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[ [ "James Madison University" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Madison University''' ('''JMU''', '''Madison''', or '''James Madison''') is a public research university in Harrisonburg, Virginia.", "Founded in 1908 as the '''State Normal and Industrial School for Women at Harrisonburg''', the institution was renamed '''Madison College''' in 1938 in honor of President James Madison and then James Madison University in 1977.It has since expanded from its origins as a normal school and teacher's college into a comprehensive university.", "It is situated in the Shenandoah Valley, just west of Massanutten Mountain." ], [ "History", "James Madison, the university's namesake, by John Vanderlyn (1816)Woodrow Wilson Hall, the centerpiece of the JMU quadrangle.|leftFounded in 1908 as a women's college, James Madison University was established by the Virginia General Assembly.", "It was originally called '''The State Normal and Industrial School for Women''' at Harrisonburg.", "In 1914, the name of the university was changed to the '''State Normal School for Women at Harrisonburg.'''", "At first, academic offerings included only the equivalent of technical training or junior college courses, but authorization to award bachelor's degrees was granted in 1916.During this initial period of development, the campus plan was established and six buildings were constructed.The university became the '''State Teachers College at Harrisonburg''' in 1924 and continued under that name until 1938 when it was named '''Madison College''' in honor of James Madison, the fourth President of the United States, whose Montpelier estate is located in nearby Orange, Virginia.", "In 1977, the university's name was changed again to James Madison University.The first president of the university was Julian Ashby Burruss.", "The university opened its doors to its first student body in 1909 with an enrollment of 209 students and a faculty of 15.Its first 20 graduates received diplomas in 1911.In 1919, Burruss resigned the presidency to become president of Virginia Polytechnic Institute.", "Samuel Page Duke was then chosen as the school's second president.", "During Duke's administration, nine major buildings were constructed.", "Duke served as president from 1919 to 1949.In 1946, men were first enrolled as regular day students.", "G. Tyler Miller became the third president in 1949, following Duke's retirement.", "During Miller's administration, from 1949 to 1970, the campus was enlarged by and 19 buildings were constructed.", "Major curriculum changes were made and the university was authorized to grant master's degrees in 1954.=== Late 20th century ===In 1966, by the action of the Virginia General Assembly, the university became a coeducational institution.", "Ronald E. Carrier, JMU's fourth president, headed the institution from 1971 to 1998.During his administration, student enrollment and the number of faculty and staff tripled, and national fraternities were seen on campus such as Tau Kappa Epsilon, Sigma Phi Epsilon, Alpha Chi Rho, Theta Chi, and others, doctoral programs were authorized, more than 20 major campus buildings were constructed and national publications recognized JMU as one of the finest institutions of its type in America.", "Carrier Library is named after him.=== 21st century ===Aerial view of campus from 1937, showing the original campus plan, prior to major expansions of the campus.JMU Keezell Hall, home of the university's English and Foreign Language departmentsVarner HouseWalkway Towards the QuadrangleDuring the first decade of the 21st century under Linwood H. Rose (JMU's fifth president), the university continued to rapidly expand, not only through new construction east of Interstate 81 but also on the west side of campus.", "In early 2005, JMU purchased the Rockingham Memorial Hospital campus just north of the main JMU campus for over $40 million.", "The hospital has since moved and JMU now occupies the site after having made substantial renovations to it.", "In June 2005, the university expanded across South High Street by leasing the former Harrisonburg High School building from the City of Harrisonburg.", "In May 2006, the university purchased the property.", "The sale was approved in June 2005 for $17 million.", "The university named the old HHS building Memorial Hall.", "The Rose Library opened on the east side of campus on August 11, 2008.The rapid expansion of JMU's campus has at times created tension in the city-university relationship.", "In 2006, the local ABC affiliate reported that the university had nearly doubled in size in the preceding 20 years, including purchases of several local properties.The university has also experienced tension with local residents with occasional clashes between local police and students at a popular off-campus block party.", "In 2000, a party with about 2,500 students grew out of hand and required a police presence at the Forest Hills townhouse complex on Village Lane.", "Ten years later, police equipped with riot gear used force to disperse a group of 8,000 college-aged people at the party.", "Several participants were airlifted to a medical center in Charlottesville to treat their injuries.", "The university condemned the block party attendees' behavior.In August 2021, the university received national criticism from conservative political commentators and university alumni after an orientation leader training video and other publications surfaced that supposedly labeled white Americans and Christians as oppressors.", "In a statement to Fox News, the university stood by the training, saying, \"The training was held to help ensure that every student guide for freshmen orientation had the tools and understanding to work with incoming students, who might have a different background than their own.\"" ], [ "Academics", "James Madison University is classified among \"R2: Doctoral Universities – High Research Activity\".", "It offers 139-degree programs on the bachelor's, master's, educational specialist, and doctoral levels.", "It comprises seven colleges and 78 academic programs, including the College of Arts and Letters; the College of Business; the College of Education; the College of Health and Behavioral Studies; the College of Integrated Science and Engineering; the College of Science and Mathematics; the College of Visual and Performing Arts; and The Graduate School.", "Total enrollment in the 2012–13 academic year was 19,927—18,392 undergraduates and 1,820 graduate students.", "JMU granted 4,908 degrees in 2012–4,096 undergraduate degrees, and 812 graduate degrees.Phi Kappa Phi was the first academic honor society chartered at JMU.", "The Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi (or ΦΚΦ) was established in 1897 to recognize and encourage superior scholarship without restriction as to the area of study and to promote the \"unity and democracy of education\".On October 2, 2009, JMU was granted a chapter by the Phi Beta Kappa academic honor society.=== Rankings ===The 2024 ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' ranked JMU the No.", "124 among national universities.", "In the 2018 ''Washington Monthly'' college rankings, JMU ranked eighth among master's universities nationwide.", "''Washington Monthly'' assesses the quality of schools based on social mobility (recruiting and graduating low-income students), research (producing cutting-edge scholarship and PhDs), and service (encouraging students to give something back to their country).In 2013, ''BloombergBusiness'' ranked JMU 15th among all undergraduate business schools in the country for return on investment.", "In 2014 it ranked JMU's College of Business 40th among undergraduate business programs in the U.S. ''Kiplinger'' magazine's 2015 \"100 Best Values in Public Colleges\" ranked JMU 21st in value in the nation among public colleges and universities." ], [ "Colleges", "=== College of Arts and Letters ====== College of Business ====== College of Visual and Performing Arts ===The College of Visual and Performing Arts includes three schools: the School of Art, Design, and Art History; the School of Music; and the School of Theatre and Dance.", "The college also includes the Madison Art Collection and the Institute for Visual Studies.The college's majors were originally part of the College of Arts and Letters.", "On June 24, 2005, the Board of Visitors approved the Madison College Proposal, which created the College of Visual and Performing Arts out of the College of Arts and Letters.In September 2010, the college opened the Forbes Center for the Performing Arts, a complex composed of two connected buildings: the Estes Center for Theatre and Dance and the Roberts Center for Music Performance.", "The $82 million facility was funded by a Virginia higher-education bond package.