore the Kluge name, it seems reasonable that it became a byword for over-complex mechanical contraptions.=== Acronym ===Other suggested folk etymologies or backronyms for ''kludge'' or ''kluge'' are: \"klumsy, lame, ugly, dumb, but good enough\"; and klutzy engineering\"." ], [ "Kludge vs. kluge", "The ''Jargon File'' (a.k.a.", "''The New Hacker's Dictionary''), a glossary of computer programmer slang maintained by Eric S. Raymond, differentiates ''kludge'' from ''kluge'' and cites usage examples pre-dating 1962.", "''Kluge'' seems to have the sense of 'overcomplicated', while ''kludge'' has only the sense of 'poorly done'.This ''Jargon File'' entry notes that ''kludge'' apparently derives via British military slang from Scots ('toilet'), and became confused with American ''kluge'' during or after World War II.This entry notes ''kluge'', which is now often spelled ''kludge'', \"was the original spelling, reported around computers as far back as the mid-1950s and, at that time, used exclusively of hardware kluges\".", "''Kluge'' \"was common Navy slang in the World War II era for any piece of electronics that worked well on shore but consistently failed at sea\".", "A summary of a 1947 article in the ''New York Folklore Quarterly'' states:The ''Jargon File'' further includes ''kluge around'', 'to avoid a bug or difficult condition by inserting a kluge', and ''kluge up'', 'to lash together a quick hack to perform a task'.After Granholm's 1962 article popularized the ''kludge'' variant, both were interchangeably used and confused.", "The ''Jargon File'' concludes:" ], [ "Industries", "=== Aerospace engineering ===In aerospace, a kludge was a temporary design using separate commonly available components that were not flightworthy in order to proof the design and enable concurrent software development while the integrated components were developed and manufactured.", "The term was in common enough use to appear in a fictional movie about the US space program.Perhaps the ultimate kludge was the first US space station, Skylab.", "Its two major components, the Saturn Workshop and the Apollo Telescope Mount, began development as separate projects (the SWS was kludged from the S-IVB stage of the Saturn 1B and Saturn V launch vehicles, the ATM was kludged from an early design for the descent stage of the Apollo Lunar Module).", "Later the SWS and ATM were folded into the Apollo Applications Program, but the components were to have been launched separately, then docked in orbit.", "In the final design, the SWS and ATM were launched together, but for the single-launch concept to work, the ATM had to pivot 90 degrees on a truss structure from its launch position to its on-orbit orientation, clearing the way for the crew to dock its Apollo Command/Service Module at the axial docking port of the Multiple Docking Adapter.The Airlock Module's manufacturer, McDonnell Douglas, even recycled the hatch design from its Gemini spacecraft and kludged what was originally designed for the conical Gemini Command Module onto the cylindrical Skylab Airlock Module.", "The Skylab project, managed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Marshall Space Flight Center, was seen by the Manned Spacecraft Center (later Johnson Space Center) as an invasion of its historical role as the NASA center for manned spaceflight.", "Thus, MSC personnel missed no opportunity to disparage the Skylab project, calling it \"the kludge\".=== Computer science ===In modern computing terminology, a \"kludge\" (or often a \"'''hack'''\") is a solution to a problem, the performance of a task, or a system fix which is inefficient, inelegant (\"hacky\"), or even incomprehensible, but which somehow works.", "It is similar to a workaround, but quick and ugly.", "To \"kludge around something\" is to avoid a bug or difficulty by building a kludge, perhaps exploiting properties of the bug itself.", "A kludge is often used to modify a working system while avoiding fundamental changes, or to ensure backwards compatibility.", "''Hack'' can also be used with a positive connotation, for a quick solution to a frustrating problem.A kludge is often used to fix an unanticipated problem in an earlier kludge; this is essentially a kind of cruft.A solution might be a kludge if it fails in corner cases.", "An intimate knowledge of the problem domain and execution environment is typically required to build a corner-case kludge.", "More commonly, a kludge is a heuristic which was expected to work almost always, but ends up failing often.A 1960s Soviet anecdote tells of a computer part which needed a slightly delayed signal to work.", "Rather than setting up a timing system, the kludge was to connect long coils of internal wires to slow the electrical signal.Another type of kludge is the evasion of an unknown problem or bug in a computer program.", "Rather than continue to struggle to diagnose and fix the bug, the programmer may write additional code to compensate.", "For example, if a variable keeps ending up doubled, a kludge may be to add later code that divides by two rather than to search for the original incorrect computation.In computer networking, use of NAT (Network Address Translation) (RFC 1918) or PAT (Port Address Translation) to cope with the shortage of IPv4 addresses is an example of a kludge.In FidoNet terminology, ''kludge'' refers to a piece of control data embedded inside a message.=== Evolutionary neuroscience ===The ''kludge'' or ''kluge'' metaphor has been adapted in fields such as evolutionary neuroscience, particularly in reference to the human brain.The neuroscientist David Linden discusses how intelligent design proponents have misconstrued brain anatomy:The research psychologist Gary Marcus's book ''Kluge: The Haphazard Construction of the Human Mind'' compares evolutionary kluges with engineering ones like manifold vacuum-powered windshield wipers – when accelerating or driving uphill, \"Your wipers slowed to a crawl, or even stopped working altogether.\"", "Marcus described a biological kluge:" ], [ "Other uses", "In John Varley's 1985 short story \"Press Enter_\", the antagonist, a reclusive hacker, adopts the identity Charles Kluge.In the science fiction television series ''Andromeda'', genetically engineered human beings called Nietzscheans use the term disparagingly to refer to genetically unmodified humans.In a 2012 article, political scientist Steven Teles used the term \"kludgeocracy\" to criticize the complexity of social welfare policy in the United States.", "Teles argues that institutional and political obstacles to passing legislation often drive policy makers to accept expedient fixes rather than carefully thought out reforms." ], [ "See also", "* , a kludge-like approach to visual arts* Jury rigging, an originally nautical term of related meaning (also lists dialectal and non-English equivalents)** Bodging, bodge, British slang for a kludge** , an Indian equivalent term (also more specifcally refers to kludge-built vehicles)* KLUDGE (tag), a programmer's annotation that some element of computer source co* , terms drived from a TV character known for inventive kludges" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* First Usage of \"Kludge\" on UseNET (26 May 1981)* First Usage of \"Kluge\" on UseNET (14 December 1981)* The Jargon File: Kludge* World Wide Words: Kludge* Work-arounds, Make-work, and Kludges, Philip Koopman and Robert R. Hoffman" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "King Crimson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''King Crimson''' were an English progressive rock band formed in 1968 in London.", "The band drew inspiration from a wide variety of music, incorporating elements of classical, jazz, folk, heavy metal, gamelan, blues, industrial, electronic, experimental music and new wave.", "They exerted a strong influence on the early 1970s progressive rock movement, including on contemporaries such as Yes and Genesis, and continue to inspire subsequent generations of artists across multiple genres.", "The band earned a large cult following.Founded by Robert Fripp, Michael Giles, Greg Lake, Ian McDonald and Peter Sinfield, the band initially focused on a dramatic sound layered with Mellotron, McDonald's saxophone and flute, and Lake's powerful lead vocals.", "Their debut album, ''In the Court of the Crimson King'' (1969), remains their most commercially successful and influential release, with a potent mixture of jazz, classical and experimental music.", "Following the sudden simultaneous departures of McDonald and Giles, with Lake also leaving very shortly afterwards, the next two albums ''In the Wake of Poseidon'' and ''Lizard'' (both 1970) were recorded during a period of instability in the band's line-up.", "A settled band of Fripp, Sinfield, Mel Collins, Boz Burrell and Ian Wallace recorded ''Islands'' in 1971, though in mid-1972, Fripp let go of this line-up and changed the group's instrumentation and approach, drawing from European free improvisation and developing ever more complex compositions.", "With Bill Bruford, John Wetton, David Cross and, briefly, Jamie Muir, they reached what some saw as a creative peak on ''Larks' Tongues in Aspic'' (1973), ''Starless and Bible Black'' (1974), and ''Red'' (1974).", "King Crimson disbanded at the end of 1974.After seven years of inactivity, King Crimson was reborn in 1981 with another change in musical direction.", "The new band comprised Fripp, Bruford and new members Adrian Belew and Tony Levin.", "They drew influence from African music, gamelan, post-punk and New York minimalism.", "This band lasted three years, resulting in the trio of albums ''Discipline'' (1981), ''Beat'' (1982) and ''Three of a Perfect Pair'' (1984).", "Following a decade-long hiatus, they reformed in 1994, adding Pat Mastelotto and Trey Gunn for a sextet line-up Fripp called \"The Double Trio\".", "The double trio participated in another three-year cycle of activity that included the release of ''Thrak'' (1995), and multiple concert recordings.", "There was a hiatus between 1997 and 2000.Four members of the double trio reunited in 2000 as a more industrial-oriented King Crimson, called \"The Double Duo\", releasing ''The Construkction of Light'' (2000) and ''The Power to Believe'' (2003).", "After a five-year hiatus, the group expanded (in the person of new second drummer Gavin Harrison) for a 2008 tour celebrating the 40th anniversary of their 1968 formation.Following another hiatus (2009–2012), during which Fripp was thought to be retired, King Crimson came together again in 2013; this time as a septet (and, later, octet) with an unusual three-drumkit frontline, and new second guitarist and singer Jakko Jakszyk.", "This version of King Crimson continued to tour from 2014 to 2021, and released multiple live albums." ], [ "History", "=== 1967–1968: Giles, Giles and Fripp ===In August 1967, brothers Michael and Peter Giles, drummer and singer/bassist respectively and pro musicians in working bands since their mid-teens in Dorset, England, advertised for a \"singing organist\" to join a group they were forming.", "Fellow Dorset musician Robert Fripp – a guitarist who neither played organ nor sang – responded, and Giles, Giles and Fripp was born.", "The trio recorded several quirky singles and one eclectic album, ''The Cheerful Insanity of Giles, Giles and Fripp''.", "They hovered on the edge of success, and even made a television appearance, but were never able to make a commercial breakthrough.Attempting to expand their sound, the three recruited Ian McDonald on keyboards, reeds and woodwinds.", "McDonald brought along two new participants: his then-girlfriend, former Fairport Convention singer Judy Dyble, whose brief tenure with the group ended when the two split, and lyricist, roadie, and art strategist Peter Sinfield, with whom he had been writing songs – a partnership initiated when McDonald had said to Sinfield (regarding his band Creation), \"Peter, I have to tell you that your band is hopeless, but you write some great words.", "Would you like to get together on a couple of songs?\"", "Fripp, meanwhile, saw Clouds at the Marquee Club in London which spurred him to incorporate classically inspired melodies into his writing, and utilise improvisation to find new ideas.", "No longer interested in Peter Giles' more whimsical pop songs, Fripp recommended that his old friend, fellow guitarist and singer Greg Lake could join to replace either Peter or Fripp himself.", "Peter Giles later called it one of Fripp's \"cute political moves\".", "According to Michael Giles, his brother had become disillusioned with the band's lack of success and departed before Fripp suggested Lake to fill Peter Giles' position as bassist and singer.=== 1968–1970: Original line-up and ''In the Court of the Crimson King'' ===The first incarnation of King Crimson—Robert Fripp, Michael Giles, Greg Lake, Ian McDonald and Peter Sinfield—was formed on 30 November 1968 with rehearsals beginning on 13 January 1969.Sinfield coined the band's name in \"a moment of pressured panic\".", "Sinfield had already used the term \"crimson king\" in a set of lyrics before his involvement with Giles, Giles and Fripp.", "Though King Crimson is often assumed to be a synonym for Beelzebub, prince of demons, Sinfield insisted that a \"crimson king\" was any ruler during whose reign there were \"societal rumblings\" and \"sort of the dark forces of the world\".", "According to Fripp, Beelzebub would be an anglicised form of the Arabic phrase \"B'il Sabab\", meaning \"the man with an aim\", to which he related.", "At this early point, McDonald was the primary composer, with vital contributions from Fripp and Lake, while Sinfield wrote all the lyrics on his own, and also designed and operated the band's unique stage lighting, being credited with \"words and illumination\" on the album sleeve.", "Inspired by the Moody Blues, McDonald suggested the group purchase a Mellotron keyboard, and this became a key component of the early Crimson sound.", "Sinfield described the original Crimson thus: \"If it sounded at all popular, it was out.", "So it had to be complicated, it had to be more expansive chords, it had to have strange influences.", "If it sounded, like, too simple, we'd make it more complicated, we'd play it in 7/8 or 5/8, just to show off\".King Crimson's first live performance was at the Speakeasy in London on 9 April 1969 (with Yes guitarist Peter Banks among the audience).", "Their big breakthrough came on 5 July 1969 by playing as a support act at the Rolling Stones' free concert in Hyde Park, London before an estimated 500,000 people.", "The debut album, ''In the Court of the Crimson King'', was released in October 1969 on Island Records.", "Fripp would later describe it as having been \"an instant smash\" and \"New York's acid album of 1970\" (notwithstanding Fripp and Giles' assertion that the band never used psychedelic drugs).", "Who guitarist and composer Pete Townshend called the album \"an uncanny masterpiece.\"", "The album contains Sinfield's gothic lyrics and its sound was described as having \"dark and doom-laden visions\".", "Its opening track \"21st Century Schizoid Man\" was described as \"proto-metal\" and the song's lyrics criticise the military involvement of the United States in Southeast Asia.", "In contrast to the blues-based hard rock of the contemporary British and American scenes, King Crimson presented a more Europeanised approach that blended antiquity and modernity.", "The band's music drew on a wide range of influences provided by all five group members.", "These elements included classical music, the psychedelic rock spearheaded by Jimi Hendrix, folk, jazz, military music (partially inspired by McDonald's stint as an army musician) and free improvisation.After playing shows across England, the band toured the US with various pop and rock acts.", "Their first show was at Goddard College in Plainfield, Vermont.", "While the band found success and critical acclaim, creative tensions were already developing.", "Giles and McDonald, still striving to cope with King Crimson's rapid success and the realities of touring life, became uneasy with their musical direction.", "Although he was neither the dominant composer nor the frontman, Fripp was very much the group's driving force and spokesman, leading them into progressively darker and more intense musical areas.", "McDonald and Giles, now favouring a lighter and more nuanced romantic style, became increasingly uncomfortable with their position and resigned after the conclusion of the US tour in January 1970.To keep the band together, Fripp offered to resign himself, but McDonald declared that King Crimson was \"more (him) than them\" and that he and Giles should therefore be the ones to leave.", "McDonald later said he \"was probably not emotionally mature enough to handle it\" and made a \"rash decision to leave without consulting anyone\".", "The original line-up played their last show at the Fillmore West in San Francisco on 16 December 1969, a little over one year after forming.", "Live recordings of the band from 1969 were released in 1997 on ''Epitaph'' and in 2010 on the ''In the Court of the Crimson King (1969)'' box set.=== 1970–1971: ''In the Wake of Poseidon'' and ''Lizard'' ===King Crimson spent 1970 in a state of flux with various line-up changes, thwarted tour plans, and difficulties in finding a satisfactory musical direction while Fripp was learning and developing as a songwriter during the writing process of the next three albums.", "As well as guitar, Fripp took on keyboard duties, while Sinfield expanded his creative role to operating synthesizers.Following McDonald and Giles' departure, Lake, unsure of the band's future without them, began discussions with Keith Emerson of the Nice about possibly forming a new band together.", "With Fripp and Sinfield planning for recording the second King Crimson album, and Lake's position uncertain, the band's management booked Elton John to sing the material as a session musician, but Fripp decided against this idea after listening to his ''Empty Sky'' album.", "Lake agreed to stay with the band until Emerson had completed remaining commitments with the Nice, at which point he left to form Emerson, Lake and Palmer.", "On the resulting ''In the Wake of Poseidon'' album, Lake provided all the lead vocals except on \"Cadence and Cascade\", as he left before he was able to complete this track.", "Fripp's old school friend Gordon Haskell was brought in to provide the vocal on the song.", "The sessions also included Michael and Peter Giles on drums and bass respectively, saxophonist Mel Collins (formerly of the band Circus) and jazz pianist Keith Tippett.", "Upon its release in May 1970, ''In the Wake of Poseidon'' reached No.", "4 in the UK and No.", "31 in the US.", "It received some criticism from those who thought it sounded too similar to their first album.", "With no set band to perform the new material, Fripp and Sinfield kept Mel Collins on board, with Gordon Haskell joining as lead vocalist and bassist, and Andy McCulloch joining as drummer.", "In addition to saxophone, Collins would also act as occasional keyboard player and backing vocalist.Fripp and Sinfield wrote the third album, ''Lizard'', themselves – with Haskell, Collins and McCulloch having no say in the direction of the material.", "In addition to the core band, several session musicians contributed to the ''Lizard'' recording, including the returning Keith Tippett, who was offered full band membership but preferred to remain an occasional guest musician, and two members of Tippett's band, Mark Charig on cornet, and Nick Evans on trombone.", "Robin Miller (on oboe and cor anglais) also appeared, while Jon Anderson of Yes was brought in to sing a section of the album's title track, \"Prince Rupert Awakes\", which Fripp and Sinfield considered to be outside Haskell's natural range and style.", "''Lizard'' featured stronger jazz and chamber-classical influences than previous albums.", "The album contains Sinfield's \"phantasmagorical\" lyrics, including \"Happy Family\" (an allegory of the break-up of the Beatles), and the title track, a suite which took up the entire second side, describing a medieval/mythological battle and its outcome.Released in December 1970, ''Lizard'' reached No.", "29 in the UK and No.", "113 in the US.", "Described retrospectively as an \"outlier\", the album had been made by a group in disagreement over method and taste.", "The more rhythm-and-blues-oriented Haskell and McCulloch both found the music difficult to relate to, and tedious and confusing to record.", "Collins disliked how his parts were composed, while both Fripp and Haskell detested Sinfield's lyrics.", "This lineup of the band did not survive much longer than the ''Lizard'' recording sessions.", "Haskell quit the band acrimoniously during initial tour rehearsals after refusing to sing live with distortion and electronic effects on his voice, and McCulloch departed soon after.", "With Sinfield not being a musician and Fripp having seemingly given up on the band, Collins was left to search for new members.=== 1971–1972: ''Islands'' ===After a search for a drummer to replace McCulloch, Ian Wallace was secured.", "Fripp was re-energised by the addition of a new member, and he joined Collins and Wallace to audition singers and bassists.", "Vocalists who tried out included Bryan Ferry of Roxy Music and even one of the band's managers, John Gaydon.", "The position eventually went to Raymond \"Boz\" Burrell.", "John Wetton was invited to join on bass, but declined in order to join Family instead.", "Rick Kemp (later of Steeleye Span) rehearsed with the band, but declined the final offer to formally join.", "Fripp decided to teach Boz to play bass rather than continue the labored auditions.", "Though he had not played bass before, Burrell had played enough acoustic guitar to assist him in learning the instrument quickly.", "Wallace was able to further instruct Burrell in functioning on the instrument in a rhythm section.", "With a line-up now complete, King Crimson began touring in May 1971, the first time they had played live since the original line-up's last show on 16 December 1969.The concerts were well received, but the musical differences between Fripp and the rest of the group, and the somewhat wilder lifestyles of Collins, Wallace and Burrell, alienated the drug-free Fripp, who began to withdraw socially from his bandmates, creating further tension.In 1971, the new King Crimson formation recorded ''Islands''.", "Sinfield, who favoured a softer approach, took lyrical inspiration from Homer's ''Odyssey'', musical inspiration from jazz players like Miles Davis and Ahmad Jamal, and a sun-drenched trip to Ibiza and Formentera.", "''Islands'' featured the instrumental \"Sailor's Tale\", with a droning Mellotron and Fripp's banjo-inspired guitar solo; the raunchy, blues-inspired \"Ladies of the Road\", which featured Wallace and Collins on backing vocals; and \"Song of the Gulls\", which was developed from an earlier Fripp instrumental (\"Suite No.", "1\" from Giles, Giles & Fripp's 1968 album), and would be the only time the band would utilize an orchestra.", "Burrell disliked Sinfield's lyrics and one of the band members allegedly called ''Islands'' as \"an airy-fairy piece of shit\".Released in December 1971, ''Islands'' charted at No.", "30 in the UK and No.", "76 in the US.", "Following a tour of the United States in December 1971, Fripp informed Sinfield that he could no longer work with him, and asked him to leave the band.", "In January 1972, the remaining band broke up acrimoniously in rehearsals, owing partially to Fripp's refusal to play a composition by Collins.", "He later cited this as \"quality control\", with the idea that King Crimson would perform the \"right\" kind of music.In order to fulfil touring contracts in the United States in 1972, King Crimson reformed with the intention of disbanding immediately after the tour.", "Recordings from various North American dates between January and February 1972 were released as ''Earthbound'' in June of that year.", "The album was noted for its playing style that occasionally veered towards funk, and Burrell's scat singing on the improvised pieces, but was criticised for its sub-par sound quality.", "Further, better-quality, live recordings from this era would be released in 2002 as ''Ladies of the Road'' and in 2017 on the ''Sailors' Tales (1970–1972)'' box set.", "By this time, the musical rift between Fripp and the rest of the band had grown very wide.", "Wallace, Burrell and Collins favoured improvised blues and funk.", "Fripp would later describe the 1971–1972 lineup as more of a jam band than an \"improvising\" band, an opinion with which Wallace disagreed.", "Personal relations actually improved during the tour to the point where most of the band decided to continue on, however Fripp opted to part company with the other three, restructuring King Crimson with new musicians, as he felt the other members wouldn't be fully engaged in the musical direction he had in mind.=== 1972–1975: ''Larks' Tongues in Aspic'', ''Starless and Bible Black'', ''Red'' and hiatus ===The next incarnation of King Crimson was radically different from the previous configurations.", "Fripp's four new recruits were free-improvising percussionist Jamie Muir, drummer Bill Bruford, who left Yes at a commercial peak in their career in favour of the \"darker\" Crimson, bassist and vocalist John Wetton (who left Family), and violinist, keyboardist and flautist David Cross, whom Fripp had met when he was invited to a rehearsal of Waves, a band Cross was working in.", "Most of the musical compositions were collaborations between Fripp and Wetton, who each composed segments independently and fitted together those which they found compatible.", "With Sinfield gone, the band recruited Wetton's friend Richard Palmer-James (from the original Supertramp) as their new lyricist.", "Unlike Sinfield, Palmer-James was not an official member of King Crimson, playing no part in artistic decisions, visual ideas, or sonic directions; his sole contributions to the group were his lyrics, sent via mail from his home in Germany.", "Following a period of rehearsals, King Crimson resumed touring on 13 October 1972 at the Zoom Club in Frankfurt, with the band's penchant for improvisation (and Muir's startling stage presence) gaining them renewed press attention.In January and February 1973, King Crimson recorded ''Larks' Tongues in Aspic'' in London which was released that March.", "The band's new sound was exemplified by the album's two-part title track – a significant change from what King Crimson had done before, the piece emphasised the sharp instrumental interplay of the band, and drew influence from modern classical music, noisy free improv, and even heavy metal riffing.", "The record displayed Muir's unusual approach to percussion, which included a self-modified drum kit, assorted toys, a bullroarer, mbira, gongs, balloons, thunder sheet and chains.", "On stage, Muir also employed unpredictable, manic movements, bizarre clothing, and fake blood capsules (occasionally spit or applied to the head), becoming the sole example of such theatrical stage activity in the band's long history.", "The album reached No.", "20 in the UK and No.", "61 in the US.", "After a period of further touring, Muir departed in 1973, quitting the music industry altogether.", "Muir told King Crimson's management that he had decided a musician's life was not for him, and he had chosen to join a Scottish Buddhist monastery.", "He offered to serve a period of notice which the management declined.", "Instead of reiterating Muir's decision, the management informed the band and the public that Muir had sustained an onstage injury caused by a gong landing on his foot.leftWith Muir gone, the remaining members reconvened in January 1974 to produce ''Starless and Bible Black'', released in March 1974, which earned them a positive ''Rolling Stone'' review.", "Though most of the album was recorded live during the band's late 1973 tour, the recordings were carefully edited and overdubbed to sound like a studio record, with \"The Great Deceiver\", \"Lament\" and the second half of \"The Night Watch\" the only tracks recorded entirely in the studio.", "The album reached No.", "28 in the UK and No.", "64 in the US.", "Following the album's release, the band began to divide once more, this time over performance.", "Musically, Fripp found himself positioned between Bruford and Wetton, who played with such force and increasing volume that Fripp once compared them to \"a flying brick wall\", and Cross, whose amplified acoustic violin was consistently being drowned out by the rhythm section, leading him to concentrate more on Mellotron and an overdriven electric piano.", "An increasingly frustrated Cross began to withdraw both musically and personally, with the result being that he was voted out of the group following the band's 1974 tour of Europe and America.Fripp performing in 1974In July 1974, Fripp, Bruford, and Wetton began recording ''Red''.", "Before recording began, Fripp, now increasingly disillusioned with the music industry, turned his attention to the works of English mystic J.G.", "Bennett and had a spiritual experience in which \"the top of my head blew off\".", "Most of the album had been developed during live improvisations before Fripp retreated into himself and \"withdrew his opinion\", leaving Bruford and Wetton to direct the recording sessions.", "The album contains one live track, \"Providence\", recorded on 30 June 1974 with Cross playing violin.", "Several guest musicians (including former members Ian McDonald and Mel Collins) contributed to the album.", "Released on 6 October 1974, ''Red'' went to No.", "45 in the UK and No.", "66 in the US.", "AllMusic called it \"an impressive achievement\" for a group about to disband, with \"intensely dynamic\" musical chemistry between the band members.Two months before the release of ''Red'', King Crimson's future looked bright (with talks regarding founder member Ian McDonald rejoining the group).", "However, Fripp wished not to tour as he felt increasingly disenchanted by the group and the music industry.", "He also felt the world was going to drastically change by 1981 and that he had to prepare for it.", "Despite a band meeting while touring the US in which Fripp expressed a desire to end the band, the group did not formally disband until 25 September 1974 and later Fripp announced that King Crimson had \"ceased to exist\" and was \"completely over for ever and ever\".", "It was later revealed that Fripp had attempted to replace himself with McDonald and Steve Hackett of Genesis, but this idea was rejected by the managers.", "Following the band's disbanding, the live album ''USA'' was released in May 1975, formed of recordings from their 1974 North American tour.", "It received some positive reviews, including \"a must\" for fans of the band and \"insanity you're better off having\".", "Issues with the tapes rendered some of Cross' playing inaudible, so Eddie Jobson of Roxy Music was hired to perform violin and keyboard overdubs in a studio; further edits were also made to allow the music to fit on a single LP.", "More live recordings from the 1972–1974 era would be issued as ''The Night Watch'' in 1997, and as part of the box sets ''The Great Deceiver'' (1992), ''Larks' Tongues in Aspic (1972–1973)'' (2012), ''The Road to Red (1974)'', and ''Starless (1973–1974)'' (both 2014).", "Between 1975 and 1981, King Crimson were completely inactive.=== 1981–1984: ''Discipline'', ''Beat'', ''Three of a Perfect Pair'' and second hiatus ===Later versions of ''Discipline'' featured this knotwork design by Steve Ball.In the late autumn of 1980, having spent several years on spiritual pursuits and then gradually returning to music (playing guitar for David Bowie, Peter Gabriel and Daryl Hall, pursuing an experimental solo career, leading instrumental new wave band The League of Gentlemen), Fripp decided to form a new \"first division\" rock group, but had no intentions of it being King Crimson.", "Having recruited Bill Bruford as drummer, Fripp asked singer and guitarist Adrian Belew to join, the first time Fripp would actively seek collaboration with another guitarist in a band and therefore indicative of Fripp's desire to create something unlike any of his previous work.", "After touring with Talking Heads, Belew agreed to join and also become the band's lyricist.", "Bruford's suggestion of his bassist Jeff Berlin was rejected as Fripp thought his playing was \"too busy\", so auditions were held in New York: on the third day, Fripp left after roughly three auditions, only to return several hours later with Tony Levin (who got the job after playing a single chorus of \"Red\").", "Fripp later confessed that, had he known that Levin (whom Fripp had played with in Peter Gabriel's group) was available and interested, he would have selected him without holding auditions.", "Fripp named the new quartet Discipline, and they went to England to rehearse and write new material.", "They made their live debut at Moles Club in Bath, Somerset on 30 April 1981, and completed a short tour supported by the Lounge Lizards.", "By October 1981, the band had opted to change their name to King Crimson.In 1981, King Crimson recorded ''Discipline'' with producer Rhett Davies.", "The album displayed a very different version of the band, with newer influences including post-punk, new wave, funk, minimalism, pointillism, world music and African percussion.", "With a sound described in ''The New Rolling Stone Album Guide'' as having a \"jaw-dropping technique\" of \"knottily rhythmic, harmonically demanding workouts\".", "The title track \"Discipline\" was described as a postminimalist rock song.", "Fripp intended to create the sound of a \"rock gamelan\", with an interlocking rhythmic quality to the paired guitars that he found similar to Indonesian gamelan ensembles.", "Fripp concentrated on playing complex picked arpeggios, while Belew provided an arsenal of guitar sounds that \"often mimic animal noises\".", "In addition to bass guitar, Levin used the Chapman Stick, a ten-string two-handed tapping, hybrid guitar and bass instrument which he played in an \"utterly original style\".", "Bruford experimented with cymbal-less acoustic kits and a Simmons SDS-V electronic drum kit.", "The band's songs were shorter in comparison to previous King Crimson albums, and very much shaped by Belew's pop sensibilities and quirky approach to writing lyrics.", "Though the band's previous taste for improvisation was now tightly reined in, one instrumental (\"The Sheltering Sky\") emerged from group rehearsals; while the noisy, half-spoken/half-shouted \"Indiscipline\" was a partially written, part-improvised piece created in order to give Bruford a chance to escape from the strict rhythmic demands of the rest of the album.", "Released in September 1981, ''Discipline'' reached No.", "41 in the UK and No.", "45 in the US.In June 1982, King Crimson followed ''Discipline'' with ''Beat'', the first King Crimson album recorded with the same band line-up as the album preceding it.", "''Beat'' is the only album where Fripp had no involvement in the original mixing; Davies and Belew undertook production duties.", "The album had a linked theme of the Beat Generation and its writings, reflected in song titles such as \"Neal and Jack and Me\" (inspired by Neal Cassady and Jack Kerouac), \"Heartbeat\" (inspired by Carolyn Cassady's \"Heart Beat: My Life with Jack and Neal\"), \"The Howler\" (inspired by Allen Ginsberg's \"Howl\") and \"Waiting Man\" (inspired by William Burroughs).", "The album contained themes of life on the road, existential angst and romanticism.", "While ''Beat'' was more accessible, it had the improvised \"Requiem\", which featured Frippertronics, a guitar technique invented by Brian Eno and Robert Fripp using a tape loop system.Recording ''Beat'' was faced with tension with Belew suffering high stress levels over his duties as front man, lead singer, and principal songwriter.", "On one occasion, he clashed with Fripp and ordered him out of the studio.", "As ''Beat'' reached No.", "39 in the UK and No.", "52 in the US, King Crimson resumed touring.", "\"Heartbeat\" was released as a single which peaked at No.", "57 on the ''Billboard'' Mainstream Rock chart.", "Around this time the band released the VHS ''The Noise: Live in Frejus'', a document of a show played at the Arena, Frejus, France on 27 August 1982, co-headlining with Roxy Music (whose set from the same show was also released on VHS as ''The High Road'').", "The VHS was later re-released as part of the ''Neal and Jack and Me'' DVD in 2004.King Crimson's next album, ''Three of a Perfect Pair'', was recorded in 1983 and released in March 1984.Having encountered difficulty in both writing and determining a direction for the album, the band chose to record and call the album's first half a \"left side\" – four of the band's poppier songs plus an instrumental – and the second half a \"right side\" – experimental work, improvisations that drew influence from industrial music, plus the third part of the \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic\" series of compositions.", "The stress during the writing process and the tension between the band members manifested in both lyrical content and music, and the result is a \"nerve-racking\" album.", "The 2001 remaster of the album included the \"other side\", a collection of remixes and improvisational out-takes plus Levin's humorous song, \"The King Crimson Barbershop\".", "''Three of a Perfect Pair'' peaked at No.", "30 in the UK and No.", "58 in the US, with \"Three of a Perfect Pair\" and \"Sleepless\" being released as singles.", "A VHS document of the ''Three of a Perfect Pair'' tour, ''Three of a Perfect Pair: Live in Japan'', was released later in 1984 (and later also included on the ''Neil and Jack and Me'' DVD).", "The last concert of the ''Three of a Perfect Pair'' tour, at the Spectrum in Montreal, Canada on 11 July 1984, was recorded and released in 1998 as ''Absent Lovers: Live in Montreal''.", "Further live recordings of the 1980s band would be released in 2016 as part of the ''On (and off) The Road (1981–1984)'' box set.", "Despite their conflict, the musicians remained professional on stage.Following the 1984 tour, Fripp dissolved King Crimson for the second time, exactly ten years after dissolving the previous group.", "Bruford and Belew expressed some frustration over this; Belew recalled the first he had heard of the split was when he read about it in a report in ''Musician'' magazine.=== 1994–1999: The Double Trio, ''Vrooom'', ''THRAK'' and the ProjeKcts ===In the summer of 1991, Belew met with Fripp in England to express an interest in reviving King Crimson.", "One year later, Fripp established his Discipline Global Mobile (DGM) record label with producer David Singleton.", "Subsequently, DGM would be the primary home for Fripp's work, with larger album releases distributed to bigger record companies (initially Virgin records), and smaller releases handled by DGM.", "This afforded Fripp and his associates greater creative freedom and more control over all aspects of their work.In late 1991, Fripp asked former Japan singer David Sylvian to join the new King Crimson band, but Sylvian declined the offer, though the two collaborated as Sylvian/Fripp.", "In June 1993, Fripp began to assemble a larger version of the band, joined by Belew and Levin from the 1980s quartet, Chapman Stick player Trey Gunn (a veteran of Fripp's Guitar Craft courses) and drummer Jerry Marotta, with whom Fripp had played with Peter Gabriel.", "After Sylvian/Fripp's closing concerts at the Royal Albert Hall in December 1993, a tour that Marotta didn't participate in, Fripp decided to ask the tour's drummer Pat Mastelotto, formerly of Mr. Mister, to join instead of Marotta.", "Bruford wound up being the last of the 1980s group to return to the band.", "Fripp explained that he had a vision of a \"Double Trio\" with two drummers while driving along the Chalke Valley one afternoon in 1992.Bruford later said he lobbied Fripp last minute because he believed that Crimson was very much \"his gig\", and that Fripp had come up with a philosophical explanation for utilizing both Mastelotto and himself later.", "One of the conditions Fripp imposed upon Bruford if he were to return was to give up all creative control to Fripp.Following rehearsals in Woodstock, New York, the group released the extended play ''Vrooom'' in October 1994.This revealed the new King Crimson sound, which featured the interlocking guitars of the 1980s mixed with the layered, heavier feel of the 1970s period.", "There was also a vague influence from the industrial music of that time.", "Many of the songs were written or finalised by Belew, and displayed stronger elements of 1960s pop than before; in particular, a Beatles influence.", "Bruford would refer to the band as sounding like \"a dissonant Shadows on steroids\".", "As with previous line-ups, new technology was utilised, including MIDI (extensively used as an effects filter by Belew and Gunn, and which Fripp used to replace Frippertronics with an upgraded digital version of itself called \"Soundscapes\") and the versatile Warr tap guitar with which Gunn replaced his Stick in 1995.King Crimson toured the album from 28 September 1994 in Buenos Aires, Argentina; portions of these concerts were released on the double live CD set ''B'Boom: Live in Argentina'' in 1995.In October and December 1994, King Crimson recorded their eleventh studio album, ''THRAK''.", "Formed mostly of revised versions of the tracks from ''Vrooom'', plus new tracks, the album was described by ''Q'' magazine as having \"jazz-scented rock structures, characterised by noisy, angular, exquisite guitar interplay\" and an \"athletic, ever-inventive rhythm section,\" while being in tune with the sound of alternative rock of the mid-1990s.", "Examples of the band's efforts to integrate their multiple elements could be heard on the accessible (but complex) songs \"Dinosaur\" and \"Sex Sleep Eat Drink Dream\", the more straightforward ballad \"One Time\", as well as \"Radio I\" and \"Radio II\"- a pair of Fripp's Soundscapes instrumentals.King Crimson resumed touring in 1995 and into 1996; dates from October and November 1995 were recorded and released on the live album ''Thrakattak'' in May 1996, which is an hour of improvised music integrating sections from performances from the \"THRAK\" tour in the United States and Japan, mixed and arranged by Fripp's DGM partner, engineer David Singleton.", "A more conventional live recording from the period was later made available as the double CD release ''Vrooom Vrooom'' (2001), while a full 1995 concert was released on VHS in 1996 as ''Live in Japan'' and re-released on DVD in 1999 as ''Déjà Vrooom''.", "The double trio would be further honored by the ''THRAK (1994–1997)'' box set in 2015.Writing rehearsals began in May 1997 in Nashville, Tennessee.", "Fripp was dissatisfied with the quality of the new music being developed by the band; Longstanding friction and disagreements between himself and Bruford led to the latter deciding to leave King Crimson for good.", "The resulting bad atmosphere and the lack of workable material almost broke the band up altogether.", "Instead, the six members opted to work in four smaller groups (or \"fraKctalisations\", as Fripp called them) known as ProjeKcts.", "This enabled the group to continue developing ideas and searching for a new direction without the practical difficulty (and expense) of convening all six musicians at once.", "From 1997 to 1999, the first four ProjeKcts played live in the United States and the United Kingdom, and released recordings that showed a high degree of free improvisation, with influences ranging from jazz, industrial, techno and drum'n'bass.", "These have been collectively described by music critic J. D. Considine as \"frequently astonishing\" but lacking in melody.", "After Bruford had played four dates with Projekct One in December 1997, he left King Crimson to resume working with his own jazz group Earthworks.=== 1999–2003: The Double Duo, ''The Construkction of Light'' and ''The Power to Believe'' ===In October 1999, King Crimson reconvened.", "Tony Levin was busy working as a session musician and decided to take a hiatus from the group, so the remaining members (Fripp, Belew, Gunn and Mastelotto) formed the \"Double Duo\" to write and record ''The Construkction of Light'' in Belew's basement studio and garage near Nashville.", "Fripp was inspired by Tool's album ''Undertow'' during the writing process of ''The Construkction of Light''.", "Released in May 2000, the album reached No.", "129 in the UK.", "Most of the pieces were metallic, harsh and industrial in sound.", "They featured a distinct electronic texture, a heavily processed electric drum sound from Mastelotto, Gunn taking over the bass role on Warr Guitar, and a different take on the interlocking guitar sound that the band had pioneered in the 1980s.", "With the exception of an industrial blues (sung by Belew through a voice changer under the pseudonym of \"Hooter J. Johnson\"), the songs were dense and complex.", "The album contains the fourth installment of \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic\".", "It received a negative reception for lacking new ideas.", "The band recorded an album of improvised instrumentals at the same time, and released them under the name ProjeKct X, on the CD ''Heaven and Earth''.King Crimson toured to support both albums, including double bill shows with Tool.", "The tour was documented on the live album ''Heavy ConstruKction'' in 2000 and the ''Heaven & Earth (1997–2008)'' box set in 2019.Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones and his band supported Crimson on some live shows.On 9 November 2001, King Crimson released a limited edition live extended play called Level Five, featuring three new pieces: \"Dangerous Curves\", \"Level Five\" and \"Virtuous Circle\", plus versions of \"The Construkction of Light\" and ProjeKct's \"The Deception of the Thrush\", followed by an unlisted track called \"ProjeKct 12th and X\" after one minute of silence.", "A second EP followed in October 2002, ''Happy with What You Have to Be Happy With''.", "This featured eleven tracks (including a live version of \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic, Part IV\").", "Half of the tracks were processed vocal snippets by Belew, and the songs themselves varied between Soundscapes, gamelan, heavy metal and blues.In 2002, several former King Crimson members from the band's early years (Ian McDonald, Mel Collins, Peter Giles and Michael Giles, the latter later replaced by Ian Wallace) reunited as the 21st Century Schizoid Band to play music from King Crimson 1960s and 1970s catalogue which wasn't being performed by the current band.", "This band was fronted by Jakko Jakszyk (a singer-guitarist and multi-instrumentalist who'd played in 64 Spoons and Level 42 and contributed to British art rock projects since the late 1970s, and who would later play a more significant role in King Crimson history) and would continue performing until 2007The band performing in 2003Left to right: Trey Gunn, Adrian Belew, and Robert Fripp (Pat Mastelotto is hidden)The current King Crimson \"Double Duo\" line-up released their thirteenth album, ''The Power to Believe'', in March 2003.Fripp described it as \"the culmination of three years of Crimsonising\".", "The album incorporated, reworked and retitled versions of \"Deception of the Thrush\" (\"The Power to Believe III\"); tracks from their previous two EPs; and an extract from a Fripp Soundscape with added instrumentation and vocals.", "''The Power to Believe'' reached No.", "162 in the UK and No.", "150 in the US.", "King Crimson toured in 2003 to support the album; recordings from it were used for the live album ''EleKtrik: Live in Japan''.", "2003 also saw the release of the DVD ''Eyes Wide Open'', a compilation of the band's shows Live at the Shepherds Bush Empire (London, 3 July 2000) and Live in Japan (Tokyo, 16 April 2003).In November 2003, Gunn left the group to pursue solo projects and was replaced by the returning Tony Levin.", "The band reconvened in early 2004 for rehearsals, but nothing developed from these sessions.", "They went on another hiatus.", "At this point, Fripp was publicly reassessing his desire to work within the music industry, often citing the unsympathetic aspects of the life of a touring musician, such as \"the illusion of intimacy with celebrities\".On 21 September 2006, former King Crimson member Boz Burrell died of a heart attack, followed by another former member, Ian Wallace, who died of esophageal cancer on 22 February 2007.===2008: 40th Anniversary tour and third hiatus ===Belew performing in 2006A new King Crimson formation was announced in 2007: Fripp, Belew, Levin, Mastelotto, and a new second drummer, Gavin Harrison.", "In August 2008, after a period of rehearsals, the five completed the band's 40th Anniversary Tour.", "The setlists featured no new material, drawing instead from the existing mid '70s era/''Discipline''-era/Double Trio/Double Duo repertoire.", "Additional shows were planned for 2009, but were cancelled due to scheduling clashes with Belew.King Crimson began another hiatus after the 40th Anniversary Tour.", "Belew continued to lobby for reviving the band, and discussed it with Fripp several times in 2009 and 2010.Among Belew's suggestions was a temporary reunion of the 1980s line-up for a thirtieth anniversary tour: an idea declined by both Fripp and Bruford, the latter commenting \"I would be highly unlikely to try to recreate the same thing, a mission I fear destined to failure.\"", "In December 2010, Fripp wrote that the King Crimson \"switch\" had been set to \"off\" since October 2008, citing several reasons for this decision.In August 2012, Fripp announced his retirement from the music industry, leaving the future of King Crimson uncertain.=== 2014–2021: The Seven-Headed Beast and Three Over Five line-ups ===Prior to Fripp's retirement announcement, a band called Jakszyk, Fripp and Collins (and subtitled \"A King Crimson ProjeKct\") had released an album called ''A Scarcity of Miracles'' in 2011.The band featured guitarist and singer Jakko Jakszyk (who'd previously performed King Crimson material with 21st Century Schizoid Band), Fripp and former Crimson saxophonist Mel Collins as the main players/composers, with Tony Levin playing bass and Gavin Harrison playing drums.", "At one point, Fripp referred to the band as \"P7\" (ProjeKct Seven).", "Unusually for a ProjeKct, it was based around \"finely crafted\" and \"mid-paced\" original songs derived from improvised sessions.", "In September 2013, Fripp announced King Crimson's return to activity with a \"very different reformation to what has gone before: seven players, four English and three American, with three drummers\".", "He cited several reasons to make a comeback, varying from the practical to the whimsical: \"I was becoming too happy.", "Time for a pointed stick.\"", "The new line-up drew from both the previous lineup (retaining Fripp, Levin, Harrison and Mastelotto) and the ''Scarcity of Miracles'' project (Jakszyk and Collins), with Guitar Craft alumnus and former R.E.M./Ministry drummer Bill Rieflin as the seventh member.", "Adrian Belew was not asked to take part, thus ending his 32-year tenure in King Crimson: Jakszyk took his place as singer and second guitarist.", "This version of the group took on the nickname of \"the Seven-Headed Beast\".This drastically revamped King Crimson had no plans to record in the studio, focussing instead on playing \"reconfigured\" versions of past material in live concerts.", "For the most part, this approach would remain consistent for the remainder of the band's lifetime.", "In early 2014, and for the first time since 1974, the band's repertoire included songs from the run of albums between ''In The Court of the Crimson King'' and ''Larks' Tongues in Aspic'' as well as reviving song material from ''Red''.", "No Adrian Belew-era songs were included in the setlist, although some instrumentals from the period were played (including items from ''THRAK'' and ''The Power to Believe'').", "At the same time, two brand new songs mainly written by Fripp and Jakszyk (\"Meltdown\" and \"Suitable Grounds for the Blues\") were debuted at live concerts.", "After rehearsing in England, King Crimson toured North America from 9 September to 6 October.", "Recordings from the Los Angeles dates were released as ''Live at the Orpheum'': this included new King Crimson instrumental music in the shape of \"Banshee Legs Bell Hassle\" and \"Walk On: Monk Morph Chamber Music\".Tours across Europe, Canada, and Japan followed in the later half of 2015.A live recording from the Canadian leg of the tour was released at the end of February 2016 as ''Live In Toronto'', which included three more new Crimson instrumental pieces (\"Threshold Soundscape\", \"Radical Action (To Unseat the Hold of Monkey Mind)\" and \"The Hell Hounds of Krim\").", "A European tour was planned for 2016.Following Rieflin's decision to take a break from music, drummer Jeremy Stacey of Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds was called in place for dates from September.", "A further live album, ''Radical Action to Unseat the Hold of Monkey Mind'', was released in September 2016, drawing from 2015 concert dates of Japan, Canada and France preceding Rieflin's departure and Stacey's arrival.", "Further documenting the band's shuffling and evolving live set, it included one new instrumental (\"Devil Dogs of Tessellation Row\") and demonstrated that King Crimson were now incorporating material from ''A Scarcity of Miracles'' (the title track, plus \"The Light of Day\") into the band's repertoire.On 7 December 2016, founding King Crimson member Greg Lake died of cancer.", "Another former King Crimson member, John Wetton, died of colon cancer on 31 January 2017.On 3 January 2017, Bill Rieflin returned to King Crimson.", "Since the band wished to retain Jeremy Stacey, Fripp called the new lineup the \"Double Quartet Formation\", referencing four drummers.", "Consequently, King Crimson became an octet, with Fripp rechristening the line-up the \"Three Over Five\" (or \"Five Over Three\") Formation.", "Later on, Rieflin shifted his group role and became King Crimson's first full-time keyboard player.On 2 June 2017, King Crimson released a new live EP named \"Heroes\" (after the David Bowie song), as a tribute to both the artist and the album featuring the song in question, both of which featured distinctive Robert Fripp guitar contributions throughout.", "The video to the song won \"Video of the Year\" at the 2017 Progressive Music Awards.", "Shortly afterwards, King Crimson embarked on a United States tour beginning on 11 June and ending on 26 November.", "On 3 September, Robert Fripp said that his differences with Adrian Belew had been resolved and that there were \"no current plans for (him) to come out with the current formation\" but \"the doors to the future are open.\"", "Belew confirmed this, adding \"it means I may be back in the band in the future at some point.\"", "On 14 October 2017, King Crimson released another contemporary live album, ''Live in Chicago'', recorded on tour in June of the same year.", "As had been the case with its two predecessors, it included new music in the absence of a new studio album (in this case \"Bellscape & Orchestral Werning\", \"The Errors\" and \"Interlude\").", "It also documented the return to the live set of material from the long-neglected 1970 album ''Lizard'' (in the form of the full \"Lizard Suite\" from the second side), as well as another live version of \"'Heroes'\" and a radically different version of the Belew-era song \"Indiscipline\".", "On 13 October 2017, it was announced that Bill Rieflin would be unable to join the Three Over Five Formation on the 2017 Autumn tour in the U.S.", "He was temporarily replaced by Seattle-based Crafty Guitarist Chris Gibson.", "During 2018, King Crimson performed the extensive 33-date Uncertain Times tour through the UK and Europe between 13 June and 16 November.Although the band continued their \"no new studio album\" policy, April 2018 saw the full release of another live album, ''Live in Vienna'', compiling concert recordings from Vienna in 2016 and from Tokyo in 2015.Although the only new band piece on this occasion was the brief drum trio \"Fairy Dust of the Drumsons\", the set also included three pieces drawn from improvised Fripp/Collins/Levin introduction music and merged with Fripp soundscape music: these pieces were arranged and realised by David Singleton, reflecting similar work he'd performed for '' THRaKaTTaK'' twenty years earlier.", "On 20 October 2018, a further live album was released, ''Meltdown: Live in Mexico City'', recorded during dates in July 2017: additions to the setlist on this album included another new drum piece (\"CatalytiKc No.", "9\"), the readmission of another Belew-era song (\"Neurotica), \"Breathless\" (from Fripp's 1979 solo album ''Exposure''), a group jam and assorted solo member \"cadenzas\".", "On 6 April 2019, it was announced at a press conference that Rieflin would take another break from King Crimson to attend to family matters, his place on keyboards for the 2019 50th anniversary tour taken by Theo Travis, better known as a saxophonist, Soft Machine member and occasional duo collaborator with Robert Fripp.", "Although Travis joined the band for rehearsals, Fripp said on 2 May that the band had decided that it was no longer possible to have other musicians deputising for Rieflin and for this reason were \"proceed(ing) as a Seven-Headed Beast\" without Travis.", "Rieflin's parts were divided among other band members, with Fripp, Stacey, Jakszyk and Collins adding keyboards to their on-stage rigs, and Levin once again using the synthesizer he used during the '80s tours.", "Soon after on 11 June, King Crimson's entire discography was made available to stream online on all the major streaming platforms, as part of the band's 50th anniversary celebration.On 24 March 2020, Bill Rieflin died of cancer.", "In the same year, former member Gordon Haskell died of lung cancer on 15 October.King Crimson toured North America and then Japan in 2021.Recordings from dates on the American leg of the tour were released as the \"official bootleg\" live album ''Music Is Our Friend: Live in Washington and Albany'', featuring music from across the band's lifetime plus two new Tony Levin cadenzas.=== 2022: ''In the Court of the Crimson King'' documentary and end of band activity ===Following the 2021 tour dates, King Crimson ceased activity, although without expressly announcing a breakup.", "Reasons cited were practical ones involving the old age of several of the members plus the rising cost of services during the pandemic, with no band intentions for any more tours.", "In August 2021, Jakszyk referred to the existence of \"about forty to fifty minutes' worth of new (King Crimson) stuff, a number of songs I've co-written with Robert and some instrumental things he's written.", "During the lockdown Gavin suggested, 'Why don't we record these things so we've at least got studio recordings of this material?'", "That doesn't mean we're going to make a new album or it's ever gonna come out, but we have started this process.\"", "Versions of two Fripp/Jakszyk songs originally intended for King Crimson (\"Uncertain Times\" and \"Separation\") had already emerged on Jakszyk's 2020 solo album ''Secrets and Lies'', with participation from Fripp, Harrison, Levin and Collins.", "On 9 February 2022, founding King Crimson member Ian McDonald died of cancer.In March 2022, the documentary film ''In the Court of the Crimson King'' was premiered at the 2022 SXSW Film Festival.", "Directed by Toby Amies and filmed between 2019 and 2021, it covered live and backstage activity by the then-current band but also featured a historical overview plus contributions from Crimson alumni Ian McDonald, Michael Giles, Bill Bruford, Adrian Belew and Trey Gunn (as well as prolonged interview footage with the late Bill Rieflin).", "Amies described the film's development as follows: “What began as a traditional documentary about the legendary band King Crimson as it turned fifty, mutated into an exploration of time, death, family, and the transcendent power of music to change lives; but with jokes.” As of 2022, with the exception of archive/curatorial matters, King Crimson has ceased activity altogether, with no plans for the future.", "Levin said in a late 2022 interview that, \"the sense I got from Robert Fripp was that it's over.", "Maybe King Crimson will speak to him in the future in some way, and will revive its head with who-knows-what line up?\"", "At a post-screening Q&A session for ''In the Court of the Crimson King'', Fripp referred to the seven-member 2021 lineup of King Crimson as \"the final incarnation\" of the band.", "Asked if there could ever be a line-up that did not include him, he replied \"No!", "Why?", "Because I see the whole.", "I see the music.", "I see the musicians.", "I see the audience and I see the music industry... and you have to engage with all of that to have the overview.", "So that's the quick answer.\"" ], [ "Musical style", "King Crimson have been described musically as progressive rock, art rock, and post-progressive, with their earlier works being described as proto-prog.", "Their music was initially grounded in the rock of the 1960s, especially the acid rock and psychedelic rock movements.", "The band played Donovan's \"Get Thy Bearings\" in concert, and were known to play the Beatles' \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" in their rehearsals.", "However, for their own compositions, King Crimson (unlike the rock bands that had come before them) largely stripped away the blues-based foundations of rock music and replaced them with influences derived from classical composers.", "The first incarnation of King Crimson played the ''Mars'' section of Gustav Holst's suite ''The Planets'' live and later the band used ''Mars'' as a foundation for the song \"Devil's Triangle\".", "As a result of this influence, ''In the Court of the Crimson King'' is frequently viewed as the nominal starting point of the progressive rock movements.", "King Crimson also initially displayed strong jazz influences, most obviously on its signature track \"21st Century Schizoid Man\".", "The band also drew on English folk music for compositions such as \"Moonchild\" and \"I Talk to the Wind.\"", "In the 1972 lineup, Fripp's intention was to combine the music of Jimi Hendrix, Igor Stravinsky and Béla Bartók.The 1981 reunion of the band brought in even more elements, displaying the influence of funk, post-punk, new wave, gamelan music and late 20th century classical composers such as Philip Glass, Steve Reich, and Terry Riley.", "For its 1994 reunion, King Crimson reassessed both the mid-1970s and 1980s approaches in the light of new technology, intervening music forms such as electronica, drum'n'bass and techno; and further developments in industrial music, as well as expanding the band's ambient textural content via Fripp's Soundscapes looping approach.The 2013 version of the band returned, for the most part, to the band's 1960s and 1970s influences and repertoire but addressed them via current technology and rearrangements suited to a larger ensemble of more experienced musicians, while also incorporating the New Standard Tuning used by Fripp since 1984.=== Compositional approaches ===Several King Crimson compositional approaches remained constant throughout the band's lifetime.", "These included:* The use of a gradually building rhythmic motif.", "These include \"The Devil's Triangle\" (an adaptation and variation on the Gustav Holst piece ''Mars'' played by the original King Crimson, based on a complex pulse in time over which a skirling melody is played on a Mellotron), 1973's \"The Talking Drum\" (from ''Larks' Tongues in Aspic''), 1984's \"Industry\" (from ''Three of a Perfect Pair'') and 2003's \"Dangerous Curves\" (from ''The Power to Believe'').", "* An instrumental piece (often embedded as a break in a song) in which the band played an ensemble passage of considerable rhythmic and polyrhythmic complexity.", "An early example is the band's initial signature tune \"21st Century Schizoid Man\", but the \"Larks' Tongues in Aspic\" series of compositions (as well as pieces of similar intent such as \"THRAK\" and \"Level Five\") went deeper into polyrhythmic complexity, delving into rhythms that wander into and out of general synchronisation with each other, but with all 'finishing' together through polyrhythmic synchronisation.", "These polyrhythms were particularly abundant in the band's 1980s work, which contained gamelan-like rhythmic layers and continual overlaid staccato patterns in counterpoint.", "*The composition of difficult solo passages for individual instruments, such as the guitar break on \"Fracture\" on ''Starless and Bible Black''.", "*The juxtaposition of ornate tunes and ballads with unusual, often dissonant noises (such as \"Cirkus\" from ''Lizard'', \"Ladies of the Road\" from ''Islands'' and \"Eyes Wide Open\" from ''The Power to Believe'').", "*The use of improvisation.", "*Ascending note structure (e.g.", "\"Facts of Life\" and \"THRAK\").=== Improvisation ===King Crimson incorporated improvisation into their performances and studio recordings from the beginning, some of which was embedded into pieces such as \"Moonchild\", \"Providence\", \"Requiem\" and \"No Warning\", including passages of restrained silence, as with Bill Bruford's contribution to the improvised \"Trio\".", "Rather than using the standard jazz or rock \"jamming\" format for improvisation (in which one soloist at a time takes centre stage while the rest of the band lies back and plays along with established rhythm and chord changes), King Crimson improvisation consisted of musicians collectively making creative decisions and contributions as the music is being played.", "Individual soloing was largely eschewed; each musician was to listen to each other and to the group sound, to be able to react creatively within the group dynamic.", "Fripp has used the metaphor of \"magic\" to describe this process, in particular when the method works particularly well.Similarly, King Crimson's improvised music was varied in sound and the band has been able to release several box sets and albums consisting mostly or entirely of improvised music, such as the ''THRaKaTTaK'' album, and the band's series of ProjeKcts.", "Occasionally, particular improvised pieces were recalled and reworked in different forms at different shows, becoming more and more refined and eventually appearing on official studio releases." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "King Crimson have been influential both on the early 1970s progressive rock movement and numerous contemporary artists.", "Genesis and Yes were directly influenced by the band's usage of the mellotron, and many King Crimson band members were involved in other notable bands: Bruford in Yes; Lake in Emerson, Lake & Palmer; McDonald in Foreigner; Burrell in Bad Company, and Wetton in U.K. and Asia.", "Canadian rock band Rush's drummer Neil Peart credited the adventurous and innovative style of Michael Giles on his own approach to percussion.King Crimson's influence extends to many bands from diverse genres, especially of the 1990s and 2000s.", "Kurt Cobain, the frontman of the grunge band Nirvana, had stated that the album ''Red'' had a major influence on the sound of their final studio album ''In Utero''.", "Tool are known to be heavily influenced by King Crimson, with vocalist Maynard James Keenan joking on a tour with them: \"Now you know who we ripped off.", "Just don't tell anyone, especially the members of King Crimson.\"", "Modern progressive, experimental, psychedelic and indie rock bands have cited them as an influence as well, including the Mars Volta, Primus, Mystery Jets, Fanfarlo, Phish, and Anekdoten, who first practiced together playing King Crimson songs.", "Steven Wilson, the leader of Porcupine Tree, was responsible for remixing King Crimson's back catalogue in surround sound and said that the process had an enormous influence on his solo albums, and his band was influenced by King Crimson.", "In November 2012 the Flaming Lips in collaboration with Stardeath and White Dwarfs released a track-by-track reinterpretation of ''In the Court of the Crimson King'' entitled ''Playing Hide and Seek with the Ghosts of Dawn''.", "Colin Newman, of Wire, said he saw King Crimson perform many times, and that they influenced him deeply.", "The seminal hardcore punk group Black Flag acknowledge Wetton-era King Crimson as an influence on their experimental period in the mid-1980s.", "Melvin Gibbs said that the Rollins Band was influenced most by King Crimson, using similar chords.", "Bad Religion cites the lyrics of \"21st Century Schizoid Man\" on their single \"21st Century (Digital Boy)\" and the name of their record label, Epitaph (founded by their guitarist Brett Gurewitz), comes from the song of the same name on Crimson's debut album.", "Living Colour guitarist Vernon Reid considered Robert Fripp as one of his guitar influences.King Crimson have frequently been cited as pioneers of progressive metal and as an influence on bands of this genre, including Opeth, Mastodon, Between the Buried and Me, Leprous, Haken, the Ocean, Caligula's Horse, Last Chance to Reason, and Indukti.", "Members of metal bands Mudvayne, Voivod, Enslaved, Yob, Pyrrhon, and Pallbearer have cited King Crimson as an influence.", "Heavy experimental and avant-garde acts like the Dillinger Escape Plan, Neurosis, Zeni Geva, Ancestors, and Oranssi Pazuzu all cite King Crimson's influence.Other artists affected by King Crimson include video game composer Nobuo Uematsu, noise music artist Masami Akita of Merzbow, jazz guitarist Dennis Rea of Land, folktronica exponent Juana Molina, hip hop producer RJD2, hip hop and soul composer Adrian Younge, film director Hal Hartley, and folk-pop singer Ian Kelly." ], [ "Related legacy/cover bands featuring former King Crimson members", "Since the early 2000s, several bands containing former, recent or current King Crimson members have toured and recorded, performing King Crimson music.Active between 2002 and 2005, the 21st Century Schizoid Band reunited several former King Crimson members who had played on the band's first four albums.", "The band featured Ian McDonald, Mel Collins, Peter Giles and Michael Giles (the latter subsequently replaced by Ian Wallace), and was fronted by Jakko Jakszyk, a decade prior to his own recruitment into King Crimson.", "The band engaged in several tours, played material from King Crimson's '60s and '70s catalogue, and recorded several live albums.", "The band disbanded upon Wallace's death in 2007.Since 2007, Tony Levin has led the trio Stick Men, which also features Pat Mastelotto.", "The band was initially completed by Chapman Stick player Michael Bernier, replaced in 2010 by touch guitarist and former Fripp student Markus Reuter.", "This band includes (and reinterprets) King Crimson compositions in their live sets.", "Reuter and Mastelotto also play together as a duo (previously called \"Tuner\"), within which they have been known to rework the mid-1980s King Crimson instrumental \"Industry\" live.Between 2011 and 2014, Stick Men and Adrian Belew's Power Trio band (Belew plus drummer Tobias Ralph and bass player Julie Slick) joined forces to play and tour as The Crimson ProjeKCt, covering the music made during the '80s and '90s.", "Following the return of King Crimson in 2014, the Crimson ProjeKct name has been formally abandoned, but the Stick Men and the Power Trio have still performed together from time to time, usually under names like \"Belew, Levin, Mastelotto and friends\".During his solo career, including performances with the Power Trio, Adrian Belew has performed various versions of King Crimson songs." ], [ "Members", "'''Final lineup'''*Robert Fripp – guitar, keyboards, mellotron, electronics *Mel Collins – saxophones, flute, bass flute, clarinet, bass clarinet, mellotron, backing vocals *Tony Levin – bass, Chapman stick, synthesisers, backing vocals *Pat Mastelotto – drums, percussion, programming *Gavin Harrison – drums, percussion *Jakko Jakszyk – lead vocals, guitar, flute, keyboards *Jeremy Stacey – drums, keyboards, backing vocals '''Former members'''*Peter Sinfield – lyrics, lighting, synthesizer *Michael Giles – drums, percussion, backing vocals *Greg Lake – bass, lead vocals *Ian McDonald – saxophone, flute, clarinet, bass clarinet, keyboards, mellotron, vibraphone, backing vocals *Peter Giles – bass *Gordon Haskell – bass, lead vocals *Andy McCulloch – drums *Ian Wallace – drums, percussion, backing vocals *Boz Burrell – bass, lead vocals *Bill Bruford – drums, percussion *John Wetton – bass, lead vocals *David Cross – violin, viola, keyboards *Jamie Muir – percussion *Adrian Belew – guitar, lead vocals, drums and percussion *Trey Gunn – Warr guitar, Chapman stick, backing vocals, bass *Bill Rieflin – keyboards, synthesizer, mellotron, drums, percussion" ], [ "Discography", "* ''In the Court of the Crimson King'' (1969)* ''In the Wake of Poseidon'' (1970)* ''Lizard'' (1970)* ''Islands'' (1971)* ''Larks' Tongues in Aspic'' (1973)* ''Starless and Bible Black'' (1974)* ''Red'' (1974)* ''Discipline'' (1981)* ''Beat'' (1982)* ''Three of a Perfect Pair'' (1984)* ''THRAK'' (1995)* ''The Construkction of Light'' (2000)* ''The Power to Believe'' (2003)" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Discipline Global Mobile Live* Crimson Jazz Trio * Elephant Talk* ProjeKction* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Kishka" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Kishka''' may refer to:* Kishka (food) or kishke, various types of sausage or stuffed intestine* Samiylo Kishka (1530–1602), nobleman from Bratslav* Intestine or Gut (zoology), in East Slavic languages, also used in English-language Yiddishisms* Kishka (prison cell), a type of cell in Soviet political prisons* Kyshka, Perm Krai, Russia" ], [ "See also", "* Kichka* Kiszka" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Kilogram" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''kilogram''' (also '''kilogramme''') is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI), having the unit symbol '''kg'''.", "It is a widely used measure in science, engineering and commerce worldwide, and is often simply called a '''kilo''' colloquially.", "It means 'one thousand grams'.The kilogram is defined in terms of the Planck constant, the second, and the metre, both of which are based on fundamental physical constants.", "This allows a properly equipped metrology laboratory to calibrate a mass measurement instrument such as a Kibble balance as the primary standard to determine an exact kilogram mass.The kilogram was originally defined in 1795 during the French Revolution as the mass of one litre of water.", "The current definition of a kilogram agrees with this original definition to within 30 parts per million.", "In 1799, the platinum ''Kilogramme des Archives'' replaced it as the standard of mass.", "In 1889, a cylinder of platinum-iridium, the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK), became the standard of the unit of mass for the metric system and remained so for 130 years, before the current standard was adopted in 2019." ], [ "Definition", "The kilogram is defined in terms of three fundamental physical constants: * a specific atomic transition frequency , which defines the duration of the second,* the speed of light , which when combined with the second, defines the length of the metre,* and the Planck constant , which when combined with the metre and second, defines the mass of the kilogram.The formal definition according to the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) is:Defined in term of those units, the kg is formulated as::kg = = ≈ .This definition is generally consistent with previous definitions: the mass remains within 30 ppm of the mass of one litre of water.=== Timeline of previous definitions ===The International Prototype of the Kilogram, whose mass was defined to be one kilogram from 1889 to 2019.", "* 1793: The grave (the precursor of the kilogram) was defined as the mass of 1 litre (dm3) of water, which was determined to be 18841 grains.", "* 1795: the gram (1/1000 of a kilogram) was provisionally defined as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at the melting point of ice.", "* 1799: The Kilogramme des Archives was manufactured as a prototype.", "It had a mass equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at the temperature of its maximum density, which is approximately 4 °C.", "* 1875–1889: The Metre Convention was signed in 1875, leading to the production of the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) in 1879 and its adoption in 1889.", "* 2019: The kilogram was defined in terms of the Planck constant, the speed of light and hyperfine transition frequency of 133Cs as approved by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) on November 16, 2018." ], [ "Name and terminology", "The kilogram is the only base SI unit with an SI prefix (''kilo'') as part of its name.", "The word ''kilogramme'' or ''kilogram'' is derived from the French , which itself was a learned coinage, prefixing the Greek stem of \"a thousand\" to , a Late Latin term for \"a small weight\", itself from Greek .", "The word was written into French law in 1795, in the ''Decree of 18 Germinal'',which revised the provisional system of units introduced by the French National Convention two years earlier, where the had been defined as weight () of a cubic centimetre of water, equal to 1/1000 of a .", "In the decree of 1795, the term thus replaced , and replaced .The French spelling was adopted in Great Britain when the word was used for the first time in English in 1795, with the spelling ''kilogram'' being adopted in the United States.", "In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with \"kilogram\" having become by far the more common.", "UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling.In the 19th century the French word , a shortening of , was imported into the English language where it has been used to mean both kilogram and kilometre.", "While ''kilo'' as an alternative is acceptable, to ''The Economist'' for example, the Canadian government's Termium Plus system states that \"SI (International System of Units) usage, followed in scientific and technical writing\" does not allow its usage and it is described as \"a common informal name\" on Russ Rowlett's Dictionary of Units of Measurement.", "When the United States Congress gave the metric system legal status in 1866, it permitted the use of the word ''kilo'' as an alternative to the word ''kilogram'', but in 1990 revoked the status of the word ''kilo''.The SI system was introduced in 1960 and in 1970 the BIPM started publishing the ''SI Brochure'', which contains all relevant decisions and recommendations by the CGPM concerning units.", "The ''SI Brochure'' states that \"It is not permissible to use abbreviations for unit symbols or unit names ...\"." ], [ "Redefinition based on fundamental constants", "SI system after the 2019 redefinition: the kilogram is now fixed in terms of the second, the speed of light and the Planck constant; furthermore the ampere no longer depends on the kilogramA Kibble balance, which was originally used to measure the Planck constant in terms of the IPK, can now be used to calibrate secondary standard weights for practical use.The replacement of the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) as the primary standard was motivated by evidence accumulated over a long period of time that the mass of the IPK and its replicas had been changing; the IPK had diverged from its replicas by approximately 50 micrograms since their manufacture late in the 19th century.", "This led to several competing efforts to develop measurement technology precise enough to warrant replacing the kilogram artefact with a definition based directly on physical fundamental constants.", "The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved a redefinition of the SI base units in November 2018 that defines the kilogram by defining the Planck constant to be exactly , effectively defining the kilogram in terms of the second and the metre.", "The new definition took effect on May 20, 2019.Prior to the redefinition, the kilogram and several other SI units based on the kilogram were defined by a man-made metal artifact: the ''Kilogramme des Archives'' from 1799 to 1889, and the IPK from 1889 to 2019.In 1960, the metre, previously similarly having been defined with reference to a single platinum-iridium bar with two marks on it, was redefined in terms of an invariant physical constant (the wavelength of a particular emission of light emitted by krypton, and later the speed of light) so that the standard can be independently reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification.At the 94th Meeting of the CIPM in 2005, it was recommended that the same be done with the kilogram.In October 2010, the CIPM voted to submit a resolution for consideration at the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), to \"take note of an intention\" that the kilogram be defined in terms of the Planck constant, (which has dimensions of energy times time, thus mass × length / time) together with other physical constants.", "This resolution was accepted by the 24th conference of the CGPM in October 2011 and further discussed at the 25th conference in 2014.Although the Committee recognised that significant progress had been made, they concluded that the data did not yet appear sufficiently robust to adopt the revised definition, and that work should continue to enable the adoption at the 26th meeting, scheduled for 2018.Such a definition would theoretically permit any apparatus that was capable of delineating the kilogram in terms of the Planck constant to be used as long as it possessed sufficient precision, accuracy and stability.", "The Kibble balance is one way to do this.As part of this project, a variety of very different technologies and approaches were considered and explored over many years.", "Some of these approaches were based on equipment and procedures that would enable the reproducible production of new, kilogram-mass prototypes on demand (albeit with extraordinary effort) using measurement techniques and material properties that are ultimately based on, or traceable to, physical constants.", "Others were based on devices that measured either the acceleration or weight of hand-tuned kilogram test masses and which expressed their magnitudes in electrical terms via special components that permit traceability to physical constants.", "All approaches depend on converting a weight measurement to a mass and therefore require precise measurement of the strength of gravity in laboratories (gravimetry).", "All approaches would have precisely fixed one or more constants of nature at a defined value." ], [ "SI multiples", "Because an SI unit may not have multiple prefixes (see SI prefix), prefixes are added to ''gram'', rather than the base unit ''kilogram'', which already has a prefix as part of its name.", "For instance, one-millionth of a kilogram is 1mg (one milligram), not 1μkg (one microkilogram)." ], [ "Practical issues with SI weight names", "* Serious medication errors have been made by confusing milligrams and micrograms when micrograms has been abbreviated.", "The abbreviation \"mcg\" rather than the SI symbol \"μg\" is formally mandated for medical practitioners in the US by the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO).", "In the United Kingdom, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence and Scottish Palliative Care Guidelines state that \"micrograms\" and \"nanograms\" must both be written in full, and never abbreviated as \"mcg\" or \"μg\".", "* The hectogram (100 g) (Italian: ''ettogrammo'' or ''etto'') is a very commonly used unit in the retail food trade in Italy.", "* The former standard spelling and abbreviation \"deka-\" and \"dk\" produced abbreviations such as \"dkm\" (dekametre) and \"dkg\" (dekagram).", "the abbreviation \"dkg\" (10 g) is still used in parts of central Europe in retail for some foods such as cheese and meat.", "* The unit name ''megagram'' is rarely used, and even then typically only in technical fields in contexts where especially rigorous consistency with the SI standard is desired.", "For most purposes, the name ''tonne'' is instead used.", "The tonne and its symbol, \"t\", were adopted by the CIPM in 1879.It is a non-SI unit accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI.", "According to the BIPM, \"This unit is sometimes referred to as 'metric ton' in some English-speaking countries.\"" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * (NIST)* * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* NIST Improves Accuracy of 'Watt Balance' Method for Defining the Kilogram* The UK's National Physical Laboratory (NPL): Are any problems caused by having the kilogram defined in terms of a physical artefact?", "(FAQ – Mass & Density)* NPL: '' NPL Kibble balance''* Metrology in France: '' Watt balance''* Australian National Measurement Institute: '' Redefining the kilogram through the Avogadro constant''* International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM): Home page* NZZ Folio: '' What a kilogram really weighs''* NPL: '' What are the differences between mass, weight, force and load?", "''* BBC: '' Getting the measure of a kilogram''* NPR: '' This Kilogram Has A Weight-Loss Problem'', an interview with National Institute of Standards and Technology physicist Richard Steiner* Avogadro and molar Planck constants for the redefinition of the kilogram* Realization of the awaited definition of the kilogram* === Videos ===* The BIPM – YouTube channel* \"The role of the Planck constant in physics\" – presentation at 26th CGPM meeting at Versailles, France, November 2018 when voting on superseding the IPK took place on YouTube" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Knitting" ], [ "Introduction", "Woman knittingVideo description of knitting a sock and the two basic stitches: knit and purl'''Knitting''' is a method for production of textile fabrics by interlacing yarn loops with loops of the same or other yarns.", "It is used to create many types of garments.", "Knitting may be done by hand or by machine.Knitting creates stitches: loops of yarn in a row, either flat or in ''the round'' (tubular).", "There are usually many ''active stitches'' on the knitting needle at one time.", "Knitted fabric consists of a number of consecutive rows of connected loops that intermesh with the next and previous rows.", "As each row is formed, each newly created loop is pulled through one or more loops from the prior row and placed on the ''gaining needle so'' that the loops from the prior row can be pulled off the other needle without unraveling.Differences in yarn (varying in fibre type, ''weight'', uniformity and ''twist''), needle size, and stitch type allow for a variety of knitted fabrics with different properties, including color, texture, thickness, heat retention, water resistance, and integrity.", "A small sample of knitwork is known as a ''swatch''." ], [ "Structure", "===Courses and wales===Structure of stockinette stitch, a common weave in knitted fabric.", "The meandering red path defines one ''course'', the path of the yarn through the fabric.", "The uppermost white loops are unsecured and \"active\", but they secure the red loops suspended from them.", "In turn, the red loops secure the white loops just below them, which in turn secure the loops below them, and so on.Alternating wales of red and yellow knit stitches.", "Each stitch in a wale is suspended from the one above it.Like weaving, knitting is a technique for producing a two-dimensional fabric made from a one-dimensional yarn or thread.", "In weaving, threads are always straight, running parallel either lengthwise (warp threads) or crosswise (weft threads).", "By contrast, the yarn in knitted fabrics follows a meandering path (a ''course''), forming symmetric loops (also called bights) symmetrically above and below the mean path of the yarn.", "These meandering loops can be easily stretched in different directions giving knit fabrics much more elasticity than woven fabrics.", "Depending on the yarn and knitting pattern, knitted garments can stretch as much as 500%.", "For this reason, knitting was initially developed for garments that must be elastic or stretch in response to the wearer's motions, such as socks and hosiery.", "For comparison, woven garments stretch mainly along one or other of a related pair of directions that lie roughly diagonally between the warp and the weft, while contracting in the other direction of the pair (stretching and contracting with the ''bias''), and are not very elastic, unless they are woven from stretchable material such as spandex.", "Knitted garments are often more form-fitting than woven garments, since their elasticity allows them to contour to the body's outline more closely; by contrast, curvature is introduced into most woven garments only with sewn darts, flares, gussets and gores, the seams of which lower the elasticity of the woven fabric still further.", "Extra curvature can be introduced into knitted garments without seams, as in the heel of a sock; the effect of darts, flares, etc.", "can be obtained with short rows or by increasing or decreasing the number of stitches.", "Thread used in weaving is usually much finer than the yarn used in knitting, which can give the knitted fabric more bulk and less drape than a woven fabric.If they are not secured, the loops of a knitted course will come undone when their yarn is pulled; this is known as ''ripping out'', ''unravelling'' knitting, or humorously, ''frogging'' (because you 'rip it', this sounds like a frog croaking: 'rib-bit').", "To secure a stitch, at least one new loop is passed through it.", "Although the new stitch is itself unsecured (\"active\" or \"live\"), it secures the stitch(es) suspended from it.", "A sequence of stitches in which each stitch is suspended from the next is called a ''wale''.", "To secure the initial stitches of a knitted fabric, a method for casting on is used; to secure the final stitches in a wale, one uses a method of binding/casting off.", "During knitting, the active stitches are secured mechanically, either from individual hooks (in knitting machines) or from a knitting needle or frame in hand-knitting.Basic pattern of warp knitting.", "Parallel yarns zigzag lengthwise along the fabric, each loop securing a loop of an adjacent strand from the previous row.===Weft and warp knitting===There are two major varieties of knitting: weft knitting and warp knitting.", "In the more common ''weft knitting'', the wales are perpendicular to the course of the yarn.", "In warp knitting, the wales and courses run roughly parallel.", "In weft knitting, the entire fabric may be produced from a single yarn, by adding stitches to each wale in turn, moving across the fabric as in a raster scan.", "By contrast, in warp knitting, one yarn is required for every wale.", "Since a typical piece of knitted fabric may have hundreds of wales, warp knitting is typically done by machine, whereas weft knitting is done by both hand and machine.", "Warp-knitted fabrics such as tricot and milanese are resistant to runs, and are commonly used in lingerie.A modern knitting machine in the process of weft knittingWeft-knit fabrics may also be knit with multiple yarns, usually to produce interesting color patterns.", "The two most common approaches are intarsia and stranded colorwork.", "In intarsia, the yarns are used in well-segregated regions, e.g., a red apple on a field of green; in that case, the yarns are kept on separate spools and only one is knitted at any time.", "In the more complex stranded approach, two or more yarns alternate repeatedly within one row and all the yarns must be carried along the row, as seen in Fair Isle sweaters.", "Double knitting can produce two separate knitted fabrics simultaneously (e.g., two socks).", "However, the two fabrics are usually integrated into one, giving it great warmth and excellent drape.In the knit stitch on the left, the next (red) loop passes through the previous (yellow) loop from ''below'', whereas in the purl stitch (right), the next stitch enters from above.", "Thus, a knit stitch on one side of the fabric appears as a purl stitch on the other, and vice versa.===Knit and purl stitches===Two courses of red yarn illustrating two basic fabric types.", "The lower red course is knit into the white row below it and is itself knit on the next row; this produces 'stockinette' stitch.", "The upper red course is purled into the row below and then is knit, consistent with 'garter' stitch.A dropped stitch, or missed stitch, is a common error that creates an extra loop to be fixed.In securing the previous stitch in a wale, the next stitch can pass through the previous loop from either below or above.", "If the former, the stitch is denoted as a 'knit stitch' or a 'plain stitch;' if the latter, as a 'purl stitch'.", "The two stitches are related in that a knit stitch seen from one side of the fabric appears as a purl stitch on the other side.The two types of stitches have a different visual effect; the knit stitches look like 'V's stacked vertically, whereas the purl stitches look like a wavy horizontal line across the fabric.", "Patterns and pictures can be created in knitted fabrics by using knit and purl stitches as \"pixels\"; however, such pixels are usually rectangular, rather than square, depending on the gauge/tension of the knitting.", "Individual stitches, or rows of stitches, may be made taller by drawing more yarn into the new loop (an elongated stitch), which is the basis for uneven knitting: a row of tall stitches may alternate with one or more rows of short stitches for an interesting visual effect.", "Short and tall stitches may also alternate within a row, forming a fish-like oval pattern.In the simplest of hand-knitted fabrics, every row of stitches are all knit (or all purl); this creates a garter stitch fabric.", "Alternating rows of all knit stitches and all purl stitches creates a stockinette pattern/stocking stitch.", "Vertical stripes (ribbing) are possible by having alternating wales of knit and purl stitches.", "For example, a common choice is 2x2 ribbing, in which two wales of knit stitches are followed by two wales of purl stitches, etc.", "Horizontal striping (welting) is also possible, by alternating ''rows'' of knit and purl stitches.", "Checkerboard patterns (basketweave) are also possible, the smallest of which is known as ''seed/moss stitch'': the stitches alternate between knit and purl in every wale and along every row.Fabrics in which each knitted row is followed by a purled row, such as in stockinette/stocking stitch, have a tendency to curl—top and bottom curl toward the front (or knitted side) while the sides curl toward the back (or purled side); by contrast, those in which knit and purl stitches are arranged symmetrically (such as ribbing, garter stitch or seed/moss stitch) have more texture and tend to lie flat.", "Wales of purl stitches have a tendency to recede, whereas those of knit stitches tend to come forward, giving the fabric more stretchability.", "Thus, the purl wales in ribbing tend to be invisible, since the neighboring knit wales come forward.", "Conversely, rows of purl stitches tend to form an embossed ridge relative to a row of knit stitches.", "This is the basis of shadow knitting, in which the appearance of a knitted fabric changes when viewed from different directions.Typically, a new stitch is passed through a single unsecured ('active') loop, thus lengthening that wale by one stitch.", "However, this need not be so; the new loop may be passed through an already secured stitch lower down on the fabric, or even between secured stitches (a dip stitch).", "Depending on the distance between where the loop is drawn through the fabric and where it is knitted, dip stitches can produce a subtle stippling or long lines across the surface of the fabric, e.g., the lower leaves of a flower.", "The new loop may also be passed between two stitches in the 'present' row, thus clustering the intervening stitches; this approach is often used to produce a smocking effect in the fabric.", "The new loop may also be passed through 'two or more' previous stitches, producing a decrease and merging wales together.", "The merged stitches need not be from the same row; for example, a tuck can be formed by knitting stitches together from two different rows, producing a raised horizontal welt on the fabric.Not every stitch in a row need be knitted; some may be 'missed' (unknitted and passed to the active needle) and knitted on a subsequent row.", "This is known as slip-stitch knitting.", "The slipped stitches are naturally longer than the knitted ones.", "For example, a stitch slipped for one row before knitting would be roughly twice as tall as its knitted counterparts.", "This can produce interesting visual effects, although the resulting fabric is more rigid because the slipped stitch 'pulls' on its neighbours and is less deformable.", "Mosaic knitting is a form of slip-stitch knitting that knits alternate colored rows and uses slip stitches to form patterns; mosaic-knit fabrics tend to be stiffer than patterned fabrics produced by other methods such as Fair-Isle knitting.In some cases, a stitch may be deliberately left unsecured by a new stitch and its wale allowed to disassemble.", "This is known as drop-stitch knitting, and produces a vertical ladder of see-through holes in the fabric, corresponding to where the wale had been.===Differences between knitting and crocheting=== While creating knitting by hand, usually two needles are used to hold the live stitches.", "While crochet uses a single hook, usually creating one stitch at a time, finishing one stitch before creating the next.", "Knitted fabric tends to be flexible and flowing, the stitches forming a shape that is similar to a \"V\".", "Crochet fabric has a more structured feel, each stitch consisting of several loops entwined.", "Each textile has its own specialties and methods.", "Because of the different nature of each stitch, crochet fabric uses more yarn per stitch, is more structured, and is more flexible in the structures that can be created, not being restrained to create a stitch in the following stitch.", "Knitted fabric tends to be thinner, more flexible, and usually has easier to understand patterns because each new stitch must go into the next stitch.", "Because of the differences in how the fabrics are created, the first knitting machine was invented in Victorian times while we are still struggling to create a machine that can crochet.", "Although different methods, they can create similar projects using the same fibers and yarns.===Right- and left-plaited stitches===The stitches on the right are right-plaited, whereas the stitches on the left are left-plaited.Within limits, an arbitrary number of twists may be added to new stitches, whether they be knit or purl.", "Here, a single twist is illustrated, with left-plaited and right-plaited stitches on the left and right, respectively.Both knit and purl stitches may be twisted: usually once if at all, but sometimes twice and (very rarely) thrice.", "When seen from above, the twist can be clockwise (right yarn over left) or counterclockwise (left yarn over right); these are denoted as right- and left-plaited stitches, respectively.", "Hand-knitters generally produce right-plaited stitches by knitting or purling through the back loops, i.e., passing the needle through the initial stitch in an unusual way, but wrapping the yarn as usual.", "By contrast, the left-plaited stitch is generally formed by hand-knitters by wrapping the yarn in the opposite way, rather than by any change in the needle.", "Although they are mirror images in form, right- and left-plaited stitches are functionally equivalent.", "Both types of plaited stitches give a subtle but interesting visual texture, and tend to draw the fabric inwards, making it stiffer.", "Plaited stitches are a common method for knitting jewelry from fine metal wire.Illustration of entrelac.", "The blue and white wales are parallel to each other, but both are perpendicular to the black and gold wales, resembling basket weaving.===Edges and joins between fabrics===The initial and final edges of a knitted fabric are known as the ''cast-on'' and ''bound/cast-off'' edges.", "The side edges are known as the ''selvages''; the word derives from \"self-edges\", meaning that the stitches do not need to be secured by anything else.", "Many types of selvages have been developed, with different elastic and ornamental properties.Vertical and horizontal edges can be introduced within a knitted fabric, e.g., for button holes, by binding/casting off and re-casting on again (horizontal) or by knitting the fabrics on either side of a vertical edge separately.Two knitted fabrics can be joined by embroidery-based grafting methods, most commonly the Kitchener stitch.", "New wales can be begun from any of the edges of a knitted fabric; this is known as picking up stitches and is the basis for entrelac, in which the wales run perpendicular to one another in a checkerboard pattern.Illustration of cable knitting.", "The central braid is formed from 2x2 ribbing in which the background is formed of purl stitches and the cables are each two wales of knit stitches.", "By changing the order in which the stitches are knit, the wales can be made to cross.===Cables, increases, and lace===Ordinarily, stitches are knitted in the same order in every row, and the wales of the fabric run parallel and vertically along the fabric.", "However, this need not be so, since the order in which stitches are knitted may be permuted so that wales cross over one another, forming a cable pattern.", "Cable patterns tend to draw the fabric together, making it denser and less elastic; Aran sweaters are a common form of knitted cabling.", "Arbitrarily complex braid patterns can be done in cable knitting, with the proviso that the wales must move ever upwards; it is generally impossible for a wale to move up and then down the fabric.", "Knitters have developed methods for giving the illusion of a circular wale, such as appear in Celtic knots, but these are inexact approximations.", "However, such circular wales are possible using Swiss darning, a form of embroidery, or by knitting a tube separately and attaching it to the knitted fabric.In lace knitting, the pattern is formed by making small, stable holes in the fabric, generally with yarn overs.A wale can split into two or more wales using increases, most commonly involving a yarn over.", "Depending on how the increase is done, there is often a hole in the fabric at the point of the increase.", "This is used to great effect in lace knitting, which consists of making patterns and pictures using such holes, rather than with the stitches themselves.", "The large and many holes in lacy knitting makes it extremely elastic; for example, some Shetland \"wedding-ring\" shawls are so fine that they may be drawn through a wedding ring.By combining increases and decreases, it is possible to make the direction of a wale slant away from vertical, even in weft knitting.", "This is the basis for bias knitting, and can be used for visual effect, similar to the direction of a brush-stroke in oil painting.===Ornamentations and additions===Various point-like ornaments may be added to knitting for their look or to improve the wear of the fabric.", "Examples include various types of bobbles, sequins and beads.", "Long loops can also be drawn out and secured, forming a \"shaggy\" texture to the fabric; this is known as loop knitting.", "Additional patterns can be made on the surface of the knitted fabric using embroidery; if the embroidery resembles knitting, it is often called Swiss darning.", "Various closures for the garments, such as frogs and buttons can be added; usually buttonholes are knitted into the garment, rather than cut.Ornamental pieces may also be knitted separately and then attached using applique.", "For example, differently colored leaves and petals of a flower could be knit separately and attached to form the final picture.", "Separately knitted tubes can be applied to a knitted fabric to form complex Celtic knots and other patterns that would be difficult to knit.Unknitted yarns may be worked into knitted fabrics for warmth, as is done in tufting and \"weaving\" (also known as \"couching\")." ], [ "History and culture", "The word is derived from ''knot'' and ultimately from the Old English ''cnyttan'', to knot.The exact origins of knitting are unknown, the earliest known examples being cotton socks dating from the 11th century, found in the remains of the city of Fustat, now part of Cairo.Nålebinding (Danish: literally \"binding with a needle\" or \"needle-binding\") is a fabric creation technique predating both knitting and crochet.Knitting was apparently unknown in Europe before the fifteenth century, when it began to be practiced in Italy and Spain.", "The first commercial knitting guilds appear in Western Europe in the early fifteenth century (Tournai in 1429, Barcelona in 1496).", "The Guild of Saint Fiacre was founded in Paris in 1527 but the archives mention an organization (not necessarily a guild) of knitters from 1268.The occupation: \"cap knitter\" describes Margaret Yeo, of London, in 1473.With the invention in 1589 of the stocking frame, an early form of knitting machine, knitting \"by hand\" became a craft used by country people with easy access to fiber.", "Similar to quilting, spinning, and needlepoint, hand knitting became a leisure activity for the wealthy.", "English Roman Catholic priest and former Anglican bishop, Richard Rutt, authored a history of the craft in A History of Hand Knitting (Batsford, 1987).", "His collection of books about knitting is now housed at the Winchester School of Art (University of Southampton)." ], [ "Properties of fabrics", "Schematic of stockinette stitch, the most basic weft-knit fabricThe topology of a knitted fabric is relatively complex.", "Unlike woven fabrics, where strands usually run straight horizontally and vertically, yarn that has been knitted follows a looped path along its row, as with the red strand in the diagram at left, in which the loops of one row have all been pulled through the loops of the row below it.Because there is no single straight line of yarn anywhere in the pattern, a knitted piece of fabric can stretch in all directions.", "This elasticity is all but unavailable in woven fabrics which only stretch along the bias.", "Many modern stretchy garments, even as they rely on elastic synthetic materials for some stretch, also achieve at least some of their stretch through knitted patterns.Close-up of front of stockinette stitchClose-up of back of stockinette stitch, also same appearance as reverse stockinette stitchThe basic knitted fabric (as in the diagram, and usually called a ''stocking'' or ''stockinette'' pattern) has a definite \"right side\" and \"wrong side\".", "On the right side, the visible portions of the loops are the verticals connecting two rows which are arranged in a grid of ''V'' shapes.", "On the wrong side, the ends of the loops are visible, both the tops and bottoms, creating a much more bumpy texture sometimes called ''reverse stockinette''.", "(Despite being the \"wrong side\", reverse stockinette is frequently used as a pattern in its own right.)", "Because the yarn holding rows together is all on the front, and the yarn holding side-by-side stitches together is all on the back, stockinette fabric has a strong tendency to curl toward the front on the top and bottom, and toward the back on the left and right side.Stitches can be worked from either side, and various patterns are created by mixing regular knit stitches with the \"wrong side\" stitches, known as purl stitches, either in columns (ribbing), rows (garter, welting), or more complex patterns.", "Each fabric has different properties: a garter stitch has much more vertical stretch, while ribbing stretches much more horizontally.", "Because of their front-back symmetry, these two fabrics have little curl, making them popular as edging, even when their stretch properties are not desired.Different combinations of knit and purl stitches, along with more advanced techniques, generate fabrics of considerably variable consistency, from gauzy to very dense, from highly stretchy to relatively stiff, from flat to tightly curled, and so on.", "Close-up of knitting===Texture===The most common texture for a knitted garment is that generated by the flat stockinette stitch—as seen, though very small, in machine-made stockings and T-shirts—which is worked in the round as nothing but knit stitches, and worked flat as alternating rows of knit and purl.", "Other simple textures can be made with nothing but knit and purl stitches, including garter stitch, ribbing, and moss and seed stitches.", "Adding a \"slip stitch\" (where a loop is passed from one needle to the other) allows for a wide range of textures, including heel and linen stitches as well as a number of more complicated patterns.ribbingSome more advanced knitting techniques create a surprising variety of complex textures.", "Combining certain increases, which can create small eyelet holes in the resulting fabric, with assorted decreases is key to creating knitted lace, a very open fabric resembling needle or bobbin lace.", "Open vertical stripes can be created using the drop-stitch knitting technique.", "Changing the order of stitches from one row to the next, usually with the help of a cable needle or stitch holder, is key to cable knitting, producing an endless variety of cables, honeycombs, ropes, and Aran sweater patterning.", "Entrelac forms a rich checkerboard texture by knitting small squares, picking up their side edges, and knitting more squares to continue the piece.Fair Isle knitting uses two or more colored yarns to create patterns and forms a thicker and less flexible fabric.The appearance of a garment is also affected by the ''weight'' of the yarn, which describes the thickness of the spun fibre.", "The thicker the yarn, the more visible and apparent stitches will be; the thinner the yarn, the finer the texture.===Color===Plenty of finished knitting projects never use more than a single color of yarn, but there are many ways to work in multiple colors.", "Some yarns are dyed to be either ''variegated'' (changing color every few stitches in a random fashion) or ''self-striping'' (changing every few rows).", "More complicated techniques permit large fields of color (intarsia, for example), busy small-scale patterns of color (such as Fair Isle), or both (double knitting and slip-stitch color, for example).Yarn with multiple shades of the same hue are called ''ombre'', while a yarn with multiple hues may be known as a given ''colorway''; a green, red and yellow yarn might be dubbed the \"Parrot Colorway\" by its manufacturer, for example.", "''Heathered'' yarns contain small amounts of fibre of different colours, while ''tweed'' yarns may have greater amounts of different colored fibres." ], [ "Hand knitting process", "A woman in the process of hand knitting (1904)There are many hundreds of different knitting stitches used by hand knitters.", "A piece of hand knitting begins with the process of ''casting on'', which involves the initial creation of the stitches on the needle.", "Different methods of casting on are used for different effects: one may be stretchy enough for lace, while another provides a decorative edging.", "''Provisional'' cast-ons are used when the knitting will continue in both directions from the cast-on.", "There are various methods employed to cast on, such as the \"thumb method\" (also known as \"slingshot\" or \"long-tail\" cast-ons), where the stitches are created by a series of loops that will, when knitted, give a very loose edge ideal for \"picking up stitches\" and knitting a border; the \"double needle method\" (also known as \"knit-on\" or \"cable cast-on\"), whereby each loop placed on the needle is then \"knitted on\", which produces a firmer edge ideal on its own as a border; and many more.", "The number of active stitches remains the same as when cast on unless stitches are added (an increase) or removed (a decrease).Most Western-style hand knitters follow either the English style (in which the yarn is held in the right hand) or the Continental style (in which the yarn is held in the left hand).There are also different ways to insert the needle into the stitch.", "Knitting through the front of a stitch is called Western knitting.", "Going through the back of a stitch is called Eastern knitting.", "A third method, called combination knitting, goes through the front of a knit stitch and the back of a purl stitch.Once the hand knitted piece is finished, the remaining live stitches are \"cast off\".", "Casting (or \"binding\") off loops the stitches across each other so they can be removed from the needle without unravelling the item.", "Although the mechanics are different from casting on, there is a similar variety of methods.In hand knitting certain articles of clothing, especially larger ones like sweaters, the final knitted garment will be made of several knitted pieces, with individual sections of the garment hand knitted separately and then sewn together.", "Seamless knitting, where a whole garment is hand knit as a single piece, is also possible.", "Elizabeth Zimmermann is probably the best-known proponent of seamless or circular hand knitting techniques.", "Smaller items, such as socks and hats, are usually knit in one piece on double-pointed needles or circular needles.", "Hats in particular can be started \"top down\" on double pointed needles with the increases added until the preferred size is achieved, switching to an appropriate circular needle when enough stitches have been added.", "Care must be taken to bind off at a tension that will allow the \"give\" needed to comfortably fit on the head.", "(See ''Circular knitting''.)" ], [ "Materials", "===Yarn===A hank of wool yarn (center) is uncoiled into its basic loop.", "A tie is visible at the left; after untying, the hank may be wound into a ball or balls suitable for knitting.", "Knitting from a normal hank directly is likely to tangle the yarn, producing snarls.Yarn for hand-knitting is usually sold as balls or skeins (hanks), and it may also be wound on spools or cones.", "Skeins and balls are generally sold with a ''yarn-band'', a label that describes the yarn's weight, length, dye lot, fiber content, washing instructions, suggested needle size, likely gauge/tension, etc.", "It is common practice to save the yarn band for future reference, especially if additional skeins must be purchased.", "Knitters generally ensure that the yarn for a project comes from a single dye lot.", "The dye lot specifies a group of skeins that were dyed together and thus have precisely the same color; skeins from different dye-lots, even if very similar in color, are usually slightly different and may produce a visible horizontal stripe when knitted together.", "If a knitter buys insufficient yarn of a single dye lot to complete a project, additional skeins of the same dye lot can sometimes be obtained from other yarn stores or online.", "Otherwise, knitters can alternate skeins every few rows to help the dye lots blend together easier.The thickness or weight of the yarn is a significant factor in determining the gauge/tension, i.e., how many stitches and rows are required to cover a given area for a given stitch pattern.", "Thicker yarns generally require thicker knitting needles, whereas thinner yarns may be knit with thick or thin needles.", "Hence, thicker yarns generally require fewer stitches, and therefore less time, to knit up a given garment.", "Patterns and motifs are coarser with thicker yarns; thicker yarns produce bold visual effects, whereas thinner yarns are best for refined patterns.", "Yarns are grouped by thickness into six categories: superfine, fine, light, medium, bulky and superbulky; quantitatively, thickness is measured by the number of wraps per inch (WPI).", "In the British Commonwealth (outside North America) yarns are measured as 1ply, 2ply, 3ply, 4ply, 5ply, 8ply (or double knit),10ply and 12ply (triple knit).", "The related ''weight per unit length'' is usually measured in tex or denier.Transformation of a hank of lavender silk yarn (top) into a ball in which the knitting yarn emerges from the center (bottom).", "The latter is better for knitting, since the yarn is much less likely to tangle.Before knitting, the knitter will typically transform a hank/skein into a ball where the yarn emerges from the center of the ball; this making the knitting easier by preventing the yarn from becoming easily tangled.", "This transformation may be done by hand, or with a device known as a ballwinder.", "When knitting, some knitters enclose their balls in jars to keep them clean and untangled with other yarns; the free yarn passes through a small hole in the jar-lid.A yarn's usefulness for a knitting project is judged by several factors, such as its ''loft'' (its ability to trap air), its ''resilience'' (elasticity under tension), its washability and colorfastness, its ''hand'' (its feel, particularly softness vs. scratchiness), its durability against abrasion, its resistance to pilling, its ''hairiness'' (fuzziness), its tendency to twist or untwist, its overall weight and drape, its blocking and felting qualities, its comfort (breathability, moisture absorption, wicking properties) and of course its look, which includes its color, sheen, smoothness and ornamental features.", "Other factors include allergenicity; speed of drying; resistance to chemicals, moths, and mildew; melting point and flammability; retention of static electricity; and the propensity to become stained and to accept dyes.", "Different factors may be more significant than others for different knitting projects, so there is no one \"best\" yarn.", "The resilience and propensity to (un)twist are general properties that affect the ease of hand-knitting.", "More resilient yarns are more forgiving of irregularities in tension; highly twisted yarns are sometimes difficult to knit, whereas untwisting yarns can lead to split stitches, in which not all the yarn is knitted into a stitch.", "A key factor in knitting is ''stitch definition'', corresponding to how well complicated stitch patterns can be seen when made from a given yarn.", "Smooth, highly spun yarns are best for showing off stitch patterns; at the other extreme, very fuzzy yarns or eyelash yarns have poor stitch definition, and any complicated stitch pattern would be invisible.The two possible twists of yarnAlthough knitting may be done with ribbons, metal wire or more exotic filaments, most yarns are made by spinning fibers.", "In spinning, the fibers are twisted so that the yarn resists breaking under tension; the twisting may be done in either direction, resulting in a Z-twist or S-twist yarn.", "If the fibers are first aligned by combing them, the yarn is smoother and called a ''worsted''; by contrast, if the fibers are carded but not combed, the yarn is fuzzier and called ''woolen-spun''.", "The fibers making up a yarn may be continuous ''filament'' fibers such as silk and many synthetics, or they may be ''staples'' (fibers of an average length, typically a few inches); naturally filament fibers are sometimes cut up into staples before spinning.", "The strength of the spun yarn against breaking is determined by the amount of twist, the length of the fibers and the thickness of the yarn.", "In general, yarns become stronger with more twist (also called ''worst''), longer fibers and thicker yarns (more fibers); for example, thinner yarns require more twist than do thicker yarns to resist breaking under tension.", "The thickness of the yarn may vary along its length; a ''slub'' is a much thicker section in which a mass of fibers is incorporated into the yarn.The spun fibers are generally divided into animal fibers, plant and synthetic fibers.", "These fiber types are chemically different, corresponding to proteins, carbohydrates and synthetic polymers, respectively.", "Animal fibers include silk, but generally are long hairs of animals such as sheep (wool), goat (angora, or cashmere goat), rabbit (angora), llama, alpaca, dog, cat, camel, yak, and muskox (qiviut).", "Plants used for fibers include cotton, flax (for linen), bamboo, ramie, hemp, jute, nettle, raffia, yucca, coconut husk, banana fiber, soy and corn.", "Rayon and acetate fibers are also produced from cellulose mainly derived from trees.", "Common synthetic fibers include acrylics, polyesters such as dacron and ingeo, nylon and other polyamides, and olefins such as polypropylene.", "Of these types, wool is generally favored for knitting, chiefly owing to its superior elasticity, warmth and (sometimes) felting.", "It is also common to blend different fibers in the yarn, e.g., 85% alpaca and 15% silk.", "Even within a type of fiber, there can be great variety in the length and thickness of the fibers; for example, Merino wool and Egyptian cotton are favored because they produce exceptionally long, thin (fine) fibers for their type.A single spun yarn may be knitted as is, or braided or plied with another.", "In plying, two or more yarns are spun together, almost always in the opposite sense from which they were spun individually; for example, two Z-twist yarns are usually plied with an S-twist.", "The opposing twist relieves some of the yarns' tendency to curl up and produces a thicker, ''balanced'' yarn.", "Plied yarns may themselves be plied together, producing ''cabled yarns'' or ''multi-stranded yarns''.", "Sometimes, the yarns being plied are fed at different rates, so that one yarn loops around the other, as in bouclé.", "The single yarns may be dyed separately before plying, or afterwards to give the yarn a uniform look.The dyeing of yarns is a complex art that has a long history.", "However, yarns need not be dyed.", "They may be dyed just one color, or a great variety of colors.", "Dyeing may be done industrially, by hand or even hand-painted onto the yarn.", "A great variety of synthetic dyes have been developed since the synthesis of indigo dye in the mid-19th century; however, natural dyes are also possible, although they are generally less brilliant.", "The color-scheme of a yarn is sometimes called its colorway.", "Variegated yarns can produce interesting visual effects, such as diagonal stripes; conversely, a variegated yarn may obscure a detailed knitting design, such as a cable or lace pattern.===Metal wire===There are multiple commercial applications for knit fabric made of metal wire by knitting machines.", "Steel wire of various sizes may be used for electric and magnetic shielding due to its conductivity.", "Stainless steel may be used in a coffee press for its rust resistance.Metal wire can also be used as jewelry.===Glass and wax===Close-up of \"Jitterbug\" knitted glass by Carol Milne Knitted glass combines knitting with wax strands, lost-wax casting, mold-making, and kiln-casting." ], [ "Tools", "The process of knitting has three basic tasks:#the active (unsecured) stitches must be held so they don't drop#these stitches must be released sometime after they are secured#new bights of yarn must be passed through the fabric, usually through active stitches, thus securing them.In very simple cases, knitting can be done without tools, using only the fingers to do these tasks; however, knitting is usually carried out using tools such as knitting needles, knitting machines or rigid frames.", "Depending on their size and shape, the rigid frames are called stocking frames, knitting boards, knitting rings (also called knitting looms) or knitting spools (also known as knitting knobbies, knitting nancies, or corkers).", "There is also a technique called knooking of knitting with a crochet hook that has a cord attached to the end, to hold the stitches while they're being worked.", "Other tools are used to prepare yarn for knitting, to measure and design knitted garments, or to make knitting easier or more comfortable.===Needles===Knitting needles in a variety of sizes and materials.", "Different materials have varying amounts of friction, and are suitable for different yarn types.There are three basic types of knitting needles (also called \"knitting pins\").", "The first and most common type consists of two slender, straight sticks tapered to a point at one end, and with a knob at the other end to prevent stitches from slipping off.", "Such needles are usually long but, due to the compressibility of knitted fabrics, may be used to knit pieces significantly wider.", "The most important property of needles is their diameter, which ranges from below 2 to 25 mm (roughly 1 inch).", "The diameter affects the size of stitches, which affects the gauge/tension of the knitting and the elasticity of the fabric.", "Thus, a simple way to change gauge/tension is to use different needles, which is the basis of uneven knitting.", "Although the diameter of the knitting needle is often measured in millimeters, there are several measurement systems, particularly those specific to the United States, the United Kingdom and Japan; a conversion table is given at knitting needle.", "Such knitting needles may be made out of any materials, but the most common materials are metals, wood, bamboo, and plastic.", "Different materials have different frictions and grip the yarn differently; slick needles such as metallic needles are useful for swift knitting, whereas rougher needles such as bamboo offer more friction and are therefore less prone to dropping stitches.", "The knitting of new stitches occurs only at the tapered ends.", "Needles with lighted tips have been sold to allow knitters to knit in the dark.Double-pointed knitting needles in various materials and sizes.", "They come in sets of four, five or six.The second type of knitting needles are straight, double-pointed knitting needles (also called \"DPNs\").", "Double-pointed needles are tapered at both ends, which allows them to be knit from either end.", "DPNs are typically used for circular knitting, especially smaller tube-shaped pieces such as sleeves, collars, and socks; usually one needle is active while the others hold the remaining active stitches.", "DPNs are somewhat shorter (typically 7 inches) and are usually sold in sets of four or five.The third needle type consists of circular needles, which are long, flexible double-pointed needles.", "The two tapered ends (typically long) are rigid and straight, allowing for easy knitting; however, the two ends are connected by a flexible strand (usually nylon) that allows the two ends to be brought together.", "Circular needles are typically 24-60 inches long, and are usually used singly or in pairs; again, the width of the knitted piece may be significantly longer than the length of the circular needle.", "Interchangeable needles are a subset of circular needles.", "They are kits consist of pairs of needles with usually nylon cables or cords.", "The cables/cords are screwed into the needles, allowing the knitter to have both flexible straight needles or circular needles.", "This also allows the knitter to change the diameter and length of the needles as needed.", "The needles must be screwed on tightly, otherwise yarn can snag and become damaged.Circular knitting needles in different lengths, materials and sizes, including plastic, aluminum, steel and nickel-plated brassThe ability to work from either end of one needle is convenient in several types of knitting, such as slip-stitch versions of double knitting.", "Circular needles may be used for flat or circular knitting.Cable needles are a special case of DPNs, although they are usually not straight, but dimpled in the middle.", "Often, they have the form of a hook.", "When cabling a knitted piece, a hook is easier to grab and hold the yarn.", "Cable needles are typically very short (a few inches), and are used to hold stitches temporarily while others are being knitted.", "When in use, the cable needle is used at the same time as two regular needles.", "At specific points indicated by the knitting pattern, the cable needle is moved, the stitches on it are worked by the other needles, then the cable needle is turned around to a different position to create the cable twist.Cable needlesCable needles are a specific design, and are used to create the twisting motif of a knitted cable.", "They are made in different sizes, which produces cables of different widths.