==== School of Art, Design and Art History ====The school offers undergraduate majors in Art History (BA), Studio Art (BA, BS, and BFA options), Graphic Design (BFA), Architectural Design (BFA), and Industrial Design (BS).", "Minors are offered in Studio Art, Design, and Art History.", "There are also graduate programs in Art Education (MA) and Studio Art (MA and MFA options).", "The School of Art, Design, and Art History is an accredited member of the National Association of Schools of Art and Design (NASAD) and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE).==== School of Theatre and Dance ====The school offers a Bachelor of Arts degree (BA) with three undergraduate majors: Theatre, Dance, and Musical Theatre.", "Minors are offered in Theatre and Dance.", "The School of Theatre and Dance is an accredited member of the National Association of Schools of Theatre and the National Association of Schools of Dance.==== School of Music ====The School of Music offers a Bachelor of Music degree (BM) with concentrations in Composition, Performance, Education, Music Theater, Jazz, and Music Industry.", "The School of Music is an accredited member of the National Association of Schools Music (NASM).", "Currently, the university is home to over 30 ensembles, including The Wind Symphony, The University Symphony Orchestra, The Madison Singers, The University Chorus, The JMU Brass Band, The Pep Band, and The Marching Royal Dukes.", "The marching band with almost 500 members was the recipient of the Sudler Trophy, the highest honor available for a college marching band.", "In 2005, the School of Music received a gift from Dr. Elizabeth Swallow to designate the school an All-Steinway School.The Marching Royal Dukes is the school's official marching band.", "Formed in 1972 (same as the football team), the \"MRDs\" perform at halftime and post-game at all home football games, and travel with the team occasionally to perform at away and post-season games.", "In 1994, the MRDs were the recipients of the Sudler Trophy, the highest honor available for a college marching band, and was the second ensemble from a school with an I-AA football team to do so, after Florida A&M UniversityThe JMU Brass Band is one of only a few collegiate brass bands in the United States.", "Formed in the Fall of 2000, the band has twice been named the North American Brass Band Association (NABBA) Honors Section Champion (2004, 2005), and is currently the 2019 NABBA Champion Section runner-up." ], [ "Campus", "A near-lifesized statue of James Madison is located on the bluestone section of the campus.Newman LakeHarrison HallJMU's campus originally consisted of two buildings, Jackson Hall and Maury Hall, which are now known as Darcus Johnson Hall and Gabbin Hall, respectively.", "Today, the campus has 148 major buildings on .", "It has become Virginia's second most photographed location on social media sites like Instagram and Twitter, after Kings Dominion.The campus is divided into six areas: Bluestone Area, Hillside Area, Lake Area (includes Greek Row), Village Area, Ridge Area, and Skyline Area.", "The Ridge and Skyline areas are on the east side of Interstate 81, while the Bluestone, Hillside, Lake, and Village areas of the campus are on the west side.", "The two sides are connected both by a bridge over (Carrier Drive), and a tunnel under (Duke Dog Alley), Interstate 81.Other unique campus features include Newman Lake, a body of water in the Lake Area next to Greek Row and Sonner Hall, Grafton-Stovall Theater, an on-campus movie theater, and the Edith J.", "Carrier Arboretum, a 125-acre urban botanical preserve in Harrisonburg and on campus.", "The arboretum combines naturalized botanical gardens (33 acres) and forest (92 acres) and is Virginia's only arboretum on a public university campus.The original, historic Bluestone side of campus is located on South Main Street (also known as U.S. Route 11, and historically as \"The Valley Pike\") and is the heart of the university.", "Many of the buildings in the Bluestone area have been constructed out of the same stone, known as \"bluestone,\" which is a type of limestone that is locally sourced from the surrounding Shenandoah Valley.", "As the university has grown, the campus has expanded significantly beyond the Bluestone area.=== John C. Wells Planetarium ===The John C. Wells Planetarium, first opened in 1974, underwent a $1.5 million renovation in 2008.It is now a state-of-the-art hybrid planetarium, the only one of its kind in the world.", "Its mission is science education and public outreach.", "It offers free shows to the public every Saturday afternoon and hosts annual summer space camps in July.=== East campus expansion ===To the east, across Interstate 81, the expansion has included The College of Integrated Science and Engineering (CISE), the University Recreation Center (UREC), Rose Library (originally named East Campus Library), the Festival Conference and Student Center, the Leeolou Alumni Center, several residence halls, the Chemistry and Physics Building, and University Park, which opened in 2012 off Port Republic Road, combining recreational and varsity athletic fields.Several new campus construction projects were included in Governor Tim Kaine's $1.65 billion higher education bond package.", "Kaine's proposal designated more than $96 million for JMU projects.", "Among the projects included were the construction of a new biotechnology building, Centennial Hall ($44.8 million), and the renovation and expansion of Duke Hall ($43.4 million).", "The proposal also included $8.6 million as the final installment payment for the purchase of Rockingham Memorial Hospital.=== Forbes Center for the Performing Arts ===Beginning in 2002 JMU began receiving state and private funding to construct a state-of-the-art performing arts complex.", "The facility is opposite Wilson Hall across South Main Street, and visually completes the Main Quad.", "It was named the Forbes Center for the Performing Arts in honor of Bruce and Lois Forbes, who gave $5 million to the project.", "The wing of The Forbes Center dedicated to theater and dance is named the Dorothy Thomasson Estes Center for Theatre and Dance in honor of a $2.5 million gift by the husband of Dorothy Estes.", "The wing dedicated to music is named the Shirley Hanson Roberts Center for Music Performance in honor of a multi-million dollar gift from the husband of Shirley Roberts.", "The entire PAC was built at a total cost exceeding $92 million, and opened in June 2010 to house academic offices and performances by the Schools of Theatre, Dance, and Music, and the administrative offices of the College of Visual and Performing Arts.=== Renaming historic halls ===In 2020, JMU's Board of Visitors approved the renaming of three historic buildings on the quad that were named in honor of three prominent Virginian Confederate soldiers: Ashby Hall (named after Turner Ashby), Maury Hall (named after Matthew Fontaine Maury), and Jackson Hall (named after Stonewall Jackson).", "They were given the temporary names of Valley Hall, Mountain Hall, and Justice Studies Hall, respectively.", "In 2021, the halls were approved and given new names.", "Mountain Hall (Maury Hall) was renamed Gabbin Hall after Drs.", "Joanne V. and Alexander Gabbin, professors at JMU for more than 35 years; Valley Hall (Ashby Hall) was renamed Harper Allen-Lee Hall after Doris Harper Allen and Robert Walker Lee, both notable former staff members at JMU; Justice Studies Hall (Jackson Hall) was renamed Darcus Johnson Hall after Sheary Darcus Johnson, the first black student to graduate from JMU.In late 2021, the ISAT/CS building was renamed King Hall in honor of Charles W. King; longtime Senior Vice President of the Administration and Finance Division at JMU." ], [ "Administration", "=== Board of Visitors ===Julian Ashby Burruss Like all public universities in Virginia, James Madison is governed by a Board of Visitors appointed by the Governor of Virginia.", "In addition to the 15 members appointed by the governor, the speaker of the Faculty Senate and an elected student representative serve as representatives for the faculty and the student body respectively.", "The appointed members serve for a maximum of two consecutive four-year terms, while the student representative is limited to two one-year terms.", "The faculty representative serves for as long as he or she remains the speaker of the JMU Faculty Senate.", "Some appointed members of note include former presidential candidate Carly Fiorina and former first lady of Virginia, Susan Allen.=== President ===Jonathan R. Alger is the sixth and current president of the university.", "Before being named president, he served as the senior vice president and counsel at Rutgers University.==== Presidents of JMU ====* Julian Ashby Burruss (1908–1919)* Samuel Page Duke (1919–1949)* G. Tyler Miller (1949–1971)* Ronald E. Carrier (1971–1998)* Linwood H. Rose (1999–2012)* Jonathan R. Alger (2012-Current)" ], [ "Student life", "Student body composition as of May 2, 2022 Race and ethnicityTotal White Hispanic Other Asian Black Foreign national Economic diversity Low-income Affluent Converse HallThe ''Princeton Review'' recognized James Madison as one of 81 schools in America \"with a conscience\", and in 2006 ranked JMU second in the nation behind only the University of Virginia in the number of Peace Corps volunteers it sent from its student body among \"medium-sized\" universities.", "And in 2010, the food at JMU was ranked third in the United States.", "In 2011 the student body was ranked 20th \"happiest in the entire nation\" by ''Newsweek'' and ''The Daily Beast''.", "These rankings take into consideration the surrounding area's activities, academics, as well as the social scene on campus.The school has 35 residence halls, ten of which serve as sorority houses.", "While most residence halls are only for housing, several halls also provide auxiliary services like computer labs and study lounges.", "All freshmen must live on campus, and a large portion of JMU's on-campus housing is set aside for incoming students.", "Consequently, most upperclassmen and graduate students live off campus.", "Continuing students who wish to live on campus must re-apply for housing each year.", "While occasional exceptions are granted, generally freshmen are not granted on-campus parking permits.", "Some JMU halls are set-aside as specialized living and learning residential communities.", "Shenandoah Hall is devoted to an Honors residential experience, Chesapeake Hall is for pre-professional health disciplines, Gifford Hall includes the Roop Learning Community for future teachers, and Wayland Hall is reserved for majors in the art disciplines.=== ''The Breeze'' ===''The Breeze'' is a student-run newspaper serving JMU since 1922.Published every Thursday, ''The Breeze'' provides news and information to the university community, covering topics such as sports, culture, and business.", "''The Breeze'' has won numerous awards, including a 2012 Online Pacemaker Award, 2012 VPA award for Best in Show for a Non-Daily News Presentation, and a 2012 VPA sweepstakes award.=== Clubs and organizations ===James Madison University has over 350 clubs and organizations for students to choose from.", "This growing list of involvement opportunities provides students with unique experiences that will help them to grow in community and engagement outside of the classroom.", "At the administrative level, student clubs and organizations fall under the Office of Student Activities and Involvement.==== Front-end budgeted ====There are 10 front-end budgeted groups on campus, including the Black Student Alliance (BSA), Inter-Fraternity Council (IFC), Latinx Student Alliance (LSA), Madison Equality, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Panhellenic, SafeRides, Student Ambassadors (SA), Student Government Association (SGA), and University Program Board (UPB).", "The funds allocated to these organization are voted on by the SGA, with the exception to the SGA budget which is approved separately by the administration.", "Some FEB organizations are more active than others, causing debate about their status from year-to-year.===== Student Government Association =====The JMU Student Government Association (SGA) was founded in 1915 and stood as the first organization on campus.", "Their goal was to become an organization whose role was to be the voice for the JMU student population and advocate on behalf of the students to the administration and the rest of the community.SGA consists of two governing bodies, the Executive Council and the Student Senate.", "The Executive Council consists of the Student Body President, Student Body Vice President, and SGA Treasurer, positions that are elected by the JMU Student Body each academic year.", "The fourth member of the Executive Council is the Speaker of the Senate who is voted on by the Student Senate.", "Meanwhile, the Senate consists of Academic Senators and Class Council members who form the various committees within the Senate.Students on the James Madison University quadThe Shenandoah MountainsJMU's East Campus overlooks distant mountains.King Hall (formerly ISAT/CS Building)SGA organizes many of the university's traditional events, such as Homecoming's Purple Out, Mr. and Ms. Madison, Ring Premiere, the Annual Tree Lighting, the Big Event, and SafeRides.", "They also vote on Front End Budgeted (FEB) organizational budgets each year as well as allocate contingency funds to other organizations throughout the school year.", "In 2015, the organization celebrated its 100th year since being founded.===== Student Ambassadors =====The JMU Student Ambassadors work alongside the Admissions Office to offer student-led tours for prospective students.", "Formerly, the Ambassadors were also associated with the Alumni Office until the GOLD Network was established.", "Ambassadors are volunteers and are not paid.===== University Program Board =====The University Program Board (UPB) puts on large-scale events at JMU, including concerts and themed alternative night-out events like Late Night Breakfast.===== SafeRides =====Founded in 2003, SafeRides originated as a program run by the SGA.", "Inspired by a program at Texas A&M, the organization is a student-led non-profit where unpaid members are dedicated to picking up and driving students home at night at no charge.", "SafeRides was approved as a FEB organization by the SGA in 2022.By 2022, they had given more than 100,000 rides.==== Greek life ====James Madison University is home to over two dozen social fraternity and sorority chapters.", "It is also home to members of the National Pan-Hellenic Council, National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations, and National APIDA Panhellenic Association.", "A monument dedicated to the members of the Inter-Cultural Greek Council was built in 2022 by the institution's Student Success Center and dubbed \"The Yard\" in honor of the social justice and community service committed by the organizations.The university's main gym and athletic center is the University Recreation Center (UREC)==== A cappella ====JMU is home to ten a cappella ensembles: four all-female, three all-male, and three co-educational groups.", "They are nationally recognized, with many of them featured on the Best of College A Cappella (BOCA) yearly compilation albums.", "Several of the groups, such as Note-oriety and The Overtones, have gone \"viral\" for their music videos, \"Pretty Hurts\" and \"Say Love\", respectively.", "Note-oriety has also performed at the White House in Washington, D.C.==== Speech Team ====The JMU Speech Team has been recognized by AFA-NIET as one of the top 20 intercollegiate speech teams in the nation.", "JMU Forensics is the only program in the nation directed by two recipients of AFA's most respected coaching awards: Distinguished Service and Outstanding New Coach.==== InterVarsity ====JMU has the largest InterVarsity Christian Fellowship organization in the country.=== Club sports ======= Club soccer ====The JMU men's and women's club soccer teams are two of the most decorated club organizations in JMU school history.==== Club ultimate ====The JMU men's ultimate team, the Flying Hellfish, was founded in 1997.The team is named after the Simpsons episode 22, season 7, \"Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in 'The Curse of the Flying Hellfish'\" Since 2005, the team has hosted an annual tournament known as \"The Hellfish Bonanza,\" which attracts between 12 and 16 teams from across the east coast.", "Several current and former Hellfish play Ultimate professionally for Major League Ultimate's Washington DC Current and the American Ultimate Disc League's DC Breeze.