====Largest circular knitting needles====The largest aluminum circular knitting needles on record are size US 150 and are nearly 7 feet tall.", "They are owned by Paradise Fibers and are currently on display in the Paradise Fibers retail showroom.====Record====Julia Hopson with world-record 3.5 meter (11'6\") long knitting needlesThe current holder of the Guinness World Record for Knitting with the Largest Knitting Needles is Julia Hopson of Penzance in Cornwall.Julia knitted a square of ten stitches and ten rows in stockinette stitch using knitting needles that were 6.5 centimeters (2½\") in diameter and 3.5 meters (11'6\") long.===Ancillary tools===notions, used by hand-knitters.", "Starting from the bottom right are two crochet hooks, two stitch holders (like big blunt safety pins), and two cable needles in pink and green.", "On the left are a pair of scissors, a yarn needle, green and blue stitch markers, and two orange point protectors.", "At the top left are two blue point protectors, one on a red needle.Various tools have been developed to make hand-knitting easier.", "Tools for measuring needle diameter and yarn properties have been discussed above, as well as the yarn swift, ballwinder and \"yarntainers\".", "Crochet hooks and a darning needle are often useful in binding/casting off or in joining two knitted pieces edge-to-edge.", "The darning needle is used in duplicate stitch (also known as Swiss darning).", "The crochet hook is also essential for repairing dropped stitches and some specialty stitches such as tufting.", "Other tools such as knitting spools or pom-pom makers are used to prepare specific ornaments.", "For large or complex knitting patterns, it is sometimes difficult to keep track of which stitch should be knit in a particular way; therefore, several tools have been developed to identify the number of a particular row or stitch, including circular stitch markers, hanging markers, extra yarn and row counters.", "A second potential difficulty is that the knitted piece will slide off the tapered end of the needles when unattended; this is prevented by \"point protectors\" that cap the tapered ends.", "Another problem is that too much knitting may lead to hand and wrist troubles; for this, special stress-relieving gloves are available.", "In traditional Shetland knitting a special belt is often used to support the end of one needle allowing the knitting greater speed.", "Finally, there are sundry bags and containers for holding knitting, yarns and needles." ], [ "Knitting styles/holds", "=== Continental/German style ===Continental knitting is achieved by holding the yarn in your left hand for both knitting and purling.", "Patterns are created on the outside (public-facing) side of the piece.==== Norwegian style ====While knit stitches are worked as in the classic Continental style, the purl is worked by leaving the yarn at back and moving the needle.==== Russian style ====Another variation on Continental knitting, this style is achieved by \"picking\" up the yarn by moving the needle head into it.", "Now wrap the yarn around the index finger on that left hand, so it is coming over the top of your finger and back around underneath it and on top of your middle finger.", "You will wind up with your index finger very close to the back of your left-hand needle.", "In Russian knitting, it is common to slip the first stitch of every row.=== English style ===English-style knitting is achieved by holding the yarn in your right hand.", "Patterns are created on the outside (public-facing) side of the piece.=== Portuguese/Greek/Incan/Turkish style ===This style is achieved by carrying the yarn around the neck or from a necklace-style hook, allowing the knitter to knit on the reverse (purl) side, e.g.", "\"inside out\" compared to Western knitting techniques.", "Patterns are typically created by stranding the yarn on the outside of the piece.", "This is an ancient style of knitting, which spread from Arabic culture to the Iberian peninsula, during its occupation by Muslims.", "Hence this style was taught to Indigenous South Americans, during conquest by Spanish/Portuguese colonists." ], [ "Knitting techniques", "=== Armenian ===The Armenian knitting technique tacks the non-working yarn to the piece regularly to limit floats.", "You will tack your non-working yarn down approximately every 3 stitches.=== Double knitting ===A technique used to create a flat, smooth, reversible fabric that looks like stockinette or jersey on both sides, rather than having a knit face and a purl reverse side.=== Fair Isle ===A method by which many different yarns are used throughout the row and when not being used are floated on the wrong side of the piece.=== Mega knitting ===Mega knitting is a term recently coined and relates to the use of knitting needles greater than or equal to half an inch in diameter.Mega knitting uses the same stitches and techniques as conventional knitting, except that hooks are carved into the ends of the needles.", "The hooked needles greatly enhance control of the work, catching the stitches and preventing them from slipping off.It was the development of the knitting machine that introduced hooked needles and enabled faultless, automated knitting.", "The hook catches the loop of yarn as each stitch is knitted, meaning that wrists and fingers do not have to work so hard and there is less chance of stitches slipping off the needle.", "The position of the hook is most important.", "Turn the left (non-working) hook to face away at all times; turn the right (working) hook toward you up whilst knitting (plain stitch) and away whilst purling.Mega knitting produces a chunky, bulky fabric or an open lacy weave, depending on the weight and type of yarn used.===Micro knitting===Micro knitting or miniature knitting uses extremely fine threads and needles.", "Anthea Crome created 14 tiny sweaters used in the stop motion animated film ''Coraline'' and has made objects at 60 or 80 stitches per inch, making her own needles from fine surgical steel wire.", "She has published ''Bugknits: Extreme knitting for hobbyists, artists and knitters'' (2009, Blurb: ).", "Annelies de Kort has knitted on an even smaller scale and has used needles of 0.4mm.=== Short row ===In short row knitting, the work is turned before a row is fully knitted.", "There are several ways to achieve this.==== Wrap and turn ====Just before the work is turned, the working yarn is passed around the next unknitted stitch, forming a “wrap.” Later, this “wrap” is picked up and knitted into a stitch, concealing it from view.==== German short row ====In German short rows, the work is turned and the last stitch worked is slipped purlwise with yarn in front to the right needle.", "Finally, the working yarn is pulled over the top of the needle to the back, which rotates the stitch on the needle so that it tips backwards, forming what appears to be a double-stitch, sometimes referred to as a “German double stitch”.", "The working yarn stays to the back for the next stitch if it is to be knitted, or rotated below the right needle and pulled to the front, if it is to be purled, both of which maintain the proper (“tipped back”) orientation of the German double stitch.", "Eventually, this German double stitch is worked like a single stitch, which masks its appearance as viewed from the right side to look like a regular stitch.==== Japanese short row ====In Japanese short rows, a locking stitch marker is used to hold the loop of the working yarn at the turning point.", "Eventually, the loop is picked up (and stitch marker removed) and worked together with the stitch on the other side of the gap.", "Japanese short rows usually result in tidier turning points with less extraneous yarn bulk compared to German short rows and the Wrap and Turn technique.=== Twined knitting ===The technique, also known as two-end knitting, is a traditional Scandinavian knitting technique.", "It refers to knitting where two strands of yarn are knitted into the fabric alternatively and twisted once and always in the same direction before every stitch.", "This produces a firmer and more durable fabric with greater thermal insulation than conventional one-end knitting." ], [ "Commercial applications", "Industrially, metal wire is also knitted into a metal fabric for a wide range of uses including the filter material in cafetieres, catalytic converters for cars and many other uses.", "These fabrics are usually manufactured on circular knitting machines that would be recognized by conventional knitters as sock machines.Many fashion designers make heavy use of knitted fabric in their fashion collections.", "Gordana Gelhausen, who appeared in season six of the television show ''Project Runway'', is primarily a knit designer.", "Other designers and labels that make heavy use of knitting include Michael Kors, Fendi, and Marc Jacobs.For individual hobbyists, websites such as Etsy, Big Cartel and Ravelry have made it easy to sell knitting patterns on a small scale, in a way similar to eBay." ], [ "Graffiti", "In the 2000s, a practice called knitting graffiti, guerilla knitting, or yarn bombing—the use of knitted or crocheted cloth to modify and beautify one's (usually outdoor) surroundings—emerged in the U.S. and spread worldwide.", "Magda Sayeg is credited with starting the movement in the US and Knit the City are a prominent group of graffiti knitters in the United Kingdom.", "Yarn bombers sometimes target existing pieces of graffiti for beautification.", "For instance, Dave Cole is a contemporary sculpture artist who practiced knitting as graffiti for a large-scale public art installation in Melbourne, Australia for the Big West Arts Festival in 2009.The work was vandalized the night of its completion.", "A new movie, shot by a Tasmanian filmmaker on a set made almost entirely out of yarn, was partially inspired by \"knitted graffiti\"." ], [ "Yarn crawl", "Many major metropolitan cities across the US and Europe host annual Yarn Crawls.", "The event is typically a multi-day event that caters to all knitters, crochet and yarn enthusiasts that supports the local crafting community.", "Over the multi-day period, multiple local yarn and knit shops participate in the yarn crawl and offer up store discounts, give away free exclusive patterns, provide classes, trunk shows and conduct raffles for prizes.", "Participants of the crawl receive a passport and get their passport stamped at each store they visit along the crawl.", "Traditionally those that get their passports fully stamped are eligible to win a larger gift basket filled with yarn, knitting and crochet goodies.", "Some local crawls also provide a Knit-Along (KAL) or Crochet-Along (CAL) where attendees follow a specific pattern prior to the crawl and then proudly wear it during the crawl for others to see." ], [ "Charity", "Drawing by Marguerite Martyn of two women and a child knitting for the war effort at a St. Louis, Missouri, Red Cross office in 1917Hand knitting garments for free distribution to others has become common practice among hand knitting groups.", "Girls and women hand knitted socks, sweaters, scarves, mittens, gloves, and hats for soldiers in Crimea, the American Civil War, and the Boer Wars; this practice continued in World War I, World War II and the Korean War, and continues for soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan.", "The Australian charity ''Wrap with Love'' continues to provide blankets hand knitted by volunteers to people most in need around the world who have been affected by war.In the historical projects, yarn companies provided knitting patterns approved by the various branches of the armed services; often they were distributed by local chapters of the American Red Cross.", "Modern projects usually entail the hand knitting of hats or helmet liners; the liners provided for soldiers must be of 100% worsted weight wool and be crafted using specific colors.Some charities teach women to knit as a means of clothing their families or supporting themselves.Clothing and afghans are frequently made for children, the elderly, and the economically disadvantaged in various countries.", "Pine Ridge Indian Reservation accepts donations for the Lakota people in the United States.", "Prayer shawls, or shawls in which the crafter meditates or says prayers of their faith while hand knitting with the intent on comforting the recipient, are donated to those experiencing loss or stress.", "Many knitters today hand knit and donate \"chemo caps\", soft caps for cancer patients who lose their hair during chemotherapy.", "Yarn companies offer free knitting patterns for these caps.Penguin sweaters were hand knitted by volunteers for the rehabilitation of penguins contaminated by exposure to oil slicks.", "The project is now complete.Chicken sweaters were also hand knitted to aid battery hens that had lost their feathers.", "The organization is not currently accepting donations, but maintains a list of volunteers.Originally started after the 2004 Indonesian tsunami, Knitters Without Borders is a charity challenge issued by knitting personality Stephanie Pearl-McPhee that encourages hand knitters to donate to Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders).", "Instead of hand knitting for charity, knitters are encouraged to donate a week's worth of disposable income, including money that otherwise might have been spent on yarn.", "Knitted items are occasional offered as prizes to donors.", "As of September 2011, Knitters Without Borders donors have contributed CAD$1,062,217.Security blankets can also be made through the Project Linus organization which helps needy children.There are organizations that help reach other countries in need such as afghans for Afghans.", "This outreach is described as, \"afghans for Afghans is a humanitarian and educational people-to-people project that sends hand-knit and crocheted blankets and sweaters, vests, hats, mittens, and socks to the beleaguered people of Afghanistan.", "\"The knitters of the Little Yellow Duck Project craft small yellow ducks which are left for others to find, as a random act of kindness and to raise awareness of blood donation and organ donation.", "The project was started in memory of a young woman who had collected plastic toy ducks and who died from cystic fibrosis while waiting for a lung transplant.", "Finders of the ducks are encouraged to log them on a website, which shows that 12,265 ducks have been found in 106 countries." ], [ "Health benefits", "The earliest image of circular knitting, from the 15th century AD Buxtehude altarpieceStudies have shown that hand knitting, along with other forms of needlework, provide several significant health benefits.", "These studies have found the rhythmic and repetitive action of hand knitting can help prevent and manage stress, pain and depression, which in turn strengthens the body's immune system, as well as create a relaxation response in the body which can decrease blood pressure, heart rate, help prevent illness, and have a calming effect.", "Pain specialists have also found that hand knitting changes brain chemistry, resulting in an increase in \"feel good\" hormones (i.e.", "serotonin and dopamine) and a decrease in stress hormones.Hand knitting, along with other leisure activities, has been linked to reducing the risk of developing Alzheimer's and dementia by preventing memory loss.", "Much like physical activity strengthens the body, mental exercise makes the human brain more resilient.", "Knitting can be done anywhere and requires that minimal materials and props be carried around with you, making it a very pleasurable and simple hobby that gives wonderful benefits.A repository of research into the effect on health of hand knitting can be found at Stitch links, an organization founded in Bath, England.Knitting also helps in the area of social interaction; knitting provides people with opportunities to socialize with others.", "One way to increase social interaction with knitting is inviting friends over to knit and chat with each other.", "Many public libraries and yarn stores host knitting groups where knitters can meet locally to engage with others interested in hand crafts.Knitting can improve dexterity in the hands and fingers.", "This keeps the fingers limber and can be especially helpful for those with arthritis.", "Knitting can reduce the pain of arthritis if people make it a daily habit." ], [ "Notable knitters", "*Cat Bordhi - pioneered teaching new and efficient knitting techniques*Kaffe Fassett - American-born, British-based artist known for his colorful designs in the decorative arts*Stephanie Pearl-McPhee - is a writer, knitter, and knit-wear designer*Magda Sayeg - creator of Knitta Please knit graffiti movement*Barbara G. Walker - author of several encyclopedic knitting references*Stephen West - American knitter, fashion designer, educator, and author known for his knitting patterns and strong use of color*Elizabeth Zimmermann - British-born hand knitting teacher and designer*Tom Daley - British Olympic gold medallist and knitting and crochet designer.", "Founder of Made With Love by Tom Daley.", "*Elisabetta Matsumoto - American physicist whose scientific interests include the study of knitted fabrics' special mathematical and mechanical properties." ], [ "See also", "* Fiber art* Finger knitting* Knitted fabric* Knitting abbreviations* Knitting clubs* The Knitting Guild Association* Crochet* Macramé* The Tempestry Project* Textile manufacturing* Yarn bombing* Sweater curse* Handicraft" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Hiatt, June Hemmons.", "(2012).", "''The principles of knitting: Methods and techniques of hand knitting''.", "Simon & Schuster, New York.", ".", "* * * * * * * * * Isaacson, Steve.", "(2013).", "''Carol Milne Knitted Glass - How Does She Do that?''" ], [ "External links", "* craftyarncouncil.com, Relationship between yarn weight and knitting gauge.", "* University of Illinois Library guide to research in historic knitting* * US and UK Conversion Chart Shows US and UK conversion charts, relationship to needle size and typical usage.", "* Ravelry - a yarn-working social network (from their About page: \"Ravelry is an inclusive, friendly website for knitters, crocheters, spinners, weavers, and dyers\".", "\"Ravelry provides a personal notebook for fiber artists to keep track of their projects, yarns & fibers, tools, and pattern library, a rich database of patterns and yarns, and a community with thousands of forums and groups to connect with other Ravelers over any interest you could think of.\"", ")" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Karl Popper" ], [ "Introduction", "Popper bust in the Arkadenhof of the University of Vienna'''Sir Karl Raimund Popper''' (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austrian–British philosopher, academic and social commentator.", "One of the 20th century's most influential philosophers of science, Popper is known for his rejection of the classical inductivist views on the scientific method in favour of empirical falsification.", "According to Popper, a theory in the empirical sciences can never be proven, but it can be falsified, meaning that it can (and should) be scrutinised with decisive experiments.", "Popper was opposed to the classical justificationist account of knowledge, which he replaced with critical rationalism, namely \"the first non-justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy\".In political discourse, he is known for his vigorous defence of liberal democracy and the principles of social criticism that he believed made a flourishing open society possible.", "His political philosophy embraced ideas from major democratic political ideologies, including libertarianism/classical liberalism, socialism/social democracy and conservatism, and attempted to reconcile them." ], [ "Life and career", "===Family and training===Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1902 to upper-middle-class parents.", "All of Popper's grandparents were assimilated Jews; the Popper family converted to Lutheranism before he was born and so he received a Lutheran baptism.", "His father, Simon Siegmund Carl Popper (1856-1932), was a lawyer from Bohemia and a doctor of law at the Vienna University.", "His mother, Jenny Schiff (1864-1938), was an accomplished pianist of Silesian and Hungarian descent.", "Popper's uncle was the Austrian philosopher Josef Popper-Lynkeus.", "After establishing themselves in Vienna, the Poppers made a rapid social climb in Viennese society, as Popper's father became a partner in the law firm of Vienna's liberal mayor Raimund Grübl, and after Grübl's death in 1898 took over the business.", "Popper received his middle name after Raimund Grübl.", "(In his autobiography, Popper erroneously recalls that Grübl's first name was Carl).", "His parents were close friends of Sigmund Freud's sister Rosa Graf.", "His father was a bibliophile who had 12,000–14,000 volumes in his personal library and took an interest in philosophy, the classics, and social and political issues.", "Popper inherited both the library and the disposition from him.", "Later, he would describe the atmosphere of his upbringing as having been \"decidedly bookish\".Popper left school at the age of 16 and attended lectures in mathematics, physics, philosophy, psychology and the history of music as a guest student at the University of Vienna.", "In 1919, Popper became attracted by Marxism and subsequently joined the Association of Socialist School Students.", "He also became a member of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria, which was at that time a party that fully adopted the Marxist ideology.", "After the street battle in the Hörlgasse on 15 June 1919, when police shot eight of his unarmed party comrades, he turned away from what he saw as the philosopher Karl Marx's historical materialism, abandoned the ideology, and remained a supporter of social liberalism throughout his life.Popper worked in street construction for a short time but was unable to cope with the heavy labour.", "Continuing to attend university as a guest student, he started an apprenticeship as a cabinetmaker, which he completed as a journeyman.", "He was dreaming at that time of starting a daycare facility for children, for which he assumed the ability to make furniture might be useful.", "After that, he did voluntary service in one of psychoanalyst Alfred Adler's clinics for children.", "In 1922, he did his matura by way of a second chance education and finally joined the university as an ordinary student.", "He completed his examination as an elementary teacher in 1924 and started working at an after-school care club for socially endangered children.", "In 1925, he went to the newly founded ''Pädagogisches Institut'' and continued studying philosophy and psychology.", "Around that time he started courting Josefine Anna Henninger, who later became his wife.Popper and his wife had chosen not to have children because of the circumstances of war in the early years of their marriage.", "Popper commented that this \"was perhaps a cowardly but in a way a right decision\".In 1928, Popper earned a doctorate in psychology, under the supervision of Karl Bühler—with Moritz Schlick being the second chair of the thesis committee.", "His dissertation was titled ''Zur Methodenfrage der Denkpsychologie'' (''On Questions of Method in the Psychology of Thinking'').", "In 1929, he obtained an authorisation to teach mathematics and physics in secondary school and began doing so.", "He married his colleague Josefine Anna Henninger (1906–1985) in 1930.Fearing the rise of Nazism and the threat of the ''Anschluss'', he started to use the evenings and the nights to write his first book ''Die beiden Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie'' (''The Two Fundamental Problems of the Theory of Knowledge'').", "He needed to publish a book to get an academic position in a country that was safe for people of Jewish descent.", "In the end, he did not publish the two-volume work; but instead, a condensed version with some new material, as ''Logik der Forschung'' (''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'') in 1934.Here, he criticised psychologism, naturalism, inductivism, and logical positivism, and put forth his theory of potential falsifiability as the criterion demarcating science from non-science.", "In 1935 and 1936, he took unpaid leave to go to the United Kingdom for a study visit.===Academic life===English Heritage blue plaque at Burlington Rise, Oakleigh Park, LondonIn 1937, Popper finally managed to get a position that allowed him to emigrate to New Zealand, where he became lecturer in philosophy at Canterbury University College of the University of New Zealand in Christchurch.", "It was here that he wrote his influential work ''The Open Society and Its Enemies''.", "In Dunedin he met the Professor of Physiology John Carew Eccles and formed a lifelong friendship with him.", "In 1946, after the Second World War, he moved to the United Kingdom to become a reader in logic and scientific method at the London School of Economics (LSE), a constituent School of the University of London, where, three years later, in 1949, he was appointed professor of logic and scientific method.", "Popper was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1958 to 1959.Popper retired from academic life in 1969, though he remained intellectually active for the rest of his life.", "In 1985, he returned to Austria so that his wife could have her relatives around her during the last months of her life; she died in November that year.", "After the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft failed to establish him as the director of a newly founded branch researching the philosophy of science, he went back again to the United Kingdom in 1986, settling in Kenley, Surrey.===Death===Popper's gravesite in in Vienna, AustriaPopper died of \"complications of cancer, pneumonia and kidney failure\" in Kenley at the age of 92 on 17 September 1994.He had been working continuously on his philosophy until two weeks before when he suddenly fell terminally ill, writing his last letter two weeks before his death as well.After cremation, his ashes were taken to Vienna and buried at Lainzer cemetery adjacent to the ORF Centre, where his wife Josefine Anna Popper (called \"Hennie\") had already been buried.", "Popper's estate is managed by his secretary and personal assistant Melitta Mew and her husband Raymond.", "Popper's manuscripts went to the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, partly during his lifetime and partly as supplementary material after his death.", "The University of Klagenfurt acquired Popper's library in 1995.The Karl Popper Archives was established within the Klagenfurt University Library, holding Popper's library of approximately 6,000 books, including his precious bibliophilia, as well as hard copies of the original Hoover material and microfilms of the incremental material.", "The library as well as various other partial collections are open for researcher purposes.", "The remaining parts of the estate were mostly transferred to The Karl Popper Charitable Trust.", "In October 2008, the University of Klagenfurt acquired the copyrights from the estate." ], [ "Honours and awards", "Popper with Professor Cyril Höschl, while receiving an honorary doctorate from Charles University in Prague in May 1994Popper won many awards and honours in his field, including the Lippincott Award of the American Political Science Association, the Sonning Prize, the Otto Hahn Peace Medal of the United Nations Association of Germany in Berlin and fellowships in the Royal Society, British Academy, London School of Economics, King's College London, Darwin College, Cambridge, Austrian Academy of Sciences and Charles University, Prague.", "Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria in 1986, and the Federal Republic of Germany its Grand Cross with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit, and the peace class of the Order Pour le Mérite.", "He received the Humanist Laureate Award from the International Academy of Humanism.", "He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1965, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1976.He was invested with the insignia of a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in 1982.Other awards and recognition for Popper included the City of Vienna Prize for the Humanities (1965), Karl Renner Prize (1978), Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1980), Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize of the University of Tübingen (1980), Ring of Honour of the City of Vienna (1983) and the Premio Internazionale of the Italian Federico Nietzsche Society (1988).", "In 1989, he was the first awarded the Prize International Catalonia for \"his work to develop cultural, scientific and human values all around the world\".", "In 1992, he was awarded the Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy for \"symbolising the open spirit of the 20th century\" and for his \"enormous influence on the formation of the modern intellectual climate\"." ], [ "Philosophy", "===Background to Popper's ideas===Popper's rejection of Marxism during his teenage years left a profound mark on his thought.", "He had at one point joined a socialist association, and for a few months in 1919 considered himself a communist.", "Although it is known that Popper worked as an office boy at the communist headquarters, whether or not he ever became a member of the Communist Party is unclear.", "During this time he became familiar with the Marxist view of economics, class conflict, and history.", "Although he quickly became disillusioned with the views expounded by Marxists, his flirtation with the ideology led him to distance himself from those who believed that spilling blood for the sake of a revolution was necessary.", "He then took the view that when it came to sacrificing human lives, one was to think and act with extreme prudence.The failure of democratic parties to prevent fascism from taking over Austrian politics in the 1920s and 1930s traumatised Popper.", "He suffered from the direct consequences of this failure since events after the ''Anschluss'' (the annexation of Austria by the German Reich in 1938) forced him into permanent exile.", "His most important works in the field of social science—''The Poverty of Historicism'' (1944) and ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'' (1945)—were inspired by his reflection on the events of his time and represented, in a sense, a reaction to the prevalent totalitarian ideologies that then dominated Central European politics.", "His books defended democratic liberalism as a social and political philosophy.", "They also represented extensive critiques of the philosophical presuppositions underpinning all forms of totalitarianism.Popper believed that there was a contrast between the theories of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, which he considered non-scientific, and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity which set off the revolution in physics in the early 20th century.", "Popper thought that Einstein's theory, as a theory properly grounded in scientific thought and method, was highly \"risky\", in the sense that it was possible to deduce consequences from it which differed considerably from those of the then-dominant Newtonian physics; one such prediction, that gravity could deflect light, was verified by Eddington's experiments in 1919.In contrast he thought that nothing could, even in principle, falsify psychoanalytic theories.", "He thus came to the conclusion that they had more in common with primitive myths than with genuine science.This led Popper to conclude that what was regarded as the remarkable strengths of psychoanalytical theories were actually their weaknesses.", "Psychoanalytical theories were crafted in a way that made them able to refute any criticism and to give an explanation for every possible form of human behaviour.", "The nature of such theories made it impossible for any criticism or experiment—even in principle—to show them to be false.", "When Popper later tackled the problem of demarcation in the philosophy of science, this conclusion led him to posit that the strength of a scientific theory lies in its both being susceptible to falsification, and not actually being falsified by criticism made of it.", "He considered that if a theory cannot, in principle, be falsified by criticism, it is not a scientific theory.===Philosophy of science=======Falsifiability and the problem of demarcation====Popper coined the term \"critical rationalism\" to describe his philosophy.", "Popper rejected the empiricist view (following from Kant) that basic statements are infallible; rather, according to Popper, they are descriptions in relation to a theoretical framework.", "Concerning the method of science, the term \"critical rationalism\" indicates his rejection of classical empiricism, and the classical observationalist-inductivist account of science that had grown out of it.", "Popper argued strongly against the latter, holding that scientific theories are abstract in nature and can be tested only indirectly, by reference to their implications.", "He also held that scientific theory, and human knowledge generally, is irreducibly conjectural or hypothetical, and is generated by the creative imagination to solve problems that have arisen in specific historico-cultural settings.Logically, no number of positive outcomes at the level of experimental testing can confirm a scientific theory, but a single counterexample is logically decisive; it shows the theory, from which the implication is derived, to be false.", "Popper's account of the logical asymmetry between verification and falsifiability lies at the heart of his philosophy of science.", "It also inspired him to take falsifiability as his criterion of demarcation between what is, and is not, genuinely scientific: a theory should be considered scientific if, and only if, it is falsifiable.", "This led him to attack the claims of both psychoanalysis and contemporary Marxism to scientific status, on the basis that their theories are not falsifiable.To say that a given statement (e.g., the statement of a law of some scientific theory)—call it \"T\"—is \"falsifiable\" does not mean that \"T\" is false.", "It means only that the background knowledge about existing technologies, which exists before and independently of the theory, allows the imagination or conceptualization of observations that are in contradiction with the theory.", "It is only required that these contradictory observations can potentially be observed with existing technologies—the observations must be inter-subjective.", "This is the material requirement of falsifiability.", "Alan Chalmers gives \"The brick fell upward when released\" as an example of an imaginary observation that shows that Newton's law of gravitation is falsifiable.In ''All Life is Problem Solving'', Popper sought to explain the apparent progress of scientific knowledge—that is, how it is that our understanding of the universe seems to improve over time.", "This problem arises from his position that the truth content of our theories, even the best of them, cannot be verified by scientific testing, but can only be falsified.", "With only falsifications being possible logically, how can we explain the growth of knowledge?", "In Popper's view, the advance of scientific knowledge is an ''evolutionary'' process characterised by his formula:In response to a given problem situation (), a number of competing conjectures, or tentative theories (), are systematically subjected to the most rigorous attempts at falsification possible.", "This process, error elimination (), performs a similar function for science that natural selection performs for biological evolution.", "Theories that better survive the process of refutation are not more true, but rather, more \"fit\"—in other words, more applicable to the problem situation at hand ().", "Consequently, just as a species' biological fitness does not ensure continued survival, neither does rigorous testing protect a scientific theory from refutation in the future.", "Yet, as it appears that the engine of biological evolution has, over many generations, produced adaptive traits equipped to deal with more and more complex problems of survival, likewise, the evolution of theories through the scientific method may, in Popper's view, reflect a certain type of progress: toward more and more interesting problems ().", "For Popper, it is in the interplay between the tentative theories (conjectures) and error elimination (refutation) that scientific knowledge advances toward greater and greater problems; in a process very much akin to the interplay between genetic variation and natural selection.Popper also wrote extensively against the famous Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics.", "He strongly disagreed with Niels Bohr's instrumentalism and supported Albert Einstein's realist approach to scientific theories about the universe.", "He found that Bohr's interpretation introduced subjectivity into physics, claiming later in his life that: This Popper's falsifiability resembles Charles Peirce's nineteenth-century fallibilism.", "In ''Of Clocks and Clouds'' (1966), Popper remarked that he wished he had known of Peirce's work earlier.====Falsification and the problem of induction====Among his contributions to philosophy is his claim to have solved the philosophical problem of induction.", "He states that while there is no way to prove that the sun will rise, it is possible to formulate the theory that every day the sun will rise; if it does not rise on some particular day, the theory will be falsified and will have to be replaced by a different one.", "Until that day, there is no need to reject the assumption that the theory is true.", "Nor is it rational according to Popper to make instead the more complex assumption that the sun will rise until a given day, but will stop doing so the day after, or similar statements with additional conditions.", "Such a theory would be true with higher probability because it cannot be attacked so easily:* to falsify the first one, it is sufficient to find that the sun has stopped rising;* to falsify the second one, one additionally needs the assumption that the given day has not yet been reached.Popper held that it is the least likely, or most easily falsifiable, or simplest theory (attributes which he identified as all the same thing) that explains known facts that one should rationally prefer.", "His opposition to positivism, which held that it is the theory most likely to be true that one should prefer, here becomes very apparent.", "It is impossible, Popper argues, to ensure a theory to be true; it is more important that its falsity can be detected as easily as possible.Popper agreed with David Hume that there is often a psychological belief that the sun will rise tomorrow and that there is no logical justification for the supposition that it will, simply because it always has in the past.", "Popper writes,===Rationality===Popper held that rationality is not restricted to the realm of empirical or scientific theories, but that it is merely a special case of the general method of criticism, the method of finding and eliminating contradictions in knowledge without ad-hoc measures.", "According to this view, rational discussion about metaphysical ideas, about moral values and even about purposes is possible.", "Popper's student W.W. Bartley III tried to radicalise this idea and made the controversial claim that not only can criticism go beyond empirical knowledge but that everything can be rationally criticised.To Popper, who was an anti-justificationist, traditional philosophy is misled by the false principle of sufficient reason.", "He thinks that no assumption can ever be or needs ever to be justified, so a lack of justification is not a justification for doubt.", "Instead, theories should be tested and scrutinised.", "It is not the goal to bless theories with claims of certainty or justification, but to eliminate errors in them.", "He writes,===Philosophy of arithmetic===Popper's principle of falsifiability runs into ''prima facie'' difficulties when the epistemological status of mathematics is considered.", "It is difficult to conceive how simple statements of arithmetic, such as \"2 + 2 = 4\", could ever be shown to be false.", "If they are not open to falsification they can not be scientific.", "If they are not scientific, it needs to be explained how they can be informative about real world objects and events.Popper's solution was an original contribution in the philosophy of mathematics.", "His idea was that a number statement such as \"2 apples + 2 apples = 4 apples\" can be taken in two senses.", "In its pure mathematics sense, \"2 + 2 = 4\" is logically true and cannot be refuted.", "Contrastingly, in its applied mathematics sense of it describing the physical behaviour of apples, it can be falsified.", "This can be done by placing two apples in a container, then proceeding to place another two apples in the same container.", "If there are five, three, or a number of apples that is not four in said container, the theory that \"2 apples + 2 apples = 4 apples\" is shown to be false.", "On the contrary, if there are four apples in the container, the theory of numbers is shown to be applicable to reality.===Political philosophy===In ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'' and ''The Poverty of Historicism'', Popper developed a critique of historicism and a defence of the \"Open Society\".", "Popper considered historicism to be the theory that history develops inexorably and necessarily according to knowable general laws towards a determinate end.", "He argued that this view is the principal theoretical presupposition underpinning most forms of authoritarianism and totalitarianism.", "He argued that historicism is founded upon mistaken assumptions regarding the nature of scientific law and prediction.", "Since the growth of human knowledge is a causal factor in the evolution of human history, and since \"no society can predict, scientifically, its own future states of knowledge\", it follows, he argued, that there can be no predictive science of human history.", "For Popper, metaphysical and historical indeterminism go hand in hand.In his early years Popper was impressed by Marxism, whether of Communists or socialists.", "An event that happened in 1919 had a profound effect on him: During a riot, caused by the Communists, the police shot several unarmed people, including some of Popper's friends, when they tried to free party comrades from prison.", "The riot had, in fact, been part of a plan by which leaders of the Communist party with connections to Béla Kun tried to take power by a coup; Popper did not know about this at that time.", "However, he knew that the riot instigators were swayed by the Marxist doctrine that class struggle would produce vastly more dead men than the inevitable revolution brought about as quickly as possible, and so had no scruples to put the life of the rioters at risk to achieve their selfish goal of becoming the future leaders of the working class.", "This was the start of his later criticism of historicism.", "Popper began to reject Marxist historicism, which he associated with questionable means, and later socialism, which he associated with placing equality before freedom (to the possible disadvantage of equality).Popper said that he was a socialist for \"several years\", and maintained an interest in egalitarianism, but abandoned it as a whole because socialism was a \"beautiful dream\", but, just like egalitarianism, it was incompatible with individual liberty.", "Popper initially saw totalitarianism as exclusively right-wing in nature, although as early as 1945 in ''The Open Society'' he was describing Communist parties as giving a weak opposition to fascism due to shared historicism with fascism.", "Over time, primarily in defence of liberal democracy, Popper began to see Soviet-type communism as a form of totalitarianism, and viewed the main issue of the Cold War as not capitalism versus socialism, but democracy versus totalitarianism.", "In 1957, Popper would dedicate ''The Poverty of Historicism'' to \"memory of the countless men, women and children of all creeds or nations or races who fell victims to the fascist and communist belief in Inexorable Laws of Historical Destiny.", "\"In 1947, Popper co-founded the Mont Pelerin Society, with Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, Ludwig von Mises and others, although he did not fully agree with the think tank's charter and ideology.", "Specifically, he unsuccessfully recommended that socialists should be invited to participate, and that emphasis should be put on a hierarchy of humanitarian values rather than advocacy of a free market as envisioned by classical liberalism.====The paradox of tolerance====Although Popper was an advocate of toleration, he also warned against unlimited tolerance.", "In ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'', he argued:==== The \"conspiracy theory of society\" ====Popper criticized what he termed the \"conspiracy theory of society\", the view that powerful people or groups, godlike in their efficacy, are responsible for purposely bringing about all the ills of society.", "This view cannot be right, Popper argued, because \"nothing ever comes off exactly as intended.\"", "According to philosopher David Coady, \"Popper has often been cited by critics of conspiracy theories, and his views on the topic continue to constitute an orthodoxy in some circles.\"", "However, philosopher Charles Pigden has pointed out that Popper's argument only applies to a very extreme kind of conspiracy theory, not to conspiracy theories generally.===Metaphysics=======Truth====As early as 1934, Popper wrote of the search for truth as \"one of the strongest motives for scientific discovery.\"", "Still, he describes in ''Objective Knowledge'' (1972) early concerns about the much-criticised notion of truth as correspondence.", "Then came the semantic theory of truth formulated by the logician Alfred Tarski and published in 1933.Popper wrote of learning in 1935 of the consequences of Tarski's theory, to his intense joy.", "The theory met critical objections to truth as correspondence and thereby rehabilitated it.", "The theory also seemed, in Popper's eyes, to support metaphysical realism and the regulative idea of a search for truth.According to this theory, the conditions for the truth of a sentence as well as the sentences themselves are part of a metalanguage.", "So, for example, the sentence \"Snow is white\" is true if and only if snow is white.", "Although many philosophers have interpreted, and continue to interpret, Tarski's theory as a deflationary theory, Popper refers to it as a theory in which \"is true\" is replaced with \"corresponds to the facts\".", "He bases this interpretation on the fact that examples such as the one described above refer to two things: assertions and the facts to which they refer.", "He identifies Tarski's formulation of the truth conditions of sentences as the introduction of a \"metalinguistic predicate\" and distinguishes the following cases:# \"John called\" is true.# \"It is true that John called.", "\"The first case belongs to the metalanguage whereas the second is more likely to belong to the object language.", "Hence, \"it is true that\" possesses the logical status of a redundancy.", "\"Is true\", on the other hand, is a predicate necessary for making general observations such as \"John was telling the truth about Phillip.", "\"Upon this basis, along with that of the logical content of assertions (where logical content is inversely proportional to probability), Popper went on to develop his important notion of verisimilitude or \"truthlikeness\".", "The intuitive idea behind verisimilitude is that the assertions or hypotheses of scientific theories can be objectively measured with respect to the amount of truth and falsity that they imply.", "And, in this way, one theory can be evaluated as more or less true than another on a quantitative basis which, Popper emphasises forcefully, has nothing to do with \"subjective probabilities\" or other merely \"epistemic\" considerations.The simplest mathematical formulation that Popper gives of this concept can be found in the tenth chapter of ''Conjectures and Refutations''.", "Here he defines it as:: where is the verisimilitude of ''a'', is a measure of the content of the truth of ''a'', and is a measure of the content of the falsity of ''a''.Popper's original attempt to define not just verisimilitude, but an actual measure of it, turned out to be inadequate.", "However, it inspired a wealth of new attempts.====Popper's three worlds====Knowledge, for Popper, was objective, both in the sense that it is objectively true (or truthlike), and also in the sense that knowledge has an ontological status (i.e., knowledge as object) independent of the knowing subject (''Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach'', 1972).", "He proposed three worlds: World One, being the physical world, or physical states; World Two, being the world of mind, or mental states, ideas and perceptions; and World Three, being the body of human knowledge expressed in its manifold forms, or the products of the Second World made manifest in the materials of the First World (i.e., books, papers, paintings, symphonies, and all the products of the human mind).", "World Three, he argued, was the product of individual human beings in exactly the same sense that an animal's path is the product of individual animals, and thus has an existence and is evolution independent of any individually known subjects.", "The influence of World Three, in his view, on the individual human mind (World Two) is at least as strong as the influence of World One.", "In other words, the knowledge held by a given individual mind owes at least as much to the total, accumulated wealth of human knowledge made manifest as to the world of direct experience.", "As such, the growth of human knowledge could be said to be a function of the independent evolution of World Three.Many contemporary philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett, have not embraced Popper's Three World conjecture, mostly due to its resemblance to mind–body dualism.====Origin and evolution of life====The creation–evolution controversy in the United States raises the issue of whether creationistic ideas may be legitimately called science and whether evolution itself may be legitimately called science.", "In the debate, both sides and even courts in their decisions have frequently invoked Popper's criterion of falsifiability (see Daubert standard).", "In this context, passages written by Popper are frequently quoted in which he speaks about such issues himself.", "For example, he famously stated \"Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory, but a metaphysical research program—a possible framework for testable scientific theories.\"", "He continued:He also noted that theism, presented as explaining adaptation, \"was worse than an open admission of failure, for it created the impression that an ultimate explanation had been reached\".Popper later said:In 1974, regarding DNA and the origin of life he said:He explained that the difficulty of testing had led some people to describe natural selection as a tautology, and that he too had in the past described the theory as \"almost tautological\", and had tried to explain how the theory could be untestable (as is a tautology) and yet of great scientific interest:Popper summarised his new view as follows:These frequently quoted passages are only a very small part of what Popper wrote on the issue of evolution, however, and give the wrong impression that he mainly discussed questions of its falsifiability.", "Popper never invented this criterion to give justifiable use of words like science.", "In fact, Popper stresses at the beginning of ''Logic of Scientific Discovery'' that \"the last thing I wish to do, however, is to advocate another dogma\" and that \"what is to be called a 'science' and who is to be called a 'scientist' must always remain a matter of convention or decision.\"", "He quotes Menger's dictum that \"Definitions are dogmas; only the conclusions drawn from them can afford us any new insight\" and notes that different definitions of science can be rationally debated and compared:Popper had his own sophisticated views on evolution that go much beyond what the frequently-quoted passages say.", "In effect, Popper agreed with some of the points of both creationists and naturalists, but also disagreed with both views on crucial aspects.", "Popper understood the universe as a creative entity that invents new things, including life, but without the necessity of something like a god, especially not one who is pulling strings from behind the curtain.", "He said that evolution of the genotype must, as the creationists say, work in a goal-directed way but disagreed with their view that it must necessarily be the hand of god that imposes these goals onto the stage of life.Instead, he formulated the spearhead model of evolution, a version of genetic pluralism.", "According to this model, living organisms themselves have goals, and act according to these goals, each guided by a central control.", "In its most sophisticated form, this is the brain of humans, but controls also exist in much less sophisticated ways for species of lower complexity, such as the amoeba.", "This control organ plays a special role in evolution—it is the \"spearhead of evolution\".", "The goals bring the purpose into the world.", "Mutations in the genes that determine the structure of the control may then cause drastic changes in behaviour, preferences and goals, without having an impact on the organism's phenotype.", "Popper postulates that such purely behavioural changes are less likely to be lethal for the organism compared to drastic changes of the phenotype.Popper contrasts his views with the notion of the \"hopeful monster\" that has large phenotype mutations and calls it the \"hopeful behavioural monster\".", "After behaviour has changed radically, small but quick changes of the phenotype follow to make the organism fitter to its changed goals.", "This way it looks as if the phenotype were changing guided by some invisible hand, while it is merely natural selection working in combination with the new behaviour.", "For example, according to this hypothesis, the eating habits of the giraffe must have changed before its elongated neck evolved.", "Popper contrasted this view as \"evolution from within\" or \"active Darwinism\" (the organism actively trying to discover new ways of life and being on a quest for conquering new ecological niches), with the naturalistic \"evolution from without\" (which has the picture of a hostile environment only trying to kill the mostly passive organism, or perhaps segregate some of its groups).Popper was a key figure encouraging patent lawyer Günter Wächtershäuser to publish his iron–sulfur world hypothesis on abiogenesis and his criticism of \"soup\" theory.About the creation-evolution controversy itself, Popper initially wrote that he considered itwith a footnote to the effect that heIn his later work, however, when he had developed his own \"spearhead model\" and \"active Darwinism\" theories, Popper revised this view and found some validity in the controversy:====Free will====Popper and John Eccles speculated on the problem of free will for many years, generally agreeing on an interactionist dualist theory of mind.", "However, although Popper was a body-mind dualist, he did not think that the mind is a substance separate from the body: he thought that mental or psychological properties or aspects of people are distinct from physical ones.When he gave the second Arthur Holly Compton Memorial Lecture in 1965, Popper revisited the idea of quantum indeterminacy as a source of human freedom.", "Eccles had suggested that \"critically poised neurons\" might be influenced by the mind to assist in a decision.", "Popper criticised Compton's idea of amplified quantum events affecting the decision.", "He wrote:Popper called not for something between chance and necessity but for a combination of randomness and control to explain freedom, though not yet explicitly in two stages with random chance before the controlled decision, saying, \"freedom is not just chance but, rather, the result of a subtle interplay between something almost random or haphazard, and something like a restrictive or selective control.", "\"Then in his 1977 book with John Eccles, ''The Self and its Brain'', Popper finally formulates the two-stage model in a temporal sequence.", "And he compares free will to Darwinian evolution and natural selection:===Religion and God===In an interview that Popper gave in 1969 with the condition that it should be kept secret until after his death, he summarised his position on God as follows: \"I don't know whether God exists or ....", "Some forms of atheism are arrogant and ignorant and should be rejected, but agnosticism—to admit that we don't know and to search—is all right.", "...", "When I look at what I call the gift of life, I feel a gratitude which is in tune with some religious ideas of God.", "However, the moment I even speak of it, I am embarrassed that I may do something wrong to God in talking about God.\"", "He objected to organised religion, saying \"it tends to use the name of God in vain\", noting the danger of fanaticism because of religious conflicts: \"The whole thing goes back to myths which, though they may have a kernel of truth, are untrue.", "Why then should the Jewish myth be true and the Indian and Egyptian myths not be true?\"", "In a letter unrelated to the interview, he stressed his tolerant attitude: \"Although I am not for religion, I do think that we should show respect for anybody who believes honestly.\"" ], [ "Influence", "Popper in 1990Popper helped to establish the philosophy of science as an autonomous discipline within philosophy, both through his own prolific and influential works and through his influence on his contemporaries and students.", "In 1946, Popper founded the Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics (LSE) and there lectured and influenced both Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, two of the foremost philosophers of science in the next generation.", "(Lakatos significantly modified Popper's position, and Feyerabend repudiated it entirely, but the work of both was deeply influenced by Popper and engaged with many of the problems that Popper set.", ")Although there is some dispute as to the matter of influence, Popper had a longstanding and close friendship with economist Friedrich Hayek, who was also brought to LSE from Vienna.", "Each found support and similarities in the other's work, citing each other often, though not without qualification.", "In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, \"I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski.\"", "Popper dedicated his ''Conjectures and Refutations'' to Hayek.", "For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, ''Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics'', to Popper, and in 1982 said, \"ever since his ''Logik der Forschung'' first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology.", "\"Popper also had long and mutually influential friendships with art historian Ernst Gombrich, biologist Peter Medawar, and neuroscientist John Carew Eccles.", "The German jurist Reinhold Zippelius uses Popper's method of \"trial and error\" in his legal philosophy.", "Peter Medawar called him \"incomparably the greatest philosopher of science that has ever been\".Popper's influence, both through his work in philosophy of science and through his political philosophy, has also extended beyond the academy.", "One of Popper's students at LSE was George Soros, who later became a billionaire investor and among whose philanthropic foundations is the Open Society Institute, a think-tank named in honour of Popper's ''The Open Society and Its Enemies''.", "Soros revised his own philosophy, differing from some of Popper's epistemological assumptions, in a lecture entitled ''Open Society'' given at Central European University on 28 October 2009:" ], [ "Criticism", "Most criticisms of Popper's philosophy are of the falsification, or error elimination, element in his account of problem solving.", "Popper presents falsifiability as both an ideal and as an important principle in a practical method of effective human problem solving; as such, the current conclusions of science are stronger than pseudo-sciences or non-sciences, insofar as they have survived this particularly vigorous selection method.He does not argue that any such conclusions are therefore true, or that this describes the actual methods of any particular scientist.", "Rather, it is recommended as an essential principle of methodology that, if enacted by a system or community, will lead to slow but steady progress of a sort (relative to how well the system or community enacts the method).", "It has been suggested that Popper's ideas are often mistaken for a hard logical account of truth because of the historical co-incidence of their appearing at the same time as logical positivism, the followers of which mistook his aims for their own.The Quine–Duhem thesis argues that it is impossible to test a single hypothesis on its own, since each one comes as part of an environment of theories.", "Thus we can only say that the whole package of relevant theories has been collectively falsified, but cannot conclusively say which element of the package must be replaced.", "An example of this is given by the discovery of the planet Neptune: when the motion of Uranus was found not to match the predictions of Newton's laws, the theory \"There are seven planets in the solar system\" was rejected, and not Newton's laws themselves.", "Popper discussed this critique of naive falsificationism in Chapters 3 and 4 of ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery''.The philosopher Thomas Kuhn writes in ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' (1962) that he places an emphasis on anomalous experiences similar to that which Popper places on falsification.", "However, he adds that anomalous experiences cannot be identified with falsification, and questions whether theories could be falsified in the manner suggested by Popper.", "Kuhn argues in ''The Essential Tension'' (1977) that while Popper was correct that psychoanalysis cannot be considered a science, there are better reasons for drawing that conclusion than those Popper provided.", "Popper's student Imre Lakatos attempted to reconcile Kuhn's work with falsificationism by arguing that science progresses by the falsification of ''research programs'' rather than the more specific universal statements of naive falsificationism.Popper claimed to have recognised already in the 1934 version of his ''Logic of Discovery'' a fact later stressed by Kuhn, \"that scientists necessarily develop their ideas within a definite theoretical framework\", and to that extent to have anticipated Kuhn's central point about \"normal science\".", "However, Popper criticised what he saw as Kuhn's relativism, this criticism being at the heart of the Kuhn-Popper debate.", "Also, in his collection ''Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge'' (Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes,Another objection is that it is not always possible to demonstrate falsehood definitively, especially if one is using statistical criteria to evaluate a null hypothesis.", "More generally it is not always clear, if evidence contradicts a hypothesis, that this is a sign of flaws in the hypothesis rather than of flaws in the evidence.", "However, this is a misunderstanding of what Popper's philosophy of science sets out to do.", "Rather than offering a set of instructions that merely need to be followed diligently to achieve science, Popper makes it clear in ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'' that his belief is that the resolution of conflicts between hypotheses and observations can only be a matter of the collective judgment of scientists, in each individual case.In ''Science Versus Crime'', Houck writes that Popper's falsificationism can be questioned logically: it is not clear how Popper would deal with a statement like \"for every metal, there is a temperature at which it will melt\".", "The hypothesis cannot be falsified by any possible observation, for there will always be a higher temperature than tested at which the metal may in fact melt, yet it seems to be a valid scientific hypothesis.", "These examples were pointed out by Carl Gustav Hempel.", "Hempel came to acknowledge that logical positivism's verificationism was untenable, but argued that falsificationism was equally untenable on logical grounds alone.", "The simplest response to this is that, because Popper describes how theories attain, maintain and lose scientific status, individual consequences of currently accepted scientific theories are scientific in the sense of being part of tentative scientific knowledge, and both of Hempel's examples fall under this category.", "For instance, atomic theory implies that all metals melt at some temperature.An early adversary of Popper's critical rationalism, Karl-Otto Apel attempted a comprehensive refutation of Popper's philosophy.", "In ''Transformation der Philosophie'' (1973), Apel charged Popper with being guilty of, amongst other things, a pragmatic contradiction.The philosopher Adolf Grünbaum argues in ''The Foundations of Psychoanalysis'' (1984) that Popper's view that psychoanalytic theories, even in principle, cannot be falsified is incorrect.", "The philosopher Roger Scruton argues in ''Sexual Desire'' (1986) that Popper was mistaken to claim that Freudian theory implies no testable observation and therefore does not have genuine predictive power.", "Scruton maintains that Freudian theory has both \"theoretical terms\" and \"empirical content\".", "He points to the example of Freud's theory of repression, which in his view has \"strong empirical content\" and implies testable consequences.", "Nevertheless, Scruton also concluded that Freudian theory is not genuinely scientific.", "The philosopher Charles Taylor accuses Popper of exploiting his worldwide fame as an epistemologist to diminish the importance of philosophers of the 20th-century continental tradition.", "According to Taylor, Popper's criticisms are completely baseless, but they are received with an attention and respect that Popper's \"intrinsic worth hardly merits\".The philosopher John Gray argues that Popper's account of scientific method would have prevented the theories of Charles Darwin and Albert Einstein from being accepted.The philosopher and psychologist Michel ter Hark writes in ''Popper, Otto Selz and the Rise of Evolutionary Epistemology'' (2004) that Popper took some of his ideas from his tutor, the German psychologist Otto Selz.", "Selz never published his ideas, partly because of the rise of Nazism, which forced him to quit his work in 1933 and prohibited any reference to his ideas.", "Popper, the historian of ideas and his scholarship, is criticised in some academic quarters for his rejection of Plato and Hegel." ], [ "Published works", "* ''The Two Fundamental Problems of the Theory of Knowledge'', 1930–1933 (as a typescript circulating as ''Die beiden Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie''; as a German book 1979, as English translation 2008), * ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'', 1934 (as ''Logik der Forschung'', English translation 1959), * ''The Poverty of Historicism'', 1936 (private reading at a meeting in Brussels, 1944–45 as a series of journal articles in ''Econometrica'', 1957 a book), * ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'', 1945 Vol 1 , Vol 2 * ''Quantum Theory and the Schism in Physics'', 1956–57 (as privately circulated galley proofs; published as a book 1982), * ''The Open Universe: An Argument for Indeterminism'', 1956–57 (as privately circulated galley proofs; published as a book 1982), * ''Realism and the Aim of Science'', 1956–57 (as privately circulated galley proofs; published as a book 1983), * ''Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge'', 1963, * ''Of Clouds and Clocks: An Approach to the Problem of Rationality and the Freedom of Man'', 1965* ''Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach'', 1972, Rev.", "ed., 1979, * ''Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography'', 2002 1976.", ")* ''The Self and Its Brain: An Argument for Interactionism'' (with Sir John C. Eccles), 1977, * ''In Search of a Better World'', 1984, * ''Die Zukunft ist offen'' (''The Future is Open'') (with Konrad Lorenz), 1985 (in German), * ''A World of Propensities'', 1990, * ''The Lesson of this Century'', (Interviewer: Giancarlo Bosetti, English translation: Patrick Camiller), 1992, * ''All Life is Problem Solving'', 1994, * ''The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality'' (edited by Mark Amadeus Notturno) 1994.", "* ''Knowledge and the Mind-Body Problem: In Defence of Interaction'' (edited by Mark Amadeus Notturno) 1994 * ''The World of Parmenides'', Essays on the Presocratic Enlightenment, 1998, Edited by Arne F. Petersen with the assistance of Jørgen Mejer, * ''After The Open Society'', 2008.", "(Edited by Jeremy Shearmur and Piers Norris Turner, this volume contains a large number of Popper's previously unpublished or uncollected writings on political and social themes.)", "* ''Frühe Schriften'', 2006 (Edited by Troels Eggers Hansen, includes Popper's writings and publications from before the ''Logic'', including his previously unpublished thesis, dissertation and journal articles published that relate to the Wiener Schulreform.)" ], [ "Filmography", "* ''Interview Karl Popper'', Open Universiteit, 1988." ], [ "See also", "* Calculus of predispositions* Contributions to liberal theory* Evolutionary epistemology* Liberalism in Austria* List of refugees* Popper's experiment* Positivism dispute* Predispositioning theory* Karl Popper - Wikiquote* George Soros" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Lube, Manfred.", "''Karl R. Popper.", "Bibliographie 1925–2004.Wissenschaftstheorie, Sozialphilosophie, Logik, Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie, Naturwissenschaften''.", "Frankfurt/Main etc.", ": Peter Lang, 2005.576 pp.", "(Schriftenreihe der Karl Popper Foundation Klagenfurt.3.)", "( Current edition)* Gattei, Stefano.", "''Karl Popper's Philosophy of Science''.", "2009.", "* Miller, David.", "''Critical Rationalism: A Restatement and Defence''.", "1994.", "* David Miller (ed.).", "''Popper Selections''.", "* Watkins, John W. N. ''Science and Scepticism.''", "Preface & Contents.", "Princeton 1984 (Princeton University Press).", "* Jarvie, Ian Charles, Karl Milford, David W. Miller, ed.", "(2006).", "''Karl Popper: A Centenary Assessment''.", "Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate.", "::Volume I: ''Life and Times, and Values in a World of Facts''.", "Description & Contents.", "::Volume II: ''Metaphysics and Epistemology'' Description & Contents.", "::Volume III: ''Science''.", "Description & Contents.", "* Bailey, Richard, ''Education in the Open Society: Karl Popper and Schooling''.", "Aldershot, UK: Ashgate 2000.The only book-length examination of Popper's relevance to education.", "* Bartley, William Warren III.", "''Unfathomed Knowledge, Unmeasured Wealth''.", "La Salle, IL: Open Court Press 1990.A look at Popper and his influence by one of his students.", "* Berkson, William K., and Wettersten, John.", "''Learning from Error: Karl Popper's Psychology of Learning''.", "La Salle, IL: Open Court 1984* * Edmonds, D., Eidinow, J.", "''Wittgenstein's Poker''.", "New York: Ecco 2001.A review of the origin of the conflict between Popper and Ludwig Wittgenstein, focused on events leading up to their volatile first encounter at 1946 Cambridge meeting.", "* Feyerabend, Paul ''Against Method''.", "London: New Left Books, 1975.A polemical, iconoclastic book by a former colleague of Popper's.", "Vigorously critical of Popper's rationalist view of science.", "* Hacohen, M. ''Karl Popper: The Formative Years, 1902–1945''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.", "* Hickey, J. Thomas. ''", "History of the Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science'' Book V, Karl Popper And Falsificationist Criticism.", "www.philsci.com .", "1995* Jones, Daniel Stedman.", "''Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics'' (2012) pp.", "32–48.excerpt* Kadvany, John ''Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Reason''.", "Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2001..", "Explains how Imre Lakatos developed Popper's philosophy into a historicist and critical theory of scientific method.", "* Keuth, Herbert.", "''The Philosophy of Karl Popper''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.An accurate scholarly overview of Popper's philosophy, ideal for students.", "* Kuhn, Thomas S. ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962.Central to contemporary philosophy of science is the debate between the followers of Kuhn and Popper on the nature of scientific enquiry.", "This is the book in which Kuhn's views received their classical statement.", "* Lakatos, I & Musgrave, A (eds.)", "(1970), '' Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge'', Cambridge (Cambridge University Press).", "* Levinson, Paul, ed.", "''In Pursuit of Truth: Essays on the Philosophy of Karl Popper on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday.''", "Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1982.A collection of essays on Popper's thought and legacy by a wide range of his followers.", "With forewords by Isaac Asimov and Helmut Schmidt.", "Includes an interview with Sir Ernst Gombrich.", "* * Magee, Bryan.", "''Popper''.", "London: Fontana, 1977.An elegant introductory text.", "Very readable, albeit rather uncritical of its subject, by a former Member of Parliament.", "* Magee, Bryan.", "''Confessions of a Philosopher'', Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997.Magee's philosophical autobiography, with a chapter on his relations with Popper.", "More critical of Popper than in the previous reference.", "* Maxwell, Nicholas, '' Karl Popper, Science and Enlightenment'', London, UCL Press, 2017.An exposition and development of Popper's philosophy of science and social philosophy, available free online.", "* Munz, Peter.", "''Beyond Wittgenstein's Poker: New Light on Popper and Wittgenstein'' Aldershot, Hampshire, UK: Ashgate, 2004..", "Written by the only living student of both Wittgenstein and Popper, an eyewitness to the famous \"poker\" incident described above (Edmunds & Eidinow).", "Attempts to synthesize and reconcile the differences between these two philosophers.", "* Niemann, Hans-Joachim.", "''Lexikon des Kritischen Rationalismus'', (Encyclopaedia of Critical Raionalism), Tübingen (Mohr Siebeck) 2004, .", "More than a thousand headwords about critical rationalism, the most important arguments of K.R.", "Popper and H. Albert, quotations of the original wording.", "Edition for students in 2006, .", "* Notturno, Mark Amadeus.", "\"Objectivity, Rationality, and the Third Realm: Justification and the Grounds of Psychologism\".", "Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 1985.", "* Notturno, Mark Amadeus.", "''On Popper''.", "Wadsworth Philosophers Series.", "2003.A very comprehensive book on Popper's philosophy by an accomplished Popperian.", "* Notturno, Mark Amadeus.", "\"Science and the Open Society\".", "New York: CEU Press, 2000.", "* O'Hear, Anthony.", "''Karl Popper''.", "London: Routledge, 1980.A critical account of Popper's thought, viewed from the perspective of contemporary analytic philosophy.", "* Parusniková, Zuzana & Robert S. Cohen (2009).", "''Rethinking Popper''.", "Description and contents.", "Springer.", "* Radnitzky, Gerard, Bartley, W. W. III eds.", "''Evolutionary Epistemology, Rationality, and the Sociology of Knowledge''.", "LaSalle, IL: Open Court Press 1987.. A strong collection of essays by Popper, Campbell, Munz, Flew, et al., on Popper's epistemology and critical rationalism.", "Includes a particularly vigorous answer to Rorty's criticisms.", "* Richmond, Sheldon.", "''Aesthetic Criteria: Gombrich and the Philosophies of Science of Popper and Polanyi''.", "Rodopi, Amsterdam/Atlanta, 1994, 152 pp.", ".", "* Rowbottom, Darrell P. ''Popper's Critical Rationalism: A Philosophical Investigation''.", "London: Routledge, 2010.A research monograph on Popper's philosophy of science and epistemology.", "It critiques and develops critical rationalism in light of more recent advances in mainstream philosophy.", "* Schilpp, Paul A., ed.", "''The Philosophy of Karl Popper''.", "Description and contents.", "Chicago, IL: Open Court Press, 1974.One of the better contributions to the Library of Living Philosophers series.", "Contains Popper's intellectual autobiography (v. I, pp.", "2–184, also as a 1976 book), a comprehensive range of critical essays, and Popper's responses to them.", "(vol.I).", "(Vol II)* Schroeder-Heister, P. \"Popper, Karl Raimund (1902–94),\" ''International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences'', 2001, pp. 11727–11733.Abstract.", "* Shearmur, Jeremy.", "''The Political Thought of Karl Popper''.", "London and New York: Routledge, 1996.Study of Popper's political thought by a former assistant of Popper's.", "Makes use of archive sources and studies the development of Popper's political thought and its inter-connections with his epistemology.", "* * Stokes, G. ''Popper: Philosophy, Politics and Scientific Method''.", "Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998.A very comprehensive, balanced study, which focuses largely on the social and political side of Popper's thought.", "* Stove, D.C., ''Popper and After: Four Modern Irrationalists''.", "Oxford: Pergamon.", "1982.A vigorous attack, especially on Popper's restricting himself to deductive logic.", "* * Thornton, Stephen.", "\"Karl Popper,\" ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,'' 2006.", "* Weimer, W., Palermo, D., eds.", "''Cognition and the Symbolic Processes''.", "Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.", "1982.See Hayek's essay, \"''The Sensory Order'' after 25 Years\", and \"Discussion\".", "* Zippelius, Reinhold, ''Die experimentierende Methode im Recht'', Akademie der Wissenschaften Mainz.", "Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1991," ], [ "External links", "* * * Karl Popper on Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Popper, K. R. '' \"Natural Selection and the Emergence of Mind\"'', 1977.", "* The Karl Popper Web * Sir Karl R. Popper in Prague, May 1994 Archived by Wayback Machine* Synopsis and background of ''The poverty of historicism''* \"A Skeptical Look at Karl Popper\" by Martin Gardner (archived 10 February 2017 by Wayback Machine)* \"A Sceptical Look at 'A Skeptical Look at Karl Popper'\" by J C Lester.", "* * The Liberalism of Karl Popper by John N. Gray* Karl Popper on Information Philosopher* ''History of Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science'', BOOK V: Karl Popper Site offers free downloads by chapter available for public use.", "* Karl Popper at Liberal-international.org* A science and technology hypotheses database following Karl Popper's refutability principle* Popper, BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Worrall, Anthony O'Hear & Nancy Cartwright (''In Our Time'', 8 February 2007)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Kamikaze" ], [ "Introduction", ", an aircraft carrier, was hit by two ''kamikaze''s on 11 May 1945, resulting in 389 personnel dead or missing and 264 wounded., officially , were a part of the Japanese Special Attack Units of military aviators who flew suicide attacks for the Empire of Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific campaign of World War II, intending to destroy warships more effectively than with conventional air attacks.", "About 3,800 ''kamikaze'' pilots died during the war, and more than 7,000 naval personnel were killed by ''kamikaze'' attacks.", "''Kamikaze'' aircraft were essentially pilot-guided explosive missiles, purpose-built or converted from conventional aircraft.", "Pilots would attempt to crash their aircraft into enemy ships in what was called a \"body attack\" (''tai-atari'') in aircraft loaded with bombs, torpedoes, and/or other explosives.", "About 19% of ''kamikaze'' attacks were successful.", "The Japanese considered the goal of damaging or sinking large numbers of Allied ships to be a just reason for suicide attacks; ''kamikaze'' was more accurate than conventional attacks, and often caused more damage.", "Some ''kamikazes'' were still able to hit their targets even after their aircraft had been crippled.The attacks began in October 1944, at a time when the war was looking increasingly bleak for the Japanese.", "They had lost several important battles, many of their best pilots had been killed, their aircraft were becoming outdated, and they had lost command of the air.", "Japan was losing pilots faster than it could train their replacements, and the nation's industrial capacity was diminishing relative to that of the Allies.", "These factors, along with Japan's unwillingness to surrender, led to the use of ''kamikaze'' tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the Japanese home islands.The tradition of death instead of defeat, capture, and shame was deeply entrenched in Japanese military culture; one of the primary values in the samurai life and the ''Bushido'' code was loyalty and honor until death.", "In addition to ''kamikazes'', the Japanese military also used or made plans for non-aerial Japanese Special Attack Units, including those involving Kairyu (submarines), Kaiten (human torpedoes), Shinyo speedboats, and Fukuryu divers." ], [ "Definition and origin", "''Kamikaze'' was a reference to the two typhoons that sank or dispersed Kublai Khan's invading Mongol fleets.The Japanese word ''kamikaze'' is usually translated as \"divine wind\" (''kami'' is the word for \"god\", \"spirit\", or \"divinity\", and ''kaze'' for \"wind\").", "The word originated from ''Makurakotoba'' of waka poetry modifying \"Ise\" and has been used since August 1281 to refer to the major typhoons that dispersed Mongol-Koryo fleets which invaded Japan under Kublai Khan in 1274 and 1281.A Japanese monoplane that made a record-breaking flight from Tokyo to London in 1937 for the Asahi newspaper group was named ''Kamikaze''.", "She was a prototype for the Mitsubishi Ki-15 (\"Babs\").In Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying out suicide attacks during 1944–1945 is ''tokubetsu kōgekitai'' (特別攻撃隊), which literally means \"special attack unit\".", "This is usually abbreviated to ''tokkōtai'' (特攻隊).", "More specifically, air suicide attack units from the Imperial Japanese Navy were officially called ''shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai'' (神風特別攻撃隊, \"divine wind special attack units\").", "''Shinpū'' is the on-reading (''on'yomi'' or Chinese-derived pronunciation) of the same characters as the kun-reading (''kun'yomi'' or Japanese pronunciation) ''kamikaze'' in Japanese.", "During World War II, the pronunciation ''kamikaze'' was used only informally in the Japanese press in relation to suicide attacks, but after the war, this usage gained acceptance worldwide and was re-imported into Japan." ], [ "History", "===Background===Lt.", "Yoshinori Yamaguchi's Yokosuka D4Y3 (Type 33 ''Suisei'') \"Judy\" in a suicide dive against on 25 November 1944.The attack left 15 killed and 44 wounded.", "The dive brakes are extended and the non-self-sealing port wing tank trails fuel vapor and/or smoke.Before the formation of ''kamikaze'' units, pilots had made deliberate crashes as a last resort when their aircraft had suffered severe damage and they did not want to risk being captured or wanted to do as much damage to the enemy as possible, since they were crashing anyway.", "Such situations occurred in both the Axis and Allied air forces.", "Axell and Kase see these suicides as \"individual, impromptu decisions by men who were mentally prepared to die\".One example of this may have occurred on 7 December 1941 during the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "First Lieutenant Fusata Iida's aircraft had taken a hit and had started leaking fuel when he apparently used it to make a suicide attack on Naval Air Station Kaneohe.", "Before taking off, he had told his men that if his aircraft were to become badly damaged he would crash it into a \"worthy enemy target\".", "Another possible example occurred at the Battle of Midway when a damaged American bomber flew at the 's bridge but missed.", "During the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal the U.S. flagship, , was heavily damaged during a Japanese bombing raid when a large twin-engined Japanese Mitsubishi G4M \"Betty\" medium bomber, which was in flames from anti-aircraft fire, most likely intentionally crashed into her backup conning tower, destroying almost all of the backup command equipment for the flagship.", "Most of the officers and men stationed there, including the executive officer, were killed or wounded.", "This de facto ''kamikaze'' strike greatly changed the course of what was to happen during the infamous \"Friday the 13th\" battle 12 hours later.The carrier battles in 1942, particularly the Battle of Midway, inflicted irreparable damage on the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAS), such that they could no longer put together a large number of fleet carriers with well-trained aircrews.", "Japanese planners had assumed a quick war and lacked comprehensive programs to replace the losses of ships, pilots, and sailors.", "The Battle of Midway, the Solomon Islands campaign (1942–1945) and the New Guinea campaign (1942–1945)notably the Battles of Eastern Solomons (August 1942) and Santa Cruz (October 1942)decimated the IJNAS veteran aircrews, and replacing their combat experience proved impossible.Model 52c Zeros ready to take part in a ''kamikaze'' attack (early 1945)During 1943–1944, U.S. forces steadily advanced toward Japan.", "Newer U.S.-made aircraft, especially the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, outclassed and soon outnumbered Japan's fighters.", "Tropical diseases, as well as shortages of spare parts and fuel, made operations more and more difficult for the IJNAS.", "By the Battle of the Philippine Sea (June 1944), the Japanese had to make do with obsolete aircraft and inexperienced aviators in the fight against better-trained and more experienced US Navy airmen who flew radar-directed combat air patrols.", "The Japanese lost over 400 carrier-based aircraft and pilots in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, effectively putting an end to their carriers' potency.", "Allied aviators called the action the \"Great Marianas Turkey Shoot\".On 19 June 1944, aircraft from the carrier approached a US task group.", "According to some accounts, two made suicide attacks, one of which hit .The important Japanese base of Saipan fell to the Allied forces on 15 July 1944.Its capture provided adequate forward bases that enabled U.S. air forces using the Boeing B-29 Superfortress to strike at the Japanese home islands.", "After the fall of Saipan, the Japanese High Command predicted that the Allies would try to capture the Philippines, strategically important to Tokyo because of the islands' location between the oilfields of Southeast Asia and Japan.===Beginnings===A ''kamikaze'' aircraft explodes after crashing into ''Essex'' flight deck amidships 25 November 1944.Captain Motoharu Okamura, in charge of the Tateyama Base in Tokyo, as well as the 341st Air Group Home, was, according to some sources, the first officer to officially propose ''kamikaze'' attack tactics.", "With his superiors, he arranged the first investigations into the plausibility and mechanisms of intentional suicide attacks on 15 June 1944.In August 1944, it was announced by the Domei news agency that a flight instructor named Takeo Tagata was training pilots in Taiwan for suicide missions.One source claims that the first ''kamikaze'' mission occurred on 13 September 1944.A group of pilots from the army's 31st Fighter Squadron on Negros Island decided to launch a suicide attack the following morning.", "First Lieutenant Takeshi Kosai and a sergeant were selected.", "Two bombs were attached to two fighters, and the pilots took off before dawn, planning to crash into carriers.", "They never returned, but there is no record of a Kamikaze hitting an Allied ship that day.According to some sources, on 14 October 1944, was hit by a deliberately crashed Japanese aircraft.Rear Admiral Masafumi ArimaRear Admiral Masafumi Arima, the commander of the 26th Air Flotilla (part of the 11th Air Fleet), is sometimes credited with inventing the ''kamikaze'' tactic.", "Arima personally led an attack by a Mitsubishi G4M \"Betty\" twin engined bomber against a large , , near Leyte Gulf, on or about 15 October 1944.Arima was killed and part of an aircraft hit ''Franklin''.", "The Japanese high command and propagandists seized on Arima's example.", "He was promoted posthumously to vice admiral and was given official credit for making the first ''kamikaze'' attack.", "It is not clear that this was a planned suicide attack, and official Japanese accounts of Arima's attack bore little resemblance to the actual events.On 17 October 1944, Allied forces assaulted Suluan Island, beginning the Battle of Leyte Gulf.", "The Imperial Japanese Navy's 1st Air Fleet, based at Manila, was assigned the task of assisting the Japanese ships that would attempt to destroy Allied forces in Leyte Gulf.", "That unit had only 41 aircraft: 34 Mitsubishi A6M Zero (\"Zeke\") carrier-based fighters, three Nakajima B6N ''Tenzan'' (\"Jill\") torpedo bombers, one Mitsubishi G4M (\"Betty\") and two Yokosuka P1Y ''Ginga'' (\"Frances\") land-based bombers, and one additional reconnaissance aircraft.", "The task facing the Japanese air forces seemed impossible.", "The 1st Air Fleet commandant, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, decided to form a suicide offensive force, the Special Attack Unit.", "In a meeting on 19 October at Mabalacat Airfield (known to the U.S. military as Clark Air Base) near Manila, Onishi told officers of the 201st Flying Group headquarters: \"I don't think there would be any other certain way to carry out the operation to hold the Philippines than to put a 250 kg bomb on a Zero and let it crash into a U.S. carrier, in order to disable her for a week.", "\"===First unit===26 May 1945.Corporal Yukio Araki, holding a puppy, with four other pilots of the 72nd ''Shinbu'' Squadron at Bansei, Kagoshima.", "Araki died the following day, at the age of 17, in a suicide attack on ships near Okinawa.Commander Asaichi Tamai asked a group of 23 talented student pilots, all of whom he had trained, to volunteer for the special attack force.", "All of the pilots raised both of their hands, volunteering to join the operation.", "Later, Tamai asked Lieutenant Yukio Seki to command the special attack force.", "Seki is said to have closed his eyes, lowered his head, and thought for ten seconds before saying: \"Please do appoint me to the post.\"", "Seki became the 24th ''kamikaze'' pilot to be chosen.", "He later said: \"Japan's future is bleak if it is forced to kill one of its best pilots\" and \"I am not going on this mission for the Emperor or for the Empire ...", "I am going because I was ordered to.", "\"The names of the four subunits within the ''Kamikaze'' Special Attack Force were ''Unit Shikishima'', ''Unit Yamato'', ''Unit Asahi'' and ''Unit Yamazakura''.", "These names were taken from a patriotic death poem, ''Shikishima no Yamato-gokoro wo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana'' by the Japanese classical scholar, Motoori Norinaga.", "The poem reads:A less literal translation is:Ōnishi, addressing this unit, told them that their nobility of spirit would keep the homeland from ruin even in defeat.===Leyte Gulf: the first attacks===''St Lo'' attacked by ''kamikazes'', 25 October 1944Starboard horizontal stabilizer from the tail of a \"Judy\" on the deck of .", "The \"Judy\" made a run on the ship approaching from dead astern; it was met by effective fire and the aircraft passed over the island and exploded.", "Parts of the aircraft and the pilot were scattered over the flight deck and the forecastle.Several suicide attacks, carried out during the invasion of Leyte by Japanese pilots from units other than the Special Attack Force, have been described as the first ''kamikaze'' attacks.", "Early on 21 October 1944, a Japanese aircraft deliberately crashed into the foremast of the heavy cruiser .", "This aircraft was possibly either an Aichi D3A dive bomber, from an unidentified unit of the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service, or a Mitsubishi Ki-51 of the 6th Flying Brigade, Imperial Japanese Army Air Force.", "The attack killed 30 personnel, including the cruiser's captain, Emile Dechaineux, and wounded 64, including the Australian force commander, Commodore John Collins.", "The Australian official history of the war claimed that this was the first ''kamikaze'' attack on an Allied ship.", "Other sources disagree because it was not a planned attack by a member of the Special Attack Force and was most likely undertaken on the pilot's own initiative.The sinking of the ocean tug on 24 October is listed in some sources as the first ship lost to a ''kamikaze'' strike, but the attack occurred before the first mission of the Special Attack Force (on 25 October) and the aircraft used, a Mitsubishi G4M, was not flown by the original four Special Attack Squadrons.On 25 October 1944, during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the ''Kamikaze'' Special Attack Force carried out its first mission.", "Five A6M Zeros, led by Lieutenant Seki, were escorted to the target by leading Japanese ace Hiroyoshi Nishizawa where they attacked several escort carriers.", "One Zero attempted to hit the bridge of but instead exploded on the port catwalk and cartwheeled into the sea.", "Two others dived at but were destroyed by anti-aircraft fire.", "The last two, Seki among them, ran at .", "Seki however, under heavy fire and trailing smoke, aborted the attack on ''White Plains'' and instead banked toward , diving into the flight deck, where his bomb caused fires that resulted in the bomb magazine exploding, sinking the carrier.By 26 October day's end, 55 ''kamikazes'' from the Special Attack Force had also damaged three large escort carriers: , , and (which hadtaken a ''kamikaze'' strike forward of its aft elevator the day before); and three smaller escorts: USS ''White Plains'', , and ''Kitkun Bay''.", "In total, seven carriers were hit, as well as 40 other ships (five sunk, 23 heavily damaged and 12 moderately damaged).===Main wave of attacks===Early successes – such as the sinking of – were followed by an immediate expansion of the program, and over the next few months over 2,000 aircraft made such attacks.When Japan began to suffer intense strategic bombing by Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, the Japanese military attempted to use suicide attacks against this threat.", "During the northern hemisphere winter of 1944–45, the IJAAF formed the 47th Air Regiment, also known as the ''Shinten'' Special Unit (''Shinten Seiku Tai'') at Narimasu Airfield, Nerima, Tokyo, to defend the Tokyo Metropolitan Area.", "The unit was equipped with Nakajima Ki-44 ''Shoki'' (\"Tojo\") fighters, whose pilots were instructed to collide with United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) B-29s approaching Japan.", "Targeting the aircraft proved to be much less successful and practical than attacks against warships, as the bombers made for much faster, more maneuverable, and smaller targets.", "The B-29 also had formidable defensive weaponry, so suicide attacks against B-29s demanded considerable piloting skill to be successful, which worked against the very purpose of using expendable pilots.", "Even encouraging capable pilots to bail out before impact was ineffective because vital personnel were often lost when they mistimed their exits and were killed as a result.On 11 March, the U.S. carrier was hit and moderately damaged at Ulithi Atoll, in the Caroline Islands, by a ''kamikaze'' that had flown almost from Japan, in a mission called Operation Tan No.", "2.On 20 March, the submarine survived a hit from an aircraft just off Japan.Purpose-built ''kamikazes'', opposed to converted fighters and dive-bombers, were also being constructed.", "Ensign Mitsuo Ohta had suggested that piloted glider bombs, carried within range of targets by a mother aircraft, should be developed.", "The First Naval Air Technical Bureau (''Kugisho'') in Yokosuka refined Ohta's idea.", "Yokosuka MXY-7 ''Ohka'' rocket-powered aircraft, launched from bombers, were first deployed in ''kamikaze'' attacks from March 1945.U.S.", "personnel gave them the derisive nickname \"''Baka'' Bombs\" (''baka'' is Japanese for \"idiot\" or \"stupid\").", "The Nakajima Ki-115 ''Tsurugi'' was a simple, easily built propeller aircraft with a wooden airframe that used engines from existing stocks.", "Its non-retractable landing gear was jettisoned shortly after takeoff for a suicide mission, recovered, and reused.", "Obsolete aircraft such as Yokosuka K5Y biplane trainers were also converted to ''kamikazes''.", "During 1945, the Japanese military began stockpiling ''Tsurugi'', Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka, other aircraft and suicide boats for use against Allied forces expected to invade Japan.", "The invasion never happened, and few were ever used.===Allied defensive tactics===An A6M Zero (A6M2 Model 21) towards the end of its run at the escort carrier on 25 October 1944.The aircraft exploded in mid-air moments after the picture was taken, scattering debris across the deck.In early 1945, U.S. Navy aviator Commander John Thach, already famous for developing effective aerial tactics against the Japanese such as the Thach Weave, developed a defensive strategy against ''kamikazes'' called the \"big blue blanket\" to establish Allied air supremacy well away from the carrier force.", "This recommended combat air patrols (CAP) that were larger and operated farther from the carriers than before, a line of picket destroyers and destroyer escorts at least from the main body of the fleet to provide earlier radar interception and improved coordination between fighter direction officers on carriers.", "This plan also called for around-the-clock fighter patrols over Allied fleets.", "A final element included intensive fighter sweeps over Japanese airfields, and bombing Japanese runways, using delayed-action bombs making repairs more difficult.Late in 1944, the British Pacific Fleet (BPF) used the high-altitude performance of its Supermarine Seafires (the naval version of the Spitfire) on combat air patrol duties.", "Seafires were involved in countering the ''kamikaze'' attacks during the Iwo Jima landings and beyond.", "The Seafires' best day was 15 August 1945, shooting down eight attacking aircraft with a single loss.An A6M5 \"Zero\" diving towards American ships in the Philippines in early 1945Allied pilots were more experienced, better trained and in command of superior aircraft, making the poorly trained ''kamikaze'' pilots easy targets.", "The U.S. Fast Carrier Task Force alone could bring over 1,000 fighter aircraft into play.", "Allied pilots became adept at destroying enemy aircraft before they struck ships.Allied gunners had begun to develop techniques to negate ''kamikaze'' attacks.", "Light rapid-fire anti-aircraft weapons such as the 20 mm Oerlikon autocannons were still useful though the 40 mm Bofors was preferred, and though their high rate of fire and quick training remained advantageous, they lacked the punch to take down a kamikaze bearing down on the ship they defended.", "It was found that heavy anti-aircraft guns such as the 5\"/38 caliber gun (127 mm) were the most effective as they had sufficient firepower to destroy aircraft at a safe range from the ship, which was preferable since even a heavily damaged ''kamikaze'' could reach its target.", "The speedy ''Ohkas'' presented a very difficult problem for anti-aircraft fire, since their velocity made fire control extremely difficult.", "By 1945, large numbers of anti-aircraft shells with radiofrequency proximity fuzes, on average seven times more effective than regular shells, became available, and the U.S. Navy recommended their use against ''kamikaze'' attacks.===Final phase=== is struck by a Mitsubishi Ki-51 ''kamikaze'' at the Battle of Lingayen Gulf, 6 January 1945.shortly before being hit by a Mitsubishi A6M Zero (visible top left), 11 April 1945The peak period of ''kamikaze'' attack frequency came during April–June 1945 at the Battle of Okinawa.", "On 6 April 1945, waves of aircraft made hundreds of attacks in Operation Kikusui (\"floating chrysanthemums\").", "At Okinawa, ''kamikaze'' attacks focused at first on Allied destroyers on picket duty, and then on the carriers in the middle of the fleet.", "Suicide attacks by aircraft or boats at Okinawa sank or put out of action at least 30 U.S. warships and at least three U.S. merchant ships, along with some from other Allied forces.", "The attacks expended 1,465 aircraft.", "Many warships of all classes were damaged, some severely, but no aircraft carriers, battleships or cruisers were sunk by ''kamikaze'' at Okinawa.", "Most of the ships lost were destroyers or smaller vessels, especially those on picket duty.", "The destroyer earned the nickname \"The Ship That Would Not Die\" after surviving six ''kamikaze'' attacks and four bomb hits during this battle.American carriers, with their wooden flight decks, appeared to suffer more damage from ''kamikaze'' hits than the armoured-decked carriers of the British Pacific Fleet.", "American carriers also suffered considerably heavier casualties from ''kamikaze'' strikes; for instance, 389 men were killed in one attack on , greater than the combined number of fatalities suffered on all six Royal Navy armoured carriers from all forms of attack during the entire war.", "''Bunker Hill'' and ''Franklin'' were both hit (in ''Franklin's'' case, by a dive bomber, not a ''kamikaze'') while conducting operations with fully fueled and armed aircraft spotted on deck for takeoff, an extremely vulnerable state for any carrier.", "Eight ''kamikaze'' hits on five British carriers resulted in only 20 deaths while a combined total of 15 bomb hits, most of weight or greater, and one torpedo hit on four carriers caused 193 fatal casualties earlier in the war – striking proof of the protective value of the armoured flight deck.Aircraft carrier after being struck by a ''kamikaze'' off the Sakishima Islands.", "The ''kamikaze'' made a dent long and wide and deep in the armored flight deck.", "Eight crew members were killed, forty-seven were wounded, and 11 aircraft were destroyed.", "''Kamikaze'' damage to the destroyer following action off Okinawa.", "''Newcomb'' was damaged beyond economical repair and scrapped after the war.The resilience of well-armoured vessels was shown on 4 May, just after 11:30, when there was a wave of suicide attacks against the British Pacific Fleet.", "One Japanese aircraft made a steep dive from \"a great height\" at the carrier and was engaged by anti-aircraft guns.", "Although the ''kamikaze'' was hit by gunfire, it managed to drop a bomb that detonated on the flight deck, making a crater long, wide and deep.", "A long steel splinter speared down through the hangar deck and the main boiler room (where it ruptured a steam line) before coming to rest in a fuel tank near the aircraft park, where it started a major fire.", "Eight personnel were killed and 47 were wounded.", "One Corsair and 10 Grumman Avengers were destroyed.", "The fires were gradually brought under control, and the crater in the deck was repaired with concrete and steel plate.", "By 17:00, Corsairs were able to land.", "On 9 May, ''Formidable'' was again damaged by a ''kamikaze'', as were the carrier and the battleship .", "The British were able to clear the flight deck and resume flight operations in just hours, while their American counterparts took a few days or even months, as observed by a U.S. Navy liaison officer on who commented: \"When a ''kamikaze'' hits a U.S. carrier it means six months of repair at Pearl Harbor.", "When a ''kamikaze'' hits a Limey carrier it's just a case of 'Sweepers, man your brooms'.", "\"Twin-engine aircraft were occasionally used in ''kamikaze'' attacks.", "For example, Mitsubishi Ki-67 ''Hiryū'' (\"Peggy\") medium bombers, based on Formosa, undertook ''kamikaze'' attacks on Allied forces off Okinawa, while a pair of Kawasaki Ki-45 ''Toryu'' (\"Nick\") heavy fighters caused enough damage for the destroyer to be scuttled.", "The last ship in the war to be sunk, the , was on a radar picket line off Okinawa when she was struck by an obsolete wood-and-fabric Yokosuka K5Y biplane.Almost nothing is known about the actions of the kamikaze pilots against the Red Army during the Soviet–Japanese War in 1945.Between 9 August and 2 September 1945, several airstrikes involving kamikaze pilots were recorded.", "On 18 August, a Japanese Ki-45 flown by Lieutenant Yoshira Tsiohara attacked a tanker in the port of Vladivostok.", "The plane was shot down and the pilot was killed.", "He was found to have orders to attack the largest tanker in Vladivostok, and if he failed, to ram the biggest house in the city.", "On the same day, the Soviet minesweeper ''KT-152'' was sunk during the Battle of Shumshu.", "It is believed to have been attacked by a ''kamikaze''.", "In the middle of August the Japanese military planned to dispatch a group of 30 ''kamikaze'' pilots from Japan to Korea to attack Soviet warships, but the Japanese leadership decided to surrender and the operation was cancelled.", "''Kamikazes'' also operated against Red Army ground units.", "On August 10, three ''kamikazes'' attacked a tank column of the 20th Guards Tank Brigade.", "The paratroopers succeeded in shooting down two of the attacking aircraft, while the third crashed into a tank.", "During 12–13 August, 14 Japanese planes, including ''kamikazes'', targeted tanks of the 5th Guards Tank Corps.", "Soviet fighter aviation, which managed to destroy three enemy aircraft and an anti-aircraft artillery which lost two planes participated in repulsing the air raids.", "Nine ''kamikazes'' crashed without hitting their targets.", "Damage from these attacks was negligible.On 17 August, the Kwantung Army command ordered its units to surrender, but some of the pilots disobeyed and the Japanese air attacks continued.", "On 18 August, convoys of the 20th and 21st Armoured Brigade were attacked.", "The kamikazes traded six of their aircraft for a tank and a couple of cars.", "The ''kamikazes'' also flew solo.", "On 18 August, several ammunition resupply vehicles carrying ammunition for BM-13 were destroyed by a ''kamikaze'' in the Tao'an area.", "The personnel were unharmed, as they managed to evade the raid.", "On 19 August, nine aircraft raided the tanks of the 21st Guards Tank Brigade.", "Seven were shot down, but two planes broke through; one tank was destroyed and the other damaged.", "About the raid, the author of the book ''Tanker on a foreign vehicle'' D. Loza recalls six Japanese aircraft attacked the convoy, which damaged one Sherman tank and destroyed a medical vehicle.", "Japanese commanders ordered weapons depots to be secured and the propellers of aircraft on airfields to be removed to stop these sorties.", "Supposedly, the ''kamikazes'' carried out more than 50 suicide attacks against Soviet Red Army in August 1945.That is the number of aircraft the Japanese attributed to \"other losses\".", "Overall, the ''kamikaze'' airstrikes proved ineffective and had little or no effect on the Red Army during the Soviet–Japanese War.Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki, the commander of the IJN 5th Air Fleet based in Kyushu, participated in one of the final ''kamikaze'' attacks on American ships on 15 August 1945, hours after Japan's announced surrender.On 19 August 1945, 11 young officers under Second Lieutenant Hitoshi Imada, attached to the 675th Manchuria Detachment, accompanied by two women of their engagement, left the Daikosan airfield and made a final aerial suicide attack against one of the Soviet armoured units that had invaded Manchuria known as the Shinshu Fumetsu Special Attack Corps (Japanese: 神州不滅特別攻撃隊), the last kamikaze attacks were recorded on 20 August 1945.Shortly afterward, the main strength of the Japanese Army began to lay down its arms in surrender per the Emperor's broadcast.", "The Soviet–Japanese War, and World War II, had come to an end.At the time of the surrender, the Japanese had more than 9,000 aircraft in the home islands available for ''kamikaze'' attacks, and more than 5,000 had already been specially fitted for suicide attack to resist the planned either American or Soviet invasion." ], [ "Effects", "Ugaki, shortly before taking off in a Yokosuka D4Y3 to participate in one of the final ''kamikaze'' strikes, 15 August 1945As the end of the war approached, the Allies did not suffer more serious significant losses, despite having far more ships and facing a greater intensity of ''kamikaze'' attacks.", "Although causing some of the heaviest casualties on U.S. carriers in 1945 (particularly as ''Bunker Hill'' was unlucky to get hit with fueled and armed aircraft on deck), the IJN had sacrificed 2,525 ''kamikaze'' pilots and the IJAAF 1,387 without successfully sinking any fleet carriers, cruisers, or battleships.", "This was far more than the IJN had lost in 1942 when it sank or crippled three U.S. fleet carriers (albeit without inflicting significant casualties).", "In 1942, when U.S. Navy vessels were scarce, the temporary absence of key warships from the combat zone would tie up operational initiatives.", "By 1945, however, the U.S. Navy was large enough that damaged ships could be detached back home for repair without significantly hampering the fleet's operational capability.", "The only U.S. surface losses were escort carriers, destroyers, and smaller ships, all of which lacked the armor protection and/or capability to sustain heavy damage.", "Overall, the ''kamikazes'' were unable to turn the tide of the war and stop the Allied invasion.While on paper the lack of officially sinking larger ships than destroyers at Okinawa made it look like ''kamikazes'' and ''kamikaze''-assisted attacks (''kamikaze'' raids almost always had attached escort fighters and conventional bombers with more talented pilots that were not supposed to make suicidal strikes on ships themselves like the Japanese flight group that included ''kamikazes'' that cleared the way to the target for conventional bombers like the one that successfully struck the fleet carrier ''Franklin'') didn't do anything three large fleet carriers, ''Franklin'', ''Bunker Hill'', and , were so heavily damaged by ''kamikaze''-related attacks that they were knocked out for the rest of the war.", "For the Japanese this was not much different than sinking them, operationally speaking.", "For each of the heavily damaged aircraft carriers dozens of aircraft were destroyed that would have been impossible to be shot down by any Japanese forces via dogfights or anti-aircraft weapons at this stage of the war.", "''Franklin'' lost 59 planes, ''Bunker Hill'' lost 78 planes, and ''Enterprise'' lost 25 planes in the Japanese attacks that ended the war for them.", "There were more lost planes on these three carriers alone (not including the numerous other successful strikes on other Allied carriers during the Battle of Okinawa) than the United States lost in the entire Battle of Midway.", "''Franklin'' and ''Bunker Hill'' also both had the first and third largest fatalities on sunken or damaged U.S. aircraft carriers in World War II and were the only ''Essex''-class carriers to never serve on active duty after World War II while ''Enterprise'' was mothballed soon after World War II despite all three of them receiving repairs back in the United States.", "Numerous other larger-than-destroyer warships were so heavily damaged that they also were knocked out for the rest of the war and decommissioned shortly after World War II.The Japanese ''kamikazes'' were so relentless at Okinawa that United States Fifth Fleet commander Admiral Raymond A. Spruance's flagships were struck two separate times ( was hit in March and had to retire for repairs which forced him to transfer to which was also hit in May).", "Fast Carrier Task Force commander Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher and his chief of staff Commodore Arleigh Burke were yards away from getting killed or wounded by kamikazes on his flagship ''Bunker Hill'', which killed three of Mitscher's staff officers and eleven of his enlisted staff members and also destroyed his flag cabin along with all of his uniforms, personal papers, and possessions.", "Just two days later Mitscher's new flagship ''Enterprise'' was also struck by a kamikaze forcing him to have to change his flagship yet again.Spruance later wrote about the effectiveness of ''kamikazes'':In the immediate aftermath of ''kamikaze'' strikes, British fleet carriers with their armoured flight decks recovered more quickly compared to their US counterparts.", "Post-war analysis showed that some British carriers such as HMS ''Formidable'' suffered structural damage that led to them being scrapped, as being beyond economic repair.", "Britain's post-war economic situation played a role in the decision to not repair damaged carriers, while even seriously damaged American carriers such as USS ''Bunker Hill'' were repaired, although they were then mothballed or sold off as surplus after World War II without re-entering service.AA gun aboard the battleship watches a ''kamikaze'' aircraft dive at 25 November 1944.Over 75 men were killed or missing and 100 wounded.The exact number of ships sunk is a matter of debate.", "According to a wartime Japanese propaganda announcement, the missions sank 81 ships and damaged 195, and according to a Japanese tally, ''kamikaze'' attacks accounted for up to 80% of the U.S. losses in the final phase of the war in the Pacific.", "In a 2004 book, ''World War II'', the historians Willmott, Cross, and Messenger stated that more than 70 U.S. vessels were \"sunk or damaged beyond repair\" by ''kamikazes''.According to the United States Strategic Bombing Survey, from October 1944 until the end of the war, 2,550 Kamikaze missions were flown with only 475 (or 18.6%) achieving a hit or a damaging near miss.", "Warships of all types were damaged including 12 aircraft carriers, 15 battleships, and 16 light and escort carriers.", "However, no ship larger than an escort carrier was sunk.", "Approximately 45 ships were sunk, the bulk of which were destroyers.", "To the United States, the losses were of such concern that more than 2,000 B-29 sorties were diverted from attacking Japanese cities and industries to striking Kamikaze air fields in Kyushu.According to a U.S. Air Force webpage:Australian journalists Denis and Peggy Warner, in a 1982 book with Japanese naval historian Sadao Seno (''The Sacred Warriors: Japan's Suicide Legions''), arrived at a total of 57 ships sunk by ''kamikazes''.", "Bill Gordon, an American Japanologist who specializes in ''kamikazes'', lists in a 2007 article 47 ships known to have been sunk by ''kamikaze'' aircraft.", "Gordon says that the Warners and Seno included ten ships that did not sink.", "He lists:* three escort carriers: , , and * 14 destroyers, including the last ship to be sunk, on 29 July 1945, off Okinawa* three high-speed transport ships* five Landing Ship, Tank* four Landing Ship Medium* three Landing Ship Medium (Rocket)* one auxiliary tanker* three Victory ships* three Liberty ships* two high-speed minesweepers* one * one submarine chaser* two PT boats* two Landing Craft Support" ], [ "Recruitment", "Yokosuka MXY-7 ''Ohka'' (\"cherry blossom\"), a specially built rocket-powered ''kamikaze'' aircraft used towards the end of the war.", "The U.S. called them ''Baka Bombs'' (\"idiot bombs\").It was claimed by the Japanese forces at the time that there were many volunteers for the suicidal forces.", "Captain Motoharu Okamura commented that \"there were so many volunteers for suicide missions that he referred to them as a swarm of bees\", explaining: \"Bees die after they have stung.\"", "Okamura is credited with being the first to propose the ''kamikaze'' attacks.", "He had expressed his desire to lead a volunteer group of suicide attacks some four months before Admiral Takijiro Ohnishi, commander of the Japanese naval air forces in the Philippines, presented the idea to his staff.", "While Vice-Admiral Shigeru Fukudome, commander of the second air fleet, was inspecting the 341st Air Group, Captain Okamura took the chance to express his ideas on crash-dive tactics:When the volunteers arrived for duty in the corps, there were twice as many persons as aircraft available.", "\"After the war, some commanders would express regret for allowing superfluous crews to accompany sorties, sometimes squeezing themselves aboard bombers and fighters so as to encourage the suicide pilots and, it seems, join in the exultation of sinking a large enemy vessel.\"", "Many of the ''kamikaze'' pilots believed their death would pay the debt they owed and show the love they had for their families, friends, and emperor.", "\"So eager were many minimally trained pilots to take part in suicide missions that when their sorties were delayed or aborted, the pilots became deeply despondent.", "Many of those who were selected for a body crashing mission were described as being extraordinarily blissful immediately before their final sortie.", "\"However, an evidence-based study of 2,000 pilots' uncensored letters revealed that the pilots candidly expressed myriad emotions in private.", "Typically, they declared their determination to die to protect the homeland and thanked their school teachers, parents, siblings, and friends for their selfless devotion.", "Although most pilots were unmarried (the average age was 19), some young fathers left loving instructions for their young wives and children to live well, and others expressed memories of unrequited love or the sorrow of dying young.As time wore on, modern critics questioned the nationalist portrayal of ''kamikaze'' pilots as noble soldiers willing to sacrifice their lives for the country.", "In 2006, Tsuneo Watanabe, editor-in-chief of the ''Yomiuri Shimbun'', criticized Japanese nationalists' glorification of ''kamikaze'' attacks:It's all a lie that they left filled with braveness and joy, crying, \"Long live the emperor!\"", "They were sheep at a slaughterhouse.", "Everybody was looking down and tottering.", "Some were unable to stand up and were carried and pushed into their aircraft by maintenance soldiers." ], [ "Training", "''Tokkōtai'' pilot training, as described by Takeo Kasuga, generally \"consisted of incredibly strenuous training, coupled with cruel and torturous corporal punishment as a daily routine\".", "The training, in theory, lasted for thirty days, but because of American raids and shortage of fuel it could last up to two months.Daikichi Irokawa, who trained at Tsuchiura Naval Air Base, recalled that he \"was struck on the face so hard and frequently that his face was no longer recognizable\".", "He also wrote: \"I was hit so hard that I could no longer see and fell on the floor.", "The minute I got up, I was hit again by a club so that I would confess.\"", "This brutal \"training\" was justified by the idea that it would instil a \"soldier's fighting spirit\", but daily beatings and corporal punishment eliminated patriotism among many pilots.Pilots were given a manual that detailed how they were supposed to think, prepare, and attack.", "From this manual, pilots were told to \"attain a high level of spiritual training\", and to \"keep their health in the very best condition\".", "These instructions, among others, were meant to make pilots mentally ready to die.The ''tokkōtai'' pilot's manual also explained how a pilot may turn back if he could not locate a target, and that a pilot \"should not waste his life lightly\".", "One pilot, a graduate from Waseda University, who continually came back to base was shot after his ninth return.The manual was very detailed in how a pilot should attack.", "A pilot would dive towards his target and \"aim for a point between the bridge tower and the smokestacks\".", "Entering a smokestack was also said to be \"effective\".", "Pilots were told not to aim at a carrier's bridge tower but instead to target the elevators or the flight deck.", "For horizontal attacks, the pilot was to \"aim at the middle of the vessel, slightly higher than the waterline\" or to \"aim at the entrance to the aircraft hangar, or the bottom of the stack\" if the former was too difficult.The ''tokkōtai'' pilot's manual told pilots to never close their eyes, as this would lower the chances of hitting their targets.", "In the final moments before the crash, the pilot was to yell \"''hissatsu''\" (必殺) at the top of his lungs, which translates to \"certain kill\" or \"sink without fail\"." ], [ "Cultural background", "In 1944–45, US military leaders invented the term \"State Shinto\" as part of the Shinto Directive to differentiate the Japanese state's ideology from traditional Shinto practices.", "As time went on, Americans claimed, Shinto was used increasingly in the promotion of nationalist sentiment.", "In 1890, the Imperial Rescript on Education was passed, under which students were required to ritually recite its oath to offer themselves \"courageously to the state\" as well as protect the Imperial family.", "The ultimate offering was to give up one's life.", "It was an honour to die for Japan and the Emperor.", "Axell and Kase pointed out: \"The fact is that innumerable soldiers, sailors and pilots were determined to die, to become ''eirei'', that is 'guardian spirits' of the country.", "...", "Many Japanese felt that to be enshrined at Yasukuni was a special honour because the Emperor visited the shrine to pay homage twice a year.", "Yasukuni is the only shrine deifying common men which the Emperor would visit to pay his respects.\"", "Young Japanese people were indoctrinated from an early age with these ideals.First recruits for Japanese Kamikaze suicide pilots in 1944Following the commencement of the ''kamikaze'' tactic, newspapers and books ran advertisements, articles and stories regarding the suicide bombers to aid in recruiting and support.", "In October 1944, the ''Nippon Times'' quoted Lieutenant Sekio Nishina: \"The spirit of the Special Attack Corps is the great spirit that runs in the blood of every Japanese ...", "The crashing action which simultaneously kills the enemy and oneself without fail is called the Special Attack ... Every Japanese is capable of becoming a member of the Special Attack Corps.\"", "Publishers also played up the idea that the ''kamikaze'' were enshrined at Yasukuni and ran exaggerated stories of ''kamikaze'' bravery – there were even fairy tales for little children that promoted the ''kamikaze''.", "A Foreign Office official named Toshikazu Kase said: \"It was customary for GHQ in Tokyo to make false announcements of victory in utter disregard of facts, and for the elated and complacent public to believe them.", "\"While many stories were falsified, some were true, such as that of Kiyu Ishikawa, who saved a Japanese ship when he crashed his aircraft into a torpedo that an American submarine had launched.", "The sergeant-major was posthumously promoted to second lieutenant by the emperor and was enshrined at Yasukuni.", "Stories like these, which showed the kind of praise and honour death produced, encouraged young Japanese to volunteer for the Special Attack Corps and instilled a desire in the youth to die as a ''kamikaze''.Ceremonies were carried out before ''kamikaze'' pilots departed on their final mission.", "The ''kamikaze'' shared ceremonial cups of sake or water known as \"mizu no sakazuki\".", "Many ''kamikaze'' Army officers took their swords along, while the Navy pilots (as a general rule) did not.", "The ''kamikaze'', along with all Japanese aviators flying over unfriendly territory, were issued (or purchased, if they were officers) a Nambu pistol with which to end their lives if they risked being captured.", "Like all Army and Navy servicemen, the ''kamikaze'' would wear their ''senninbari'', a \"belt of a thousand stitches\" given to them by their mothers.", "They also composed and read a death poem, a tradition stemming from the samurai, who did so before committing ''seppuku''.", "Pilots carried prayers from their families and were given military decorations.", "The ''kamikaze'' were escorted by other pilots whose function was to protect them en route to their destination and report on the results.", "Some of these escort pilots, such as Zero pilot Toshimitsu Imaizumi, were later sent out on their own ''kamikaze'' missions.Chiran high school girls wave farewell with cherry blossom branches to departing ''kamikaze'' pilot in a Nakajima Ki-43-IIIa ''Hayabusa''.While it is commonly perceived that volunteers signed up in droves for ''kamikaze'' missions, it has also been contended that there was extensive coercion and peer pressure involved in recruiting soldiers for the sacrifice.", "Their motivations in \"volunteering\" were complex and not simply about patriotism or bringing honour to their families.", "Firsthand interviews with surviving ''kamikaze'' and escort pilots has revealed that they were motivated by a desire to protect their families from perceived atrocities and possible extinction at the hands of the Allies.", "They viewed themselves as the last defense.At least one of these pilots was a conscripted Korean with a Japanese name, adopted under the pre-war ''Soshi-kaimei'' ordinance that compelled Koreans to take Japanese personal names.", "Eleven of the 1,036 IJA ''kamikaze'' pilots who died in sorties from Chiran and other Japanese air bases during the Battle of Okinawa were Koreans.It is said that young pilots on ''kamikaze'' missions often flew southwest from Japan over the Mount Kaimon.", "The mountain is also called ''\"Satsuma Fuji\"'' (meaning a mountain like Mount Fuji but located in the Satsuma Province region).", "Suicide-mission pilots looked over their shoulders to see the mountain, the southernmost on the Japanese mainland, said farewell to their country and saluted the mountain.", "Residents on Kikaishima Island, east of Amami Ōshima, say that pilots from suicide-mission units dropped flowers from the air as they departed on their final missions.", "''Kamikaze'' pilots who were unable to complete their missions (because of mechanical failure, interception, etc.)", "were stigmatized in the years following the war.", "This stigma began to diminish some 50 years after the war as scholars and publishers began to distribute the survivors' stories.Some Japanese military personnel were critical of the policy.", "Officers such as Minoru Genda, Tadashi Minobe and Yoshio Shiga, refused to obey the policy.", "They said that the commander of a ''kamikaze'' attack should engage in the task first.", "Some persons who obeyed the policy, such as Kiyokuma Okajima, Saburo Shindo and Iyozo Fujita, were also critical of the policy.", "Saburō Sakai said: \"We never dared to question orders, to doubt authority, to do anything but immediately carry out all the commands of our superiors.", "We were automatons who obeyed without thinking.