=== Marching Royal Dukes ===James Madison University has the largest collegiate marching band in the nation, with 540 members as of Fall 2022.Nicknamed \"Virginia's Finest\", the Marching Royal Dukes have performed at venues such as the inaugurations of Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, the NFC title game between Washington and Dallas in 1983, Bands of America Grand National Championships in 1988 and 1991.The band has made four appearances in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, first in 2001, again in 2008, 2013, and most recently in 2018.In the past decade, the band has taken trips to Europe during the school's winter break, featuring Athens, Dublin, Monaco, London, and Rome.", "During their 2014-15 trip to Europe, the MRDs participated in the 2015 Italian New Year's Day Parade in the Vatican." ], [ "Athletics", "James Madison Athletics block logoJames Madison University's athletic teams are known as the Dukes.", "An English bulldog, with a crown and cape, and Duke Dog, a gray canine costume in a purple cape and crown, serve as the school's mascot.", "The \"Dukes\" nickname is in honor of Samuel Page Duke, the university's second president.", "The school colors are royal purple and gold.", "Madison competes in the NCAA's Division I in the Sun Belt Conference and the Eastern College Athletic Conference.Beginning in July 2022, the football program began competing in the NCAA's Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) as part of the Sun Belt Conference.", "Before that, the team participated in the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) and within the Colonial Athletic Association.The football team's stadium.Over 546 varsity athletes compete in football, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's soccer, men's and women's tennis, women's swimming and diving, women's volleyball, baseball, women's lacrosse, field hockey, men's and women's golf, women's cross country and track and field, and softball.", "James Madison has won five national championships in football (2), field hockey, women's lacrosse, and archery, giving the Dukes the second-most national titles by a college or university in Virginia.James Madison University invested heavily in new athletic facilities throughout the tenure of President Linwood Rose.", "JMU built a new multimillion-dollar baseball and softball field complex that opened in 2010.Additionally, after the last football game of 2009, the university began an expansion of Bridgeforth Stadium that increased seating capacity to approximately 25,000.Construction was completed in time for the 2011 football season.In 2020, the annual athletic fee for each student was $2,340, which finances three-quarters of Athletic Department revenues.=== Baseball ===James Madison's baseball team advanced to the College World Series in 1983, becoming the first Virginia school to do so.=== Basketball ===In 2012, the James Madison women's basketball team won a program record 29 games and advanced to the WNIT National Championship game, where it lost to Oklahoma State University.", "The Lady Dukes defeated Wake Forest, Davidson College, Virginia, South Florida, and Syracuse before falling to Oklahoma State.", "In 2013, head coach Kenny Brooks led his team back to the WNIT defeating NC A&T, NC State, and Fordham before falling to Florida in the tournament's quarterfinals.", "In 2014, the Dukes posted an overall 29–6 record that culminated with an 85–69 loss to Texas A&M University in the NCAA Championship Round of 32.This marked the ninth consecutive year that the Dukes participated in postseason play and the program's ninth consecutive season with 20 victories, a school record.In 2013, James Madison University's men's basketball team won the CAA championship title for the first time since 1994.The Dukes then won their first NCAA tournament game in 30 years, defeating Long Island University-Brooklyn.", "The Dukes fell to Indiana in the second round, 83–62, finishing the season with a 21–15 record.=== Field hockey ===The JMU women's field hockey team won the university's first national title in 1994.=== Football ===JMU football won the NCAA Division I-AA national title in 2004, with a 13–2 record, and in 2016 with a 14–1 record going undefeated in the FCS.", "The 2004 squad was the only team in history to win the title after playing four straight road playoff games.", "Since 2004, the JMU football team has appeared in the playoffs in 2006, 2007, 2008, 2011, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019.In addition to winning the FCS national championships after the 2004 and 2016 seasons, they were national runners-up for the 2017 and 2019 seasons." ], [ "Notable alumni" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jericho" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jericho''' ( ; ; ) is a city in the West Bank; it is the administrative seat of the Jericho Governorate of the State of Palestine.", "Jericho is located in the Jordan Valley, with the Jordan River to the east and Jerusalem to the west.", "In 2017, it had a population of 20,907.From the end of the era of Mandatory Palestine, the city was annexed and ruled by Jordan from 1949 to 1967 and, with the rest of the West Bank, has been subject to Israeli occupation since 1967; administrative control was handed over to the Palestinian Authority in 1994.Jericho is among the oldest cities in the world, and it is also the city with the oldest known defensive wall.", "Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of more than 20 successive settlements in Jericho, the first of which dates back 11,000 years (to 9000 BCE), almost to the very beginning of the Holocene epoch of the Earth's history.", "Copious springs in and around the city have attracted human habitation for thousands of years.", "Jericho is described in the Bible as the \"city of palm trees\".In 2023, the archaeological site in the center of the city, known as Tell es-Sultan / Old Jericho, was inscribed in UNESCO's list as a World Heritage Site in the State of Palestine, and described as the \"oldest fortified city in the world\"." ], [ "Etymology", "Jericho's name in Modern Hebrew, , is generally thought to derive from the Canaanite word ''rēḥ'' , but other theories hold that it originates in the Canaanite word ''Yaraḥ'' or the name of the lunar deity Yarikh, for whom the city was an early centre of worship.Jericho's Arabic name, , means and also has its roots in Canaanite ''Reaẖ''." ], [ "History and archaeology", "The first excavations of the site were made by Charles Warren in 1868.Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger excavated Tell es-Sultan and Tulul Abu el-'Alayiq between 1907 and 1909, and in 1911, and John Garstang excavated between 1930 and 1936.Extensive investigations using more modern techniques were made by Kathleen Kenyon between 1952 and 1958.Lorenzo Nigro and Nicolò Marchetti conducted excavations in 1997–2000.Since 2009 the Italian-Palestinian archaeological project of excavation and restoration was resumed by Rome \"La Sapienza\" University and Palestinian MOTA-DACH under the direction of Lorenzo Nigro and Hamdan Taha, and Jehad Yasine since 2015.The Italian-Palestinian Expedition carried out 13 seasons in 20 years (1997–2017), with some major discoveries, like Tower A1 in the Middle Bronze Age southern Lower Town and Palace G on the eastern flanks of the Spring Hill overlooking the Spring of 'Ain es-Sultan dating from Early Bronze III.===Stone Age: Tell es-Sultan and spring===The earliest excavated settlement was located at the present-day Tell es-Sultan (or Sultan's Hill), a couple of kilometers from the current city.", "In both Arabic and Hebrew, ''tell'' means \"mound\" – consecutive layers of habitation built up a mound over time, as is common for ancient settlements in the Middle East and Anatolia.", "Jericho is the type site for the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) periods.====Natufian hunter-gatherers, 10,000 BCE====Calibrated carbon 14 dates for Jericho as of 2013Epipaleolithic construction at the site appears to predate the invention of agriculture, with the construction of Natufian culture structures beginning earlier than 9000 BCE, the beginning of the Holocene epoch in geologic history.Jericho has evidence of settlement dating back to 10,000 BCE.", "During the Younger Dryas period of cold and drought, permanent habitation of any one location was impossible.", "However, the Ein es-Sultan spring at what would become Jericho was a popular camping ground for Natufian hunter-gatherer groups, who left a scattering of crescent-shaped microlith tools behind them.", "Around 9600 BCE, the droughts and cold of the Younger Dryas stadial had come to an end, making it possible for Natufian groups to extend the duration of their stay, eventually leading to year-round habitation and permanent settlement.====Pre-Pottery Neolithic, 9500–6500 BCE====Dwelling foundations unearthed at Tell es-Sultan in JerichoThe Pre-Pottery Neolithic at Jericho is divided in Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B.=====Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)=====The first permanent settlement on the site of Jericho developed near the Ein es-Sultan spring between 9,500 and 9000 BCE.", "As the world warmed up, a new culture based on agriculture and sedentary dwelling emerged, which archaeologists have termed \"Pre-Pottery Neolithic A\" (abbreviated as PPNA).", "Its cultures lacked pottery, but featured the following:* small circular dwellings* burial of the dead under the floor of buildings* reliance on hunting of wild game* cultivation of wild or domestic cerealsHead of an ancestor statue, Jericho, from c. 9000 years ago, among the oldest representations of a human face ever found.", "Rockefeller Archeological Museum, Jerusalem.At Jericho, circular dwellings were built of clay and straw bricks left to dry in the sun, which were plastered together with a mud mortar.", "Each house measured about across, and was roofed with mud-smeared brush.", "Hearths were located within and outside the homes.The 8000 BCE Tower of Jericho at Tell es-SultanThe Pre-Sultan ( – 7370 BCE) is sometimes called Sultanian.", "The site is a settlement surrounded by a massive stone wall over high and wide at the base, inside of which stood a stone tower, over high, containing an internal staircase with 22 stone steps and placed in the centre of the west side of the tell.", "This tower and the even older ones excavated at Tell Qaramel in Syria are the oldest towers ever to be discovered.", "The wall of Jericho may have served as a defence against flood-water, with the tower used for ceremonial purposes.", "The wall and tower were built during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) period around 8000 BCE.", "For the tower, carbon dates published in 1981 and 1983 indicate that it was built around 8300 BCE and stayed in use until .", "The wall and tower would have taken a hundred men more than a hundred days to construct, thus suggesting some kind of social organization.", "The town contained round mud-brick houses, yet no street planning.", "The identity and number of the inhabitants of Jericho during the PPNA period is still under debate, with estimates going as high as 2,000–3,000, and as low as 200–300.It is known that this population had domesticated emmer wheat, barley and pulses and hunted wild animals.=====Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)=====The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) was a period of about 1.4 millennia, from 7220 to 5850 BCE (though carbon-14-dates are few and early).", "The following are PPNB cultural features:* Expanded range of domesticated plants* Possible domestication of sheep* Apparent cult involving the preservation of human skulls, with facial features reconstructed using plaster, and eyes set with shells in some casesArea of the Fertile Crescent, , with main sites.", "Jericho was a foremost site of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period.", "The area of Mesopotamia proper was not yet settled by humans.After a few centuries, the first settlement was abandoned.", "After the PPNA settlement phase, there was a settlement hiatus of several centuries, then the PPNB settlement was founded on the eroded surface of the tell.", "This second settlement, established in 6800 BCE, perhaps represents the work of an invading people who absorbed the original inhabitants into their dominant culture.", "Artifacts dating from this period include ten plastered human skulls, painted so as to reconstitute the individuals' features.", "These represent either teraphim or the first example of portraiture in art history, and it is thought that they were kept in people's homes while the bodies were buried.The architecture consisted of rectilinear buildings made of mudbricks on stone foundations.", "The mudbricks were loaf-shaped with deep thumb prints to facilitate bonding.", "No building has been excavated in its entirety.", "Normally, several rooms cluster around a central courtyard.", "There is one big room ( and ) with internal divisions; the rest are small, presumably used for storage.", "The rooms have red or pinkish terrazzo-floors made of lime.", "Some impressions of mats made of reeds or rushes have been preserved.", "The courtyards have clay floors.Kathleen Kenyon interpreted one building as a shrine.", "It contained a niche in the wall.", "A chipped pillar of volcanic stone that was found nearby might have fitted into this niche.The dead were buried under the floors or in the rubble fill of abandoned buildings.", "There are several collective burials.", "Not all the skeletons are completely articulated, which may point to a time of exposure before burial.", "A skull cache contained seven skulls.", "The jaws were removed and the faces covered with plaster; cowries were used as eyes.", "A total of ten skulls were found.", "Modelled skulls were found in Tell Ramad and Beisamoun as well.Other finds included flints, such as arrowheads (tanged or side-notched), finely denticulated sickle-blades, burins, scrapers, a few tranchet axes, obsidian, and green obsidian from an unknown source.", "There were also querns, hammerstones, and a few ground-stone axes made of greenstone.", "Other items discovered included dishes and bowls carved from soft limestone, spindle whorls made of stone and possible loom weights, spatulae and drills, stylised anthropomorphic plaster figures, almost life-size, anthropomorphic and theriomorphic clay figurines, as well as shell and malachite beads.", "In the late 4th millennium BCE, Jericho was occupied during Neolithic 2 and the general character of the remains on the site link it culturally with Neolithic 2 (or PPNB) sites in the West Syrian and Middle Euphrates groups.", "This link is established by the presence of rectilinear mud-brick buildings and plaster floors that are characteristic of the age.===Bronze Age===Red terracotta jar, Ancient Bronze period 3500–2000 BCE, Tell es-Sultan, ancient Jericho, Tomb A IV.", "Louvre Museum AO 15611.A succession of settlements followed from 4500 BCE onward.====Early Bronze Age====In the Early Bronze IIIA ( – 2500/2450 BCE; Sultan IIIC1), the settlement reached its largest extent around 2600 BCE.During Early Bronze IIIB (/2450–2350 BCE; Sultan IIIC2) there was a Palace G on Spring Hill and city walls.====Middle Bronze Age====Jericho was continually occupied into the Middle Bronze Age; it was destroyed in the Late Bronze Age, after which it no longer served as an urban centre.", "The city was surrounded by extensive defensive walls strengthened with rectangular towers, and possessed an extensive cemetery with vertical shaft-tombs and underground burial chambers; the elaborate funeral offerings in some of these may reflect the emergence of local kings.During the Middle Bronze Age, Jericho was a small prominent city of the Canaan region, reaching its greatest Bronze Age extent in the period from 1700 to 1550 BCE.", "It seems to have reflected the greater urbanization in the area at that time, and has been linked to the rise of the Maryannu, a class of chariot-using aristocrats linked to the rise of the Mitannite state to the north.", "Kathleen Kenyon reported \"the Middle Bronze Age is perhaps the most prosperous in the whole history of Kna'an.", "...", "The defenses ... belong to a fairly advanced date in that period\" and there was \"a massive stone revetment ... part of a complex system\" of defenses.", "Bronze Age Jericho fell in the 16th century at the end of the Middle Bronze Age, the calibrated carbon remains from its City-IV destruction layer dating to 1617–1530 BCE.", "Carbon dating 1573 BCE confirmed the accuracy of the stratigraphical dating 1550.====Late Bronze Age====There was evidence of a small settlement in the Late Bronze Age ( 1400s BCE) on the site, but erosion and destruction from previous excavations have erased significant parts of this layer.", ";Hebrew Bible narrativeThe Hebrew Bible tells the story of the Battle of Jericho led by Joshua, leading to the fall of the Canaanite city, the first one captured by the Israelites in the Promised Land.", "Archaeological excavations have failed to find traces of a fortified city at the site during the relevant time, the 13th century BCE at the end of the Bronze Age.", "In fact, the current consensus among scholars is that Jericho was unoccupied from the late 15th century until the 10th/9th centuries BCE, although this has been questioned by recent excavations.===Iron Age===Tell es-Sultan remained unoccupied from the end of the 15th to the 10th–9th centuries BCE, when the city was rebuilt.", "Of this new city not much more remains than a four-room house on the eastern slope.", "By the 7th century, Jericho had become an extensive town, but this settlement was destroyed in the Babylonian conquest of Judah in the late 6th century.===Persian and Early Hellenistic periods===After the destruction of the Judahite city by the Babylonians in the late 6th century, whatever was rebuilt in the Persian period as part of the Restoration after the Babylonian captivity, left only very few remains.", "The tell was abandoned as a place of settlement not long after this period.", "During the Persian through Hellenistic periods, there is little in terms of occupation attested throughout the region.Jericho went from being an administrative centre of Yehud Medinata (\"the Province of Judah\") under Persian rule to serving as the private estate of Alexander the Great between 336 and 323 BCE after his conquest of the region.", "In the middle of the 2nd century BCE Jericho was under Hellenistic rule of the Seleucid Empire, when the Syrian General Bacchides built a number of forts to strengthen the defences of the area around Jericho against the revolt by the Macabees.", "One of these forts, built at the entrance to Wadi Qelt, was later refortified by Herod the Great, who named it ''Kypros'' after his mother.