\"", "Tetsuzō Iwamoto refused to engage in a ''kamikaze'' attack because he thought the task of fighter pilots was to shoot down aircraft." ], [ "Film", "* ''Saigo no Tokkōtai'' (最後の特攻隊, ''The Last Kamikaze'' in English), released in 1970, produced by Toei, directed by Junya Sato and starring Kōji Tsuruta, Ken Takakura and Shinichi Chiba* Toei also produced a biographical film about Takijirō Ōnishi in 1974 called ''Ā Kessen Kōkūtai'' (あゝ決戦航空隊, ''Father of the Kamikaze'' in English), directed by Kōsaku Yamashita.", "* ''The Cockpit'', an anthology of short films containing one about a ''kamikaze'' pilot* Masami Takahashi, ''Last Kamikaze Testimonials from WWII Suicide Pilots'' (Watertown, MA: Documentary Educational Resources, 2008)* Risa Morimoto, ''Wings of Defeat'' (Harriman, NY: New Day Films, 2007)* ''Ore wa, kimi no tameni koso'' (2007, ''For Those We Love'' in English)* ''Assault on the Pacific – Kamikaze'' (2007), directed by Taku Shinjo (Original title: \"俺は、君のためにこそ死ににいく\" ''Ore wa, Kimi no Tame ni Koso Shini ni Iku'')* ''The Eternal Zero'' (永遠の0 Eien no Zero) a 2013 film directed by Takashi Yamazaki based on the 2006 novel of the same name by Naoki Hyakuta." ], [ "See also", "* Aerial ramming* Banzai charge* Chiran Peace Museum for Kamikaze Pilots* * List of Imperial Japanese Army air-to-surface special attack units* List of Imperial Japanese Navy air-to-surface special attack units* List of ships damaged by kamikaze attack* Leonidas Squadron* Living torpedoes* Ryōji Uehara* September 11 attacks* Shinpūren rebellion* Sonderkommando Elbe* Suicide by pilot* Suicide weapon" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * Parshall, Jonathan B., Tully, Anthony P. (2005).", "''Shattered Sword''.", "Washington: Potomac Books.", "* Peattie, Mark R. (2001).", "''Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power, 1909–1941''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press.", "* Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko.", "(2006).", "''Kamikaze Diaries: Reflections of Japanese Student Soldiers.''", "Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Kamikaze Images* Excerpt from ''Kamikaze Diaries''* An ex-kamikaze pilot creates a new world* World War II Database: Kamikaze Doctrine* What motivated the Kamikazes?", "on WW2History.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "KDE" ], [ "Introduction", "'''KDE''' is an international free software community that develops free and open-source software.", "As a central development hub, it provides tools and resources that allow collaborative work on this kind of software.", "Well-known products include the Plasma Desktop, KDE Frameworks, and a range of cross-platform applications such as Amarok, digiKam, and Krita that are designed to run on Unix and Unix-like operating systems, Microsoft Windows, and Android." ], [ "Origins", "Matthias Ettrich, founder of KDEKDE was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, a student at the University of Tübingen.", "At the time, he was troubled by certain aspects of the Unix desktop.", "Among his concerns was that none of the applications looked or behaved alike.", "In his opinion, desktop applications of the time were too complicated for end users.", "In order to solve the issue, he proposed the creation of a desktop environment in which users could expect the applications to be consistent and easy to use.", "His initial Usenet post spurred significant interest, and the KDE project was born.The name ''KDE'' was intended as a wordplay on the existing Common Desktop Environment, available for Unix systems.", "CDE was an X11-based user environment jointly developed by HP, IBM, and Sun through the X/Open consortium, with an interface and productivity tools based on the Motif graphical widget toolkit.", "It was supposed to be an intuitively easy-to-use desktop computer environment.", "The ''K'' was originally suggested to stand for \"Kool\", but it was quickly decided that the ''K'' should stand for nothing in particular.", "Therefore, the ''KDE'' initialism expanded to ''\"K Desktop Environment\"'' before it was dropped altogether in favor of simply ''KDE'' in a rebranding effort in 2009.In the beginning Matthias Ettrich chose to use Trolltech's Qt framework for the KDE project.", "Other programmers quickly started developing KDE/Qt applications, and by early 1997, a few applications were being released.", "On 12 July 1998 the first version of the desktop environment, called KDE 1.0, was released.", "The original GPL licensed version of this toolkit only existed for platforms which used the X11 display server, but with the release of Qt 4, LGPL licensed versions are available for more platforms.", "This allowed KDE software based on Qt 4 or newer versions to theoretically be distributed to Microsoft Windows and OS X.The KDE Marketing Team announced a rebranding of the KDE project components on 24 November 2009.Motivated by the perceived shift in objectives, the rebranding focused on emphasizing both the community of software creators and the various tools supplied by the KDE, rather than just the desktop environment.What was previously known as KDE 4 was split into KDE Plasma Workspaces, KDE Applications, and KDE Platform (now KDE Frameworks) bundled as KDE Software Compilation 4.Since 2009, the name ''KDE'' no longer stands for ''K Desktop Environment'', but for the community that produces the software.=== Software releases ===K Desktop Environment 1.0KDE Software Compilation 4VersionDateInformation14 October 1996KDE development announced'''K Desktop Environment 1'''12 July 1998'''K Desktop Environment 2'''23 October 2000'''K Desktop Environment 3'''3 April 2002'''KDE Software Compilation 4'''11 January 2008'''KDE Plasma 5'''15 July 2014former KDE/KDE SC split into KDE Plasma, KDE Frameworks and KDE ApplicationsKDE Plasma 628 February 2024 Scheduled public release" ], [ "KDE Projects", "KDE Plasma 5.26 showing Breeze Twilight themeKrita 5.0.0 interface screenshot with KikiThe KDE community maintains multiple free-software projects.", "The project formerly referred to as ''KDE'' (or ''KDE SC (Software Compilation)'') nowadays consists of three parts:* KDE Plasma, a graphical desktop environment with customizable layouts and panels, supporting virtual desktops and widgets.", "Written with Qt 5 and KDE Frameworks 5.", "* KDE Frameworks, a collection of libraries and software frameworks built on top of Qt (formerly known as 'kdelibs' or 'KDE Platform').", "* KDE Gear, utility applications (like Kdenlive or Krita) mostly built on KDE Frameworks and which are often part of the official KDE Applications release.=== Other projects ======= KDE neon ====KDE neon is a software repository that uses Ubuntu LTS as a core.", "It aims to provide the users with rapidly updated Qt and KDE software, while updating the rest of the OS components from the Ubuntu repositories at the normal pace.", "KDE maintains that it is not a \"KDE distribution\", but rather an up-to-date archive of KDE and Qt packages.==== Subtitle Composer ===='''Subtitle Composer''' is an open-source subtitle editor for the Linux and Microsoft Windows operating systems, based on Qt and KDE Frameworks.", "The project became part of KDE starting in December 2019.It supports the most common text and bitmap-based subtitle formats, video previewing, audio waveform, speech recognition, timings synchronization, subtitle translation, OCR and Javascript macros/scripting.", "Subtitle Composer is free software released under the GNU General Public License.==== WikiToLearn ====WikiToLearn, abbreviated WTL, is one of KDE's newer endeavors.", "It is a wiki (based on MediaWiki, like Wikipedia) that provides a platform to create and share open source textbooks.", "The idea is to have a massive library of textbooks for anyone and everyone to use and create.", "Its roots lie in the University of Milan, where a group of physics majors wanted to share notes and then decided that it was for everyone and not just their internal group of friends.", "They have become an official KDE project with several universities backing it." ], [ "Contributors", "Developing KDE software is primarily a volunteer effort, although various companies, such as Novell, Nokia, or Blue Systems employ or employed developers to work on various parts of the project.", "Since a large number of individuals contribute to KDE in various ways (e.g.", "code, translation, artwork), organization of such a project is complex.", "A mentor program helps beginners to get started with developing and communicating within KDE projects and communities.Communication within the community takes place via mailing lists, IRC, blogs, forums, news announcements, wikis and conferences.", "The community has a ''Code of Conduct'' for acceptable behavior within the community.=== Development ===Currently the KDE community uses the Git version control system.", "The KDE GitLab Instance (named Invent) gives an overview of all projects hosted by KDE's Git repository system.", "Phabricator is used for task management.On 20 July 2009, KDE announced that the one millionth commit has been made to its Subversion repository.", "On 11 October 2009, Cornelius Schumacher, a main developer within KDE, wrote about the estimated cost (using the COCOMO model with SLOCCount) to develop KDE software package with 4,273,291 LoC, which would be about US$175,364,716.This estimation does not include Qt, Calligra Suite, Amarok, digiKam, and other applications that are not part of KDE core.=== Core team ===The overall direction is set by the ''KDE Core Team''.", "These are developers who have made significant contributions within KDE over a long period of time.", "This team communicates using the ''kde-core-devel'' mailing list, which is publicly archived and readable, but joining requires approval.", "KDE does not have a single central leader who can veto important decisions.", "Instead, the KDE core team consists of several dozens of contributors who make decisions not by a formal vote, but through discussions.The developers also organize alongside topical teams.", "For example, the ''KDE Edu team'' develops free educational software.", "While these teams work mostly independent and do not all follow a common release schedule.", "Each team has its own messaging channels, both on IRC and on the mailing lists.=== KDE Patrons ===A KDE Patron is an individual or organization supporting the KDE community by donating at least 5000 Euro (depending on the company's size) to the KDE e.V.As of February 2024, there are nine such patrons: Blue Systems, Canonical Ltd., Google, GnuPG, Kubuntu Focus, Slimbook, SUSE, The Qt Company, and TUXEDO Computers." ], [ "Community structure", "=== Mascot ===The KDE community's mascot is a green dragon named Konqi.", "Konqi's appearance was officially redesigned with the coming of Plasma 5, with Tyson Tan's entry (seen in the images) winning the redesign competition on the KDE Forums.Katie is a female dragon.", "She was presented in 2010 and is appointed as a mascot for the KDE women's community.Other dragons with different colors and professions were added to Konqi as part of the Tyson Tan redesign concept.", "Each dragon has a pair of letter-shaped antlers that reflect their role in the KDE community.AntlersKandalf the wizard was the former mascot for the KDE community during its 1.x and 2.x versions.", "Kandalf's similarity to the character of Gandalf led to speculation that the mascot was switched to Konqi due to copyright infringement concerns, but this has never been confirmed by KDE.=== KDE e.V.", "organization ===The financial and legal matters of KDE are handled by KDE e.V., a German non-profit organization.", "Among others, it owns the ''KDE'' trademark and the corresponding logo.", "It also accepts donations on behalf of the KDE community, helps to run the servers, assists in organizing and financing conferences and meetings, but does not influence software development directly.=== Local communities ===In many countries, KDE has local branches.", "These are either informal organizations (KDE India) or like the KDE e.V., given a legal form (KDE France).", "The local organizations host and maintain regional websites, and organize local events, such as tradeshows, contributor meetings and social community meetings.=== Identity ===KDE has community identity guidelines (CIG) for definitions and recommendations which help the community to establish a unique, characteristic, and appealing design.", "The KDE official logo displays the white trademarked K-Gear shape on a blue square with mitred corners.", "Copying of the KDE Logo is subject to the LGPL.", "Some local community logos are derivations of the official logo.Many KDE applications have a ''K'' in the name, mostly as an initial letter.", "The ''K'' in many KDE applications is obtained by spelling a word which originally begins with ''C'' or ''Q'' differently, for example Konsole and Kaffeine, while some others prefix a commonly used word with a ''K'', for instance KGet.", "However, the trend is not to have a ''K'' in the name at all, such as with Stage, Spectacle, Discover and Dolphin." ], [ "Collaborations with other organizations", "=== Wikimedia ===Amarok with information retrieved from WikipediaOn 23 June 2005, chairman of the Wikimedia Foundation announced that the KDE community and the Wikimedia Foundation have begun efforts towards cooperation.", "Fruits of that cooperation are MediaWiki syntax highlighting in Kate and accessing Wikipedia content within KDE applications, such as Amarok and Marble.On 4 April 2008, the KDE e.V.", "and Wikimedia Deutschland opened shared offices in Frankfurt.", "In September 2009 KDE e.V.", "moved to shared offices with Free Software Foundation Europe in Berlin.=== Free Software Foundation Europe ===In May 2006, KDE e.V.", "became an Associate Member of the Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE).On 22 August 2008, KDE e.V.", "and FSFE jointly announced that after working with FSFE's Freedom Task Force for one and a half years KDE adopts FSFE's Fiduciary Licence Agreement.", "Using that, KDE developers can – on a voluntary basis – assign their copyrights to KDE e.V.In September 2009, KDE e.V.", "and FSFE moved into shared offices in Berlin.=== Commercial enterprises ===Several companies actively contribute to KDE, like Collabora, Erfrakon, Intevation GmbH, Kolab Konsortium, Klarälvdalens Datakonsult AB (KDAB), Blue Systems, and KO GmbH.Nokia used Calligra Suite as base for their ''Office Viewer'' application for Maemo/MeeGo.", "They have also been contracting KO GmbH to bring MS Office 2007 file format filters to Calligra.", "Nokia also employed several KDE developers directly – either to use KDE software for MeeGo (e.g.", "''KCal'') or as sponsorship.The software development and consulting companies Intevation GmbH of Germany and the Swedish KDAB use Qt and KDE software – especially Kontact and Akonadi for Kolab – for their services and products, therefore both employ KDE developers.=== Others ===KDE participates in freedesktop.org, an effort to standardize Unix desktop interoperability.In 2009 and 2011, GNOME and KDE co-hosted their conferences Akademy and GUADEC under the ''Desktop Summit'' label.In December 2010 KDE e.V.", "became a licensee of the Open Invention Network.Many Linux distributions and other free operating systems are involved in the development and distribution of the software, and are therefore also active in the KDE community.", "These include commercial distributors such as SUSE/Novell or Red Hat but also government-funded non-commercial organizations such as the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey with its Linux distribution Pardus.In October 2018, Red Hat declared that KDE Plasma was no longer supported in future updates of Red Hat Enterprise Linux, though it continues to be part of Fedora.", "The announcement came shortly after the announcement of the business acquisition of Red Hat by IBM for close to US$43 billion.", "As a result, Fedora now makes KDE Plasma and other KDE software available also to Red Hat Enterprise Linux users through their Extra Packages for Enterprise Linux (EPEL) project." ], [ "Activities", "The two most important conferences of KDE are ''Akademy'' and ''Camp KDE''.", "Each event is on a large scale, both thematically and geographically.", "''Akademy-BR'' and ''Akademy-es'' are local community events.=== Akademy ===Akademy 2008 logo''Akademy'' is the annual world summit, held each summer at varying venues in Europe.", "The primary goals of Akademy are to act as a community building event, to communicate the achievements of community, and to provide a platform for collaboration with community and industry partners.", "Secondary goals are to engage local people, and to provide space for getting together to write code.", "KDE e.V.", "assist with procedures, advice and organization.", "Akademy including conference, KDE e.V.", "general assembly, marathon coding sessions, BOFs (birds of a feather sessions) and social program.", "BOFs meet to discuss specific sub-projects or issues.The KDE community held KDE One that was first conference in Arnsberg, Germany, in 1997 to discuss the first KDE release.", "Initially, each conference was numbered after the release, and not regular held.", "Since 2003 the conferences were held once a year.", "And they were named Akademy since 2004.The yearly Akademy conference gives ''Akademy Awards'', are awards that the KDE community gives to KDE contributors.", "Their purpose is to recognize outstanding contribution to KDE.", "There are three awards, best application, best non-application and jury's award.", "As always the winners are chosen by the winners from the previous year.", "First winners received a framed picture of Konqi signed by all attending KDE developers.=== Camp KDE ===YearVenueDate2009Negril, Jamaica 17–18 January2010La Jolla, US 15–22 January2011San Francisco, US 4–5 April''Camp KDE'' is another annual contributor's conference of the KDE community.", "The event provides a regional opportunity for contributors and enthusiasts to gather and share their experiences.", "It is free to all participants.", "It is intended to ensure that KDE in the world is not simply seen as being Euro-centric.", "The KDE e.V.", "helps travel and accommodation subsidies for presenters, BoF leaders, organizers or core contributor.", "It is held in the North America since 2009.In January 2008, KDE 4.0 Release Event was held at the Google headquarters in Mountain View, California, US, to celebrate the release of KDE SC 4.0.The community realized that there was a strong demand for KDE events in the Americas, therefore Camp KDE was produced.Camp KDE 2009 was the premiere meeting of the KDE Americas, was held at the Travellers Beach Resort in Negril, Jamaica, sponsored by Google, Intel, iXsystem, KDE e.V.", "and Kitware.", "The event included 1–2 days of presentations, BoF meetings and hackathon sessions.", "Camp KDE 2010 took place at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) in La Jolla, US.", "The schedule included presentations, BoFs, hackathons and a day trip.", "It started with a short introduction by Jeff Mitchell, who was the principal organizer of the conference, talked a bit of history about Camp KDE and some statistics about the KDE community.", "The talks of the event were relatively well attended, and an increase over the previous year to around 70 people.", "On 1/19, the social event was a tour of a local brewery.", "Camp KDE 2011 was held at Hotel Kabuki in San Francisco, US, was co-located with the Linux Foundation Collaboration Summit.", "The schedule included presentations, hackathons and a party at Noisebridge.", "The conference opened with an introduction spoken by Celeste Lyn Paul.=== SoK (Season of KDE) ===Season of KDE is an outreach program hosted by the KDE community.", "Students are appointed mentors from the KDE community that help bring their project to fruition.=== Other community events === conf.KDE.inYearVenueDate2011Bangalore 9–13 March conf.kde.in was the first KDE and Qt conference in India.", "The conference, organized by KDE India, was held at R.V.", "College of Engineering in Bangalore, India.", "The first three days of the event had talks, tutorials, and interactive sessions.", "The last two days were a focused code sprint.", "The conference was opened by its main organizer, Pradeepto Bhattacharya.", "Over 300 people were at the opening talks.", "The Lighting of the Auspicious Lamp ceremony was performed to open the conference.", "The first session was by Lydia Pintscher, who spoke on \"So much to doso little time\".", "At the event, the return of Project Neon was announced on March 11, 2011, with the project providing nightly builds of the KDE Software Compilation.", "Closing the conference was keynote speaker and old-time KDE developer Sirtaj.", "Día KDEYearVenueDate2011Rosario27 August''Día KDE'' (KDE Day) is an Argentinian event focused on KDE.", "It gives talks and workshops.", "The purposes of the event are to: spread the free software movement among the population of Argentina, bringing to it the KDE community and environment developed by it; know and strengthen KDE-AR; and generally bring the community together to have fun.", "The event is free.A ''Release party'' is a party, which celebrates the release of a new version of the KDE SC (twice a year).", "KDE also participates in other conferences that revolve around free software." ], [ "Notable uses", "Brazil's primary school education system operates computers running KDE software, with more than 42,000 schools in 4,000 cities, thus serving nearly 52 million children.", "The base distribution is called Educational Linux, which is based on Kubuntu.", "Besides this, thousands more students in Brazil use KDE products in their universities.", "KDE software is also running on computers in Portuguese and Venezuelan schools, with respectively 700,000 and one million systems reached.Through Pardus, a local Linux distribution, many sections of the Turkish government make use of KDE software, including the Turkish Armed Forces, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of National Defence, Turkish Police, and the SGK (Social Security Institution of Turkey), although these departments often do not exclusively use Pardus as their operating system.CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) is using KDE software.Germany uses KDE software in its embassies around the world, representing around 11,000 systems.NASA used the Plasma Desktop during the Mars Mission.Valve Corporation's handheld gaming computer, the Steam Deck, uses the KDE Plasma desktop environment when in desktop mode." ], [ "See also", "* KDE Projects* List of KDE applications* Free software community* Trinity Desktop Environment* GNOME" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * KDE.News, news announcements* KDE Wikis" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Konrad Adenauer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Konrad Hermann Joseph Adenauer''' (; 5 January 1876 – 19 April 1967) was a German statesman who served as the first chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1949 to 1963.From 1946 to 1966, he was the first leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), a new founded Christian-democratic party, which became the dominant force in the country under his leadership.As a devout Roman Catholic, Adenauer was a leading politician of the Catholic Centre Party in the Weimar Republic, serving as Mayor of Cologne (1917–1933) and as president of the Prussian State Council.", "In the early years of the Federal Republic, he switched focus from denazification to recovery, and led his country to close relations with France, the United Kingdom and the United States.", "During his years in power, he worked to restore the West German economy from the destruction of World War II to a central position in Europe with a market-based liberal democracy, stability, international respect and economic prosperity.Adenauer belied his age by his intense work habits and his uncanny political instinct.", "As a strong anti-communist, Adenauer was deeply committed to an Atlanticist foreign policy and restoring the position of West Germany on the world stage.", "Adenauer was a driving force in re-establishing national military forces (the ) and intelligence services (the Bundesnachrichtendienst) in West Germany in 1955 and 1956.Adenauer refused the diplomatic recognition of the rival German Democratic Republic as an East-German state and the Oder–Neisse line as a post-war frontier to Poland.", "Under Adenauer, West Germany joined NATO.", "As a proponent of European unity, he signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957.Adenauer is claimed as one of the \"Founding fathers of the European Union\"." ], [ "Cologne years", "=== Early life and education ===Adenauer in 1896Konrad Adenauer was born as the third of five children of Johann Konrad Adenauer (1833–1906) and his wife Helene (née Scharfenberg; 1849–1919) in Cologne, Rhenish Prussia, on 5 January 1876.His siblings were August (1872–1952), Johannes (1873–1937), Lilli (1879–1950) and Elisabeth, who died shortly after birth 1880.One of the formative influences of Adenauer's youth was the so-called Kulturkampf, the struggle of the Prussian state with the Catholic church, an experience that as related to him by his parents left him with a lifelong dislike for \"Prussianism\", and led him like many other Catholic Rhinelanders of the 19th century to deeply resent the Rhineland's inclusion in Prussia.Having a passion for inventing, Adenauer started experimenting with plants in the back garden as a child, which was not welcomed by his father who told him \"One should not try to meddle with the Lord's hand\", then in 1904 he invented a reaction steam engine which was supposed to filter out dust produced by cars.", "However, as his hobby of inventing grew ever more costly, Adenauer's activities in this area slowly diminished.After final school examination (Abitur) in 1894, Adenauer studied law and politics at the universities of Freiburg, Munich and Bonn.", "In 1896, he was mustered for the Prussian army, but did not pass the physical exam due to chronic respiratory problems he had experienced since childhood.", "He was a member of several Roman Catholic students' associations.", "He graduated in 1900, and afterwards worked as a lawyer at the court in Cologne for four years.=== Leader in Cologne ===Bond of the City of Cologne, issued 1 October 1928; Faksimile signature of AdenauerIn Wilhelmshaven in 1928, when a new cruiser was given the name of ''Köln'' (Cologne), home city of Adenauer (centre, with left hand visible, next to him Lieutenant-General Wilhelm Groener and Gustav Noske)Heinrich Hoerle: ''Zeitgenossen'' (contemporaries).", "A 1931 modernist painting with mayor Adenauer (in grey) together with artists and a boxer.As a devout Catholic, he joined the Centre Party ( or just ) in 1906 and was elected to Cologne's city government in the same year.", "In 1909, he became Vice-Mayor of Cologne, an industrial metropolis with a population of 635,000 in 1914.Avoiding the extreme political movements that attracted so many of his generation, Adenauer was committed to bourgeois decency, diligence, order, Christian morals and values, and was dedicated to rooting out disorder, inefficiency, irrationality and political immorality.", "In 1917, he was unanimously elected as Mayor of Cologne for a 12-year period, and re-elected in 1929.During World War I, he worked closely with the army to maximize the city's role as a rear base of supply and transportation for the Western Front.", "He paid special attention to the civilian food supply, enabling the residents to avoid the worst of the severe shortages that beset most German cities during 1918–1919.In 1918, he invented a soy-based sausage called the ''Cologne sausage'' to help feed the city.", "In the face of the collapse of the old regime and the threat of revolution and widespread disorder in late 1918, Adenauer maintained control in Cologne using his good working relationship with the Social Democrats.", "In a speech on 1 February 1919 Adenauer called for the dissolution of Prussia, and for the Prussian Rhineland to become a new autonomous ''Land'' (state) in the ''Reich''.", "Adenauer claimed this was the only way to prevent France from annexing the Rhineland.", "Both the ''Reich'' and Prussian governments were completely against Adenauer's plans for breaking up Prussia.", "When the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were presented to Germany in June 1919, Adenauer again suggested to Berlin his plan for an autonomous Rhineland state and again his plans were rejected by the ''Reich'' government.He established a good working relationship with the postwar British military authorities, using them to neutralize the workers' and soldiers' council that had become an alternative base of power for the city's left wing.", "During the Weimar Republic, he was president of the Prussian State Council from 1921 to 1933, which was the representation of the provinces of Prussia in its legislature.A major debate had occurred within his Centre Party since 1906 regarding the question of whether it should \"leave the tower\" (i.e.", "allow Protestants to join, becoming a multi-faith party) or \"stay in the tower\" (i.e.", "continue to be a Catholic-only party).", "Adenauer was one of the leading advocates of \"leaving the tower\", which led to a dramatic clash at the 1922 ''Katholikentag'', the annual meeting of German Catholics under the presidency of Adenauer.", "Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber publicly admonished Adenauer for wanting to take the ''Zentrum'' \"out of the tower\".In mid-October 1923, the Chancellor Gustav Stresemann announced that Berlin would cease all financial payments to the Rhineland and that the new currency ''Rentenmark'', which had replaced the now worthless ''Mark'' would not circulate in the Rhineland.", "To save the Rhineland economy, Adenauer opened talks with the French High Commissioner Paul Tirard in late October 1923 for a Rhenish republic in a sort of economic union with France which would achieve Franco-German reconciliation, which Adenauer called a \"grand design\".", "At the same time, Adenauer clung to the hope that the ''Rentenmark'' might still circulate in the Rhineland.", "Adenauer's plans came to naught when Stresemann, who was resolutely opposed to Adenauer's \"grand design\", which he viewed as borderline treason, was able to negotiate an end to the crisis on his own.In 1926, the ''Zentrum'' suggested Adenauer becoming Chancellor, an offer that he was interested in but ultimately rejected when the German People's Party insisted that one of the conditions for entering into a coalition under Adenauer's leadership was that Gustav Stresemann stay on as Foreign Minister.", "Adenauer, who disliked Stresemann as \"too Prussian,\" rejected that condition.=== Years under the Nazi government ===When the Nazi Party won several municipal, state and national elections in between 1930 and 1932, Adenauer, a strong opponent of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis, still believed that improvements in the national economy would make his strategy work: ignore the Nazis and concentrate on the Communist threat.", "He thought that based on election returns, the Nazis should become part of the Prussian and ''Reich'' governments, even when he was already the target of intense personal attacks.", "Political maneuverings around the ageing President Hindenburg then brought the Nazis to power on 30 January 1933.By early February, Adenauer finally realized the futility of all discussions and any attempts at compromise with the Nazis.", "Cologne's city council and the Prussian parliament had been dissolved; on 4 April 1933, he was officially dismissed as mayor and his bank accounts were frozen.", "\"He had no money, no home and no job.\"", "After arranging for the safety of his family, he appealed to the abbot of the Benedictine monastery at Maria Laach for a stay of several months.", "According to Albert Speer in his book ''Spandau: The Secret Diaries'', Hitler expressed admiration for Adenauer, noting his civic projects, the building of a road circling the city as a bypass, and a \"green belt\" of parks.", "However, both Hitler and Speer concluded that Adenauer's political views and principles made it impossible for him to play any role in Nazi Germany.Adenauer was imprisoned for two days after the Night of the Long Knives on 30 June 1934; however, on 10 August 1934, maneuvering for his pension, he wrote a ten-page letter to Hermann Göring, the Prussian interior minister.", "He stated that as Mayor he had violated Prussian laws in order to allow Nazi events in public buildings and Nazi flags to be flown from city flagpoles, and that in 1932 he had declared publicly that the Nazis should join the Reich government in a leading role.", "At the end of 1932, Adenauer had indeed demanded a joint government by his Zentrum party and the Nazis for Prussia.During the next two years, Adenauer changed residences often for fear of reprisals against him, while living on the benevolence of friends.", "With the help of lawyers in August 1937 he was successful in claiming a pension.", "He received a cash settlement for his house, which had been taken over by the city of Cologne; his unpaid mortgage, penalties and taxes were waived.", "With reasonable financial security he managed to live in seclusion for some years.", "After the failed assassination attempt on Hitler of July 1944, he was imprisoned for a second time as an opponent of the regime.", "He fell ill and credited , a former municipal worker in Cologne and a communist, with saving his life.", "Zander, then a section Kapo of a labor camp near Bonn, discovered Adenauer's name on a deportation list to the East and managed to get him admitted to a hospital.", "Adenauer was subsequently rearrested (as was his wife), but in the absence of any evidence against him, was released from prison at Brauweiler in November 1944.=== After World War II and the founding of the CDU ===Adenauer in 1951, reading in his house in Rhöndorf he had built in 1937.It is now a museum.Shortly after the war ended, the American occupation forces once again installed him as Mayor of Cologne, which had been heavily bombed.", "After the city was transferred into the British zone of occupation, however, the Director of its military government, General Gerald Templer, dismissed Adenauer for incompetence in December 1945.Adenauer considered the Germans the political equals of the occupying Allies, a view that angered Templer.", "Adenauer's dismissal by the British contributed much to his subsequent political success and allowed him to pursue a policy of alliance with the occupying Allies in the 1950s without facing charges of being a \"sell-out\".After being dismissed, Adenauer devoted himself to building a new political party, the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), which he hoped would embrace both Protestants and Catholics in a single party.", "According to Adenauer, a Catholic-only party would lead to German politics being dominated by anti-democratic parties yet again.", "In January 1946, Adenauer initiated a political meeting of the future CDU in the British zone in his role as doyen (the oldest man in attendance, ''Alterspräsident'') and was informally confirmed as its leader.", "During the Weimar Republic, Adenauer had often been considered a future Chancellor and after 1945, his claims for leadership were even stronger.", "The other surviving ''Zentrum'' leaders were considered unsuitable for the tasks that lay ahead.Reflecting his background as a Catholic Rhinelander who had long chafed under Prussian rule, Adenauer believed that Prussianism was the root cause of National Socialism, and that only by driving out Prussianism could Germany become a democracy.", "In a December 1946 letter, Adenauer wrote that the Prussian state in the early 19th century had become an \"almost God-like entity\" that valued state power over the rights of individuals.", "Adenauer's dislike of Prussia even led him to oppose Berlin as a future capital.Adenauer viewed the most important battle in the postwar world as between the forces of Christianity and Marxism, especially Communism.", "Marxism meant both the Communists and the Social Democrats as the latter were officially a Marxist party until the Bad Godesberg conference of 1959.The same anti-Marxist viewpoints led Adenauer to denounce the Social Democrats as the heirs to Prussianism and National Socialism.", "Adenauer's ideology was at odds with parts of the CDU, who wished to unite socialism and Christianity.", "Adenauer worked diligently at building up contacts and support in the CDU over the following years, and he sought with varying success to impose his particular ideology on the party.Adenauer's leading role in the CDU of the British zone won him a position at the Parliamentary Council of 1948, which had been called into existence by the Western Allies to draft a constitution for the three western zones of Germany.", "He was the chairman of this constitutional convention and vaulted from this position to being chosen as the first head of government once the new \"Basic Law\" had been promulgated in May 1949." ], [ "Chancellor of West Germany", "=== First government ===Election poster, 1949: \"With Adenauer for peace, freedom and unity of Germany, therefore CDU\"The first election to the Bundestag of West Germany was held on 15 August 1949, with the Christian Democrats emerging as the strongest party.", "There were two clashing visions of a future Germany held by Adenauer and his main rival, the Social Democrat Kurt Schumacher.", "Adenauer favored integrating the Federal Republic with other Western states, especially France and the United States in order to fight the Cold War, even if the price of this was the continued division of Germany.", "Schumacher by contrast, though an anti-communist, wanted to see a united, socialist and neutral Germany.", "As such, Adenauer was in favor of joining NATO, something that Schumacher strongly opposed.The Free Democrat Theodor Heuss was elected the first President of the Republic, and Adenauer was elected Chancellor (head of government) on 15 September 1949 with the support of his own CDU, the Christian Social Union, the liberal Free Democratic Party, and the right-wing German Party.", "It was said that Adenauer was elected Chancellor by the new German parliament by \"a majority of one vote – his own\".", "At age 73, it was thought that Adenauer would only be a caretaker Chancellor.", "However, he would go on to hold this post for 14 years, a period spanning most of the preliminary phase of the Cold War.", "During this period, the post-war division of Germany was consolidated with the establishment of two separate German states, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).In the controversial selection for a \"provisional capital\" of the Federal Republic of Germany, Adenauer championed Bonn over Frankfurt am Main.", "The British had agreed to detach Bonn from their zone of occupation and convert the area to an autonomous region wholly under German sovereignty; the Americans were not prepared to grant the same for Frankfurt.", "He also resisted the claims of Heidelberg, which had better communications and had survived the war in better condition; partly because the Nazis had been popular there before they came to power and partly, as he said, because the world would not take them seriously if they set up their state in a city that was the setting for ''The Student Prince'', at the time a popular American operetta based on the drinking culture of German student fraternities.As chancellor, Adenauer tended to make most major decisions himself, treating his ministers as mere extensions of his authority.", "While this tendency decreased under his successors, it established the image of West Germany (and later reunified Germany) as a \"chancellor democracy\".==== Ending denazification ====In a speech on 20 September 1949, Adenauer denounced the entire denazification process pursued by the Allied military governments, announcing in the same speech that he was planning to bring in an amnesty law for the Nazi war criminals and he planned to apply to \"the High Commissioners for a corresponding amnesty for punishments imposed by the Allied military courts\".", "Adenauer argued the continuation of denazification would \"foster a growing and extreme nationalism\" as the millions who supported the Nazi regime would find themselves excluded from German life forever.", "He also demanded an \"end to this sniffing out of Nazis.\"", "By 31 January 1951, the amnesty legislation had benefited 792,176 people.", "They included 3,000 functionaries of the SA, the SS, and the Nazi Party who participated in dragging victims to jails and camps; 20,000 Nazis sentenced for \"deeds against life\" (presumably murder); 30,000 sentenced for causing bodily injury, and about 5,200 charged with \"crimes and misdemeanors in office.==== Opposition to the Oder–Neisse Line ====The Adenauer government refused to accept the Oder–Neisse line as Germany's eastern frontier.", "This refusal was in large part motivated by his desire to win the votes of expellees and right-wing nationalists to the CDU, which is why he supported , i.e.", "the right of expellees to return to their former homes.", "It was also intended to be a deal-breaker if negotiations ever began to reunite Germany on terms that Adenauer considered unfavorable such as the neutralization of Germany as Adenauer knew well that the Soviets would never revise the Oder–Neisse line.", "Privately, Adenauer considered Germany's eastern provinces to be lost forever.Adenauer speaking in the , 1955==== Advocacy for European Coal and Steel Community ====At the Petersberg Agreement in November 1949 he achieved some of the first concessions granted by the Allies, such as a decrease in the number of factories to be dismantled, but in particular his agreement to join the International Authority for the Ruhr led to heavy criticism.", "In the following debate in parliament Adenauer stated::''The Allies have told me that dismantling would be stopped only if I satisfy the Allied desire for security, does the Socialist Party want dismantling to go on to the bitter end?", "''The opposition leader Kurt Schumacher responded by labeling Adenauer \"Chancellor of the Allies\", accusing Adenauer of putting good relations with the West for the sake of the Cold War ahead of German national interests.After a year of negotiations, the Treaty of Paris was signed on 18 April 1951 establishing the European Coal and Steel Community.", "The treaty was unpopular in Germany where it was seen as a French attempt to take over German industry.", "The treaty conditions were favorable to the French, but for Adenauer, the only thing that mattered was European integration.", "Adenauer was keen to see Britain join the European Coal and Steel Community as he believed the more free-market British would counterbalance the influence of the more ''dirigiste'' French, and to achieve that purpose he visited London in November 1951 to meet with Prime Minister Winston Churchill.", "Churchill said Britain would not join the European Coal and Steel Community because doing so would mean sacrificing relations with the U.S. and Commonwealth.==== German rearmament ====From the beginning of his Chancellorship, Adenauer had been pressing for German rearmament.", "After the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950, the U.S. and Britain agreed that West Germany had to be rearmed to strengthen the defenses of Western Europe against a possible Soviet invasion.", "Further contributing to the crisis atmosphere of 1950 was the bellicose rhetoric of the East German leader Walter Ulbricht, who proclaimed the reunification of Germany under communist rule to be imminent.", "To soothe French fears of German rearmament, the French Premier René Pleven suggested the so-called Pleven plan in October 1950 under which the Federal Republic would have its military forces function as part of the armed wing of the multinational European Defense Community (EDC).", "Adenauer deeply disliked the \"Pleven plan\", but was forced to support it when it became clear that this plan was the only way the French would agree to German rearmament.Adenauer in 1950 at the Ermekeil barracks in Bonn with Adolf Heusinger (right), one of the authors of the Himmerod memorandum==== Amnesty and employment of Nazis ====In 1950, a major controversy broke out when it emerged that Adenauer's State Secretary Hans Globke had played a major role in drafting anti-semitic Nuremberg Race Laws in Nazi Germany.", "Adenauer kept Globke on as State Secretary as part of his strategy of integration.", "Starting in August 1950, Adenauer began to pressure the Western Allies to free all of the war criminals in their custody, especially those from the Wehrmacht, whose continued imprisonment he claimed made West German rearmament impossible.", "Adenauer had been opposed to the Nuremberg Trials in 1945–46, and after becoming Chancellor, he demanded the release of the so-called \"Spandau Seven,\" as the seven war criminals convicted at Nuremberg and imprisoned at Spandau Prison were known.In October 1950, Adenauer received the so-called \"Himmerod memorandum\" drafted by four former Wehrmacht generals at the Himmerod Abbey that linked freedom for German war criminals as the price of German rearmament, along with public statements from the Allies that the Wehrmacht committed no war crimes in World War II.", "The Allies were willing to do whatever necessary to get the much-needed German rearmament underway, and in January 1951, General Dwight Eisenhower, commander of NATO forces, issued a statement which declared the great majority of the Wehrmacht had acted honorably.On 2 January 1951, Adenauer met with the American High Commissioner, John J. McCloy, to argue that executing the Landsberg prisoners would ruin forever any effort at having the Federal Republic play its role in the Cold War.", "At the time, American occupation authorities had 28 Nazi war criminals left on death row in their custody.", "In response to Adenauer's demands and pressure from the German public, McCloy and Thomas T. Handy on 31 January 1951 reduced the death sentences of all but the 7 worst offenders.By 1951 laws were passed by the Bundestag ending denazification.", "Denazification was viewed by the United States as counterproductive and ineffective, and its demise was not opposed.", "Adenauer's intention was to switch government policy to reparations and compensation for the victims of Nazi rule (''Wiedergutmachung'').Officials were allowed to retake jobs in civil service, with the exception of people assigned to Group I (Major Offenders) and II (Offenders) during the denazification review process.", "Adenauer pressured his rehabilitated ex-Nazis by threatening that stepping out of line could trigger the reopening of individual de-Nazification prosecutions.", "The construction of a \"competent Federal Government effectively from a standing start was one of the greatest of Adenauer's formidable achievements\".Contemporary critics accused Adenauer of cementing the division of Germany, sacrificing reunification and the recovery of territories lost in the westward shift of Poland and the Soviet Union with his determination to secure the Federal Republic to the West.", "Adenauer's German policy was based upon ''Politik der Stärke'' (Policy of Strength), and upon the so-called \"magnet theory\", in which a prosperous, democratic West Germany integrated with the West would act as a \"magnet\" that would eventually bring down the East German regime.==== Rejecting the reunification offer ====In 1952, the Stalin Note, as it became known, \"caught everybody in the West by surprise\".", "It offered to unify the two German entities into a single, neutral state with its own, non-aligned national army to effect superpower disengagement from Central Europe.", "Adenauer and his cabinet were unanimous in their rejection of the Stalin overture; they shared the Western Allies' suspicion about the genuineness of that offer and supported the Allies in their cautious replies.", "Adenauer's flat rejection was, however, still out of step with public opinion; he then realized his mistake and he started to ask questions.", "Critics denounced him for having missed an opportunity for German reunification.", "The Soviets sent a second note, courteous in tone.", "Adenauer by then understood that \"all opportunity for initiative had passed out of his hands,\" and the matter was put to rest by the Allies.", "Given the realities of the Cold War, German reunification and recovery of lost territories in the east were not realistic goals as both of Stalin's notes specified the retention of the existing \"Potsdam\"-decreed boundaries of Germany.Adenauer with Israeli President Zalman Shazar, 1966==== Reparation to victims of Nazi Germany ====Adenauer recognized the obligation of the West German government to compensate Israel, as the main representative of the Jewish people, for The Holocaust.", "West Germany started negotiations with Israel for restitution of lost property and the payment of damages to victims of Nazi persecution.", "In the , West Germany agreed to pay compensation to Israel.", "Jewish claims were bundled in the Jewish Claims Conference, which represented the Jewish victims of Nazi Germany.", "West Germany then initially paid about 3 billion Mark to Israel and about 450 million to the Claims Conference, although payments continued after that, as new claims were made.", "In the face of severe opposition both from the public and from his own cabinet, Adenauer was only able to get the reparations agreement ratified by the ''Bundestag'' with the support of the SPD.", "Israeli public opinion was divided over accepting the money, but ultimately the fledgling state under David Ben-Gurion agreed to take it, opposed by more radical groups like Irgun, who were against such treaties.", "Those treaties were cited as a main reason for the assassination attempt by the radical Jewish groups against Adenauer.==== Assassination attempt ====On 27 March 1952, a package addressed to Chancellor Adenauer exploded in the Munich Police Headquarters, killing one Bavarian police officer, Karl Reichert.", "Investigations revealed the mastermind behind the assassination attempt was Menachem Begin, who would later become the Prime Minister of Israel.", "Begin had been the commander of Irgun and at that time headed Herut and was a member of the Knesset.", "His goal was to put pressure on the German government and prevent the signing of the Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany, which he vehemently opposed.", "The West German government kept all proof under seal in order to prevent antisemitic responses from the German public.=== Second government ======= Interior affairs ====Konrad Adenauer with minister of economics Ludwig Erhard, 1956When the East German uprising of 1953 was harshly suppressed by the Red Army in June 1953, Adenauer took political advantage of the situation and was handily re-elected to a second term as Chancellor.", "The CDU/CSU came up one seat short of an outright majority.", "Adenauer could thus have governed in a coalition with only one other party, but retained/gained the support of nearly all of the parties in the Bundestag that were to the right of the SPD.The German Restitution Laws () were passed in 1953 that allowed some victims of Nazi prosecution to claim restitution.", "Under the 1953 restitution law, those who had suffered for \"racial, religious or political reasons\" could collect compensation, which were defined in such a way as to sharply limit the number of people entitled to collect compensation.In November 1954, Adenauer's lobbying efforts on behalf of the \"Spandau Seven\" finally bore fruit with the release of Konstantin von Neurath.", "Adenauer congratulated Neurath on his release, sparking controversy all over the world.", "At the same time, Adenauer's efforts to win freedom for Admiral Karl Dönitz ran into staunch opposition from the British Permanent Secretary at the Foreign Office, Ivone Kirkpatrick, who argued Dönitz would be an active danger to German democracy.", "Adenauer then traded with Kirkpatrick no early release for Admiral Dönitz with an early release for Admiral Erich Raeder on medical grounds.Adenauer is closely linked to the implementation of an enhanced pension system, which ensured unparalleled prosperity for retired people.", "Along with his Minister for Economic Affairs and successor Ludwig Erhard, the West German model of a \"social market economy\" (a mixed economy with capitalism moderated by elements of social welfare and Catholic social teaching) allowed for the boom period known as the ('economic miracle') that produced broad prosperity, but Adenauer acted more leniently towards the trade unions and employers' associations than Erhard.", "The Adenauer era witnessed a dramatic rise in the standard of living of average Germans, with real wages doubling between 1950 and 1963.This rising affluence was accompanied by a 20% fall in working hours during that same period, together with a fall in the unemployment rate from 8% in 1950 to 0.4% in 1965.in addition, an advanced welfare state was established.==== Military affairs ====Signing the North Atlantic Treaty in Paris, 1954 (Adenauer at the left)Blank and Adenauer with General Speidel inspect formations of the newly created on 20 January 1955.In the spring of 1954, opposition to the Pleven plan grew within the French National Assembly., and in August 1954, it died when an alliance of conservatives and Communists in the National Assembly joined forces to reject the EDC treaty under the grounds that West German rearmament in any form was an unacceptable danger to France.The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill told Adenauer that Britain would ensure that West German rearmament would happen, regardless if the National Assembly ratified the EDC treaty or not, and Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden used the failure of the EDC to argue for independent West German rearmament and West German NATO membership.", "Thanks in part to Adenauer's success in rebuilding West Germany's image, the British proposal met with considerable approval.", "In the ensuing London conference, Eden assisted Adenauer by promising the French that Britain would always maintain at least four divisions in the British Army of the Rhine as long as there was a Soviet threat, with the strengthened British forces also aimed implicitly against any German revanchism.", "Adenauer then promised that Germany would never seek to have nuclear, chemical and biological weapons as well as capital ships, strategic bombers, long-range artillery, and guided missiles, although these promises were non-binding.", "The French had been assuaged that West German rearmament would be no threat to France.", "Additionally, Adenauer promised that the West German military would be under the operational control of NATO general staff, though ultimate control would rest with the West German government; and that above all he would never violate the strictly defensive NATO charter and invade East Germany to achieve German reunification.In May 1955, West Germany joined NATO and in November a West German military, the , was founded.", "Though Adenauer made use of a number of former generals and admirals in the , he saw the as a new force with no links to the past, and wanted it to be kept under civilian control at all times.", "To achieve these aims, Adenauer gave a great deal of power to the military reformer Wolf Graf von Baudissin.Adenauer reached an agreement for his \"nuclear ambitions\" with a NATO Military Committee in December 1956 that stipulated West German forces were to be \"equipped for nuclear warfare\".", "Concluding that the United States would eventually pull out of Western Europe, Adenauer pursued nuclear cooperation with other countries.", "The French government then proposed that France, West Germany and Italy jointly develop and produce nuclear weapons and delivery systems, and an agreement was signed in April 1958.With the ascendancy of Charles de Gaulle, the agreement for joint production and control was shelved indefinitely.", "President John F. Kennedy, an ardent foe of nuclear proliferation, considered sales of such weapons moot since \"in the event of war the United States would, from the outset, be prepared to defend the Federal Republic.\"", "The physicists of the Max Planck Institute for Theoretical Physics at Göttingen and other renowned universities would have had the scientific capability for in-house development, but the will was absent, nor was there public support.", "With Adenauer's fourth-term election in November 1961 and the end of his chancellorship in sight, his \"nuclear ambitions\" began to taper off.==== Foreign policy ====Bulganin, Malenkov, Khrushchev greeting Adenauer in Moscow in September 1955Adenauer with the mother of a German POW brought home in 1955 from the Soviet Union, due to Adenauer's visit to MoscowIn return for the release of the last German prisoners of war in 1955, the Federal Republic established diplomatic relations with the USSR, but refused to recognize East Germany and broke off diplomatic relations with countries (e.g., Yugoslavia) that established relations with the East German régime.", "Adenauer was also ready to consider the Oder–Neisse line as the German border in order to pursue a more flexible policy with Poland but he did not command sufficient domestic support for this, and opposition to the Oder–Neisse line continued, causing considerable disappointment among Adenauer's Western allies.In 1956, during the Suez Crisis, Adenauer fully supported the Anglo-French-Israeli attack on Egypt, arguing to his Cabinet that Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser was a pro-Soviet force that needed to be cut down to size.", "Adenauer was appalled that the Americans had come out against the attack on Egypt alongside the Soviets, which led Adenauer to fear that the United States and Soviet Union would \"carve up the world\" with no thought for European interests.At the height of the Suez crisis, Adenauer visited Paris to meet the French Premier Guy Mollet in a show of moral support for France.", "The day before Adenauer arrived in Paris, the Soviet Premier Nikolai Bulganin sent the so-called \"Bulganin letters\" to the leaders of Britain, France, and Israel threatening nuclear strikes if they did not end the war against Egypt.", "The news of the \"Bulganin letters\" reached Adenauer mid-way on the train trip to Paris.", "The threat of a Soviet nuclear strike that could destroy Paris at any moment added considerably to the tension of the summit.", "The Paris summit helped to strengthen the bond between Adenauer and the French, who saw themselves as fellow European powers living in a world dominated by Washington and Moscow.Adenauer was deeply shocked by the Soviet threat of nuclear strikes against Britain and France, and even more so by the apparent quiescent American response to the Soviet threat of nuclear annihilation against two of NATO's key members.", "As a result, Adenauer became more interested in the French idea of a European \"Third Force\" in the Cold War as an alternative security policy.", "This helped to lead to the formation of the European Economic Community in 1957, which was intended to be the foundation stone of the European \"Third Force\".Adenauer's achievements include the establishment of a stable democracy in West Germany and a lasting reconciliation with France, culminating in the Élysée Treaty.", "His political commitment to the Western powers achieved full sovereignty for West Germany, which was formally laid down in the General Treaty, although there remained Allied restrictions concerning the status of a potentially reunited Germany and the state of emergency in West Germany.", "Adenauer firmly integrated the country with the emerging Euro-Atlantic community (NATO and the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation).=== Third government ===Adenauer and Italian Prime Minister Antonio Segni in August 1959In 1957 the Saarland was reintegrated into Germany as a federal state of the Federal Republic.", "The election of 1957 essentially dealt with national matters.", "His re-election campaign centered around the slogan \"Keine Experimente\" ''(No Experiments)'' in response to the democratic experimentalism reform proposed by his opponents.", "Riding a wave of popularity from the return of the last POWs from Soviet labor camps, as well as an extensive pension reform, Adenauer led the CDU/CSU to an outright majority, something never previously achieved in a free German election.", "In 1957, the Federal Republic signed the Treaty of Rome and became a founding member of the European Economic Community.", "In September 1958, Adenauer first met President Charles de Gaulle of France, who was to become a close friend and ally in pursuing Franco-German rapprochement.", "Adenauer saw de Gaulle as a \"rock\" and the only foreign leader whom he could completely trust.In response to the Ulm Einsatzkommando trial in 1958, Adenauer set up the Central Office of the State Justice Administrations for the Investigation of National Socialist Crimes.On 27 November 1958 another Berlin crisis broke out when Khrushchev submitted an ultimatum with a six-month expiry date to Washington, London and Paris, where he demanded that the Allies pull all their forces out of West Berlin and agree that West Berlin become a \"free city\", or else he would sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany.", "Adenauer was opposed to any sort of negotiations with the Soviets, arguing if only the West were to hang tough long enough, Khrushchev would back down.", "As the 27 May deadline approached, the crisis was defused by the British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, who visited Moscow to meet with Khrushchev and managed to extend the deadline while not committing himself or the other Western powers to concessions.", "Adenauer believed Macmillan to be a spineless \"appeaser\", who had made a secret deal with Khrushchev at the expense of the Federal Republic.Adenauer tarnished his image when he announced he would run for the office of federal president in 1959, only to pull out when he discovered that he did not have political backing to strengthen the office of president and change the balance of power.", "After his reversal he supported the nomination of Heinrich Lübke as the CDU presidential candidate whom he believed weak enough not to interfere with his actions as Federal Chancellor.", "One of Adenauer's reasons for not pursuing the presidency was his fear that Ludwig Erhard, whom Adenauer thought little of, would become the new chancellor.By early 1959, Adenauer came under renewed pressure from his Western allies to recognize the Oder–Neisse line, with the Americans being especially insistent.", "Adenauer gave his \"explicit and unconditional approval\" to the idea of non-aggression pacts in late January 1959, which effectively meant recognising the Oder–Neisse line, since realistically speaking Germany could only regain the lost territories through force.", "After Adenauer's intention to sign non-aggression pacts with Poland and Czechoslovakia became clear, the German expellee lobby swung into action and organized protests all over the Federal Republic while bombarding the offices of Adenauer and other members of the cabinet with thousands of letters, telegrams and telephone calls promising never to vote CDU again if the non-aggression pacts were signed.", "Faced with this pressure, Adenauer promptly capitulated to the expellee lobby.In late 1959, a controversy broke out when it emerged that Theodor Oberländer, the Minister of Refugees since 1953 and one of the most powerful leaders of the expellee lobby, had committed war crimes against Jews and Poles during World War II.", "Despite his past, on 10 December 1959, a statement was released to the press declaring that \"Dr. Oberländer has the full confidence of the Adenauer cabinet\".", "Other Christian Democrats made it clear to Adenauer that they would like to see Oberländer out of the cabinet, and finally in May 1960 Oberländer resigned.