===Hasmonean and Herodian periods===After the abandonment of the Tell es-Sultan location, the new Jericho of the Late Hellenistic or Hasmonean and Early Roman or Herodian periods was established as a garden city in the vicinity of the royal estate at Tulul Abu el-'Alayiq and expanded greatly thanks to the intensive exploitation of the springs of the area.", "The new site consists of a group of low mounds on both banks of Wadi Qelt.", "The Hasmoneans were a dynasty descending from a priestly group (kohanim) from the tribe of Levi, who ruled over Judea following the success of the Maccabean Revolt until Roman influence over the region brought Herod to claim the Hasmonean throne.The rock-cut tombs of a Herodian- and Hasmonean-era cemetery lie in the lowest part of the cliffs between Nuseib al-Aweishireh and Mount of Temptation.", "They date between 100 BCE and 68 CE.====Herodian period====Herod's palaceHerod had to lease back the royal estate at Jericho from Cleopatra, after Mark Antony had given it to her as a gift.", "After their joint suicide in 30 BCE, Octavian assumed control of the Roman Empire and granted Herod absolute rule over Jericho, as part of the new Herodian domain.", "Herod's rule oversaw the construction of a hippodrome-theatre (''Tell es-Samrat'') to entertain his guests and new aqueducts to irrigate the area below the cliffs and reach his winter palaces built at the site of ''Tulul Abu el-Alaiq'' (also written ''ʾAlayiq'').", "In 2008 the Israel Exploration Society published an illustrated volume of Herod's third Jericho palace.The murder of Aristobulus III in a swimming pool at the Hasmonean royal winter palaces, as described by the Roman Jewish historian Josephus, took place during a banquet organized by Herod's Hasmonean mother-in-law.", "After the construction of the palaces, the city had functioned not only as an agricultural center and as a crossroad, but also as a winter resort for Jerusalem's aristocracy.Herod was succeeded in Judea by his son, Herod Archelaus, who built a village in his name not far to the north, Archelaïs (modern Khirbet al-Beiyudat), to house workers for his date plantation.First-century Jericho is described in Strabo's ''Geography'' as follows:====In the New Testament====''Christ Healing the Blind in Jericho'', El GrecoThe Christian Gospels state that Jesus of Nazareth passed through Jericho where he healed blind beggars (), and inspired a local chief tax collector named Zacchaeus to repent of his dishonest practices ().", "The road between Jerusalem and Jericho is the setting for the Parable of the Good Samaritan.John Wesley, in his New Testament Notes on this section of Luke's Gospel, claimed that \"about twelve thousand priests and Levites dwelt there, who all attended the service of the temple\".Smith's ''Bible Names Dictionary'' suggests that \"Jericho was once more 'a city of palms' when our Lord visited it.", "Here he restored sight to the blind (; ; ).", "Here the descendant of Rahab did not disdain the hospitality of Zacchaeus the publican.", "Finally, between Jerusalem and Jericho was laid the scene of his story of the good Samaritan.", "\"===Roman province===After the fall of Jerusalem to Vespasian's armies in the Great Revolt of Judea in 70 CE, Jericho declined rapidly, and by 100 CE it was but a small Roman garrison town.", "A fort was built there in 130 and played a role in putting down the Bar Kochba revolt in 133.===Byzantine period===Copy of Mosaic of the Shalom Al Yisrael Synagogue, 6th–7th century CEAccounts of Jericho by a Christian pilgrim are given in 333.Shortly thereafter the built-up area of the town was abandoned and a Byzantine Jericho, ''Ericha'', was built 1600 metres (1 mi) to the east, on which the modern town is centered.", "Christianity took hold in the city during the Byzantine era and the area was heavily populated.", "A number of monasteries and churches were built, including the Monastery of Saint George of Choziba in 340 CE and a domed church dedicated to Saint Eliseus.", "At least two synagogues were also built in the 6th century CE.", "The monasteries were abandoned after the Sasanian invasion of 614.The Jericho synagogue in the Royal Maccabean winter palace at Jericho dates from 70 to 50 BCE.", "A synagogue dating to the late 6th or early 7th century CE was discovered in Jericho in 1936, and was named Shalom Al Yisrael Synagogue, or \"peace unto Israel\", after the central Hebrew motto in its mosaic floor.", "It was controlled by Israel after the Six Day War, but after the handover to Palestinian Authority control per the Oslo Accords, it has been a source of conflict.", "On the night of 12 October 2000, the synagogue was vandalized by Palestinians who burned holy books and relics and damaged the mosaic.The Na'aran synagogue, another Byzantine era construction, was discovered on the northern outskirts of Jericho in 1918.While less is known of it than Shalom Al Yisrael, it has a larger mosaic and is in similar condition.===Early Muslim period===Arabic Umayyad mosaic from Hisham's Palace in JerichoJericho, by then named \"Ariha\" in Arabic variation, became part of Jund Filastin (\"Military District of Palestine\"), part of the larger province of Bilad al-Sham.", "The Arab Muslim historian Musa b.", "'Uqba (died 758) recorded that caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab exiled the Jews and Christians of Khaybar to Jericho (and Tayma).By 659, that district had come under the control of Mu'awiya, founder of the Umayyad dynasty.", "That year, an earthquake destroyed Jericho.", "A decade later, the pilgrim Arculf visited Jericho and found it in ruins, all its \"miserable Canaanite\" inhabitants now dispersed in shanty towns around the Dead Sea shore.A palatial complex long attributed to the tenth Umayyad caliph, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743) and thus known as Hisham's Palace, is located at Khirbet al-Mafjar, about 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) north of Tell es-Sultan.", "This \"desert castle\" or ''qasr'' was more likely built by Caliph Walid ibn Yazid (r. 743–744), who was assassinated before he could complete the construction.", "The remains of two mosques, a courtyard, mosaics, and other items can still be seen ''in situ'' today.", "The unfinished structure was largely destroyed in an earthquake in 747.Umayyad rule ended in 750 and was followed by the Arab caliphates of the Abbasid and Fatimid dynasties.", "Irrigated agriculture was developed under Islamic rule, reaffirming Jericho's reputation as a fertile \"City of the Palms\".", "Al-Maqdisi, the Arab geographer, wrote in 985 that \"the water of Jericho is held to be the highest and best in all Islam.", "Bananas are plentiful, also dates and flowers of fragrant odor\".", "Jericho is also referred to by him as one of the principal cities of Jund Filastin.===Crusader period===In 1179, the Crusaders rebuilt the Monastery of St. George of Koziba, at its original site 10 kilometres (6 mi) from the center of town.", "They also built another two churches and a monastery dedicated to John the Baptist, and are credited with introducing sugarcane production to the city.", "The site of Tawahin es-Sukkar (lit.", "\"sugar mills\") holds remains of a Crusader sugar production facility.", "In 1187, the Crusaders were evicted by the Ayyubid forces of Saladin after their victory in the Battle of Hattin, and the town slowly went into decline.===Ayyubid and Mamluk periods===Jericho, as depicted in the 1493 Nuremberg ChronicleIn 1226, Arab geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi said of Jericho, \"it has many palm trees, also sugarcane in quantities, and bananas.", "The best of all the sugar in the ''Ghaur'' land is made here.\"", "In the 14th century, Abu al-Fida writes there are sulfur mines in Jericho, \"the only ones in Palestine\".===Ottoman period===Postcard image depicting Jericho in the late 19th or early 20th century====16th century====Jericho was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine, and in 1545 a revenue of 19,000 Akçe was recorded, destined for the new Waqf for the Haseki Sultan Imaret of Jerusalem.", "The villagers processed indigo as one source of revenue, using a cauldron specifically for this purpose that was loaned to them by the Ottoman authorities in Jerusalem.", "Later that century, the Jericho revenues no longer went to the Haseki Sultan Imaret.In 1596 Jericho appeared in the tax registers under the name of ''Riha'', being in the ''nahiya'' of Al-Quds in the ''liwa'' of Al-Quds.", "It had a population of 51 households, all Muslims.", "They paid a fixed tax-rate of 33.3% on agricultural products, including wheat, barley, summer crops, vineyards and fruit trees, goats and beehives, water buffaloes, in addition to occasional revenues; a total of 40,000 Akçe.", "All of the revenue still went to a Waqf.