=== Fourth government ===U.S.", "president John F. Kennedy, Willy Brandt, and Adenauer at Berlin Wall in 1963In 1961, Adenauer had his concerns about both the status of Berlin and US leadership confirmed, as the Soviets and East Germans built the Berlin Wall.", "Adenauer had come into the year distrusting the new US president, John F. Kennedy.", "He doubted Kennedy's commitment to a free Berlin and a unified Germany and considered him undisciplined and naïve.", "For his part, Kennedy thought that Adenauer was a relic of the past.", "Their strained relationship impeded effective Western action on Berlin during 1961.The construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961 and the sealing of borders by the East Germans made Adenauer's government look weak.", "Adenauer continued his campaign trail and made a disastrous misjudgement in a speech on 14 August 1961 in Regensburg with a personal attack on the SPD lead candidate Willy Brandt, Lord Mayor of West-Berlin, saying that Brandt's illegitimate birth had disqualified him from holding any sort of office.", "After failing to keep their majority in the general election on 17 September, the CDU/CSU again needed to include the FDP in a coalition government.", "Adenauer was forced to make two concessions: to relinquish the chancellorship before the end of the new term, his fourth, and to replace his foreign minister.", "In his last years in office, Adenauer used to take a nap after lunch and, when he was traveling abroad and had a public function to attend, he sometimes asked for a bed in a room close to where he was supposed to be speaking, so that he could rest briefly before he appeared.Adenauer with French president Charles de Gaulle (1963)During this time, Adenauer came into conflict with the Economics Minister Ludwig Erhard over the depth of German integration to the West.", "Erhard was in favor of allowing Britain to join to create a trans-Atlantic free trade zone, while Adenauer was for strengthening ties amongst the original founding six nations of West Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Italy.", "In Adenauer's viewpoint, the Cold War meant that the NATO alliance with the United States and Britain was essential, but there could be no deeper integration into a trans-Atlantic community beyond the existing military ties as that would lead to a \"mishmash\" between different cultural systems that would be doomed to failure.", "Though Adenauer had tried to get Britain to join the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951–52, by the early 1960s Adenauer had come to share General de Gaulle's belief that Britain simply did not belong in the EEC.", "The Élysée Treaty was signed in January 1963 to solidify relations with France.In October 1962, a scandal erupted when police arrested five ''Der Spiegel'' journalists, charging them with espionage for publishing a memo detailing weaknesses in the West German armed forces.", "Adenauer had not initiated the arrests, but initially defended the person responsible, Defense Minister Franz Josef Strauss, and called the Spiegel memo \"abyss of treason\".", "After public outrage and heavy protests from the coalition partner FDP he dismissed Strauss, but the reputation of Adenauer and his party had already suffered.Adenauer delivering a speech at the March 1966 CDU party rally, one year before his deathAdenauer managed to remain in office for almost another year, but the scandal increased the pressure already on him to fulfill his promise to resign before the end of the term.", "Adenauer was not on good terms in his last years of power with his economics minister Ludwig Erhard and tried to block him from the chancellorship.", "In January 1963, Adenauer privately supported General Charles de Gaulle's veto of Britain's attempt to join the European Economic Community, and was only prevented from saying so openly by the need to preserve unity in his cabinet as most of his ministers led by Erhard supported Britain's application.", "A Francophile, Adenauer saw a Franco-German partnership as the key for European peace and prosperity and shared de Gaulle's view that Britain would be a disputative force in the EEC.", "Adenauer failed in his efforts to block Erhard as his successor, and in October 1963 he turned the office over to Erhard.", "He remained chairman of the CDU until his resignation in December 1966.Adenauer ensured a generally free and democratic society, and laid the groundwork for Germany to re-enter the community of nations and to evolve as a dependable member of the Western world.", "The British historian Frederick Taylor argued that in many ways the Adenauer era was a transition period in values and viewpoints from the authoritarianism that characterized Germany in the first half of the 20th century to the more democratic values that characterized the western half of Germany in the second half of the 20th century.=== Social policies ===Adenauer's years in the Chancellorship saw the realization of a number of important initiatives in the domestic field, such as in housing, pension rights, and unemployment provision.", "A major housebuilding programme was launched, while measures introduced to assist war victims and expellees.", "A savings scheme for homeownership was set up in 1952, while the Housebuilding Act of 1956 reinforced incentives for owner-occupation.", "Employer-funded child allowances for three or more children were established in 1954, and in 1957 the indexation of pension schemes was introduced, together with an old age assistance scheme for agricultural workers.", "The 1952 Maternity Leave Law foresaw 12 weeks of paid leave for working mothers, who were also safeguarded from unfair dismissal, and improvements in unemployment benefits were carried out.", "The Soldiers' Law of 1956 laid down that soldiers had the same rights as other citizens, \"limited only by the demands of military service.\"", "Following a Federal Act of 1961, social assistance provided a safety net of minimum income \"for those not adequately catered for by social insurance.\"", "Controversially, however, a school lunch programme was abolished in 1950.=== Intelligence services and spying ===By the early 1960s, connections between the CDU under Adenauer and the intelligence services (''\"Bundesnachrichtendienst\"'' / BND) had become significantly closer than would be generally known until more than 50 years later.", "Thanks to the BND, information on the internal machinations of the opposition SPD party were available to the entire CDU leadership, and not merely to Adenauer in his capacity as chancellor.", "It was Adenauer himself who personally instructed the BND to spy on his SPD rival, the future chancellor Willy Brandt.=== Late years ===Adenauer, who resigned as Chancellor at the age of 87 and remained head of the governing CDU until his retirement at 90, was often dubbed \"Der Alte\" (\"the old one\").", "He also remained a Member of the Bundestag for the constituency of Bonn until his death.In May 1966, the former Chancellor made a private visit to the new state of Israel and was awarded an honorary doctorate from the Weizmann Institute.", "The friendship with France was particularly close to the ex-Chancellor's heart: he visited the neighbouring country three times in 1964, 1966 and 1967.On his last trip abroad in February 1967, Adenauer met with General Franco and, as the art lover he had been all his life, took advantage of the stay to visit the Prado.", "His last major speech in Madrid's Ateneo Palace was marked by the admonition not to let up, to continue the process of European unification.As of 2021, Adenauer remains the oldest-ever European head of government and one of the oldest elected European statesmen (paralleled only by Sandro Pertini and Giorgio Napolitano); however, the governments of Tunisia and Malaysia had older heads of government during the 2010s." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Funeral service for Adenauer in Cologne CathedralCrowds look on as Adenauer's remains are conveyed along the Rhine.Adenauer's grave in RhöndorfFounding Fathers of Europe\"'' in front of Robert Schuman's house in Scy-Chazelles by Russian artist Zurab Tsereteli, unveiled 20 October 2012, with statues of De Gasperi, Schuman, Monnet and AdenauerBerlin plaque commemorating restoration of relations between Germany and France, showing Adenauer and Charles de GaulleTime'' (4 January 1954)Adenauer died on 19 April 1967 in his family home at Rhöndorf.", "According to his daughter, his last words were \"\" (, Cologne dialect for \"There's nothin' to weep about!", "\").Adenauer's requiem mass in Cologne Cathedral was attended by a large number of international guests which represented over one hundred countries and organizations :* French president Charles de Gaulle* U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson* Belgian prime minister Paul Vanden Boeynants* Danish prime minister Jens Otto Krag* British prime minister Harold Wilson* Iranian prime minister Amir Abbas Hoveida* Icelandic prime minister Bjarni Benediktsson * Italian prime minister Aldo Moro* Liechtensteiner prime minister Gerard Batliner* Luxembourgish prime minister Pierre Werner* Dutch prime minister Piet de Jong* Norwegian prime minister Per Borten* Austrian chancellor Josef Klaus* Swedish prime minister Tage Erlander* Turkish prime minister Süleyman Demirel* President of the European Commission Walter Hallstein* Secretary-General of NATO Manlio BrosioThereafter his remains were taken upstream to Rhöndorf on the Rhine aboard the ''Kondor'' of the German Navy, with two more, ''Seeadler'' and ''Sperber'', as escorts, \"past the thousands who stood in silence on both banks of the river\".", "He is interred at the ''Waldfriedhof'' (\"Forest Cemetery\") at Rhöndorf.When after his death, Germans were asked what they admired most about Adenauer, the majority responded that he had brought home the last German prisoners of war from the USSR, which had become known as the \"Return of the 10,000\".In 2003, Adenauer was voted the 'greatest German of all time' in a contest called ''Unsere Besten'' (\"Our Best\") run on German public-service television broadcaster ZDF in which more than three million votes were cast.Adenauer was the main motive for the Belgian 3 pioneers of the European unification commemorative coin, minted in 2002.The obverse side shows a portrait with the names Robert Schuman, Paul-Henri Spaak, and Konrad Adenauer." ], [ "Distinctions", "=== National orders ===* : Grand Cross, Special Class, of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (January 1954)* : 4th class of the Order of the Red Eagle (1918)* : Bavarian Order of Merit (May 1958)=== Foreign orders ===* :** Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín** Grand Cross of the Order of May* :** Grand Decoration of Honour of the Order for Services to the Republic of Austria (first Austrian republic, 1927)** Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria (1956)* : Grand Officer of the Order of Leopold (Belgium)* : Grand Cross of the Order of the Condor of the Andes* : Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross (July 1953)* : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Chile)* : Grand Cross of the Order of Boyacá* : Grand Cross of the Order of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes* : Grand Cross with Silver Breast Star of the Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella* : Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (Ecuador)* : Grand Cross of the Order of José Simeón Cañas* : Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Trinity (Ethiopia)* : Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (1962)* : Grand Cross of the National Order of Honour and Merit* : Grand Cross of the Order of the Falcon* : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Crown (Iran)* : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1953)* :** Grand Cordon Order of the Rising Sun (1960) – \"because of his long-standing commitment to an understanding of the Japanese–German friendship, and for the peace and prosperity in the world\"** Grand Cordon with Paulownia Flowers of the Order of the Rising Sun (1963)* : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Supreme Sun* : Grand Cross of the Order of George I* : Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown* : Grand Cross of the National Order of Madagascar* : Grand Cross of the Order of the Aztec Eagle* : Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (1960)* : Grand Cross of the Orden de la Independencia Cultural Rubén Darío* : Nishan-e-Imtiaz* : Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun (1953)* :** Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (24 January 1956)** Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword (1 October 1963)* : Grand Cross of the National Order of the Lion* : Knight of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta (1951)* :** Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (1967)** Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit* :** Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Crown of Thailand** Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant* : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Independence (1961)* : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (1956)* :** Supreme Order of Christ (September 1963)** Order of the Golden Spur (December 1955)** Honorary Knight of the Teutonic Order (1958)** Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre (1964)* : Grand Officer of the Order of the Liberator=== Awards ===* Man of the Year by the ''Time'' magazine (1953)* Charlemagne Prize (Aachen, May 1954) – as a \"powerful promoter of a united Europe\"" ], [ "See also", "* List of German inventors and discoverers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * online* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress.", "''A History of West Germany.", "Vol.", "1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963.Vol.", "2: Democracy and Its Discontents, 1963–1991'' (1993), a standard scholarly history.", "* Bozo, Frédéric, and Christian Wenkel, eds.", "''France and the German Question, 1945-1990'' (Berghahn, 2019)* Brady, Steven J''.", "Eisenhower and Adenauer: Alliance maintenance under pressure, 1953–1960'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2009).", "* Craig, Gordon.", "''From Bismarck to Adenauer: aspects of German statecraft'' (1958) pp 124–148 online.", "* Craig, Gordon A.", "\"Konrad Adenauer and His Diplomats.\"", "in ''The Diplomats, 1939-1979'' (Princeton University Press, 2019) pp.", "201–227.online* Cudlipp, E. ''Adenauer'' (1985) online.", "for middle schools.", "* Daugherty III, Leo J.", "\"'Tip of the Spear': The Formation and Expansion of the Bundeswehr, 1949–1963.\"", "''Journal of Slavic Military Studies'' 24.1 (2011): 147–177.", "* Dönhoff, Marion.", "''Foe into friend: the makers of the new Germany from Konrad Adenauer to Helmut Schmidt'' (1982) online* Dülffer, Jost.", "\"'No more Potsdam!'", "Konrad Adenauer's Nightmare and the Basis of his International Orientation.\"", "''German Politics and Society'' 25.2 (2007): 19–42.", "* Feldman, Lily Gardner.", "''Germany's Foreign Policy of Reconciliation: From Enmity to Amity'' (Rowman & Littlefield; 2012) 393 pages; on German relations with France, Israel, Poland, and Czechoslovakia/the Czech Republic.", "excerpt* Grundy, Steven Crawford.", "\"The Sino-Soviet Alliance in Konrad Adenauer's Chancellorship, 1945–1963.\"", "''Diplomatic History'' 47.1 (2023): 139–160.", "* Hanrieder, Wolfram F. ''Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy'' (1989)* Hanrieder, Wolfram F. ''West German Foreign Policy, 1949-1979'' (Routledge, 2019)* Heidenheimer, Arnold J.", "''Adenauer and the CDU: the Rise of the Leader and the Integration of the Party'' (1960)* Hiscocks, Richard.", "''The Adenauer Era'' (1966) online* Ivanova, Teodora.", "\"A Founding Father of Europe: Konrad Adenauer's Role in the Construction of the European Union.\"", "''Amsterdam Review of European Affairs'' 1 (2022): 119–26.online* Kleuters, Joost.", "\"Adenauer's Long Shadow.\"", "in ''Reunification in West German Party Politics from Westbindung to Ostpolitik'' (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2012) pp. 107–122.", "* Maulucci Jr., Thomas W. ''Adenauer's Foreign Office: West German Diplomacy in the Shadow of the Third Reich'' (2012) excerpt* Merk, Dorothea, and Rüdiger Ahrens.", "\"'Suspicious Federal Chancellor' Versus 'Weak Prime Minister': Konrad Adenauer and Harold Macmillan in the British and West German Quality Press during the Berlin Crisis (1958 to 1962).", "A Critical Discourse Analysis.\"", "in ''Europe in Discourse: Identity, Diversity, Borders'' (2016) pp 101–116 online* Rovan, Joseph.", "''Konrad Adenauer'' (1987) 182 pages excerpt and text search* Schwarz, Hans-Peter.", "\"Adenauer's Ostpolitik.\"", "in ''West German Foreign Policy: 1949-1979'' (Routledge, 2020) pp. 127–143.", "* Schoenborn, Benedikt.", "\"Bargaining with the bear: Chancellor Erhard's bid to buy German reunification, 1963–64.\"", "''Cold War History'' 8.1 (2008): 23–53.online* Schoenborn, Benedikt.", "\"Chancellor Erhard's silent rejection of de Gaulle's plans: the example of monetary union.\"", "''Cold War History'' 14.3 (2014): 377-402 online* Witzthum, David.", "\"David Ben-Gurion and Konrad Adenauer: Building a Bridge across the Abyss.\"", "''Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs'' 13.2 (2019): 223–237.=== Primary sources ===* Adenauer, Konrad.", "''Memoirs'', (4 vols.", "English edition 1966–70)* McGhee, George C. ''At the creation of a new Germany: from Adenauer to Brandt : an ambassador's account'' (1989) online*" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Khazars" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Khazars''' () were a nomadic Turkic people that, in the late 6th-century CE, established a major commercial empire covering the southeastern section of modern European Russia, southern Ukraine, Crimea, and Kazakhstan.", "They created what for its duration was the most powerful polity to emerge from the break-up of the Western Turkic Khaganate.", "Astride a major artery of commerce between Eastern Europe and Southwestern Asia, Khazaria became one of the foremost trading empires of the early medieval world, commanding the western marches of the Silk Road and playing a key commercial role as a crossroad between China, the Middle East and Kievan Rus'.", "For some three centuries (–965) the Khazars dominated the vast area extending from the Volga-Don steppes to the eastern Crimea and the northern Caucasus.Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine Empire and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the Umayyad Caliphate and Abbasid Caliphate, after serving as the Byzantine Empire's proxy against the Sasanian Empire.", "The alliance was dropped around 900.Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and to weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus and sought to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity.", "Between 965 and 969, the Kievan Rus' ruler, Sviatoslav I of Kiev, as well as his allies, conquered the capital, Atil, and ended Khazaria's independence.", "The state became the autonomous entity of Rus' and then of Khazar former provinces(Khwarazm in which Khazars were known as Turks, just as Hungarians were known as Turks in Byzantium) in Volga Bulgaria.Determining the origins and nature of the Khazars is closely bound with theories of their languages, but it is a matter of intricate difficulty since no indigenous records in the Khazar language survived, and the state was polyglot and polyethnic.", "The native religion of the Khazars is thought to have been Tengrism, like that of the North Caucasian Huns and other Turkic peoples.", "The polyethnic populace of the Khazar Khaganate appears to have been a multiconfessional mosaic of pagan, Tengrist, Jewish, Christian and Muslim worshippers.", "Some of the Khazars (namely the Kabars) joined the ancient Hungarians in the 9th century.", "The ruling elite of the Khazars was said by Judah Halevi and Abraham ibn Daud to have converted to Rabbinic Judaism in the 8th century, but the scope of the conversion to Judaism within the Khazar Khanate remains uncertain.Where the Khazars dispersed after the fall of the Empire is subject to many conjectures.", "Proposals have been made regarding the possibility of a Khazar factor in the ethnogenesis of numerous peoples, such as the Hazaras, Hungarians, the Kazakhs, the Cossacks of the Don region and of Ukraine, the Muslim Kumyks, the Turkic-speaking Krymchaks and their Crimean neighbours the Crimean Karaites, the Moldavian Csángós, the Mountain Jews, even some Subbotniks (on the basis of their Ukrainian and Cossack origin and others).", "The late 19th century saw the emergence of the theory that the core of today's Ashkenazi Jews are descended from a hypothetical Khazarian Jewish diaspora which migrated westward from modern-day Russia and Ukraine into modern-day France and Germany.", "Linguistic and genetic studies have not supported the theory of a Khazar connection to Ashkenazi Jewry.", "The theory still finds occasional support, but most scholars view it with considerable scepticism.", "The theory is sometimes associated with antisemitism and anti-Zionism.In Oghuz Turkic languages, the Caspian Sea is still named the \"Khazar Sea\", an enduring legacy of the medieval Khazar state." ], [ "Etymology", "Gyula Németh, following Zoltán Gombocz, derived ''Khazar'' from a hypothetical *Qasar reflecting a Turkic root ''qaz-'' (\"to ramble, to roam\") being an hypothetical retracted variant of Common Turkic ''kez-''; however, András Róna-Tas objected that *''qaz-'' is a ghost word.", "In the fragmentary Tes and Terkhin inscriptions of the Uyğur empire (744–840) the form ''Qasar'' is attested, although uncertainty remains whether this represents a personal or tribal name, gradually other hypotheses emerged.", "Louis Bazin derived it from Turkic ''qas-'' (\"tyrannize, oppress, terrorize\") on the basis of its phonetic similarity to the Uyğur tribal name, Qasar.", "Róna-Tas connects ''qasar'' with ''Kesar'', the Pahlavi transcription of the Roman title Caesar.D.", "M. Dunlop tried to link the Chinese term for \"Khazars\" to one of the tribal names of the Uyğur, or Toquz Oğuz, namely the ''Qasar'' (Ch.", "葛薩 ''Gésà'').", "The objections are that Uyğur 葛薩 ''Gésà''/''Qasar'' was not a tribal name but rather the surname of the chief of the 思结 ''Sijie'' tribe (Sogdian: ''Sikari'') of the Toquz Oğuz (Ch.", "九姓 ''jĭu xìng''), and that in Middle Chinese the ethnonym \"Khazars\" was always prefaced with ''Tūjué'', then still reserved for Göktürks and their splinter groups, (''Tūjué Kěsà bù'':突厥可薩部; ''Tūjué Hésà'':突厥曷薩) and \"Khazar's\" first syllable is transcribed with different characters (可 and 曷) than 葛, which is used to render the syllable ''Qa-'' in the Uyğur word ''Qasar''.After their conversion it is reported that they adopted the Hebrew script, and it is likely that, although speaking a Turkic language, the Khazar chancellery under Judaism probably corresponded in Hebrew." ], [ "Linguistics", "Determining the origins and nature of the Khazars is closely bound with theories of their languages, but it is a matter of intricate difficulty since no indigenous records in the Khazar language survive, and the state was polyglot and polyethnic.", "Whereas the royal or ruling elite probably spoke an eastern variety of Shaz Turkic, the subject tribes appear to have spoken varieties of Lir Turkic, such as Oğuric, a language variously identified with Bulğaric, Chuvash, and Hunnish.The latter based upon the assertion of the Persian historian Istakhri the Khazar language was different from any other known tongue.", "Alano-As was also widely spoken.", "Eastern Common Turkic, the language of the royal house and its core tribes, in all likelihood remained the language of the ruling elite in the same way that Mongol continued to be used by the rulers of the Golden Horde, alongside of the Qipčaq Turkic speech spoken by the bulk of the Turkic tribesmen that constituted the military force of this part of the Činggisid empire.", "Similarity, Oğuric, like Qipčaq Turkic in the Jočid realm, functioned as one of the languages of government.\"", "One method for tracing their origins consists in the analysis of the possible etymologies behind the ethnonym \"Khazar\"." ], [ "History", "=== Tribal origins and early history ===The tribes that were to comprise the Khazar empire were not an ethnic union, but a congeries of steppe nomads and peoples who came to be subordinated, and subscribed to a core Turkic leadership.", "Many Turkic groups, such as the Oğuric peoples, including Šarağurs, Oğurs, Onoğurs, and Bulğars who earlier formed part of the Tiele (Tiělè) confederation, are attested quite early, having been driven West by the Sabirs, who in turn fled the Asian Avars, and began to flow into the Volga–Caspian–Pontic zone from as early as the 4th century CE and are recorded by Priscus to reside in the Western Eurasian steppe lands as early as 463.They appear to stem from Mongolia and South Siberia in the aftermath of the fall of the Hunnic/Xiōngnú nomadic polities.", "A variegated tribal federation led by these Turks, probably comprising a complex assortment of Iranian, proto-Mongolic, Uralic, and Palaeo-Siberian clans, vanquished the Rouran Khaganate of the hegemonic central Asian Avars in 552 and swept westwards, taking in their train other steppe nomads and peoples from Sogdiana.The ruling family of this confederation may have hailed from the Āshǐnà () clan of the Western Turkic Khaganate, although Constantine Zuckerman regards Ashina and their pivotal role in the formation of the Khazars with scepticism.", "Golden notes that Chinese and Arabic reports are almost identical, making the connection a strong one, and conjectures that their leader may have been Yǐpíshèkuì (), who lost power or was killed around 651.Moving west, the confederation reached the land of the Akatziroi, who had been important allies of Byzantium in fighting off Attila's army.=== Rise of the Khazar state ===An embryonic state of Khazaria began to form sometime after 630, when it emerged from the breakdown of the larger Göktürk Khaganate.", "Göktürk armies had penetrated the Volga by 549, ejecting the Avars, who were then forced to flee to the sanctuary of the Hungarian plain.", "The Ashina clan appeared on the scene by 552, when they overthrew the Rourans and established the Göktürk Qağanate, whose self designation was ''Tür(ü)k''.", "By 568, these Göktürks were probing for an alliance with Byzantium to attack Persia.", "An internecine war broke out between the senior eastern Göktürks and the junior West Turkic Khaganate some decades later, when on the death of Taspar Qağan, a succession dispute led to a dynastic crisis between Taspar's chosen heir, the Apa Qağan, and the ruler appointed by the tribal high council, Āshǐnà Shètú (阿史那摄图), the Ishbara Qağan.By the first decades of the 7th century, the Ashina yabgu Tong managed to stabilise the Western division, but upon his death, after providing crucial military assistance to Byzantium in routing the Sasanian army in the Persian heartland, the Western Turkic Qağanate dissolved under pressure from the encroaching Tang dynasty armies and split into two competing federations, each consisting of five tribes, collectively known as the \"Ten Arrows\" (''On Oq'').", "Both briefly challenged Tang hegemony in eastern Turkestan.", "To the West, two new nomadic states arose in the meantime, Old Great Bulgaria under Kubrat, the Duōlù clan leader, and the Nǔshībì subconfederation, also consisting of five tribes.", "The Duōlù challenged the Avars in the Kuban River-Sea of Azov area while the Khazar Qağanate consolidated further westwards, led apparently by an Ashina dynasty.", "With a resounding victory over the tribes in 657, engineered by General Sū Dìngfāng (蘇定方), Chinese overlordship was imposed to their East after a final mop-up operation in 659, but the two confederations of Bulğars and Khazars fought for supremacy on the western steppeland, and with the ascendency of the latter, the former either succumbed to Khazar rule or, as under Asparukh, Kubrat's son, shifted even further west across the Danube to lay the foundations of the First Bulgarian Empire in the Balkans ().The Qağanate of the Khazars thus took shape out of the ruins of this nomadic empire as it broke up under pressure from the Tang dynasty armies to the east sometime between 630 and 650.After their conquest of the lower Volga region to the East and an area westwards between the Danube and the Dniepr, and their subjugation of the Onoğur-Bulğar union, sometime around 670, a properly constituted Khazar Qağanate emerges, becoming the westernmost successor state of the formidable Göktürk Qağanate after its disintegration.", "According to Omeljan Pritsak, the language of the Onoğur-Bulğar federation was to become the lingua franca of Khazaria as it developed into what Lev Gumilev called a \"steppe Atlantis\" (''stepnaja Atlantida''/ Степная Атлантида).", "Historians have often referred to this period of Khazar domination as the Pax Khazarica since the state became an international trading hub permitting Western Eurasian merchants safe transit across it to pursue their business without interference.", "The high status soon to be accorded this empire to the north is attested by Ibn al-Balḫî's ''Fârsnâma'' (c. 1100), which relates that the Sasanian Shah, Ḫusraw 1, Anûsîrvân, placed three thrones by his own, one for the King of China, a second for the King of Byzantium, and a third for the king of the Khazars.", "Although anachronistic in retrodating the Khazars to this period, the legend, in placing the Khazar qağan on a throne with equal status to kings of the other two superpowers, bears witness to the reputation won by the Khazars from early times.=== Khazar state: culture and institutions ======= Royal Diarchy with sacral Qağanate ====Khazaria developed a dual kingship governance structure, typical among Turkic nomads, consisting of a ''shad/bäk'' and a ''qağan''.", "The emergence of this system may be deeply entwined with the conversion to Judaism.", "According to Arabic sources, the lesser king was called ''îšâ'' and the greater king ''Khazar xâqân''; the former managed and commanded the military, while the greater king's role was primarily sacral, less concerned with daily affairs.", "The greater king was recruited from the Khazar house of notables (''ahl bait ma'rûfīn'') and, in an initiation ritual, was nearly strangled until he declared the number of years he wished to reign, on the expiration of which he would be killed by the nobles.", "The deputy ruler would enter the presence of the reclusive greater king only with great ceremony, approaching him barefoot to prostrate himself in the dust and then light a piece of wood as a purifying fire, while waiting humbly and calmly to be summoned.", "Particularly elaborate rituals accompanied a royal burial.", "At one period, travellers had to dismount, bow before the ruler's tomb, and then walk away on foot.", "Subsequently, the charismatic sovereign's burial place was hidden from view, with a palatial structure (\"Paradise\") constructed and then hidden under rerouted river water to avoid disturbance by evil spirits and later generations.", "Such a royal burial ground (''qoruq'') is typical of inner Asian peoples.", "Both the îšâ and the xâqân converted to Judaism sometime in the 8th century, while the rest, according to the Persian traveller Ahmad ibn Rustah, probably followed the old Tūrkic religion.==== Ruling elite ====The ruling stratum, like that of the later Činggisids within the Golden Horde, was a relatively small group that differed ethnically and linguistically from its subject peoples, meaning the Alano-As and Oğuric Turkic tribes, who were numerically superior within Khazaria.", "The Khazar Qağans, while taking wives and concubines from the subject populations, were protected by a Khwârazmian guard corps, or ''comitatus'', called the Ursiyya.", "But unlike many other local polities, they hired soldiers (mercenaries) (the ''junûd murtazîqa'' in al-Mas'ûdî).", "At the peak of their empire, the Khazars ran a centralised fiscal administration, with a standing army of some 7–12,000 men, which could, at need, be multiplied two or three times that number by inducting reserves from their nobles' retinues.", "Other figures for the permanent standing army indicate that it numbered as many as one hundred thousand.", "They controlled and exacted tribute from 25 to 30 different nations and tribes inhabiting the vast territories between the Caucasus, the Aral Sea, the Ural Mountains, and the Ukrainian steppes.", "Khazar armies were led by the Qağan Bek (pronounced as Kagan Bek) and commanded by subordinate officers known as tarkhans.", "When the bek sent out a body of troops, they would not retreat under any circumstances.", "If they were defeated, every one who returned was killed.Settlements were governed by administrative officials known as ''tuduns''.", "In some cases, such as the Byzantine settlements in southern Crimea, a ''tudun'' would be appointed for a town nominally within another polity's sphere of influence.", "Other officials in the Khazar government included dignitaries referred to by ibn Fadlan as ''Jawyshyghr'' and ''Kündür'', but their responsibilities are unknown.==== Demographics ====It has been estimated that 25 to 28 distinct ethnic groups made up the population of the Khazar Qağanate, aside from the ethnic elite.", "The ruling elite seems to have been constituted out of nine tribes/clans, themselves ethnically heterogeneous, spread over perhaps nine provinces or principalities, each of which would have been allocated to a clan.", "In terms of caste or class, some evidence suggests that there was a distinction, whether racial or social is unclear, between \"White Khazars\" (ak-Khazars) and \"Black Khazars\" (qara-Khazars).", "The 10th-century Muslim geographer al-Iṣṭakhrī claimed that the White Khazars were strikingly handsome with reddish hair, white skin, and blue eyes, while the Black Khazars were swarthy, verging on deep black as if they were \"some kind of Indian\".", "Many Turkic nations had a similar (political, not racial) division between a \"white\" ruling warrior caste and a \"black\" class of commoners; the consensus among mainstream scholars is that Istakhri was confused by the names given to the two groups.", "However, Khazars are generally described by early Arab sources as having a white complexion, blue eyes, and reddish hair.", "The ethnonym in the Tang Chinese annals, Ashina, often accorded a key role in the Khazar leadership, may reflect an Eastern Iranian or Tokharian word (Khotanese Saka ''âşşeina-āššsena'' \"blue\"): Middle Persian ''axšaêna'' (\"dark-coloured\"): Tokharian A ''âśna'' (\"blue\", \"dark\").", "The distinction appears to have survived the collapse of the Khazarian empire.", "Later Russian chronicles, commenting on the role of the Khazars in the magyarisation of Hungary, refer to them as \"White Oghurs\" and Magyars as \"Black Oghurs\".", "Studies of the physical remains, such as skulls at Sarkel, have revealed a mixture of Slavic, other European, and a few Mongolian types.==== Economy ====The import and export of foreign wares, and the revenues derived from taxing their transit, was a hallmark of the Khazar economy, although it is said also to have produced isinglass.", "Distinctively among the nomadic steppe polities, the Khazar Qağanate developed a self-sufficient domestic Saltovo economy, a combination of traditional pastoralism – allowing sheep and cattle to be exported – extensive agriculture, abundant use of the Volga's rich fishing stocks, together with craft manufacture, with diversification in lucrative returns from taxing international trade given its pivotal control of major trade routes.The Khazars constituted one of the two great furnishers of slaves to the Muslim market (the other being the Iranian Sâmânid amîrs), supplying it with captured Slavs and tribesmen from the Eurasian northlands.", "It profited from the latter which enabled it to maintain a standing army of Khwarezm Muslim troops.", "The capital Atil reflected the division: Kharazān on the western bank where the king and his Khazar elite, with a retinue of some 4,000 attendants, dwelt, and Itil proper to the East, inhabited by Jews, Christians, Muslims and slaves and by craftsmen and foreign merchants.The ruling elite wintered in the city and spent from spring to late autumn in their fields.", "A large irrigated greenbelt, drawing on channels from the Volga river, lay outside the capital, where meadows and vineyards extended for some 20 ''farsakhs'' (c. 60 miles).", "While customs duties were imposed on traders, and tribute and tithes were exacted from 25 to 30 tribes, with a levy of one sable skin, squirrel pelt, sword, dirham per hearth or ploughshare, or hides, wax, honey and livestock, depending on the zone.", "Trade disputes were handled by a commercial tribunal in Atil consisting of seven judges, two for each of the monotheistic inhabitants (Jews, Muslims, Christians) and one for the pagans.=== Khazars and Byzantium ===Byzantine diplomatic policy towards the steppe peoples generally consisted of encouraging them to fight among themselves.", "The Pechenegs provided great assistance to the Byzantines in the 9th century in exchange for regular payments.", "Byzantium also sought alliances with the Göktürks against common enemies: in the early 7th century, one such alliance was brokered with the Western Tűrks against the Persian Sasanians in the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628.The Byzantines called Khazaria ''Tourkía'', and by the 9th century referred to the Khazars as \"Turks\".", "During the period leading up to and after the siege of Constantinople in 626, Heraclius sought help via emissaries, and eventually personally, from a Göktürk chieftain of the Western Turkic Khaganate, Tong Yabghu Qağan, in Tiflis, plying him with gifts and the promise of marriage to his daughter, Epiphania.", "Tong Yabghu responded by sending a large force to ravage the Persian empire, marking the start of the Third Perso-Turkic War.", "A joint Byzantine-Tűrk operation breached the Caspian gates and sacked Derbent in 627.Together they then besieged Tiflis, where the Byzantines may have deployed an early variety of traction trebuchets (ἑλέπόλεις) to breach the walls.", "After the campaign, Tong Yabghu is reported, perhaps with some exaggeration, to have left some 40,000 troops behind with Heraclius.", "Although occasionally identified with Khazars, the Göktürk identification is more probable since the Khazars only emerged from that group after the fragmentation of the former sometime after 630.Some scholars argued that Sasanian Persia never recovered from the devastating defeat wrought by this invasion.Khazar Khaganate and surrounding states, c. 820 (area of direct Khazar control in dark blue, sphere of influence in purple).Once the Khazars emerged as a power, the Byzantines also began to form alliances with them, dynastic and military.", "In 695, the last Heraclian emperor, Justinian II, nicknamed \"the slit-nosed\" (ὁ ῥινότμητος) after he was mutilated and deposed, was exiled to Cherson in the Crimea, where a Khazar governor (''tudun'') presided.", "He escaped into Khazar territory in 704 or 705 and was given asylum by qağan Busir Glavan (Ἰβουζῆρος Γλιαβάνος), who gave him his sister in marriage, perhaps in response to an offer by Justinian, who may have thought a dynastic marriage would seal by kinship a powerful tribal support for his attempts to regain the throne.", "The Khazarian spouse thereupon changed her name to Theodora.", "Busir was offered a bribe by the Byzantine usurper, Tiberius III, to kill Justinian.", "Warned by Theodora, Justinian escaped, murdering two Khazar officials in the process.", "He fled to Bulgaria, whose Khan Tervel helped him regain the throne.", "Upon his reinstalment, and despite Busir's treachery during his exile, he sent for Theodora; Busir complied, and she was crowned as Augusta, suggesting that both prized the alliance.Decades later, Leo III (ruled 717–741) made a similar alliance to co-ordinate strategy against a common enemy, the Muslim Arabs.", "He sent an embassy to the Khazar qağan Bihar and married his son, the future Constantine V (ruled 741–775), to Bihar's daughter, a princess referred to as Tzitzak, in 732.On converting to Christianity, she took the name Irene.", "Constantine and Irene had a son, the future Leo IV (775–780), who thereafter bore the sobriquet, \"the Khazar\".", "Leo died in mysterious circumstances after his Athenian wife bore him a son, Constantine VI, who on his majority co-ruled with his mother, the dowager.", "He proved unpopular, and his death ended the dynastic link of the Khazars to the Byzantine throne.", "By the 8th century, Khazars dominated the Crimea (650–c.", "950), and even extended their influence into the Byzantine peninsula of Cherson until it was wrested back in the 10th century.", "Khazar and Farghânian (Φάργανοι) mercenaries constituted part of the imperial Byzantine ''Hetaireia'' bodyguard after its formation in 840, a position that could openly be purchased by a payment of seven pounds of gold.=== Arab–Khazar wars ===During the 7th and 8th centuries, the Khazars fought a series of wars against the Umayyad Caliphate and its Abbasid successor.", "The First Arab-Khazar War began during the first phase of Muslim expansion.", "By 640, Muslim forces had reached Armenia; in 642 they launched their first raid across the Caucasus under Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah.", "In 652 Arab forces advanced on the Khazar capital, Balanjar, but were defeated, suffering heavy losses; according to Persian historians such as al-Tabari, both sides in the battle used catapults against the opposing troops.", "A number of Russian sources give the name of a Khazar khagan from this period as Irbis and describe him as a scion of the Göktürk royal house, the Ashina.", "Whether Irbis ever existed is open to debate, as is whether he can be identified with one of the many Göktürk rulers of the same name.Due to the outbreak of the First Muslim Civil War and other priorities, the Arabs refrained from repeating an attack on the Khazars until the early 8th century.", "The Khazars launched a few raids into Transcaucasian principalities under Muslim dominion, including a large-scale raid in 683–685 during the Second Muslim Civil War that rendered much booty and many prisoners.", "There is evidence from the account of al-Tabari that the Khazars formed a united front with the remnants of the Göktürks in Transoxiana.The Second Arab-Khazar War began with a series of raids across the Caucasus in the early 8th century.", "The Umayyads tightened their grip on Armenia in 705 after suppressing a large-scale rebellion.", "In 713 or 714, the Umayyad general Maslamah conquered Derbent and drove deeper into Khazar territory.", "The Khazars launched raids in response into Albania and Iranian Azerbaijan but were driven back by the Arabs under Hasan ibn al-Nu'man.", "The conflict escalated in 722 with an invasion by 30,000 Khazars into Armenia inflicting a crushing defeat.", "Caliph Yazid II responded, sending 25,000 Arab troops north, swiftly driving the Khazars back across the Caucasus, recovering Derbent, and advancing on Balanjar.", "The Arabs broke through the Khazar defence and stormed the city; most of its inhabitants were killed or enslaved, but a few of them managed to flee north.", "Despite their success, the Arabs had not yet defeated the Khazar army, and they retreated south of the Caucasus.In 724, the Arab general al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazars in a long battle between the rivers Cyrus and Araxes, then moved on to capture Tiflis, bringing Caucasian Iberia under Muslim suzerainty.", "The Khazars struck back in 726, led by a prince named Barjik, launching a major invasion of Albania and Azerbaijan; by 729, the Arabs had lost control of northeastern Transcaucasia and were thrust again into the defensive.", "In 730, Barjik invaded Iranian Azerbaijan and defeated Arab forces at Ardabil, killing the general al-Djarrah al-Hakami and briefly occupying the town.", "Barjik was defeated and killed the next year at Mosul, where he directed Khazar forces from a throne mounted with al-Djarrah's severed head .", "In 737, Marwan Ibn Muhammad entered Khazar territory under the guise of seeking a truce.", "He then launched a surprise attack in which The Qaghan fled north and the Khazars surrendered.", "The Arabs did not have enough resources to influence the affairs of Transcaucasia.", "The Qağan was forced to accept terms involving his conversion to Islam, and subject himself to the rule of the Caliphate, but the accommodation was short-lived because a combination of internal instability among the Umayyads and Byzantine support undid the agreement within three years, and the Khazars re-asserted their independence.", "The suggestion that the Khazars adopted Judaism as early as 740 is based on the idea that, in part, it was, a re-assertion of their independence from the rule of both regional powers, Byzantium and the Caliphate, while it also conformed to a general Eurasian trend to embrace a world religion.Whatever the impact of Marwan's campaigns was, warfare between the Khazars and the Arabs ceased for more than two decades after 737.Arab raids continued to occur until 741, but their control of the region was limited because maintaining a large garrison at Derbent further depleted their already overstretched army.", "A third Muslim civil war soon broke out, leading to the Abbasid Revolution and the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750.In 758, the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur attempted to strengthen diplomatic ties with the Khazars, ordering Yazid ibn Usayd al-Sulami, one of his nobles and the military governor of Armenia, to take a royal Khazar bride.", "Yazid married a daughter of Khazar Khagan Baghatur, but she died inexplicably, possibly during childbirth.", "Her attendants returned home, convinced that some members of another Arab faction had poisoned her, and her father was enraged.", "the Khazar general Ras Tarkhan invaded regions which were located south of the Caucasus in 762–764, devastating Albania, Armenia, and Iberia, and capturing Tiflis.", "Thereafter, relations between the Khazars and the Abbasids became increasingly cordial, because the foreign policies of the Abbasids were generally less expansionist than the foreign policies of the Umayyads, relations between the Khazars and the Abbasids were ultimately broken by a series of raids which occurred in 799, the raids occurred after another marriage alliance failed.=== Khazars and Hungarians ===Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate.", "As a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars (probably the majority of ethnic Khazars) joined the Hungarians and moved through Levedia to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River.", "The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854, though other sources state that an attack by Pechenegs was the reason for their departure to Etelköz.", "The new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs.", "From 862 onwards, the Hungarians (already referred to as the ''Ungri'') along with their allies, the Kabars, started a series of raids from the Etelköz into the Carpathian Basin, mostly against the Eastern Frankish Empire (Germany) and Great Moravia, but also against the Lower Pannonian principality and Bulgaria.", "Then they together ended up at the outer slopes of Carpathians, and settled there, where the majority of Khazars converted from Judaism to Christianity in the 10th to 13th centuries.", "There could be shamanists and Christians among these Khazars apart from Jews.=== Rise of the Rus' and the collapse of the Khazarian state ===Trade routes of the Black Sea region, 8th–11th centuriesBy the 9th century, groups of Varangian Rus', developing a powerful warrior-merchant system, began probing south down the waterways controlled by the Khazars and their protectorate, the Volga Bulgarians, partially in pursuit of the Arab silver that flowed north for hoarding through the Khazarian-Volga Bulgarian trading zones, partially to trade in furs and ironwork.", "Northern mercantile fleets passing Atil were tithed, as they were at Byzantine Cherson.", "Their presence may have prompted the formation of a Rus' state by convincing the Slavs, Merja and the Chud' to unite to protect common interests against Khazarian exactions of tribute.", "It is often argued that a Rus' Khaganate modelled on the Khazarian state had formed to the east and that the Varangian chieftain of the coalition appropriated the title of qağan (''khagan'') as early as the 830s: the title survived to denote the princes of Kievan Rus', whose capital, Kyiv, is often associated with a Khazarian foundation.", "The construction of the Sarkel fortress, with technical assistance from Khazaria's Byzantine ally at the time, together with the minting of an autonomous Khazar coinage around the 830s, may have been a defensive measure against emerging threats from Varangians to the north and from the Magyars on the eastern steppe.", "By 860, the Rus' had penetrated as far as Kyiv and, via the Dnieper, Constantinople.Mikhail Artamonov in the 1950s).Alliances often shifted.", "Byzantium, threatened by Varangian Rus' raiders, would assist Khazaria, and Khazaria at times allowed the northerners to pass through their territory in exchange for a portion of the booty.", "From the beginning of the 10th century, the Khazars found themselves fighting on multiple fronts as nomadic incursions were exacerbated by uprisings by former clients and invasions from former allies.", "The pax Khazarica was caught in a pincer movement between steppe Pechenegs and the strengthening of an emergent Rus' power to the north, both undermining Khazaria's tributary empire.", "According to the Schechter Text, the Khazar ruler King Benjamin (ca.880–890) fought a battle against the allied forces of five lands whose moves were perhaps encouraged by Byzantium.", "Although Benjamin was victorious, his son Aaron II faced another invasion, this time led by the Alans, whose leader had converted to Christianity and entered into an alliance with Byzantium, which, under Leo VI the Wise, encouraged them to fight against the Khazars.By the 880s, Khazar control of the Middle Dnieper from Kyiv, where they collected tribute from Eastern Slavic tribes, began to wane as Oleg of Novgorod wrested control of the city from the Varangian warlords Askold and Dir, and embarked on what was to prove to be the foundation of a Rus' empire.", "The Khazars had initially allowed the Rus' to use the trade route along the Volga River, and raid southwards.", "See Caspian expeditions of the Rus'.", "According to Al-Mas'udi, the qağan is said to have given his assent on the condition that the Rus' give him half of the booty.", "In 913, however, two years after Byzantium concluded a peace treaty with the Rus' in 911, a Varangian foray, with Khazar connivance, through Arab lands led to a request to the Khazar throne by the Khwârazmian Islamic guard for permission to retaliate against the large Rus' contingent on its return.", "The purpose was to revenge the violence the Rus' razzias had inflicted on their fellow Muslim believers.", "The Rus' force was thoroughly routed and massacred.", "The Khazar rulers closed the passage down the Volga to the Rus', sparking a war.", "In the early 960s, Khazar ruler Joseph wrote to Hasdai ibn Shaprut about the deterioration of Khazar relations with the Rus': \"I protect the mouth of the river (Itil-Volga) and prevent the Rus arriving in their ships from setting off by sea against the Ishmaelites and (equally) all (their) enemies from setting off by land to Bab.", "\"Sviatoslav I of Kiev (in boat), destroyer of the Khazar Khaganate.The Rus' warlords launched several wars against the Khazar Qağanate, and raided down to the Caspian sea.", "The Schechter Letter relates the story of a campaign against Khazaria by ''HLGW'' (recently identified as Oleg of Chernigov) around 941 in which Oleg was defeated by the Khazar general Pesakh.", "The Khazar alliance with the Byzantine empire began to collapse in the early 10th century.", "Byzantine and Khazar forces may have clashed in the Crimea, and by the 940s emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was speculating in ''De Administrando Imperio'' about ways in which the Khazars could be isolated and attacked.", "The Byzantines during the same period began to attempt alliances with the Pechenegs and the Rus', with varying degrees of success.", "A further factor undermining the Khazar Qağanate was a shift in Islamic routes at this time, as Muslims in Khwarazmia forged trade links with the recently converted Volga Bulgarian Muslims, a move which may have caused a drastic drop, perhaps up to 80%, in the revenue base of Khazaria, and consequently, a crisis in its ability to pay for its defence.Sviatoslav I finally succeeded in destroying Khazar imperial power in the 960s, in a circular sweep that overwhelmed Khazar fortresses like Sarkel and Tamatarkha, and reached as far as the Caucasian Kassogians/Circassians and then back to Kyiv.", "Sarkel fell in 965, with the capital city of Atil following, c. 968 or 969.In the Russian chronicle, the vanquishing of the Khazar traditions is associated with Vladimir's conversion in 986.According to the Primary Chronicle, in 986 Khazar Jews were present at Vladimir's disputation to decide on the prospective religion of the Kievan Rus'.", "Whether these were Jews who had settled in Kyiv or emissaries from some Jewish Khazar remnant state is unclear.", "Conversion to one of the faiths of the people of Scripture was a precondition to any peace treaty with the Arabs, whose Bulgar envoys had arrived in Kyiv after 985.A visitor to Atil wrote soon after the sacking of the city that its vineyards and garden had been razed, that not a grape or raisin remained in the land, and not even alms for the poor were available.", "An attempt to rebuild may have been undertaken, since Ibn Hawqal and al-Muqaddasi refer to it after that date, but by Al-Biruni's time (1048) it was in ruins.=== Aftermath: impact, decline and dispersion ===Although Poliak argued that the Khazar kingdom did not wholly succumb to Sviatoslav's campaign, but lingered on until 1224, when the Mongols invaded Rus', by most accounts, the Rus'-Oghuz campaigns left Khazaria devastated, with perhaps many Khazarian Jews in flight, and leaving behind at best a minor rump state.", "It left little trace, except for some placenames, and much of its population was undoubtedly absorbed in successor hordes.", "Al-Muqaddasi, writing ca.985, mentions Khazar beyond the Caspian sea as a district of \"woe and squalor\", with honey, many sheep and Jews.", "Kedrenos mentions a joint Rus'-Byzantine attack on Khazaria in 1016, which defeated its ruler Georgius Tzul.", "The name suggests Christian affiliations.", "The account concludes by saying, that after Tzul's defeat, the Khazar ruler of \"upper Media\", Senaccherib, had to sue for peace and submission.", "In 1024 Mstislav of Chernigov (one of Vladimir's sons) marched against his brother Yaroslav with an army that included \"Khazars and Kassogians\" in a repulsed attempt to restore a kind of \"Khazarian\"-type dominion over Kyiv.", "Ibn al-Athir's mention of a \"raid of Faḍlūn the Kurd against the Khazars\" in 1030 CE, in which 10,000 of his men were vanquished by the latter, has been taken as a reference to such a Khazar remnant, but Barthold identified this Faḍlūn as Faḍl ibn Muḥammad and the \"Khazars\" as either Georgians or Abkhazians.", "A Kievian prince named Oleg, grandson of Jaroslav was reportedly kidnapped by \"Khazars\" in 1079 and shipped off to Constantinople, although most scholars believe that this is a reference to the Cumans-Kipchaks or other steppe peoples then dominant in the Pontic region.", "Upon his conquest of Tmutarakan in the 1080s Oleg Sviatoslavich, son of a prince of Chernigov, gave himself the title \"Archon of Khazaria\".", "In 1083 Oleg is said to have exacted revenge on the Khazars after his brother Roman was killed by their allies, the Polovtsi/Cumans.", "After one more conflict with these Polovtsi in 1106, the Khazars fade from history.", "By the 13th century they survived in Russian folklore only as \"Jewish heroes\" in the \"land of the Jews\".", "(''zemlya Jidovskaya'').By the end of the 12th century, Petachiah of Ratisbon reported travelling through what he called \"Khazaria\", and had little to remark on other than describing its ''minim'' (sectaries) living amidst desolation in perpetual mourning.", "The reference seems to be to Karaites.", "The Franciscan missionary William of Rubruck likewise found only impoverished pastures in the lower Volga area where Ital once lay.", "Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, the papal legate to the court of the Mongol Khan Guyuk at that time, mentioned an otherwise unattested Jewish tribe, the Brutakhi, perhaps in the Volga region.", "Although connections are made to the Khazars, the link is based merely on a common attribution of Judaism.The Pontic steppes, c. 1015 (areas in blue possibly still under Khazar control).The 10th century Zoroastrian Dênkart registered the collapse of Khazar power in attributing its eclipse to the enfeebling effects of \"false\" religion.", "The decline was contemporary to that suffered by the Transoxiana Sāmānid empire to the east, both events paving the way for the rise of the Great Seljuq Empire, whose founding traditions mention Khazar connections.", "Whatever successor entity survived, it could no longer function as a bulwark against the pressure east and south of nomad expansions.", "By 1043, Kimeks and Qipchaqs, thrusting westwards, pressured the Oğuz, who in turn pushed the Pechenegs west towards Byzantium's Balkan provinces.Khazaria nonetheless left its mark on the rising states and some of their traditions and institutions.", "Much earlier, Tzitzak, the Khazar wife of Leo III, introduced into the Byzantine court the distinctive kaftan or riding habit of the nomadic Khazars, the tzitzakion (τζιτζάκιον), and this was adopted as a solemn element of imperial dress.", "The orderly hierarchical system of succession by \"scales\" (''lestvichnaia sistema'':лествичная система) to the Grand Principate of Kyiv was arguably modelled on Khazar institutions, via the example of the Rus' Khaganate.The proto-Hungarian Pontic tribe, while perhaps threatening Khazaria as early as 839 (Sarkel), practiced their institutional model, such as the dual rule of a ceremonial ''kende-kündü'' and a ''gyula'' administering practical and military administration, as tributaries of the Khazars.", "A dissident group of Khazars, the Qabars, joined the Hungarians in their migration westwards as they moved into Pannonia.", "Elements within the Hungarian population can be viewed as perpetuating Khazar traditions as a successor state.", "Byzantine sources refer to Hungary as Western Tourkia in contrast to Khazaria, Eastern Tourkia.", "The gyula line produced the kings of medieval Hungary through descent from Árpád, while the Qabars retained their traditions longer, and were known as \"black Hungarians\" (''fekete magyarság'').", "Some archaeological evidence from Čelarevo suggests the Qabars practised Judaism since warrior graves with Jewish symbols were found there, including menorahs, shofars, etrogs, lulavs, candlesnuffers, ash collectors, inscriptions in Hebrew, and a six-pointed star identical to the Star of David.Seal discovered in excavations at Khazar sites.", "However, rather than having been made by Jews, these appear to be shamanistic sun discs.The Khazar state was not the only Jewish state to rise between the fall of the Second Temple (67–70 CE) and the establishment of Israel (1948).", "A state in Yemen also adopted Judaism in the 4th century, lasting until the rise of Islam.The Khazar kingdom is said to have stimulated messianic aspirations for a return to Israel as early as Judah Halevi.", "In the time of the Egyptian vizier Al-Afdal Shahanshah (d. 1121), one Solomon ben Duji, often identified as a Khazarian Jew, attempted to advocate for a messianic effort for the liberation of, and return of all Jews to, Palestine.", "He wrote to many Jewish communities to enlist support.", "He eventually moved to Kurdistan where his son Menachem some decades later assumed the title of Messiah and, raising an army for this purpose, took the fortress of Amadiya north of Mosul.", "His project was opposed by the rabbinical authorities and he was poisoned in his sleep.", "One theory maintains that the Star of David, until then a decorative motif or magical emblem, began to assume its national value in late Jewish tradition from its earlier symbolic use by Menachem.The word Khazar, as an ethnonym, was last used in the 13th century by people in the North Caucasus believed to practice Judaism.", "The nature of a hypothetical Khazar diaspora, Jewish or otherwise, is disputed.", "Avraham ibn Daud mentions encountering rabbinical students descended from Khazars as far away as Toledo, Spain in the 1160s.", "Khazar communities persisted here and there.", "Many Khazar mercenaries served in the armies of the Islamic Caliphates and other states.", "Documents from medieval Constantinople attest to a Khazar community mingled with the Jews of the suburb of Pera.", "Khazar merchants were active in both Constantinople and Alexandria in the 12th century." ], [ "Religion", "=== Tengrism ===Direct sources for the Khazar religion are not many, but in all likelihood they originally engaged in a traditional Turkic form of religious practices known as Tengrism, which focused on the sky god Tengri.", "Something of its nature may be deduced from what we know of the rites and beliefs of contiguous tribes, such as the North Caucasian Huns.", "Horse sacrifices were made to this supreme deity.", "Rites involved offerings to fire, water, and the moon, to remarkable creatures, and to \"gods of the road\" (cf.", "Old Türk ''yol tengri'', perhaps a god of fortune).", "Sun amulets were widespread as cultic ornaments.", "A tree cult was also maintained.", "Whatever was struck by lightning, man or object, was considered a sacrifice to the high god of heaven.", "The afterlife, to judge from excavations of aristocratic tumuli, was much a continuation of life on earth, warriors being interred with their weapons, horses, and sometimes with human sacrifices: the funeral of one ''tudrun'' in 711-12 saw 300 soldiers killed to accompany him to the otherworld.", "Ancestor worship was observed.", "The key religious figure appears to have been a shaman-like ''qam'', and it was these (''qozmím'') that were, according to the Khazar Hebrew conversion stories, driven out.Many sources suggest, and a notable number of scholars have argued, that the charismatic Ashina clan played a germinal role in the early Khazar state, although Zuckerman dismisses the widespread notion of their pivotal role as a \"phantom\".", "The Ashina were closely associated with the Tengri cult, whose practices involved rites performed to assure a tribe of heaven's protective providence.", "The qağan was deemed to rule by virtue of ''qut'', \"the heavenly mandate/good fortune to rule.", "\"=== Christianity ===Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine empire and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the Umayyad empire, after serving as Byzantium's proxy against the Sasanian Persian empire.", "The alliance was dropped around 900.Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus, while seeking to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity.On Khazaria's southern flank, both Islam and Byzantine Christianity were proselytising great powers.", "Byzantine success in the north was sporadic, although Armenian and Albanian missions from Derbend built churches extensively in maritime Daghestan, then a Khazar district.", "Buddhism also had exercised an attraction on leaders of both the Eastern (552–742) and Western Qağanates (552–659), the latter being the progenitor of the Khazar state.", "In 682, according to the Armenian chronicle of Movsês Dasxuranc'i, the king of Caucasian Albania, Varaz Trdat, dispatched a bishop, Israyêl, to convert Caucasian \"Huns\" who were subject to the Khazars, and managed to convince Alp Ilut'uêr, a son-in-law of the Khazar qağan, and his army, to abandon their shamanising cults and join the Christian fold.The Arab Georgian martyr St Abo, who converted to Christianity within the Khazar kingdom around 779–80, describes local Khazars as irreligious.", "Some reports register a Christian majority at Samandar, or Muslim majorities.=== Judaism ===The Khazar \"Moses coin\" found in the Spillings Hoard and dated c. 800.It is inscribed with \"Moses is the messenger of God\" instead of the usual Muslim text \"Muhammad is the messenger of God\".Conversion to Judaism is mentioned in the Khazar Correspondence and medieval external sources.", "The authenticity of the former was long doubted and challenged, but the documents are now widely accepted by specialists as either authentic or as reflecting internal Khazar traditions.", "Archaeological evidence for conversion, on the other hand, remains elusive, and may reflect either the incompleteness of excavations, or that the stratum of actual adherents was thin.", "Conversion of steppe or peripheral tribes to a universal religion is a fairly well attested phenomenon, and the Khazar conversion to Judaism, although unusual, would not have been without precedent.Jews from both the Islamic world and Byzantium are known to have migrated to Khazaria during periods of persecution under Heraclius, Justinian II, Leo III, and Romanus Lakapēnos.", "For Simon Schama, Jewish communities from the Balkans and the Bosphoran Crimea, especially from Panticapaeum, began migrating to the more hospitable climate of pagan Khazaria in the wake of these persecutions, and were joined there by Jews from Armenia.", "The Geniza fragments, he argues, make it clear the Judaising reforms sent roots down into the whole of the population.", "The pattern is one of an elite conversion preceding large-scale adoption of the new religion by the general population, which often resisted the imposition.", "One important condition for mass conversion was a settled urban state, where churches, synagogues or mosques provided a focus for religion, as opposed to the free nomadic lifestyle of life on the open steppes.", "A tradition of the Iranian Judeo-Tats claims that their ancestors were responsible for the Khazar conversion.", "A legend traceable to the 16th-century Italian rabbi Judah Moscato attributed it to Yitzhak ha-Sangari.Both the date of the conversion, and the extent of its influence beyond the elite, often minimised in some scholarship, are a matter of dispute, but at some point between 740 and 920 CE, the Khazar royalty and nobility appear to have converted to Judaism, in part, it is argued, perhaps to deflect competing pressures from Arabs and Byzantines to accept either Islam or Orthodoxy.The conversion of the Khazars to Judaism remains an emotionally charged topic in Israel, and two scholars, Moshe Gil (2011) and Shaul Stampfer, (2013) have still challenged the authenticity of the medieval Hebrew documents and argue that the conversion of the Khazar elite to Judaism never happened.==== History of discussions about Khazar Jewishness ====The earliest surviving Arabic text that refers to Khazar Jewishness appears to be that which was written by ibn Rustah, a Persian scholar who wrote an encyclopedic work on geography in the early tenth century.", "It is believed that ibn Rustah derived much of his information from the works of his contemporary Abu al Jayhani based in Central Asia.The 10th century Kievian Letter has Old Turkic (Orkhon) inscription word-phrase ''OKHQURÜM'', \"I read (this or it)\".Christian of Stavelot in his Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam (c. 860–870s) refers to ''Gazari'', presumably Khazars, as living in the lands of Gog and Magog, who were circumcised and ''omnem Judaismum observat''—observing all the laws of Judaism.", "New numismatic evidence of coins dated 837/8 bearing the inscriptions ''arḍ al-ḫazar'' (Land of the Khazars), or ''Mûsâ rasûl Allâh'' (Moses is the messenger of God, in imitation of the Islamic coin phrase: ''Muḥammad rasûl Allâh'') suggest to many the conversion took place in that decade.", "Olsson argues that the 837/8 evidence marks only the beginning of a long and difficult official Judaization that concluded some decades later.", "A 9th-century Jewish traveller, Eldad ha-Dani, is said to have informed Spanish Jews in 883 that there was a Jewish polity in the East, and that fragments of the legendary Ten Lost Tribes, part of the line of Simeon and half-line of Manasseh, dwelt in \"the land of the Khazars\", receiving tribute from some 25 to 28 kingdoms.", "Another view holds that by the 10th century, while the royal clan officially claimed Judaism, a non-normative variety of Islamisation took place among the majority of Khazars.By the 10th century, the letter of King Joseph asserts that, after the royal conversion, \"Israel returned (''yashuvu yisra'el'') with the people of Qazaria (to Judaism) in complete repentance (''bi-teshuvah shelemah'').\"", "Persian historian Ibn al-Faqîh wrote that \"all the Khazars are Jews, but they have been Judaized recently\".", "Ibn Fadlân, based on his Caliphal mission (921–922) to the Volga Bulğars, also reported that \"the core element of the state, the Khazars, were Judaized\", something underwritten by the Qaraite scholar Ya'kub Qirqisânî around 937.The conversion appears to have occurred against a background of frictions arising from both an intensification of Byzantine missionary activity from the Crimea to the Caucasus, and Arab attempts to wrest control over the latter in the 8th century CE, and a revolt, put down, by the Khavars around the mid-9th century is often invoked as in part influenced by their refusal to accept Judaism.", "Modern scholars generally see the conversion as a slow process through three stages, which accords with Richard Eaton's model of syncretic ''inclusion'', gradual ''identification'' and, finally, ''displacement'' of the older tradition.Sometime between 954 and 961, Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ, from al-Andalus (Muslim Spain), wrote a letter of inquiry addressed to the ruler of Khazaria, and received a reply from Joseph of Khazaria.", "The exchanges of this Khazar Correspondence, together with the Schechter Letter discovered in the Cairo Geniza and the famous plato nizing dialogue by Judah Halevi, ''Sefer ha-Kuzari'' (\"Book (of) The Khazari\"), which plausibly drew on such sources, provide us with the only direct evidence of the indigenous traditions concerning the conversion.", "King Bulan is said to have driven out the sorcerers, and to have received angelic visitations exhorting him to find the true religion, upon which, accompanied by his vizier, he travelled to desert mountains of Warsān on a seashore, where he came across a cave rising from the plain of Tiyul in which Jews used to celebrate the Sabbath.", "Here he was circumcised.", "Bulan is then said to have convened a royal debate between exponents of the three Abrahamic religions.", "He decided to convert when he was convinced of Judaism's superiority.", "Many scholars situate this c. 740, a date supported by Halevi's own account.", "The details are both Judaic and Türkic: a Türkic ethnogonic myth speaks of an ancestral cave in which the Ashina were conceived from the mating of their human ancestor and a wolf ancestress.", "These accounts suggest that there was a rationalising syncretism of native pagan traditions with Jewish law, by melding through the motif of the cave, a site of ancestral ritual and repository of forgotten sacred texts, Türkic myths of origin and Jewish notions of redemption of Israel's fallen people.", "It is generally agreed they adopted Rabbinical rather than Qaraite Judaism.Ibn Fadlan reports that the settlement of disputes in Khazaria was adjudicated by judges hailing each from his community, be it Christian, Jewish, Muslim, or Pagan.", "Some evidence suggests that the Khazar king saw himself as a defender of Jews even beyond the kingdom's frontiers, retaliating against Muslim or Christian interests in Khazaria in the wake of Islamic and Byzantine persecutions of Jews abroad.", "Ibn Fadlan recounts specifically an incident in which the king of Khazaria destroyed the minaret of a mosque in Atil as revenge for the destruction of a synagogue in Dâr al-Bâbûnaj, and allegedly said he would have done worse were it not for a fear that the Muslims might retaliate in turn against Jews.", "Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ sought information on Khazaria in the hope he might discover \"a place on this earth where harassed Israel can rule itself\" and wrote that, were it to prove true that Khazaria had such a king, he would not hesitate to forsake his high office and his family in order to emigrate there.Albert Harkavy noted in 1877 that an Arabic commentary on Isaiah 48:14ascribed to Saadia Gaon or to the Karaite scholar Benjamin Nahâwandî, interpreted \"The Lord hath loved him\" as a reference \"to the Khazars, who will go and destroy Babel\" (i.e., Babylonia), a name used to designate the country of the Arabs.", "This has been taken as an indication of hopes by Jews that the Khazars might succeed in destroying the Caliphate.=== Islam ===In 965, as the Qağanate was struggling against the victorious campaign of the Rus' prince Sviatoslav, the Islamic historian Ibn al-Athîr mentions that Khazaria, attacked by the Oğuz, sought help from Khwarezm, but their appeal was rejected because they were regarded as \"infidels\" (''al-kuffâr'':pagans).", "Save for the king, the Khazarians are said to have converted to Islam in order to secure an alliance, and the Turks were, with Khwarezm's military assistance, repelled.", "It was this that, according to Ibn al-Athîr, led the Jewish king of Khazar to convert to Islam." ], [ "Genetics", "Nine skeletons dating to the 7th–9th centuries excavated from elite military burial mounds of the Khazar Khaganate (in the modern Rostov region) were analyzed in two genetic studies (from 2019 and 2021).", "According to the 2019 study, the results \"confirm the Turkic roots of the Khazars, but also highlight their ethnic diversity and some integration of conquered populations\".", "The samples did not show a genetic connection to Ashkenazi Jews, and the results do not support the hypothesis of Ashkenazi Jews being descendants of the Khazars.", "In the 2021 study the results showed both European and East Asian paternal haplogroups in the samples: three individuals carried R1a Y-haplogroup, two had C2b, and the rest carried haplogroups G2a, N1a, Q, and R1b, respectively.", "According to the authors, \"The Y-chromosome data are consistent with the results of the craniological study and genome-wide analysis of the same individuals in the sense that they show mixed genetic origins for the early medieval Khazar nobility\"." ], [ "Claims of Khazar ancestry", "Claims of Khazar origins of peoples, or suggestions that the Khazars were absorbed by them, have been made with regard to the Kazakhs, the Hungarians, the Judaizing Slavic Subbotniks, the Muslim Karachays, the Kumyks, the Avars, the Cossacks of the Don and the Ukrainian Cossacks (see Khazar hypothesis of Cossack ancestry), the Turkic-speaking Krymchaks and their Crimean neighbours the Karaites, the Moldavian Csángós and others.", "Turkic-speaking Crimean Karaites (known in the Crimean Tatar language as ''Qaraylar''), some of whom migrated in the 19th century from the Crimea to Poland and Lithuania have claimed Khazar origins.", "Specialists in Khazar history question the connection.", "Scholarship is likewise sceptical of claims that the Tatar-speaking Krymchak Jews of the Crimea descend from Khazars.=== Crimean Karaites and Krymchaks ===In 1839, the Karaim scholar Abraham Firkovich was appointed by the Russian government as a researcher into the origins of the Jewish sect known as the Karaites.", "In 1846, one of his acquaintances, the Russian orientalist Vasilii Vasil'evich Grigor'ev (1816–1881), theorised that the Crimean Karaites were of Khazar stock.", "Firkovich vehemently rejected the idea, a position seconded by Firkovich, who hoped that by \"proving\" his people were of Turkic origin, would secure them exception from Russian anti-Jewish laws, since they bore no responsibility for Christ's crucifixion.", "This idea has a notable impact in Crimean Karaite circles.", "It is now believed that he forged much of this material on Khazars and Karaites.", "Specialists in Khazar history also question the connection.", "Brook's genetic study of European Karaites found no evidence of a Khazar or Turkic origin for any uniparental lineage but did reveal the European Karaites' links to Egyptian Karaites and to Rabbinical Jewish communities.Another Turkic Crimean group, the Krymchaks had retained very simple Jewish traditions, mostly devoid of halakhic content, and very much taken with magical superstitions which, in the wake of the enduring educational efforts of the great Sephardi scholar Chaim Hezekiah Medini, came to conform with traditional Judaism.Though the assertion they were not of Jewish stock enabled many Crimean Karaites to survive the Holocaust, which led to the murder of 6,000 Krymchaks, after the war, many of the latter, somewhat indifferent to their Jewish heritage, took a cue from the Crimean Karaites, and denied this connection in order to avoid the antisemitic effects of the stigma attached to Jews.=== Ashkenazi-Khazar theories ===Several scholars have suggested that instead of disappearing after the dissolution of their Empire, the Khazars migrated westward and eventually, they formed part of the core of the later Ashkenazi Jewish population of Europe.", "This hypothesis is greeted with scepticism or caution by most scholars.The German Orientalist Karl Neumann, in the context of an earlier controversy about possible connections between the Khazars and the ancestors of the Slavic peoples, suggested as early as 1847 that emigrant Khazars might have influenced the core population of Eastern European Jews.The theory was then taken up by Albert Harkavi in 1869, when he also claimed that a possible link existed between the Khazars and the Ashkenazim, but the theory that Khazar converts formed a major proportion of the Ashkenazim was first proposed to the Western public in a lecture which was delivered by Ernest Renan in 1883.Occasional suggestions that there was a small Khazar component in East European Jews emerged in works by Joseph Jacobs (1886), Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, a critic of antisemitism (1893), Maksymilian Ernest Gumplowicz, and by the Russian-Jewish anthropologist Samuel Weissenberg.", "In 1909, Hugo von Kutschera developed the notion into a book-length study, arguing that the Khazars formed the foundational core of the modern Ashkenazim.", "Maurice Fishberg introduced the notion to American audiences in 1911.The idea was also taken up by the Polish-Jewish economic historian and General Zionist Yitzhak Schipper in 1918.Israel Bartal has suggested that from the Haskalah onwards, polemical pamphlets against the Khazars were inspired by Sephardi organizations which opposed the Khazaro-Ashkenazim.Scholarly anthropologists, such as Roland B. Dixon (1923), and writers such as H. G. Wells (1920) used it to argue that \"The main part of Jewry never was in Judea\", a thesis that was to have a political echo in later opinion.In 1932, Samuel Krauss ventured the theory that the biblical Ashkenaz referred to northern Asia Minor, and he identified it as the ancestral homeland of the Khazars, a position which was immediately disputed by Jacob Mann.", "Ten years later, in 1942, Abraham N. Polak (sometimes referred to as ''Poliak''), later professor for the history of the Middle Ages at Tel Aviv University, published a Hebrew monograph in which he concluded that the East European Jews came from Khazaria.", "D.M.", "Dunlop, writing in 1954, thought that very little evidence supported what he considered a mere assumption, and he also argued that the Ashkenazi-Khazar descent theory went far beyond what \"our imperfect records\" permit.", "In 1955, Léon Poliakov, who assumed that the Jews of Western Europe resulted from a \"panmixia\" in the first millennium, asserted that it was widely assumed that Europe's Eastern Jews were descended from a mixture of Khazarian and German Jews.", "Poliak's work found some support in Salo Wittmayer Baron and Ben-Zion Dinur, but was dismissed by Bernard Weinryb as a fiction (1962).", "Bernard Lewis was of the opinion that the word in Cairo Geniza interpreted as Khazaria is actually Hakkari and therefore it relates to the Kurds of the Hakkari mountains in southeast Turkey.The Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication of Arthur Koestler's The Thirteenth Tribe in 1976, which was both positively reviewed and dismissed as a fantasy, and a somewhat dangerous one.", "Israeli historian Zvi Ankori argued that Koestler had allowed his literary imagination to espouse Poliak's thesis, which most historians dismissed as speculative.", "Israel's ambassador to Britain branded it \"an anti-Semitic action financed by the Palestinians\", while Bernard Lewis claimed that the idea was not supported by any evidence whatsoever, and it had been abandoned by all serious scholars.", "Raphael Patai, however, registered some support for the idea that Khazar remnants had played a role in the growth of Eastern European Jewish communities, and several amateur researchers, such as Boris Altschüler (1994), kept the thesis in the public eye.", "The theory has been occasionally manipulated to deny Jewish nationhood.", "Recently, a variety of approaches, from linguistics (Paul Wexler) to historiography (Shlomo Sand) and population genetics (Eran Elhaik, a geneticist from the University of Sheffield) have emerged to keep the theory alive.", "In a broad academic perspective, both the idea that the Khazars converted ''en masse'' to Judaism and the suggestion they emigrated to form the core population of Ashkenazi Jewry, remain highly polemical issues.", "One thesis held that the Khazar Jewish population went into a northern diaspora and had a significant impact on the rise of Ashkenazi Jews.", "Connected to this thesis is the theory, expounded by Paul Wexler, dissenting from the majority of Yiddish linguists, that the grammar of Yiddish contains a Khazar substrate.==== Use in antisemitic polemic ====According to Michael Barkun, while the Khazar hypothesis generally never played any major role in the development of anti-Semitism, it has exercised a noticeable influence on American antisemites since the restrictions on immigration were imposed in the 1920s.", "Maurice Fishberg and Roland B. Dixon's works were later exploited in racist and religious polemical literature, particularly in literature which advocated British Israelism, both in Britain and the United States.", "Particularly after the publication of Burton J. Hendrick's ''The Jews in America'', (1923) it began to enjoy a vogue among advocates of immigration restriction in the 1920s; racial theorists such as Lothrop Stoddard; antisemitic conspiracy-theorists such as the Ku Klux Klan's Hiram Wesley Evans; and some anti-communist polemicists such as John O. Beaty and Wilmot Robertson, whose views influenced David Duke.According to Yehoshafat Harkabi (1968) and others, it played a role in Arab anti-Zionist polemics, and took on an antisemitic edge.", "Bernard Lewis, noting in 1987 that Arab scholars had dropped it, remarked that it only occasionally emerged in Arab political discourse.", "It has also played some role in Soviet antisemitic chauvinism and Slavic Eurasian historiography; particularly, in the works of scholars like Lev Gumilev, it came to be exploited by the white supremacist Christian Identity movement and even by terrorist esoteric cults like Aum Shinrikyō.", "The Kazar hypothesis was further exploited by esoteric fascists such as Miguel Serrano, referring to a lost ''Palestinabuch'' by the German Nazi-scholar Herman Wirth, who claimed to have proven that the Jews descended from a prehistoric migrant group parasiting on the Great Civilizations.", "The phrase \"Khazar kaghanate\" gained new traction in 2000's among antisemitic nationalists in Russia, such as Yan Petrovsky.==== Genetic studies ====The hypothesis of Khazarian ancestry in Ashkenazi has also been a subject of vehement disagreements in the field of population genetics, wherein claims have been made concerning evidence both for and against it.", "Eran Elhaik argued in 2012 for a significant Khazar component in the admixture of Ashkenazi Jews using Caucasian populations—Georgians, Armenians and Azerbaijani Jews—as proxies.", "The evidence from historians he used has been criticised by Shaul Stampfer and the technical response to such a position from geneticists is mostly dismissive, arguing that, if traces of descent from Khazars exist in the Ashkenazi gene pool, the contribution would be quite minor, or insignificant.", "One geneticist, Raphael Falk, has argued that \"national and ethnic prejudices play a central role in the controversy.", "\"According to Nadia Abu El-Haj, the issues of origins are generally complicated by the difficulties of writing history via genome studies and the biases of emotional investments in different narratives, depending on whether the emphasis lies on direct descent or on conversion within Jewish history.", "At the time of her writing, the lack of Khazar DNA samples that might allow verification also presented difficulties." ], [ "In literature", "The ''Kuzari'' is an influential work written by the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi (c. 1075–1141).", "Divided into five essays (''ma'amarim''), it takes the form of a fictional dialogue between the pagan king of the Khazars and a Jew who was invited to instruct him in the tenets of the Jewish religion.", "The intent of the work, although based on Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ's correspondence with the Khazar king, was not historical, but rather to defend Judaism as a revealed religion, written in the context, firstly of Karaite challenges to the Spanish rabbinical intelligentsia, and then against temptations to adapt Aristotelianism and Islamic philosophy to the Jewish faith.", "Originally written in Arabic, it was translated into Hebrew by Judah ibn Tibbon.Benjamin Disraeli's early novel Alroy (1833) draws on Menachem ben Solomon's story.", "The question of mass religious conversion and the indeterminability of the truth of stories about identity and conversion are central themes of Milorad Pavić's best-selling mystery story ''Dictionary of the Khazars''.H.N.", "Turteltaub's ''Justinian'', Marek Halter's ''Book of Abraham'' and ''Wind of the Khazars'', and Michael Chabon's ''Gentlemen of the Road'' allude to or feature elements of Khazar history or create fictional Khazar characters." ], [ "Cities associated with the Khazars", "Cities associated with the Khazars include Atil, Khazaran, Samandar; in the Caucasus, Balanjar, Kazarki, Sambalut, and Samiran; in Crimea and the Taman region, Kerch, Theodosia, Yevpatoria (Güzliev), Samkarsh (also called Tmutarakan, Tamatarkha), and Sudak; and in the Don valley, Sarkel.", "A number of Khazar settlements have been discovered in the Mayaki-Saltovo region.", "Some scholars suppose that the Khazar settlement of Sambat on the Dnieper refers to the later Kyiv." ], [ "See also", "* List of Khazar rulers* Hormizd IV his mother was a Khazar princess.", "* Leo IV the Khazar (Byzantine emperor, r. 775–780, born in 750 to Emperor Constantine V and Empress Tzitzak, a Khazar Turkic princess, daughter of Bihar Khagan)* List of Turkic Khaganates* List of Jewish states and dynasties* History of the Jews in Central Asia* Turkish Jews* Red Jews* History of Kyiv* Rus' Khaganate* Rus'–Byzantine War (860)* Rus'–Byzantine War (907)* Rus'–Byzantine War (941)* Rus'–Byzantine War (968-971)" ], [ "Notes", "=== Footnotes ====== Resource notes ===" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "**********************************************************************************************************************************************************************************" ], [ "External links", "* The Kievan Letter scan in the Cambridge University Library collection.", "* Khazaria.com* Resources – Medieval Jewish History – The Khazars The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem* * The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com* Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found" ] ]
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[ [ "Frost (rapper)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Arturo R. Molina Jr.''' (born May 31, 1962), better known as '''Frost''' (originally '''Kid Frost'''), is an American rapper, songwriter and record producer from Los Angeles.", "He charted in the 1990s with his first four albums: ''Hispanic Causing Panic'', ''East Side Story'', ''Smile Now, Die Later'' and ''When Hell.A.", "Freezes Over''.", "His most successful single is \"La Raza\" which hit number 6 on the rap songs chart in August 1990.His 1990 debut album is credited as the first Chicano rap album.Frost's music entered the Billboard 200 again in 2002 with the album ''Still Up in This Shit!''.", "He is the father of record producer Scoop DeVille." ], [ "Early life", "Molina was born and raised in Los Angeles, California, and occasionally lived with his family in military bases in Guam and Germany.", "He is of Mexican descent.", "He began his music career in 1982 as Kid Frost as a tribute to his rival Ice-T, whom he often battled in the music industry.", "In an interview Frost stated that his first actual DJ was in fact Dr. Dre and DJ Yella.", "He soon became a breakdancer for Uncle Jamms Army." ], [ "Career", "In the mid-1980s, Frost released several pre-gangsta 12\" singles on Los Angeles-based labels Electrobeat and Baja.", "In the late 1980s, Kid Frost moved to Virgin Records.", "His biggest hit, \"La Raza\", from his debut album ''Hispanic Causing Panic'' (1990), combined East L.A. and Tex-Mex elements and became an \"East L.A. anthem.", "''Hispanic Causing Panic'' is credited as the first Chicano rap album, and brought attention to Chicano rappers on the West Coast.Frost also established a Latin rap supergroup called Latin Alliance, which released their only album, ''Latin Alliance'', in 1991.His second album, ''East Side Story'' was released in 1992, and had appearances by MC Eiht, A.L.T.", "and Ganxta Ridd from the Boo-Yaa T.R.I.B.E.In 1995, Frost dropped the \"Kid\" from his nickname and signed with Ruthless Records, Eazy-E's label (distributed by Relativity).", "''Smile Now, Die Later'' was released that year.", "Above The Law were featured as guest rappers, alongside A.L.T., O.G.Enius and Kokane.", "Rick James also appeared on Frost's version of \"Mary Jane\".", "His second album for Ruthless, ''When Hell.A.Freezes Over'', was released in 1997.Ice-T, Scoop, O.G.Enius and Domino also appeared as guest rappers.", "In 1998, Frost collaborated with South Park Mexican in \"''El Jugador\"'' music video along with Low-G released by Dope House Records in the Power Moves: The Table album.", "Frost was also featured in the songs: Cali-Tex Connect, and West Coast, Gulf Coast, East Coast also from the Power Moves: The Table album In 1999, Frost moved to a small independent label called Celeb Entertainment Inc. His first album for Celeb Entertainment titled ''This Was Then This Is Now Vol.", "I'' was released in 1999.Kurupt, King T, Baby Bash, Jay Tee, Jayo Felony, Xzibit, B-Legit and Cameo were featured on the CD.", "''That Was Then This Is Now Vol.", "II'' was released in 2000.Frank V., Clika One, Jay Tee, Baby Bash and other guest rappers were also featured on the CD.2002's ''Still Up In This Shit!", "'', released by Hit-A-Lick and Koch Records, featured more Latin rap style and g-funk tracks as well as a hidden bonus rock track titled \"Cannabis\".", "Mellow Man Ace, Daz Dillinger, Baby Bash, A.L.T., Nino Brown, Don Cisco and other guest rappers appeared, and one track featured the group Tierra.In 2004 ''Welcome to Frost Angeles'' was released on Thump Records, which was produced almost entirely by Frost and his son Scoop DeVille.", "Only the Intro is produced by Binky Womack, and Philly Blunt co-produced one track.", "Guest rappers included Cameosis, Genovese and Jay Tee.", "Frost again signed to Low Profile Records and released his album ''Till The Wheels Fall Off'' in 2006.It had various guest appearances which included Baby Bash, Scoop DeVille and Mr. Sancho.Frost also performed music for films including \"Bite the Bullet (Theme from Gunmen)\" in the 1993 film ''Gunmen'' and \"Tears Of A Mother\" in the film ''No Mothers Crying, No Babies Dying'', which featured Ice-T.Frost is also an accomplished actor appearing in several films, as well as doing voice roles for fictional characters such as T-Bone Mendez from ''Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas'' and contributing his song \"La Raza\".He was named vice president of the Music Division of Goldmark Industries on August 30, 2006.Frost also appeared in a cameo role in Snoop Dogg's \"Vato\" music video, as well as B-Real that same year.In 2016, Frost announced he has been diagnosed with cancer." ], [ "Discography", "=== Studio albums ===*''Hispanic Causing Panic'' (1990)*''East Side Story'' (1992)*''Smile Now, Die Later'' (1995)*''When Hell.A.", "Freezes Over'' (1997)*''That Was Then, This Is Now, Vol.", "1'' (1999)*''That Was Then, This Is Now, Vol.", "2'' (2000)*''Still Up in This Shit!''", "(2002)*''Welcome to Frost Angeles'' (2004)*''Till the Wheels Fall Off'' (2006)*''All Oldies'' (2011)*''All Oldies II'' (2012)*''Old School Funk'' (2013)*''The Good Man'' (2013)=== Collaboration albums ===*''Latin Alliance'' with Latin Alliance (1991)*''Velvet City'' with Latino Velvet (2000)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]
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[ [ "Kurtis Blow" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Kurtis Walker''' (born August 9, 1959), professionally known by his stage name '''Kurtis Blow''', is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, record/film producer, b-boy, DJ, public speaker and minister.", "He is the first commercially successful rapper and the first to sign with a major record label.", "\"The Breaks\", a single from his 1980 self-titled debut album, is the first certified gold record rap song.", "Throughout his career he has released 17 albums and is currently an ordained minister." ], [ "Early life, family and education", "Walker was raised in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City.", "He attended CCNY and Nyack College, studying communications/film and ministry." ], [ "Career", "In 1979, at the age of twenty, Kurtis Blow became the first rapper to be signed by a major label, Mercury, which released \"Christmas Rappin'\".", "It sold over 400,000 copies, becoming one of the first commercially successful hip hop singles.", "Its follow-up, \"The Breaks\", sold over 840,000 copies.", "He released ten albums over the next eleven years.", "His first album was ''Kurtis Blow'', while his second was the top 40 R&B album ''Deuce''.", "''Party Time'' featured a fusion of rap and go-go.", "''Ego Trip'' included the hits: \"8 Million Stories\", \"AJ Scratch\", and \"Basketball\".", "His 1985 album, ''America'', garnered praise for its title track's music video.", "From this album, the song \"If I Ruled the World\" became a top 5 hit on ''Billboard''s R&B chart.", "By 1983, he moved into production.He lived in Co-op City in the Bronx in the mid-1980s.Besides his own work, Kurtis has been responsible for hits by The Fat Boys and Run DMC.", "Run began his career billed as 'The Son of Kurtis Blow'.", "Lovebug Starski, Full Force, Russell Simmons and Wyclef Jean all have been produced by, or collaborated with, Walker.", "Former label mates René & Angela had their R&B chart topping debut \"Save Your Love (For #1)\" was gift rapped by Kurtis.", "Walker produced, with Phillip Jones as co-producer and Dexter Scott King as executive producer, the song \"King Holiday\", celebrating the first Martin Luther King Jr. Day, a U.S. federal holiday inaugurated in January 1986.He performed as an actor and in music coordination in several feature films including Leon Kennedy's ''Knights of the City'' and the hip hop film ''Krush Groove.''", "He was host and co-producer for ''Das Leben Amerikanischer Gangs'' (1995), an international film production focusing on the West Coast gang scene.", "As host and associate producer for Miramax's ''Rhyme and Reason'', he gave an informative account of the status of hip hop, while he participated in the three volume record release ''The History of Rap'' for Rhino Records in 1998.Kurtis also co produced \"Slippin, Ten Years with the Bloods\" and won praises from Showtime for being the most viewed documentary in 2003.Kurtis was recently a producer for the Netflix show, \"The Get Down\".Kurtis has spoken out emphatically against racism.", "He was an active participant in the Artists United Against Apartheid record \"Sun City\".", "He worked with Rev.", "Jesse Jackson's Operation Push and National Rainbow Coalition in Chicago and with Rev.", "Al Sharpton's Action Network in New York City.", "In 1995, he started working on-air in radio, Power 106, the No.", "1 CHR radio station in Southern California.", "He hosted ''The Old School Show'' on Sunday nights, featuring hits from the past.", "He also worked for Sirius Satellite Radio on the Classic Old School Hip Hop station Backspin (Channel 46) from 2000 to 2004.Beginning in 1996, Kurtis Blow was featured in a hip hop display at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "In the same year, rapper Nas debuted at No.", "53 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 with his version of Blow's \"If I Ruled the World\".", "The song went on to double platinum.", "In 1998, the group Next released \"Too Close\", in which the music of \"Christmas Rappin'\" was sampled.", "ASCAP honored Kurt and Next at a gala affair on May 26, 1999 for having the number one song for 8 months.", "In 2002, he traveled to the Middle East to tour the Armed Forces bases performing seventeen shows for the troops.In December 2014, Kurt was the Guest MC for the world premiere of ''The Hip Hop Nutcracker'' at New Jersey Performing Arts Center, a well received update of Tchaikovsky's holiday classic.", "A national tour of the show was scheduled to launch in November 2015 with Kurtis Blow reprising his role as Guest MC opening the show.", "The show has presently been up and running with 50–60 sold-out performances during the holidays.In 2016 Kurtis was unanimously elected as Chairman of the Universal Hip Hop Museum.", "The museum is slated to open in 2023 in the Bronx point section of NYC.", "In 2017, Kurtis formed \"The Bboy Committee\", a group of 1st generation Bboys/Girls, who created the style of dance called Bboying, Rocking, and Break Dancing.", "The members of the Bboy Committee are as follows: Trixie (Lauree Myers),RIP Wallace D, Dancing Doug (Douglas Colon), A1 Bboy Sasa, DJ Clark Kent (Tyrone Smith), the Legendary Smith Twins, the Zulu Kings and Cholly Rock (Anthony G. Horne), OG BGirl – Darlene Rivers, \"Puppet\" (William \"Billy Bill\" Waring), Darryl Solomon (The Mad Hatter), Kurtis Blow, Lil Cesar Rivas, and Shabba-Doo.", "The committee is dedicated to the facilitation of the Bboy section of the Universal Hip Hop Museum.Kurtis became an ordained minister on August 16, 2009.As the founder of the Hip Hop Church in Harlem, Kurtis serves as rapper, DJ, worship leader and licensed minister.In 2016, Kurtis Blow appeared in a documentary on the evolution of hip hop, ''Hip-Hop Evolution''.", "Hosted by Canadian rapper and broadcaster Shad, the series profiled the history of hip-hop music through interviews with many of the genre's leading cultural figures.", "The series was produced by Russell Peters, Scot McFadyen, Sam Dunn and Nelson George.", "It won the 2016 Peabody Award, and the 2017 International Emmy Award for Best Arts Programming.", "The series has been broadcast on Netflix." ], [ "Discography", "=== Studio albums ===*''Kurtis Blow'' (1980)*''Deuce'' (1981)*''Tough'' (1982)*''Ego Trip'' (1984)*''America'' (1985)*''Kingdom Blow'' (1986)*''Back by Popular Demand'' (1988);Group albums* ''Urban Gypsys'' as part of Urban Gypsys (1999);Collaboration albums* ''Just Do It'' with The Trinity (2004)* ''Father, Son & Holy Ghost'' with The Trinity (2009)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Kurtis Blow on AllMusic* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Kazakhstan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Kazakhstan''', officially the '''Republic of Kazakhstan''', is a landlocked country mostly in Central Asia, with a small part in Eastern Europe.", "It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbekistan to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southwest, with a coastline along the Caspian Sea.", "Its capital is Astana, while the largest city and leading cultural and commercial hub is Almaty.", "Kazakhstan is the world's ninth-largest country by land area and the largest landlocked country.", "It has a population of 20 million and one of the lowest population densities in the world, at fewer than .", "Ethnic Kazakhs constitute a majority, while ethnic Russians form a significant minority.", "Officially secular, Kazakhstan is a Muslim-majority country, although ethnic Russians in the country form a sizeable Christian community.Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era.", "In antiquity, various nomadic Iranian peoples such as the Saka, Massagetae, and Scythians dominated the territory, with the Achaemenid Persian Empire expanding towards the southern region.", "Turkic nomads entered the region from as early as the sixth century.", "In the 13th century, the area was subjugated by the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan.", "Following the disintegration of the Golden Horde in the 15th century, the Kazakh Khanate was established over an area roughly corresponding with modern Kazakhstan.", "By the 18th century, the Kazakh Khanate had fragmented into three (tribal divisions), which were gradually absorbed and conquered by the Russian Empire; by the mid-19th century, all of Kazakhstan was nominally under Russian rule.", "Following the 1917 Russian Revolution and subsequent Russian Civil War, the territory was reorganized several times.", "In 1936, its modern borders were established with the formation of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic within the Soviet Union.", "Kazakhstan was the last Soviet republic to declare independence during the dissolution of the Soviet Union from 1988 to 1991.Kazakhstan dominates Central Asia economically and politically, accounting for 60 percent of the region's GDP, primarily through its oil and gas industry; it also has vast mineral resources.", "Kazakhstan has the highest Human Development Index ranking in the region.", "It is ''de jure'' a democratic, unitary, constitutional republic; however, it is ''de facto'' an authoritarian regime with no free elections.", "Nevertheless, there have been incremental efforts at democratization and political reform since the 2019 resignation of President Nursultan Nazarbayev.", "Kazakhstan is a member state of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Commonwealth of Independent States, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, Eurasian Economic Union, Collective Security Treaty Organization, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Organization of Islamic Cooperation, Organization of Turkic States, and International Organization of Turkic Culture." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word ''Kazakh'', meaning a member of the Kazakh people, derives from .", "The native name is .", "It might originate from the Turkic word verb ''qaz-'', 'to wander', reflecting the Kazakhs' nomadic culture.", "The term 'Cossack' is of the same origin.In Turko-Persian sources, the term ''Özbek-Qazaq'' first appeared during the mid-16th century, in the ''Tarikh-i-Rashidi'' by Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a Chagatayid prince of Kashmir, which locates Kazakh in the eastern part of ''Desht-i Qipchaq''.", "According to Vasily Bartold, the Kazakhs likely began using that name during the 15th century.Though ''Kazakh'' traditionally referred only to ethnic Kazakhs, including those living in China, Russia, Turkey, Uzbekistan and other neighbouring countries, the term is increasingly being used to refer to any inhabitant of Kazakhstan, including residents of other ethnicities." ], [ "History", "Central Asia, including modern Kazakhstan, during the Iron Age.Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era.", "The Botai culture (3700–3100 BC) is credited with the first domestication of horses.", "The Botai population derived most of their ancestry from a deeply European-related population known as Ancient North Eurasians, while also displaying some Ancient East Asian admixture.", "Pastoralism developed during the Neolithic.", "The population was Caucasoid during the Bronze and Iron Age period.The Kazakh territory was a key constituent of the Eurasian trading Steppe Route, the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Roads.", "Archaeologists believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the region's vast steppes.", "During recent prehistoric times, Central Asia was inhabited by groups such as the possibly Indo-European Afanasievo culture, later early Indo-Iranian cultures such as Andronovo, and later Indo-Iranians such as the Saka and Massagetae.", "Other groups included the nomadic Scythians and the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the southern territory of the modern country.", "The Andronovo and Srubnaya cultures, precursors to the peoples of the Scythian cultures, were found to harbor mixed ancestry from the Yamnaya Steppe herders and peoples of the Central European Middle Neolithic.In 329 BC, Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army fought in the Battle of Jaxartes against the Scythians along the Jaxartes River, now known as the Syr Darya along the southern border of modern Kazakhstan.=== Cuman-Kipchak and the Golden Horde ===Cuman–Kipchak confederation in Eurasia circa 1200.The Kazakhs are descendants of Kipchaks, Nogais and other Turkic and medieval Mongol tribes.The main migration of Turkic peoples occurred between the 5th and 11th centuries when they spread across most of Central Asia.", "The Turkic peoples slowly replaced and assimilated the previous Iranian-speaking locals, turning the population of Central Asia from largely Iranian, into primarily of East Asian descent.The first Turkic Khaganate was founded by Bumin in 552 on the Mongolian Plateau and quickly spread west toward the Caspian Sea.", "The Göktürks drove before them various peoples: Xionites, Uar, Oghurs and others.", "These seem to have merged into the Avars and Bulgars.", "Within 35 years the eastern half and the Western Turkic Khaganate were independent.", "The Western Khaganate reached its peak in the early 7th century.The Cumans entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the Kipchak and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation.", "While ancient cities Taraz (Aulie-Ata) and Hazrat-e Turkestan had long served as important way-stations along the Silk Road connecting Asia and Europe, true political consolidation began only with the Mongol rule of the early 13th century.", "Under the Mongol Empire, the first strictly structured administrative districts (Ulus) were established.", "After the division of the Mongol Empire in 1259, the land that would become modern-day Kazakhstan was ruled by the Golden Horde, also known as the Ulus of Jochi.", "During the Golden Horde period, a Turco-Mongol tradition emerged among the ruling elite wherein Turkicised descendants of Genghis Khan followed Islam and continued to reign over the lands.=== Kazakh Khanate ===In 1465, the Kazakh Khanate emerged as a result of the dissolution of the Golden Horde.", "Established by Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan, it continued to be ruled by the Turco-Mongol clan of Tore (Jochid dynasty).", "Throughout this period, traditional nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe.", "In the 15th century, a distinct Kazakh identity began to emerge among the Turkic tribes.", "This was followed by the Kazakh War of Independence, where the Khanate gained its sovereignty from the Shaybanids.", "The process was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of the Kazakh language, culture, and economy.", "}Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south.", "At its height, the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control Cumania.", "The Kazakh Khanate's territories would expand deep into Central Asia.", "By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which had effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) hordes (''jüz'').", "Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between east and west weakened the Kazakh Khanate.", "The Khiva Khanate used this opportunity and annexed the Mangyshlak Peninsula.", "Uzbek rule there lasted two centuries until the Russian arrival.During the 17th century, the Kazakhs fought the Oirats, a federation of western Mongol tribes, including the Dzungar.", "The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate.", "During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 war against the Dzungar Khanate, following their \"Great Disaster\" invasion of Kazakh territory.", "Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River in 1726 and at the Battle of Añyraqai in 1729.Ablai Khan participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungar from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a \"''batyr''\" (\"hero\") by the people.", "The Kazakhs suffered from the frequent raids against them by the Volga Kalmyks.", "The Kokand Khanate used the weakness of Kazakh jüzs after Dzungar and Kalmyk raids and conquered present Southeastern Kazakhstan, including Almaty, the formal capital in the first quarter of the 19th century.", "The Emirate of Bukhara ruled Şymkent before the Russians gained dominance.=== Russian Kazakhstan ===Ural Cossacks skirmish with KazakhsKazakh woman in wedding clothes, 19th centuryIn the first half of the 18th century, the Russian Empire constructed the Irtysh line, a series of forty-six forts and ninety-six redoubts, including Omsk (1716), Semipalatinsk (1718), Pavlodar (1720), Orenburg (1743) and Petropavlovsk (1752), to prevent Kazakh and Oirat raids into Russian territory.", "In the late 18th century the Kazakhs took advantage of Pugachev's Rebellion, which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Russian and Volga German settlements.", "In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand its influence into Central Asia.", "The \"Great Game\" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907.The tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called \"Great Game\" for dominance in the area against the British Empire, which was extending its influence from the south in India and Southeast Asia.", "Russia built its first outpost, Orsk, in 1735.Russia introduced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations.Russia's efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakhs, and, by the 1860s, some Kazakhs resisted its rule.", "Russia had disrupted the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and people were suffering from starvation, with some Kazakh tribes being decimated.", "The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle Kazakh culture.From the 1890s onward, ever-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire began colonizing the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular, the province of Semirechye.", "The number of settlers rose still further once the Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed in 1906.A specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St. Petersburg oversaw and encouraged the migration to expand Russian influence in the area.", "During the 19th century, about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.", "Vasile Balabanov was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time.The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of the Russian Empire.", "The most serious uprising, the Central Asian revolt, occurred in 1916.The Kazakhs attacked Russian and Cossack settlers and military garrisons.", "The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides.", "Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919.=== Kazakh SSR ===Stanitsa Sofiiskaya, Talgar, 1920sYoung Pioneers at a Young Pioneer camp in the Kazakh SSRFollowing the collapse of central government in Petrograd in November 1917, the Kazakhs (then in Russia officially referred to as \"Kirghiz\") experienced a brief period of autonomy (the Alash Autonomy) before eventually succumbing to the Bolsheviks′ rule.", "On 26 August 1920, the Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was established.", "The Kirghiz ASSR included the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, but its administrative centre was the mainly Russian-populated town of Orenburg.", "In June 1925, the Kirghiz ASSR was renamed the Kazak ASSR and its administrative centre was transferred to the town of Kyzylorda, and in April 1927 to Alma-Ata.Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced collectivisation in the late 1920s and 1930s, brought famine and high fatalities, leading to unrest (see also: Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33).", "During the 1930s, some members of the Kazakh intelligentsia were executed – as part of the policies of political reprisals pursued by the Soviet government in Moscow.On 5 December 1936, the Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (whose territory by then corresponded to that of modern Kazakhstan) was detached from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and made the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, a full union republic of the USSR, one of eleven such republics at the time, along with the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic.The republic was one of the destinations for exiled and convicted persons, as well as for mass resettlements, or deportations affected by the central USSR authorities during the 1930s and 1940s, such as approximately 400,000 Volga Germans deported from the Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in September–October 1941, and then later the Greeks and Crimean Tatars.", "Deportees and prisoners were interned in some of the biggest Soviet labour camps (the Gulag), including ALZhIR camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered \"enemies of the people\".", "Many moved due to the policy of population transfer in the Soviet Union and others were forced into involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union.Alma-Ata DeclarationThe Soviet-German War (1941–1945) led to an increase in industrialisation and mineral extraction in support of the war effort.", "At the time of Joseph Stalin's death in 1953, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural economy.", "In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the Virgin Lands Campaign designed to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union.", "The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results.", "However, along with later modernisations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev (in power 1964–1982), it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population.", "Because of the decades of privation, war and resettlement, by 1959 the Kazakhs had become a minority, making up 30 percent of the population.", "Ethnic Russians accounted for 43 percent.In 1947, the USSR, as part of its atomic bomb project, founded an atomic bomb test site near the north-eastern town of Semipalatinsk, where the first Soviet nuclear bomb test was conducted in 1949.Hundreds of nuclear tests were conducted until 1989 with adverse consequences for the nation's environment and population.", "The Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan became a major political force in the late 1980s.In April 1961, Baikonur became the springboard of Vostok 1, a spacecraft with Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin being the first human to enter space.In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called the Jeltoqsan riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR Dinmukhamed Konayev with Gennady Kolbin from the Russian SFSR.", "Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed, and many demonstrators were jailed.", "In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and found expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of ''glasnost'' (\"openness\").=== Independence ===On 25 October 1990, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty on its territory as a republic within the Soviet Union.", "Following the August 1991 aborted coup attempt in Moscow, Kazakhstan declared independence on 16 December 1991, thus becoming the last Soviet republic to declare independence.", "Ten days later, the Soviet Union itself ceased to exist.Kazakhstan's communist-era leader, Nursultan Nazarbayev, became the country's first President.", "Nazarbayev ruled in an authoritarian manner.", "An emphasis was placed on converting the country's economy to a market economy while political reforms lagged behind economic advances.", "By 2006, Kazakhstan was generating 60 percent of the GDP of Central Asia, primarily through its oil industry.In 1997, the government moved the capital to Astana, renamed Nur-Sultan on 23 March 2019, from Almaty, Kazakhstan's largest city, where it had been established under the Soviet Union.Elections to the Majilis in September 2004, yielded a lower house dominated by the pro-government Otan Party, headed by President Nazarbayev.", "Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar Party, founded by President Nazarbayev's daughter, won most of the remaining seats.", "The opposition parties which were officially registered and competed in the elections won a single seat.", "The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe was monitoring the election, which it said fell short of international standards.In March 2011, Nazarbayev outlined the progress made toward democracy by Kazakhstan.", ", Kazakhstan was reported on the Democracy Index by ''The Economist'' as an authoritarian regime, which was still the case as of the 2022 report.On 19 March 2019, Nazarbayev announced his resignation from the presidency.", "Kazakhstan's senate speaker Kassym-Jomart Tokayev won the 2019 presidential election that was held on 9 June.", "His first official act was to rename the capital after his predecessor.", "In June 2019, the new president, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, won Kazakhstan's presidential election.In January 2022, the country plunged into political unrest following a spike in fuel prices.", "In consequence, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev took over as head of the powerful Security Council, removing his predecessor Nursultan Nazarbayev from the post.", "In September 2022, the name of the country's capital was changed back to Astana from Nur-Sultan." ], [ "Geography", "Satellite image of Kazakhstan (November 2004)As it extends across both sides of the Ural River, considered the dividing line separating Europe and Asia, Kazakhstan is one of only two landlocked countries in the world that has territory in two continents (the other is Azerbaijan).With an area of equivalent in size to Western EuropeKazakhstan is the ninth-largest country and largest landlocked country in the world.", "While it was part of the Russian Empire, Kazakhstan lost some of its territory to China's Xinjiang province, and some to Uzbekistan's Karakalpakstan autonomous republic during Soviet years.The Kazakh Steppe is part of the Eurasian Steppe Belt (in on the map).It shares borders of with Russia, with Uzbekistan, with China, with Kyrgyzstan, and with Turkmenistan.", "Major cities include Astana, Almaty, Qarağandy, Şymkent, Atyrau, and Öskemen.", "It lies between latitudes 40° and 56° N, and longitudes 46° and 88° E. While located primarily in Asia, a small portion of Kazakhstan is also located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.Kazakhstan's terrain extends west to east from the Caspian Sea to the Altay Mountains and north to south from the plains of Western Siberia to the oases and deserts of Central Asia.", "The Kazakh Steppe (plain), with an area of around , occupies one-third of the country and is the world's largest dry steppe region.", "The steppe is characterised by large areas of grasslands and sandy regions.", "Major seas, lakes and rivers include Lake Balkhash, Lake Zaysan, the Charyn River and gorge, the Ili, Irtysh, Ishim, Ural and Syr Darya rivers, and the Aral Sea until it largely dried up in one of the world's worst environmental disasters.The Charyn Canyon is long, cutting through a red sandstone plateau and stretching along the Charyn River gorge in northern Tian Shan (\"Heavenly Mountains\", east of Almaty) at .", "The steep canyon slopes, columns and arches rise to heights of between .", "The inaccessibility of the canyon provided a safe haven for a rare ash tree, ''Fraxinus sogdiana'', which survived the Ice Age there and has now also grown in some other areas.", "Bigach crater, at , is a Pliocene or Miocene asteroid impact crater, in diameter and estimated to be 5±3 million years old.Kazakhstan's Almaty region is also home to the Mynzhylky mountain plateau.=== Natural resources ===Qarağandy RegionKazakhstan has an abundant supply of accessible mineral and fossil fuel resources.", "Development of petroleum, natural gas, and mineral extractions has attracted most of the over $40 billion in foreign investment in Kazakhstan since 1993 and accounts for some 57 percent of the nation's industrial output (or approximately 13 percent of gross domestic product).", "According to some estimates, Kazakhstan has the second largest uranium, chromium, lead, and zinc reserves; the third largest manganese reserves; the fifth largest copper reserves; and ranks in the top ten for coal, iron, and gold.", "It is also an exporter of diamonds.", "Perhaps most significant for economic development, Kazakhstan also has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas.", "One such location is the Tokarevskoye gas condensate field.In total, there are 160 deposits with over of petroleum.", "Oil explorations have shown that the deposits on the Caspian shore are only a small part of a much larger deposit.", "It is said that of oil and of gas could be found in that area.", "Overall the estimate of Kazakhstan's oil deposits is .", "However, there are only three refineries within the country, situated in Atyrau, Pavlodar, and Şymkent.", "These are not capable of processing the total crude output, so much of it is exported to Russia.", "According to the US Energy Information Administration, Kazakhstan was producing approximately of oil per day in 2009.Kazakhstan also possesses large deposits of phosphorite.", "Two of the largest deposits include the Karatau basin with 650 million tonnes of P2O5 and the Chilisai deposit of the Aqtobe phosphorite basin located in northwestern Kazakhstan, with resources of 500–800million tonnes of 9 percent ore.On 17 October 2013, the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) accepted Kazakhstan as \"EITI Compliant\", meaning that the country has a basic and functional process to ensure the regular disclosure of natural resource revenues.=== Climate ===Kazakhstan map of Köppen climate classificationKazakhstan has an \"extreme\" continental climate, with hot summers and very cold winters.", "Indeed, Astana is the second coldest capital city in the world after Ulaanbaatar.", "Precipitation varies between arid and semi-arid conditions, the winter being particularly dry.+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for large cities in KazakhstanLocationJuly (°C)July (°F)January (°C)January (°F)Almaty 30/18 86/64 0/−8 33/17Şymkent 32/17 91/66 4/−4 39/23Qarağandy 27/14 80/57 −8/−17 16/1Astana 27/15 80/59 −10/−18 14/−1Pavlodar 28/15 82/59 −11/−20 12/−5Aqtobe 30/15 86/61 −8/−16 17/2=== Wildlife ===Corsac foxThere are ten nature reserves and ten national parks in Kazakhstan that provide safe haven for many rare and endangered plants and animals.", "Common plants are ''Astragalus'', ''Gagea'', ''Allium'', ''Carex'' and ''Oxytropis''; endangered plant species include native wild apple (''Malus sieversii''), wild grape (''Vitis vinifera'') and several wild tulip species (e.g., ''Tulipa greigii'') and rare onion species ''Allium karataviense'', also ''Iris willmottiana'' and ''Tulipa kaufmanniana''.", "Kazakhstan had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.23/10, ranking it 26th globally out of 172 countries.Common mammals include the wolf, red fox, corsac fox, moose, argali (the largest species of sheep), Eurasian lynx, Pallas's cat, and snow leopards, several of which are protected.Kazakhstan's Red Book of Protected Species lists 125 vertebrates including many birds and mammals, and 404 plants including fungi, algae and lichens." ], [ "Government and politics", "=== Political system ===Officially, Kazakhstan is a democratic, secular, constitutional unitary republic; Nursultan Nazarbayev led the country from 1991 to 2019.He was succeeded by Kassym-Jomart Tokayev.", "The president may veto legislation that has been passed by the parliament and is also the commander in chief of the armed forces.", "The prime minister chairs the cabinet of ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government.", "There are three deputy prime ministers and sixteen ministers in the cabinet.", "120px 120pxKassym-Jomart TokayevPresidentOljas BektenovPrime Minister of KazakhstanKazakhstan has a bicameral parliament composed of the ''Majilis'' (the lower house) and senate (the upper house).", "Single-mandate districts popularly elect 107 seats in the ''Majilis''; there also are ten members elected by party-list vote.", "The senate has 48 members.", "Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (mäslihats) of Kazakhstan's sixteen principal administrative divisions (fourteen regions plus the cities of Astana, Almaty, and Şymkent).", "The president appoints the remaining fifteen senators.", "''Majilis'' deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the parliament.In 2020, Freedom House rated Kazakhstan as a \"consolidated authoritarian regime\", stating that freedom of speech is not respected and \"Kazakhstan's electoral laws do not provide for free and fair elections.", "\"===Political reforms===Reforms have begun to be implemented after the election of Kassym-Jomart Tokayev in June 2019.Tokayev supports a culture of opposition, public assembly, and loosening rules on forming political parties.", "In June 2019, Tokayev established the National Council of Public Trust as a public platform for national conversation regarding government policies and reforms.", "In July 2019, the President of Kazakhstan announced a concept of a 'listening state' that quickly and efficiently responds to all constructive requests of the country's citizens.", "A law will be passed to allow representatives from other parties to hold chair positions on some Parliamentary committees, to foster alternative views and opinions.", "The minimum membership threshold needed to register a political party will be reduced from 40,000 to 20,000 members.", "Special places for peaceful rallies in central areas will be allocated and a new draft law outlining the rights and obligations of organisers, participants and observers will be passed.", "In an effort to increase public safety, President Tokayev has strengthened the penalties for those who commit crimes against individuals.On 17 September 2022, Tokayev signed a decree that limits presidential tenure to one term of seven years.", "He furthermore announced the preparation of a new reform package to \"decentralize\" and \"distribute\" power between government institutions.", "The reform package also seeks to modify the electoral system and increase the decision-making authorities of Kazakhstan's regions.", "The powers of the parliament were expanded at the expense of those of the president, relatives of whom are now also barred from holding government positions, while the Constitutional Court was restored and the death penalty abolished.=== Administrative divisions ===Kazakhstan is divided into seventeen regions (, ; , ) plus three cities (Almaty, Astana and Şymkent) which are independent of the region in which they are situated.", "The regions are subdivided into 177 districts (, ; , ).", "The districts are further subdivided into rural districts at the lowest level of administration, which include all rural settlements and villages without an associated municipal government.The cities of Almaty and Astana have status \"state importance\" and do not belong to any region.", "The city of Baikonur has a special status because it is being leased until 2050 to Russia for the Baikonur cosmodrome.", "In June 2018 the city of Şymkent became a \"city of republican significance\".Each region is headed by an äkim (regional governor) appointed by the president.", "District ''äkimi'' are appointed by regional ''akim''s.", "Kazakhstan's government relocated its capital from Almaty, established under the Soviet Union, to Astana on 10 December 1997.