====17th century====The French traveller Laurent d'Arvieux described the city in 1659 as \"now desolate, and consists only of about fifty poor houses, in bad condition ...", "The plain around is extremely fertile; the soil is middling fat; but it is watered by several rivulets, which flow into the Jordan.", "Notwithstanding these advantages only the gardens adjacent to the town are cultivated.", "\"====19th century====Roman aqueductsIn the 19th century, European scholars, archaeologists and missionaries visited often.", "At the time it was an oasis in a poor state, similar to other regions in the plains and deserts.", "Edward Robinson (1838) reported 50 families, which were about 200 people, Titus Tobler (1854) reported some 30 poor huts, whose residents paid a total of 3611 kuruş in tax.", "Abraham Samuel Herschberg (1858–1943) also reported after his 1899–1900 travels in the region of some 30 poor huts and 300 residents.", "At that time, Jericho was the residence of the region's Turkish governor.", "The main water sources for the village were a spring called ''Ein al-Sultan'', lit.", "\"Sultan's Spring\", in Arabic and ''Ein Elisha'', lit.", "\"Elisha Spring\", in Hebrew, and springs in Wadi Qelt.J.", "S. Buckingham (1786–1855) describes in his 1822 book how the male villagers of er-Riha, although nominally sedentary, engaged in Bedouin-style raiding, or ''ghazzu'': the little land cultivation he observed was done by women and children, while men spent most of their time riding through the plains and engaging in \"robbery and plunder\", their main and most profitable activity.An Ottoman village list from around 1870 showed that ''Riha'', Jericho, had 36 houses and a population of 105, though the population count included men only.The first excavation at Tell es-Sultan was carried out in 1867.====20th century====Jericho, the Jordan Hotel, 1912Jericho from the air in 1931The Greek Orthodox monasteries of St. George of Choziba and John the Baptist were refounded and completed in 1901 and 1904, respectively.===British Mandate period===Jericho 1938After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, Jericho came under British rule, as part of Mandatory Palestine.According to the 1922 census of Palestine, Jericho had 1,029 inhabitants (931 Muslims, 92 Christians, and six Jews).", "The Christian population consisted of 45 Orthodox, 12 Roman Catholics, 13 Greek Catholics (Melkite Catholics), 6 Syrian Catholic, 11 Armenians, four Copts and one Church of England.In 1927, an earthquake struck and affected Jericho and other cities.", "Around 300 people died, but by the 1931 census the population had increased to 1,693 inhabitants (1,512 Muslims, 170 Christians, seven Druze, and four Jews), in 347 houses.In the 1938 statistics, Jericho lists a population of 1,996 people (including five Jews).", "In the 1945 statistics, Jericho's population was 3,010 (2,570 Muslims, 260 Christians, 170 Jews, and 10 \"other\") and it had jurisdiction over 37,481 dunams of land.", "Of this, 948 dunams were used for citrus and bananas, 5,873 dunams were for plantations and irrigable land, 9,141 for cereals, while a total of 38 dunams were urban, built-up areas.During World War II The British built fortresses in Jericho with the help of the Jewish company Solel Boneh, and bridges were rigged with explosives in preparation for a possible invasion by German allied forces.===Jordanian period===Jericho came under Jordanian control after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.", "The Jericho Conference, organized by King Abdullah and attended by over 2,000 Palestinian delegates in 1948 proclaimed \"His Majesty Abdullah as King of all Palestine\" and called for \"the unification of Palestine and Transjordan as a step toward full Arab unity\".", "In mid-1950, Jordan formally annexed the West Bank and Jericho residents, like other residents of West Bank localities became Jordanian citizens.In 1961, the population of Jericho was 10,166, of whom 935 were Christian, and the rest were Muslim.===1967 and aftermath===United Nations map of the area, showing the Israeli occupation arrangementsJericho has been occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War of 1967 along with the rest of the West Bank.", "It was the first city handed over to Palestinian Authority control in accordance with the Oslo Accords.", "The limited Palestinian self-rule of Jericho was agreed on in the Gaza–Jericho Agreement of 4 May 1994.Part of the agreement was a \"Protocol on Economic Relations\", signed on 29 April 1994.The city is in an enclave of the Jordan Valley that is in Area A of the West Bank, while the surrounding area is designated as being in Area C under full Israeli military control.", "Four roadblocks encircle the enclave, restricting Jericho's Palestinian population's movement through the West Bank.In response to the 2001 Second Intifada and suicide bombings, Jericho was re-occupied by Israeli troops.", "A deep trench was built around a large part of the city to control Palestinian traffic to and from Jericho.On 14 March 2006, the Israel Defense Forces launched Operation Bringing Home the Goods, raiding a Jericho prison to capture the PFLP general secretary, Ahmad Sa'adat, and five other prisoners, all of whom had been charged with assassinating the Israeli tourist minister Rehavam Zeevi in 2001.After Hamas assaulted a neighborhood in Gaza mostly populated by the Fatah-aligned Hilles clan, in response to their attack that killed six Hamas members, the Hilles clan was relocated to Jericho on 4 August 2008.In 2009, Palestinian Authority Prime Minister Salam Fayyad and U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs David Johnson inaugurated the Presidential Guard Training Center in Jericho, a $9.1 million training facility for Palestinian Authority security forces built with U.S. funding." ], [ "Geography and environment", "Jericho is located below sea level in an oasis in Wadi Qelt in the Jordan Valley, which makes it the lowest city in the world.", "The nearby spring of ''Ein es-Sultan'' produces 3.8 m3 (1,000 gallons) of water per minute, irrigating some through multiple channels and feeding into the Jordan River, away.===Important Bird Area===A site encompassing the city of Jericho and its immediate surrounds has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of black francolins, lanner falcons, lesser kestrels and Dead Sea sparrows.===Climate===Annual rainfall is , mostly concentrated in the winter months and into early spring.", "The average temperature is in January and in July.", "According to the Köppen climate classification, Jericho has a hot desert climate (''BWh'').", "Rich alluvial soil and abundant spring water have made Jericho an attractive place for settlement." ], [ "Demographics", "Municipality of Jericho, 1967In the first census carried out by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, Jericho's population was 14,674.Palestinian refugees constituted a significant 43.6% of the residents or 6,393 people.", "The gender make-up of the city was 51% male and 49% female.", "Jericho has a young population, with nearly half (49.2%) of the inhabitants being under the age of 20.People between the ages of 20 and 44 made up 36.2% of the population, 10.7% between the ages of 45 and 64, and 3.6% were over the age of 64.In the 2007 census by the PCBS, Jericho had a population of 18,346.Demographics have varied widely depending on the dominant ethnic group and rule in the region over the past three thousand years.", "In a 1945 land and population survey by Sami Hadawi, 3,010 inhabitants is the figure given for Jericho, of which 94% (2840) were Arab and 6% (170) were Jews.", "Today, the overwhelming majority of the population is Muslim.", "The Christian community makes up around 1% of the population.", "A large community of black Palestinians is present in Jericho." ], [ "Economy", "Jericho marketplace, 1967In 1994, Israel and Palestine signed an economic accord that enabled Palestinians in Jericho to open banks, collect taxes and engage in export and import in preparation for self-rule.Agriculture is another source of income, with banana groves ringing the city.The Jericho Agro-Industrial Park is a public-private enterprise being developed in the Jericho area.", "Agricultural processing companies are being offered financial concessions to lease plots of land in the park in a bid to boost Jericho's economy." ], [ "Tourism", "Jericho cable carIn 1998, a $150 million casino-hotel was built in Jericho with the backing of Yasser Arafat.", "The casino is now closed, though the hotel on the premises is open for guests.In 2010, Jericho, with its proximity to the Dead Sea, was declared the most popular destination among Palestinian tourists.