=== Municipal divisions ===Municipalities exist at each level of administrative division in Kazakhstan.", "Cities of republican, regional, and district significance are designated as urban inhabited localities; all others are designated rural.", "At the highest level are the cities of Almaty and Astana, which are classified as ''cities of republican significance'' on the administrative level equal to that of a region.", "At the intermediate level are ''cities of regional significance'' on the administrative level equal to that of a district.", "Cities of these two levels may be divided into city districts.", "At the lowest level are ''cities of district significance'', and over two-thousand ''villages and rural settlements'' () on the administrative level equal to that of rural districts.=== Urban centres ====== Foreign relations ===Nazarbayev with U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in 2012Kazakhstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Economic Cooperation Organization and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.", "The nations of Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000, to revive earlier efforts to harmonise trade tariffs and to create a free trade zone under a customs union.", "On 1 December 2007, it was announced that Kazakhstan had been chosen to chair the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe for the year 2010.Kazakhstan was elected a member of the UN Human Rights Council for the first time on 12 November 2012.Kazakhstan is also a member of the United Nations, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, Turkic Council, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).", "It is an active participant in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Partnership for Peace program.In 1999, Kazakhstan had applied for observer status at the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly.", "The official response of the Assembly was that because Kazakhstan is partially located in Europe, it could apply for full membership, but that it would not be granted any status whatsoever at the council until its democracy and human rights records improved.Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the \"multivector foreign policy\" (), seeking equally good relations with its two large neighbours, Russia and China, as well as with the United States and the rest of the Western world.", "Russia leases approximately of territory enclosing the Baikonur Cosmodrome space launch site in south central Kazakhstan, where the first man was launched into space as well as Soviet space shuttle Buran and the well-known space station Mir.On 11 April 2010, presidents Nazarbayev and Obama met at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, D.C., and discussed strengthening the strategic partnership between the United States and Kazakhstan.", "They pledged to intensify bilateral co-operation to promote nuclear safety and non-proliferation, regional stability in Central Asia, economic prosperity, and universal values.Since 2014 the Kazakhstani government has been bidding for a non-permanent member seat on the UN Security Council for 2017–2018.On 28 June 2016 Kazakhstan was elected as a non-permanent member to serve on the UN Security Council for a two-year term.Erdoğan, Xi Jinping and other leaders at the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit in Samarkand, 16 September 2022Kazakhstan has supported UN peacekeeping missions in Haiti, Western Sahara, and Côte d'Ivoire.", "In March 2014, the Ministry of Defense chose 20 Kazakhstani military men as observers for the UN peacekeeping missions.", "The military personnel, ranking from captain to colonel, had to go through specialised UN training; they had to be fluent in English and skilled in using specialised military vehicles.In 2014, Kazakhstan gave Ukraine humanitarian aid during the conflict with Russian-backed rebels.", "In October 2014, Kazakhstan donated $30,000 to the International Committee of the Red Cross's humanitarian effort in Ukraine.", "In January 2015, to help the humanitarian crisis, Kazakhstan sent $400,000 of aid to Ukraine's southeastern regions.", "President Nazarbayev said of the war in Ukraine, \"The fratricidal war has brought true devastation to eastern Ukraine, and it is a common task to stop the war there, strengthen Ukraine's independence and secure territorial integrity of Ukraine.\"", "Experts believe that no matter how the Ukraine crisis develops, Kazakhstan's relations with the European Union will remain normal.", "It is believed that Nazarbayev's mediation is positively received by both Russia and Ukraine.Kazakhstan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement on 26 January 2015: \"We are firmly convinced that there is no alternative to peace negotiations as a way to resolve the crisis in south-eastern Ukraine.\"", "In 2018, Kazakhstan signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev with Russian President Vladimir Putin, 28 November 2022On 6 March 2020, the Concept of the Foreign Policy of Kazakhstan for 2020–2030 was announced.", "The document outlines the following main points:* An open, predictable and consistent foreign policy of the country, which is progressive in nature and maintains its endurance by continuing the course of the First President – the country at a new stage of development;* Protection of human rights, development of humanitarian diplomacy and environmental protection;* Promotion of the country's economic interests in the international arena, including the implementation of state policy to attract investment;* Maintaining international peace and security;* Development of regional and multilateral diplomacy, which primarily involves strengthening mutually beneficial ties with key partners – Russia, China, the United States, Central Asian states and the EU countries, as well as through multilateral structures – the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and others.Member states of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)Kazakhstan's memberships of international organisations include:* Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)* Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)* Shanghai Cooperation Organisation* Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council* Individual Partnership Action Plan, with NATO, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Moldova, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro* Turkic Council and the TÜRKSOY community.", "(The national language, Kazakh, is related to the other Turkic languages, with which it shares cultural and historical ties)* United Nations* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)* UNESCO, where Kazakhstan is a member of its World Heritage Committee* Nuclear Suppliers Group as a participating government* World Trade Organization* Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)Based on these principles, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Kazakhstan has increasingly pursued an independent foreign policy, defined by its own foreign policy objectives and ambitions through which the country attempts to balance its relations with \"all the major powers and an equally principled aversion towards excessive dependence in any field upon any one of them, while also opening the country up economically to all who are willing to invest there.", "\"=== Military ===Kazakhstan Republican GuardA Kazakhstan Sukhoi Su-27Most of Kazakhstan's military was inherited from the Soviet Armed Forces' Turkestan Military District.", "These units became the core of Kazakhstan's new military.", "It acquired all the units of the 40th Army (the former 32nd Army) and part of the 17th Army Corps, including six land-force divisions, storage bases, the 14th and 35th air-landing brigades, two rocket brigades, two artillery regiments, and a large amount of equipment that had been withdrawn from over the Urals after the signing of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe.", "Since the late 20th century, the Kazakhstan Army has focused on expanding the number of its armoured units.", "Since 1990, armoured units have expanded from 500 to 1,613 in 2005.The Kazakh air force is composed mostly of Soviet-era planes, including 41 MiG-29s, 44 MiG-31s, 37 Su-24s and 60 Su-27s.", "A small naval force is maintained on the Caspian Sea.Kazakhstan sent 29 military engineers to Iraq to assist the US post-invasion mission in Iraq.", "During the second Iraq War, Kazakhstani troops dismantled 4 million mines and other explosives, helped provide medical care to more than 5,000 coalition members and civilians, and purified of water.Kazakhstan's National Security Committee (UQK) was established on 13 June 1992.It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commando units, and Foreign Intelligence (Barlau).", "The latter is considered the most important part of KNB.", "Its director is Nurtai Abykayev.Since 2002, the joint tactical peacekeeping exercise \"Steppe Eagle\" has been hosted by the Kazakhstan government.", "\"Steppe Eagle\" focuses on building coalitions and gives participating nations the opportunity to work together.", "During the Steppe Eagle exercises, the KAZBAT peacekeeping battalion operates within a multinational force under a unified command within multidisciplinary peacekeeping operations, with NATO and the U.S. Military.In December 2013, Kazakhstan announced it will send officers to support United Nations Peacekeeping forces in Haiti, Western Sahara, Ivory Coast and Liberia.=== Human rights ===The Economist Intelligence Unit has consistently ranked Kazakhstan as an \"authoritarian regime\" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 128th out of 167 countries for 2020.Kazakhstan was ranked 122nd out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2022; previously it ranked 155th for 2021.Kazakhstan's human rights situation has been described as poor by independent observers.", "In its 2015 report of human rights in the country, Human Rights Watch said that \"Kazakhstan heavily restricts freedom of assembly, speech, and religion.\"", "It has also described the government as authoritarian.", "In 2014, authorities closed newspapers, jailed or fined dozens of people after peaceful but unsanctioned protests, and fined or detained worshipers for practising religion outside state controls.", "Government critics, including opposition leader Vladimir Kozlov, remained in detention after unfair trials.", "In mid-2014, Kazakhstan adopted new criminal, criminal executive, criminal procedural, and administrative codes, and a new law on trade unions, which contain articles restricting fundamental freedoms and are incompatible with international standards.", "Torture remains common in places of detention.\"", "However, Kazakhstan has achieved significant progress in reducing the prison population.", "The 2016 Human Rights Watch report commented that Kazakhstan \"took few meaningful steps to tackle a worsening human rights record in 2015, maintaining a focus on economic development over political reform.\"", "Some critics of the government have been arrested for allegedly spreading false information about the COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan.", "Various police reforms, like creation of local police service and zero-tolerance policing, aimed at bringing police closer to local communities have not improved cooperation between police and ordinary citizens.According to a U.S. government report released in 2014, in Kazakhstan:The law does not require police to inform detainees that they have the right to an attorney, and police did not do so.", "Human rights observers alleged that law enforcement officials dissuaded detainees from seeing an attorney, gathered evidence through preliminary questioning before a detainee's attorney arrived, and in some cases used corrupt defense attorneys to gather evidence.", "...The law does not adequately provide for an independent judiciary.", "The executive branch sharply limited judicial independence.", "Prosecutors enjoyed a quasi-judicial role and had the authority to suspend court decisions.", "Corruption was evident at every stage of the judicial process.", "Although judges were among the most highly paid government employees, lawyers and human rights monitors alleged that judges, prosecutors, and other officials solicited bribes in exchange for favorable rulings in the majority of criminal cases.Kazakhstan's global rank in the World Justice Project's 2015 Rule of Law Index was 65 out of 102; the country scored well on \"Order and Security\" (global rank 32/102), and poorly on \"Constraints on Government Powers\" (global rank 93/102), \"Open Government\" (85/102) and \"Fundamental Rights\" (84/102, with a downward trend marking a deterioration in conditions).The ABA Rule of Law Initiative of the American Bar Association has programs to train justice sector professionals in Kazakhstan.Kazakhstan's Supreme Court has taken steps to modernise and to increase transparency and oversight over the country's legal system.", "With funding from the US Agency for International Development, the ABA Rule of Law Initiative began a new program in April 2012 to strengthen the independence and accountability of Kazakhstan's judiciary.In an effort to increase transparency in the criminal justice and court system, and improve human rights, Kazakhstan intended to digitise all investigative, prosecutorial and court records by 2018.Many criminal cases are closed before trial on the basis of reconciliation between the defendant and the victim because they simplify the work of the law-enforcement officers, release the defendant from punishment, and pay little regard to the victim's rights.Homosexuality has been legal in Kazakhstan since 1997, although it is still socially unacceptable in most areas.", "Discrimination against LGBT people in Kazakhstan is widespread." ], [ "Economy", "Downtown AstanaGDP per capita development, since 1973Kazakhstan has a GDP of $179.332 billion and an annual growth rate of 4.5 percent.", "Per capita, Kazakhstan's GDP stands at $9,686.Buoyed by high world crude oil prices, GDP growth figures were between 8.9 percent and 13.5 percent from 2000 to 2007 before decreasing to 1 to 3 percent in 2008 and 2009, and then rising again from 2010.Other major exports of Kazakhstan include wheat, textiles, and livestock.", "Kazakhstan is a leading exporter of uranium.Kazakhstan's economy grew by 4.6 percent in 2014.The country experienced a slowdown in economic growth from 2014 sparked by falling oil prices and the effects of the Ukrainian crisis.", "The country devalued its currency by 19 percent in February 2014.Another 22 percent devaluation occurred in August 2015.Kazakhstan was the first former Soviet Republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund, 7 years ahead of schedule.Kazakhstan weathered the global financial crisis by combining fiscal relaxation with monetary stabilisation.", "In 2009, the government introduced large-scale support measures such as the recapitalisation of banks and support for the real estate and agricultural sectors, as well as for small and medium enterprises (SMEs).", "The total value of the stimulus programs amounted to $21 billion, or 20 per cent of the country's GDP, with $4 billion going to stabilise the financial sector.", "During the global economic crisis, Kazakhstan's economy contracted by 1.2 percent in 2009, while the annual growth rate subsequently increased to 7.5 percent and 5 percent in 2011 and 2012, respectively.", "Kazakhstan's government continued to follow a conservative fiscal policy by controlling budget spending and accumulating oil revenue savings in its Oil Fund – Samruk-Kazyna.", "The global financial crisis forced Kazakhstan to increase its public borrowing to support the economy.", "Public debt increased to 13.4 per cent in 2013 from 8.7 per cent in 2008.Between 2012 and 2013, the government achieved an overall fiscal surplus of 4.5 per cent.", "In March 2002, the U.S. Department of Commerce granted Kazakhstan market economy status under US trade law.", "This change in status recognised substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources.", "In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the CIS to receive an investment grade credit rating from a major international credit rating agency.", "By late December 2003, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22.9 billion.", "Total governmental debt was $4.2 billion, 14 percent of GDP.", "There has been a reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP.", "The ratio of total governmental debt to GDP was 21.7 percent in 2000, 17.5 percent in 2001, and 15.4 percent in 2002.In 2019, it rose to 19.2 percent.Aqtau is Kazakhstan's only seaport on the Caspian Sea.On 29 November 2003, the Law on Changes to Tax Code which reduced tax rates was adopted.", "The value added tax fell from 16% to 15%, the social tax, payable by all employers, from 21 percent to 20 percent, and the personal income tax, from 30 percent to 20 percent.", "On 7 July 2006, the personal income tax was reduced even further to a flat rate of 5 percent for personal income in the form of dividends and 10 percent for other personal income.", "Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on 20 June 2003, and a new customs code on 5 April 2003.Kazakhstan instituted a pension reform program in 1998.By January 2012, the pension assets were about $17 billion (KZT 2.5 trillion).", "There are 11 saving pension funds in the country.", "The State Accumulating Pension Fund, the only state-owned fund, was privatised in 2006.The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and regulates pension funds.", "The growing demand of pension funds for investment outlets triggered the development of the debt securities market.", "Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government bonds, including the government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds.", "The government of Kazakhstan was studying a project to create a unified national pension fund and transfer all the accounts from the private pension funds into it.Kazakhstan climbed to 41st on the 2018 Economic Freedom Index published by ''The Wall Street Journal'' and The Heritage Foundation.=== Foreign trade ===A map of Kazakhstan's imports, 2013Kazakhstan's increased role in global trade and central positioning on the new Silk Road gave the country the potential to open its markets to billions of people.", "Kazakhstan joined the World Trade Organization in 2015.Kazakhstan's foreign trade turnover in 2018 was $93.5 billion, which is 19.7 percent more compared to 2017.Export in 2018 reached $67 billion (up 25.7 percent in comparison to 2017) and import was $32.5 billion (up 9.9 percent in comparison to 2017).", "Exports accounted for 40.1 percent of Kazakhstan's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018.Kazakhstan exports 800 products to 120 countries.=== Agriculture ===Grain fields near KökşetauAgriculture accounts for approximately 5 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP.", "Grain, potatoes, grapes, vegetables, melons and livestock are the most important agricultural commodities.", "Agricultural land occupies more than .", "The available agricultural land consists of of arable land and of pasture and hay land.", "Over 80 percent of the country's total area is classified as agricultural land, including almost 70 percent occupied by pasture.", "Its arable land has the second highest availability per inhabitant (1.5 hectares).Chief livestock products are dairy products, leather, meat, and wool.", "The country's major crops include wheat, barley, cotton, and rice.", "Wheat exports, a major source of hard currency, rank among the leading commodities in Kazakhstan's export trade.", "In 2003 Kazakhstan harvested 17.6 million tons of grain in gross, 2.8% higher compared to 2002.Kazakhstani agriculture still has many environmental problems from mismanagement during its years in the Soviet Union.", "Some Kazakh wine is produced in the mountains to the east of Almaty.===Energy===oil reserves in the Caspian Sea region.Energy has been the leading economic sector.", "Production of crude oil and natural gas condensate from the oil and gas basins of Kazakhstan amounted to in 2012 up from in 2003.Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to 44.3 million tons in 2003, 13 percent higher than in 2002.Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003, amounted to , up 22.7 percent compared to 2002, including natural gas production of .", "Kazakhstan holds about of proven recoverable oil reserves and of gas.", "Kazakhstan is the 19th largest oil-producing nation in the world.", "Kazakhstan's oil exports in 2003, were valued at more than $7 billion, representing 65 percent of overall exports and 24 percent of the GDP.", "Major oil and gas fields and recoverable oil reserves are Tengiz with ; Karachaganak with and of natural gas; and Kashagan with 7 to .KazMunayGas (KMG), the national oil and gas company, was created in 2002 to represent the interests of the state in the oil and gas industry.", "The Tengiz Field was jointly developed in 1993 as a 40-year Tengizchevroil venture between Chevron Texaco (50 percent), US ExxonMobil (25 percent), KazMunayGas (20 percent), and LukArco (5 percent).", "The Karachaganak natural gas and gas condensate field is being developed by BG, Agip, ChevronTexaco, and Lukoil.", "Also Chinese oil companies are involved in Kazakhstan's oil industry.Kazakhstan launched the Green Economy Plan in 2013.It committed Kazakhstan to meet 50 percent of its energy needs from alternative and renewable sources by 2050.The green economy was projected to increase GDP by 3 percent and create some 500,000 jobs.", "The government set prices for energy produced from renewable sources.", "The price of 1 kilowatt-hour for energy produced by wind power plants was set at 22.68 tenge ($0.12), for 1 kilowatt-hour produced by small hydro-power plants 16.71 tenges ($0.09), and from biogas plants 32.23 tenges ($0.18).=== Infrastructure ===Map of Kazakhstan railway networkTrain 22 Kyzylorda – Semipalatinsk, hauled by a Kazakhstan Temir Zholy 2TE10U diesel locomotive.", "Picture taken near Aynabulak, Kazakhstan.Railways provide 68 percent of all cargo and passenger traffic to over 57 percent of the country.", "There are in common carrier service, excluding industrial lines.", "of gauge, electrified, in 2012.Most cities are connected by railroad; high-speed trains go from Almaty (the southernmost city) to Petropavl (the northernmost city) in about 18 hours.Kazakhstan Temir Zholy (KTZ) is the national railway company.", "KTZ cooperates with French locomotive manufacturer Alstom in developing Kazakhstan's railway infrastructure.", "Alstom has more than 600 staff and two joint ventures with KTZ and its subsidiary in Kazakhstan.", "In July 2017, Alstom opened its first locomotive repairing centre in Kazakhstan.", "It is the only repairing centre in Central Asia and the Caucasus.", "Astana Nurly Zhol railway station, the most modern railway station in Kazakhstan, was opened in Astana on 31 May 2017.According to Kazakhstan Railways (KTZ), the 120,000m2 station was expected to be used by 54 trains and would have the capacity to handle 35,000 passengers a day.There is a small metro system in Almaty.", "Second and third metro lines were planned for the future.", "The second line would intersect with the first line at Alatau and Zhibek Zholy stations.", "The Astana Metro system has been under construction, but was abandoned at one point in 2013.In May 2015, an agreement was signed for the project to be resumed.", "There is an tram network, which began service in 1965 with, as of 2012, 20 regular and three special routes.The Khorgos Gateway dry port is one of Kazakhstan's primary dry ports for handling trans-Eurasian trains, which travel more than between China and Europe.", "The Khorgos Gateway dry port is surrounded by Khorgos Eastern Gate SEZ which officially commenced operations in December 2016.In 2009 the European Commission blacklisted all Kazakh air carriers with a sole exception of Air Astana.", "Thereafter, Kazakhstan took measures to modernise and revamp its air safety oversight.", "In 2016 the European air safety authorities removed all Kazakh airlines from the blacklist, saying there was \"sufficient evidence of compliance\" with international standards by Kazakh Airlines and the Civil Aviation Committee.=== Tourism ===Lake Burabay, view from Mount BolectauShymbulak ski resort in AlmatyKazakhstan is the ninth-largest country by area and the largest landlocked country in the world.", "As of 2014, tourism accounted for 0.3 percent of Kazakhstan's GDP, but the government had plans to increase it to 3 percent by 2020.According to the World Economic Forum's Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report of 2017, travel and tourism industry GDP in Kazakhstan was $3.08 billion or only 1.6 percent of total GDP.", "The WEF ranked Kazakhstan 80th in its 2019 report.In 2017, Kazakhstan ranked 43rd in the number of tourist arrivals.", "In 2014, The Guardian described tourism in Kazakhstan as, \"hugely underdeveloped\", despite the country's mountain, lake and desert landscapes.", "Factors hampering an increase in tourism were said to include high prices, \"shabby infrastructure\", \"poor service\" and the difficulties of travel in a large underdeveloped country.", "Even for Kazakhs, going for a holiday abroad may cost only half the price of taking a holiday in Kazakhstan.The Kazakh Government, long characterised as authoritarian with a history of human rights abuses and suppression of political opposition, in 2015 issued a \"Tourism Industry Development Plan 2020.\"", "It aimed to establish five tourism clusters in Kazakhstan: Astana city, Almaty city, East Kazakhstan, South Kazakhstan, and West Kazakhstan Oblasts.", "It also sought investment of $4 billion and the creation of 300,000 new jobs in the tourism industry by 2020.Kazakhstan has offered a permanent visa-free regime for up to 90 days to citizens of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Russia and Ukraine, and for up to 30 days to citizens of Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Serbia, South Korea, Tajikistan, Turkey, UAE and Uzbekistan.", "It also established a visa-free regime for citizens of 54 countries, including the European Union and OECD member states, the U.S., Japan, Mexico, Australia and New Zealand.=== Foreign direct investment ===Kazakhstan has attracted $330 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) from more than 120 countries since its independence.", "In 2015, the U.S. State Department said Kazakhstan was widely considered to have the best investment climate in the region.", "In 2014, President Nazarbayev signed into law tax concessions to promote foreign direct investment which included a 10-year exemption from corporation tax, an eight-year exemption from property tax, and a 10-year freeze on most other taxes.", "Other incentives include a refund on capital investments of up to 30 percent once a production facility is in operation.In 2012, Kazakhstan attracted $14 billion of foreign direct investment inflows into the country at a 7 percent growth rate.", "In 2018, $24 billion of FDI was directed into Kazakhstan, a significant increase since 2012.In 2014, the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and Kazakhstan created the partnership for Re-Energizing the Reform Process in Kazakhstan to work with international financial institutions to channel US$2.7 billion provided by the Kazakh government into important sectors of Kazakhstan's economy.As of May 2014, Kazakhstan had attracted $190 billion in gross foreign investments since its independence in 1991 and it led the CIS countries in terms of FDI attracted per capita.", "The OECD 2017 Investment Policy Review noted that \"great strides\" had been made to open up opportunities to foreign investors and improve policy to attract FDI.China is one of the main economic and trade partners of Kazakhstan.", "In 2013, China launched the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in which Kazakhstan functions as a transit hub.=== Banking ===The banking industry of Kazakhstan went through a boom-and-bust cycle in the early 21st century.", "After several years of rapid expansion in the mid-2000s, the banking industry collapsed in 2008.Several large banking groups, including BTA Bank J.S.C.", "and Alliance Bank, defaulted soon thereafter.", "The industry shrank and was restructured, with system-wide loans dropping from 59 percent of GDP in 2007 to 39 percent in 2011.The Kazakh National Bank introduced deposit insurance in a campaign to strengthen the banking sector.", "Several major foreign banks had branches in Kazakhstan, including RBS, Citibank, and HSBC.", "Kookmin and UniCredit both entered Kazakhstan's financial services market through acquisitions and stake-building.", "=== Economic competitiveness ===According to the 2010–11 World Economic Forum in Global Competitiveness Report, Kazakhstan was ranked 72nd in the world in economic competitiveness.", "One year later, the Global Competitiveness Report ranked Kazakhstan 50th in most competitive markets.In the 2020 Doing Business Report by the World Bank, Kazakhstan ranked 25th globally and as the number one best country globally for protecting minority investors' rights.", "Kazakhstan achieved its goal of entering the top 50 most competitive countries in 2013 and has maintained its position in the 2014–2015 World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report that was published at the beginning of September 2014.Kazakhstan is ahead of other states in the CIS in almost all of the report's pillars of competitiveness, including institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic environment, higher education and training, goods market efficiency, labour market development, financial market development, technological readiness, market size, business sophistication and innovation, lagging behind only in the category of health and primary education.", "The Global Competitiveness Index gives a score from 1 to 7 in each of these pillars, and Kazakhstan earned an overall score of 4.4.=== Corruption ===In 2005, the World Bank listed Kazakhstan as a corruption hotspot, on a par with Angola, Bolivia, Kenya, Libya and Pakistan.", "In 2012, Kazakhstan ranked low in an index of the least corrupt countries and the World Economic Forum listed corruption as the biggest problem in doing business in the country.", "A 2017 OECD report on Kazakhstan indicated that Kazakhstan has reformed laws with regard to the civil service, judiciary, instruments to prevent corruption, access to information, and prosecuting corruption.", "Kazakhstan has implemented anticorruption reforms that have been recognised by organizations like Transparency International.In 2011 Switzerland confiscated US$48 million in Kazakhstani assets from Swiss bank accounts, as a result of a bribery investigation in the United States.", "US officials believed the funds represented bribes paid by American officials to Kazakhstani officials in exchange for oil or prospecting rights in Kazakhstan.", "Proceedings eventually involved US$84 million in the US and another US$60 million in Switzerland.The Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Kazakh Anti-Corruption Agency signed a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty in February 2015.Transparency International's 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index, which scored 180 countries on a scale from 0 (\"highly corrupt\") to 100 (\"very clean\"), gave Kazakhstan a score of 36.When ranked by score, Kazakhstan ranked 101st among the 180 countries in the Index, where the country ranked first is perceived to have the most honest public sector.", "For comparison, the best score was 90 (ranked 1), the worst score was 12 (ranked 180), and the average score was 43.=== Science and technology ===Trends in research expenditure in Central Asia, as a percentage of GDP, 2001–2013.Source: UNESCO Science Report: 2030 (2015), Figure 14.3.Research remains largely concentrated in Kazakhstan's largest city and former capital, Almaty, home to 52 percent of research personnel.", "Public research is largely confined to institutes, with universities making only a token contribution.", "Research institutes receive their funding from national research councils under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education and Science.", "Their output, however, tends to be disconnected from market needs.", "In the business sector, few industrial enterprises conduct research themselves.Group of Kazakhstan physicists in collaboration with Uzbek researchers working at the ion accelerator DC-60One of the most ambitious targets of the State Programme for Accelerated Industrial and Innovative Development adopted in 2010 is to raise the country's level of expenditure on research and development to 1 percent of GDP by 2015.By 2013, this ratio stood at 0.18 percent of GDP.", "It will be difficult to reach the target as long as economic growth remains strong.", "Since 2005, the economy has grown faster (by 6 percent in 2013) than gross domestic expenditure on research and development, which only progressed from PPP$598 million to PPP$714 million between 2005 and 2013.Innovation expenditure more than doubled in Kazakhstan between 2010 and 2011, representing KZT 235 billion (''circa'' US$1.6 billion), or around 1.1 percent of GDP.", "Some 11 percent of the total was spent on research and development.", "This compares with about 40 to 70 percent of innovation expenditure in developed countries.", "This augmentation was due to a sharp rise in product design and the introduction of new services and production methods over this period, to the detriment of the acquisition of machinery and equipment, which has traditionally made up the bulk of Kazakhstan's innovation expenditure.", "Training costs represented just 2 percent of innovation expenditure, a much lower share than in developed countries.", "Kazakhstan was ranked 81st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.In December 2012, President Nursultan Nazarbayev announced the ''Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy'' with the slogan \"Strong Business, Strong State.\"", "This pragmatic strategy proposes sweeping socio-economic and political reforms to hoist Kazakhstan among the top 30 economies by 2050.In this document, Kazakhstan gives itself 15 years to evolve into a knowledge economy.", "New sectors are to be created during each five-year plan.", "The first of these, covering the years 2010–2014, focused on developing industrial capacity in car manufacturing, aircraft engineering and the production of locomotives, passenger and cargo railroad cars.", "During the second five-year plan to 2019, the goal is to develop export markets for these products.", "To enable Kazakhstan to enter the world market of geological exploration, the country intends to increase the efficiency of traditional extractive sectors such as oil and gas.", "It also intends to develop rare earth metals, given their importance for electronics, laser technology, communication and medical equipment.", "The second five-year plan coincides with the development of the ''Business 2020'' roadmap for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which makes provision for the allocation of grants to SMEs in the regions and for microcredit.", "The government and the National Chamber of Entrepreneurs also plan to develop an effective mechanism to help start-ups.Baikonur Cosmodrome is the world's oldest and largest operational spaceport.During subsequent five-year plans to 2050, new industries will be established in fields such as mobile, multi-media, nano- and space technologies, robotics, genetic engineering and alternative energy.", "Food processing enterprises will be developed with an eye to turning the country into a major regional exporter of beef, dairy and other agricultural products.", "Low-return, water-intensive crop varieties will be replaced with vegetable, oil and fodder products.", "As part of the shift to a \"green economy\" by 2030, 15% of acreage will be cultivated with water-saving technologies.", "Experimental agrarian and innovational clusters will be established and drought-resistant genetically modified crops developed.The Kazakhstan 2050 Strategy fixes a target of devoting 3 percent of GDP to research and development by 2050 to allow for the development of new high-tech sectors.The Digital Kazakhstan program was launched in 2018 to boost the country's economic growth through the implementation of digital technologies.", "Kazakhstan's digitization efforts generated 800 billion tenges (US$1.97 billion) in two years.", "The program helped create 120,000 jobs and attracted 32.8 billion tenges (US$80.7 million) of investment into the country.Around 82 percent of all public services became automated as part of the Digital Kazakhstan program." ], [ "Demographics", "Population pyramid, 2020Central Asian ethnolinguistic patchwork, 1992The US Census Bureau International Database lists the population of Kazakhstan as 18.9 million (May 2019), while United Nations sources such as give an estimate of .", "Official estimates put the population of Kazakhstan at 20 million as of November 2023.In 2013, Kazakhstan's population rose to 17,280,000 with a 1.7 percent growth rate over the past year according to the Kazakhstan Statistics Agency.The 2009 population estimate is 6.8 percent higher than the population reported in the last census from January 1999.The decline in population that began after 1989 has been arrested and possibly reversed.", "Men and women make up 48.3 and 51.7 percent of the population, respectively.=== Ethnic groups ===As of 2021, ethnic Kazakhs are 70.4 percent of the population and ethnic Russians are 15.5 percent.", "Other groups include Tatars (1.1 percent), Ukrainians (2.0 percent), Uzbeks (3.2 percent), Germans (1.2 percent), Uyghurs (1.5 percent), Azerbaijanis, Dungans, Turks, Koreans, Poles, and Lithuanians.", "Some minorities such as Ukrainians, Koreans, Volga Germans (0.9 percent), Chechens, Meskhetian Turks, and Russian political opponents of the regime, had been deported to Kazakhstan in the 1930s and 1940s by Josef Stalin.", "Some of the largest Soviet labour camps (Gulag) existed in the country.Kazakhstanis on a Lake Jasybay beach, Pavlodar Region Significant Russian immigration was also connected with the Virgin Lands Campaign and Soviet space program during the Khrushchev era.", "In 1989, ethnic Russians were 37.8 percent of the population and Kazakhs held a majority in only 7 of the 20 regions of the country.", "Before 1991 there were about one million Germans in Kazakhstan, mostly descendants of the Volga Germans deported to Kazakhstan during World War II.", "After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, most of them emigrated to Germany.", "Most members of the smaller Pontian Greek minority have emigrated to Greece.", "In the late 1930s thousands of Koreans in the Soviet Union were deported to Central Asia.", "These people are now known as Koryo-saram.The 1990s were marked by the emigration of many of the country's Russians, Ukrainians and Volga Germans, a process that began in the 1970s.", "This has made indigenous Kazakhs the largest ethnic group.", "Additional factors in the increase in the Kazakhstani population are higher birthrates and immigration of ethnic Kazakhs from China, Mongolia, and Russia.=== Languages ===Kazakhstan is officially a bilingual country.", "Kazakh (part of the Kipchak sub-branch of the Turkic languages) is spoken natively by 64.4 percent of the population and has the status of \"state language\".", "Russian is spoken by most Kazakhs, has equal status to Kazakh as an \"official language\", and is used routinely in business, government, and inter-ethnic communication.The government announced in January 2015 that the Latin alphabet will replace Cyrillic as the writing system for the Kazakh language by 2025.Other minority languages spoken in Kazakhstan include Uzbek, Ukrainian, Uyghur, Kyrgyz, Tatar, and German.", "English, as well as Turkish, have gained popularity among younger people since the collapse of the Soviet Union.", "Education across Kazakhstan is conducted in either Kazakh, Russian, or both.", "In Nazarbayev's resignation speech of 2019, he projected that the people of Kazakhstan in the future will speak three languages (Kazakh, Russian and English).=== Religion ===Ascension Cathedral in AlmatyCathedral of Our Lady of Fatima is the biggest Catholic church in Central Asia.According to the 2021 census, 69.3% of the population is Muslim, 17.2% are Christian, 0.2% follow other religions (mostly Buddhist and Jewish), 11.01% chose not to answer, and 2.25% identify as atheist.Kazakhstan is a secular state whose constitution guarantees religious freedoms.", "Article 39 of the constitution states: \"Human rights and freedoms shall not be restricted in any way.\"", "Article 14 prohibits \"discrimination on religious basis\" and Article 19 ensures that everyone has the \"right to determine and indicate or not to indicate his/her ethnic, party and religious affiliation.\"", "The Constitutional Council affirmed these rights in a 2009 declaration, which stated that a proposed law limiting the rights of certain individuals to practice their religion was declared unconstitutional.Islam is the largest religion in Kazakhstan, followed by Eastern Orthodox Christianity.", "After decades of religious suppression by the Soviet Union, the coming of independence witnessed a surge in the expression of ethnic identity, partly through religion.", "The free practice of religious beliefs and the establishment of full freedom of religion led to an increase of religious activity.", "Hundreds of mosques, churches, and other religious structures were built in the span of a few years, with the number of religious associations rising from 670 in 1990 to 4,170 today.Some figures show that non-denominational Muslims form the majority, while others indicate that most Muslims in the country are Sunnis following the Hanafi school.", "These include ethnic Kazakhs, who constitute about 70% of the population, as well as ethnic Uzbeks, Uighurs, and Tatars.", "Less than 1% are part of the Sunni Shafi`i school (primarily Chechens).", "There are also some Ahmadi Muslims.", "There are a total of 2,300 mosques, all of them are affiliated with the \"Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan\", headed by a supreme mufti.", "Unaffiliated mosques are forcefully closed.", "Eid al-Adha is recognised as a national holiday.", "One quarter of the population is Russian Orthodox, including ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.", "Other Christian groups include Roman Catholics, Greek Catholics, and Protestants.", "There are a total of 258 Orthodox churches, 93 Catholic churches (9 Greek Catholic), and over 500 Protestant churches and prayer houses.", "The Russian Orthodox Christmas is recognised as a national holiday in Kazakhstan.", "Other religious groups include Judaism, the Baháʼí Faith, Hinduism, Buddhism, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.According to the 2009 Census data, there are very few Christians outside the Slavic and Germanic ethnic groups.=== Education ===Kazakh National University of ArtsEducation is universal and mandatory through to the secondary level and the adult literacy rate is 99.5%.", "On average, these statistics are equal to both women and men in Kazakhstan.Education consists of three main phases: primary education (forms 1–4), basic general education (forms 5–9) and senior level education (forms 10–11 or 12) divided into continued general education and vocational education.", "Vocational Education usually lasts three or four years.", "(Primary education is preceded by one year of pre-school education.)", "These levels can be followed in one institution or in different ones (e.g., primary school, then secondary school).", "Recently, several secondary schools, specialised schools, magnet schools, gymnasiums, lyceums and linguistic and technical gymnasiums have been founded.", "Secondary professional education is offered in special professional or technical schools, lyceums or colleges and vocational schools.At present, there are universities, academies and institutes, conservatories, higher schools and higher colleges.", "There are three main levels: basic higher education that provides the fundamentals of the chosen field of study and leads to the award of the Bachelor's degree; specialised higher education after which students are awarded the Specialist's Diploma; and scientific-pedagogical higher education which leads to the master's degree.", "Postgraduate education leads to the ''Kandidat Nauk'' (\"Candidate of Sciences\") and the Doctor of Sciences (PhD).", "With the adoption of the Laws on Education and on Higher Education, a private sector has been established and several private institutions have been licensed.Over 2,500 students in Kazakhstan have applied for student loans totalling about $9 million.", "The largest number of student loans come from Almaty, Astana and Kyzylorda.The training and skills development programs in Kazakhstan are also supported by international organisations.", "For example, on 30 March 2015, the World Banks' Group of Executive Directors approved a $100 million loan for the Skills and Job project in Kazakhstan.", "The project aims to provide training to unemployed, unproductively self-employed, and employees in need of training." ], [ "Culture", "A Kazakhstani performer demonstrates the long equestrian heritage as part of the gala concert during the opening ceremonies of the Central Asian Peacekeeping Battalion.Before the Russian colonisation, the Kazakhs had a highly developed culture based on their nomadic pastoral economy.", "Islam was introduced into the region with the arrival of the Arabs in the 8th century.", "It initially took hold in the southern parts of Turkestan and spread northward.", "The Samanids helped the religion take root through zealous missionary work.", "The Golden Horde further propagated Islam amongst the tribes in the region during the 14th century.Kazakhstan is home to a large number of prominent contributors to literature, science and philosophy: Abay Qunanbayuli, Mukhtar Auezov, Gabit Musirepov, Kanysh Satpayev, Mukhtar Shakhanov, Saken Seyfullin, Jambyl Jabayev, among many others.Tourism is a rapidly growing industry in Kazakhstan and it is joining the international tourism networking.", "In 2010, Kazakhstan joined The Region Initiative (TRI) which is a Tri-regional Umbrella of Tourism-related organisations.", "TRI is functioning as a link between three regions: South Asia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe.", "Armenia, Bangladesh, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Ukraine are now partners, and Kazakhstan is linked with other South Asian, Eastern European, and Central Asian countries in the tourism market.=== Literature ===Kazakh literature is defined as \"the body of literature, both oral and written, produced in the Kazakh language by the Kazakh people of Central Asia\".", "Kazakh literature expands from the current territory of Kazakhstan, also including the era of Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, Kazakh recognised territory under the Russian Empire and the Kazakh Khanate.", "There is some overlap with several complementary themes, including the literature of Turkic tribes that inhabited Kazakhstan over the course of its history and literature written by ethnic Kazakhs.Soviet stamp honouring Kazakh essayist and poet Abai QunanbaiulyAccording to Chinese written sources from the 6th–8th centuries CE, the Turkic tribes of Kazakhstan had an oral poetry tradition.", "These came from earlier periods and were primarily transmitted by bards: professional storytellers and musical performers.", "Traces of this tradition are shown on Orkhon script stone carvings dated 5th–7th centuries CE that describe rule of Kultegin and Bilge, two early Turkic rulers (\"kagans\").", "Amongst the Kazakhs, the bard was a primarily, though not exclusively, male profession.", "Since at least the 17th century, Kazakh bards could be divided into two main categories: the zhıraws (zhiraus, žyraus), who passed on the works of others, usually not creating and adding their own original work; and the aqyns (akyns), who improvised or created their own poems, stories or songs.", "There were several types of works, such as didactic ''termes'', elegiac ''tolgaws'', and epic ''zhırs''.", "Although the origins of such tales are often unknown, most of them were associated with bards of the recent or more distant past, who supposedly created them or passed them on, by the time most Kazakh poetry and prose was first written down in the second half of the 19th century.", "There are clear stylistic differences between works first created in the 19th century, and works dating from earlier periods but not documented before the 19th century, such as those attributed to such 16th- and 17th-century bards as Er Shoban and Dosmombet Zhıraw (also known as Dospambet Žyrau; he appeared to have been literate, and reportedly visited Constantinople), and even to such 15th-century bards as Shalkiz and Asan Qayghı.Other notable bards include Kaztugan Žyrau, Žiembet Žyrau, Axtamberdy Žyrau, and Buxar Žyrau Kalkamanuly, who was an advisor to Ablai Khan, and whose works have been preserved by Mäšhür Žüsip Köpeev.", "''Er Targhın'' and ''Alpamıs'' are two of the most famous examples of Kazakh literature to be recorded in the 19th century.", "The ''Book of Dede Korkut'' and Oguz Name (a story of an ancient Turkic king Oghuz Khan) are the most well-known Turkic heroic legends.", "Initially created around the 9th century CE, they were passed on through generations in oral form.", "The legendary tales were recorded by Turkish authors in 14–16th centuries C.E.The preeminent role in the development of modern literary Kazakh belongs to Abai Qunanbaiuly (, sometimes Russified to Abay Kunanbayev, Абай Кунанбаев) (1845–1904), whose writings did much to preserve Kazakh folk culture.", "Abai's major work is ''The Book of Words'' (), a philosophical treatise and collection of poems where he criticises Russian colonial policies and encourages other Kazakhs to embrace education and literacy.", "The literary magazines ''Ay Qap'' (published between 1911 and 1915 in Arabic script) and ''Qazaq'' (published between 1913 and 1918) played an important role in the development of the intellectual and political life among early 20th-century Kazakhs.=== Music ===Nowruz on stamp of KazakhstanThe modern state of Kazakhstan is home to the Kazakh State Kurmangazy Orchestra of Folk Instruments, the Kazakh State Philharmonic Orchestra, the Kazakh National Opera and the Kazakh State Chamber Orchestra.", "The folk instrument orchestra was named after Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly, a famous composer and dombra player from the 19th century.", "The Musical-Dramatic Training College, founded in 1931, was the first institute of higher education for music.", "Two years later, the Orchestra of Kazakh Folk Musical Instruments was formed.The Foundation Asyl Mura is archiving and publishing historical recordings of great samples of Kazakh music both traditional and classical.", "The leading conservatoire is in Almaty, the Qurmanghazy Conservatoire.", "It competes with the national conservatoire in Astana, Kazakhstan's capital.When referring to traditional Kazakh music, authentic folklore must be separated from \"folklorism\".", "The latter denotes music executed by academically trained performers who aim at preserving the traditional music for coming generations.", "As far as can be reconstructed, the music of Kazakhstan from the period before a strong Russian influence consists of instrumental music and vocal music.", "Instrumental music, with the pieces (\"Küy\") being performed by soloists.", "Text is often seen in the background (or \"program\") for the music, as a lot of Küy titles refer to stories.", "Vocal music, either as part of a ceremony such as a wedding (mainly performed by women), or as part of a feast.", "Here we might divide into subgenres: epic singing, containing not only historical facts, but as well the tribe's genealogy, love songs, and didactic verses; and as a special form the composition of two or more singers in public (Aitys), of dialogue character and usually unexpectedly frankly in content.A-Studio was created in 1982 in Almaty, then called Alma-Ata, hence called \"Alma-Ata Studio\".The Russian influence on the music life in Kazakhstan can be seen in two spheres: first, the introduction of musical academic institutions such as concert houses with opera stages, and conservatories, where European music was performed and taught, and second, by trying to incorporate Kazakh traditional music into these academic structures.", "Controlled first by the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan's folk and classical traditions became connected with ethnic Russian music and Western European music.", "Prior to the 20th century, Kazakh folk music was collected and studied by ethnographic research teams including composers, music critics and musicologists.", "In the first part of the 19th century, Kazakh music was transcribed in linear notation.", "Some composers of this era set Kazakh folk songs to Russian-style European classical music.The Kazakhs themselves, however, did not write their own music in notation until 1931.Later, as part of the Soviet Union, Kazakh folk culture was encouraged in a sanitised manner designed to avoid political and social unrest.", "The result was a bland derivative of real Kazakh folk music.", "In 1920, Aleksandr Zatayevich, a Russian official, created major works of art music with melodies and other elements of Kazakh folk music.", "Beginning in 1928 and accelerating in the 1930s, he also adapted traditional Kazakh instruments for use in Russian-style ensembles, such as by increasing the number of frets and strings.", "Soon, these styles of modern orchestral playing became the only way for musicians to officially play; Kazakh folk was turned into patriotic, professional and socialist endeavours.=== Fine arts ===In Kazakhstan, the fine arts, in the classical sense, have their origins in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.", "It was largely influenced by Russian artists, such as Vasily Vereshchagin and Nikolai Khludov, who intensively travelled in Central Asia.", "Khludov had a particular influence on the development of the local school of painting, becoming the teacher of many local artists.", "The most famous of these is Abilkhan Kasteyev, after whom the State Museum of Art of Kazakhstan was renamed in 1984.The Kazakh school of fine arts was fully formed by the 1940s and flourished in the 1950s.", "Local painters, graphic artists and sculptors, trained under the unified Soviet system of artist education, began active work, often using national motifs in their art.", "The painters O. Tansykbaev, J. Shardenov, K. Telzhanov, and S. Aitbaev, graphic artists E. Sidorkina and A. Duzelkhanov, and sculptors H. Nauryzbaeva and E. Sergebaeva are today counted among the key figures of Kazakhstani art.=== Cuisine ===In the national cuisine, livestock meat, like horse meat and beef can be cooked in a variety of ways and is usually served with a wide assortment of traditional bread products.", "Refreshments include black tea, often served with milk and dried fruits (such as dried apricots) and nuts.", "In southern provinces, people often prefer green tea.", "Traditional milk-derived drinks such as ayran, shubat and kymyz.", "A traditional Kazakh dinner involves a multitude of appetisers on the table, followed by a soup and one or two main courses such as pilaf and beshbarmak.", "They also drink their national beverage, kumys, which consists of fermented mare's milk.=== Sport ===Astana Arena opened in 2009.Kazakhstan consistently performs in Olympic competitions.", "It is especially successful in boxing.", "This has brought some attention to the Central Asian nation and increased world awareness of its athletes.", "Dmitry Karpov and Olga Rypakova are among the most notable Kazakhstani athletes.", "Dmitry Karpov is a distinguished decathlete, taking bronze in both the 2004 Summer Olympics, and the 2003 and 2007 World Athletics Championships.", "Olga Rypakova is an athlete, specialising in triple jump (women's), taking silver in the 2011 World Championships in Athletics and Gold in the 2012 Summer Olympics.", "Kazakhstan's city of Almaty submitted bids twice for the Winter Olympics: in 2014 and again for the 2022 Winter Olympics.", "Astana and Almaty hosted the 2011 Asian Winter Games.Popular sports in Kazakhstan include football, basketball, ice hockey, bandy, and boxing.Football is the most popular sport in Kazakhstan.", "The Football Federation of Kazakhstan is the sport's national governing body.", "The FFK organises the men's, women's, and futsal national teams.Kazakhstan's most famous basketball player was Alzhan Zharmukhamedov, who played for CSKA Moscow and the Soviet Union's national basketball team in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Kazakhstan's national basketball team was established in 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.", "Since its foundation, it has been competitive at the continental level.", "Its greatest accomplishment was at the 2002 Asian Games, where it defeated the Philippines in its last game to win the bronze medal.", "At the official Asian Basketball Championship, now called FIBA Asia Cup, the Kazakhs' best finish was 4th place in 2007.The Kazakhstan national bandy team is among the best in the world, and has many times won the bronze medal at the Bandy World Championship, including the 2012 edition when Kazakhstan hosted the tournament on home ice.", "The team won the first bandy tournament at the Asian Winter Games.", "During the Soviet time, Dynamo Alma-Ata won the Soviet Union national championships in 1977 and 1990 and the European Cup in 1978.Bandy is developed in ten of the country's seventeen administrative divisions (eight of the fourteen regions and two of the three cities which are situated inside of but are not part of regions).", "Akzhaiyk from Oral, however, is the only professional club.Nikolai AntropovThe Kazakh national ice hockey team have competed in ice hockey in the 1998 and 2006 Winter Olympics, as well as in the 2006 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships.", "The Kazakhstan Hockey Championship is held since 1992.Barys Astana is the main domestic Kazakhstani ice hockey professional team, and having played in the Kazakhstani national league until the 2008–09 season, when they were transferred to play in the Kontinental Hockey League.", "Meanwhile, the Kazzinc-Torpedo and play in the Supreme Hockey League since 1996 and the Saryarka Karagandy since 2012.Top Kazakhstani ice hockey players include Nik Antropov, Ivan Kulshov and Evgeni Nabokov.Kazakh boxers are generally well known in the world.", "In the last three Olympic Games, their performance was assessed as one of the best and they had more medals than any country in the world, except Cuba and Russia (in all three games).", "In 1996 and 2004, three Kazakhstani boxers (Vassiliy Jirov in 1996, Bakhtiyar Artayev in 2004 and Serik Sapiyev in 2012) were recognised as the best boxers for their techniques with the Val Barker Trophy, awarded to the best boxer of the tournament.", "In boxing, Kazakhstan performed well in the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.", "Two boxers, Bekzat Sattarkhanov and Yermakhan Ibraimov, earned gold medals.", "Another two boxers, Bulat Zhumadilov and Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov, earned silver medals.", "Oleg Maskaev, born in Zhambyl, representing Russia, was the WBC Heavyweight Champion after knocking out Hasim Rahman on 12 August 2006.The reigning WBA, WBC, IBF and IBO middleweight champion is Kazakh boxer Gennady Golovkin.", "Natascha Ragosina, representing Russia, but from Qarağandy held seven versions of the women's super middleweight title, and two heavyweight titles during her boxing career.", "She holds the record as the longest-reigning WBA female super middleweight champion, and the longest-reigning WBC female super middleweight champion.=== Film ===International Astana Action Film Festival, 2010Kazakhstan's film industry is run through the state-owned Kazakhfilm studios based in Almaty.", "The studio has produced award-winning movies such as ''Myn Bala'', ''Harmony Lessons'', and ''Shal''.", "Kazakhstan is the host of the International Astana Action Film Festival and the Eurasia International Film Festival held annually.", "Hollywood director Timur Bekmambetov is from Kazakhstan and has become active in bridging Hollywood to the Kazakhstan film industry.Kazakhstan journalist Artur Platonov won Best Script for his documentary \"Sold Souls\" about Kazakhstan's contribution to the struggle against terrorism at the 2013 Cannes Corporate Media and TV Awards.Serik Aprymov's ''Little Brother'' (''Bauyr'') won at the Central and Eastern Europe Film Festival goEast from the German Federal Foreign Office.=== Media ===Timur Bekmambetov, a popular Kazakh film directorKazakhstan is ranked 161 out of 180 countries on the Reporters Without Borders World Press Freedom Index A mid-March 2002 court order, with the government as a plaintiff, stated that ''Respublika'' were to stop printing for three months.", "The order was evaded by printing under other titles, such as ''Not That Respublika''.", "In early 2014, a court also issued a cease publication order to the small-circulation Assandi-Times newspaper, saying it was a part of the Respublika group.", "Human Rights Watch said: \"this absurd case displays the lengths to which Kazakh authorities are willing to go to bully critical media into silence.", "\"With support from the US Department of State's Bureau for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (DRL), the American Bar Association Rule of Law Initiative opened a media support centre in Almaty to assist press outlets in Kazakhstan.Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassaui=== UNESCO World Heritage sites ===Kazakhstan has three cultural and two natural sites on the UNESCO World Heritage list.", "The cultural sites are:* Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassaui, added in 2003* Petroglyphs within the Archaeological Landscape of Tamgaly, added in 2004* Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor, added in 2014The natural sites are:* Saryarka - Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan, added in 2008* Western Tien Shan, added in 2016=== Public holidays ===" ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Kazakhstan* Index of Kazakhstan-related articles" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** Cameron, Sarah.", "(2018) ''The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan'' (Cornell University Press, 2018) online review ******* Nahaylo, Bohdan and Victor Swoboda.", "''Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR'' (1990) excerpt ***** Rashid, Ahmed.", "''The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism?''", "(2017)*** Smith, Graham, ed.", "''The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union'' (2nd ed.", "1995)*" ], [ "External links", "'''General'''* Caspian Pipeline Controversy from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives* Country Profile from BBC News.", "* Kazakhstan.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Kazakhstan information from the United States Department of State* Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress.", "* Kazakhstan at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''.", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan * World Bank Data & Statistics for Kazakhstan* Kazakhstan Internet Encyclopedia* Kazakhstan at 20 years of independence, The Economist, 17 December 2011* \"Blowing the lid off\" – Unrest in Kazakhstan, The Economist, 20 December 2011* The Region Initiative (TRI)* * * * Country Facts from Kazakhstan Discovery* 2008 Human Rights Report: Kazakhstan.", "Department of State; Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor* Key Development Forecasts for Kazakhstan from International Futures.", "'''Government'''* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan * E-Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan* Government of Kazakhstan* Chief of State and Cabinet Members'''Trade'''* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Kazakhstan" ] ]
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