===Biblical and Christian landmarks===Christian tourism is one of Jericho's primary sources of income.", "There are several major Christian pilgrimage sites in and around Jericho.", "* Ein as-Sultan, known as the Spring of Elisha to Jews and Christians;* Qasr al-Yahud on the Jordan River, across from Bethany beyond the Jordan, traditionally identified as the location of the baptism of Jesus;* Mount of Temptation (Jebel Quruntul), traditionally identified as the location of the Temptation of Jesus;* The Greek Orthodox Monastery of the Temptation halfway up the mountain, beside a cave said to be the location where Jesus fasted for 40 days.", "It is connected to Jericho by a cable car;* 2 sycamore trees separately mentioned as the one mentioned in relation to Zacchaeus;* Deir Hajla, the monastery of St. Gerasimos in the Jordan Valley near Jericho;* Saint George Monastery in Wadi Qelt above Jericho.===Archaeological landmarks===* Stone, Bronze and Iron Age cities at '''Tell es-Sultan''';* Hasmonean and Herodian winter palaces at '''Tulul Abu el-'Alayiq''';* Byzantine-period synagogues at Jericho (Shalom Al Yisrael Synagogue) and Na'aran;* Umayyad palace at Khirbet al-Mafjar known as Hisham's Palace;* Crusader sugar production facility at '''Tawahin es-Sukkar''' (lit.", "\"sugar mills\");* Nabi Musa, the Mamluk and Ottoman shrine claimed to be the resting place of Moses (\"Prophet Musa\" to the Muslims)" ], [ "Schools and religious institutions", "In 1925, Christian friars opened a school for 100 pupils that became the Terra Santa School.", "The city has 22 state schools and a number of private schools." ], [ "Health care", "In April 2010, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) held a groundbreaking ceremony for the renovation of the Jericho Governmental Hospital.", "USAID is providing $2.5 million in funding for this project." ], [ "Sports", "The sports team Hilal Areeha plays association football in the West Bank First Division.", "They play home games in the 15,000-spectator Jericho International Stadium." ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Jericho is twinned with:* Alessandria, Italy (2004)* Campinas, Brazil (2001)* Eger, Hungary (2013)* Estación Central, Chile (2007)* Fez, Morocco (2014)* Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil (2012)* Iași, Romania (2003)* Ilion, Greece (1999)* Kragujevac, Serbia (2011)* Lærdal, Norway (1998)* Pisa, Italy (2000)* San Giovanni Valdarno, Italy (2004)* Santa Bárbara, Brazil (1998)* Al-Shuna al-Shamalyah, Jordan (2016)" ], [ "Notable people", "* Musa Alami" ], [ "See also", "*Ancient underground quarry, Jordan Valley, some north of Jericho*al-Auja, Jericho, a Palestinian village north of Jericho*Battle of Jericho, biblical story*Cities in the Book of Joshua*Hasmonean royal winter palaces, actually Hasmonean and Herodian, at Tulul Abu al-'Alayiq south of Jericho proper*History of pottery in Palestine*Jawa, Jordan, the oldest proto-urban settlement from Jordan (late 4th millennium BC – Early Bronze Age)*Mevo'ot Yericho, Israeli settlement just north of Jericho*Tower of Jericho, the Neolithic stone tower, c. 10,000 years old, excavated at Tell es-Sultan*Wall of Jericho, the Neolithic stone wall, c. 10,000 years old, excavated at Tell es-Sultan" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * * * pp.", "173, 174, 181, 183, 231, 507;* * * * * * * * * (p. 46 ff)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Stacey, D. 'Hedonists or pragmatic agriculturalists?", "Reassessing Hasmonean Jericho', ''Levant'', '''38''' (2006), 191–202." ], [ "External links", "* Welcome to Jericho* Jericho City (Fact Sheet), Applied Research Institute–Jerusalem, Applied Research Institute–Jerusalem (ARIJ)* Jericho City Profile, ARIJ* Jericho aerial photo, ARIJ* Locality Development Priorities and Needs in Jericho City, ARIJ* Jericho Municipality Official Website* Survey of Western Palestine, Map 18: IAA, Wikimedia commons* Jericho Municipality Official Website Historical site* Jericho Cable Car* Resources on Biblical Archaeology* Jericho: Tel es-Sultan * The walls of Jericho fell in 1550 BCE" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jesuits" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Society of Jesus''' (; abbreviation: '''SJ'''), also known as the '''Jesuit Order''' or the '''Jesuits''' ( ; ), is a religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome.", "It was founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola and six companions, with the approval of Pope Paul III.", "The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations.", "Jesuits work in education, research, and cultural pursuits.", "Jesuits also conduct retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social and humanitarian ministries, and promote ecumenical dialogue.The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General.", "The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome.", "The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit mother church.Members of the Society of Jesus make profession of \"perpetual poverty, chastity, and obedience\" and \"promise a special obedience to the sovereign pontiff in regard to the missions\" to the effect that a Jesuit is expected to be directed by the Pope \"''perinde ac cadaver''\" (\"as if he was a lifeless body\") and to accept orders to go anywhere in the world, even if required to live in extreme conditions.", "This was so because Ignatius, its leading founder, was a nobleman who had a military background.", "Accordingly, the opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for \"whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God, to strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith, and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine\".", "Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as \"God's soldiers\", \"God's marines\", or \"the Company\".", "The society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council.Jesuit missionaries established missions around the world from the 16th to the 18th century and had both successes and failures in Christianizing the native peoples.", "The Jesuits have always been controversial within the Catholic Church and have frequently clashed with secular governments and institutions.", "Beginning in 1759, the Catholic Church expelled Jesuits from most countries in Europe and from European colonies.", "In 1814, the Church lifted the suppression." ], [ "History", "===Foundation===Ignatius of LoyolaIgnatius of Loyola, a Basque nobleman from the Pyrenees area of northern Spain, founded the society after discerning his spiritual vocation while recovering from a wound sustained in the Battle of Pamplona.", "He composed the ''Spiritual Exercises'' to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ.", "In 1534, Ignatius and six other young men, including Francis Xavier and Peter Faber, gathered and professed promises of poverty, chastity, and later obedience, including a special vow of obedience to the pope in matters of mission direction and assignment.", "Ignatius's plan of the order's organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the \"Formula of the Institute\".On 15 August 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard from the Basque city of Loyola, and six others mostly of Castilian origin, all students at the University of Paris, met in Montmartre outside Paris, in a crypt beneath the church of Saint Denis, now Saint Pierre de Montmartre, to pronounce promises of poverty, chastity, and obedience.", "Ignatius' six companions were: Francisco Xavier from Navarre (modern Spain), Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laínez, Nicolás Bobadilla from Castile (modern Spain), Peter Faber from Savoy, and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal.", "The meeting has been commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre.", "They called themselves the , and also or \"Friends in the Lord\", because they felt \"they were placed together by Christ.\"", "The name \"company\" had echoes of the military (reflecting perhaps Ignatius' background as Captain in the Spanish army) as well as of discipleship (the \"companions\" of Jesus).", "The Spanish \"company\" would be translated into Latin as like in , a partner or comrade.", "From this came \"Society of Jesus\" (SJ) by which they would be known more widely.Religious orders established in the medieval era were named after particular men: Francis of Assisi (Franciscans); Domingo de Guzmán, later canonized as Saint Dominic (Dominicans); and Augustine of Hippo (Augustinians).", "Ignatius of Loyola and his followers appropriated the name of Jesus for their new order, provoking resentment by other orders who considered it presumptuous.", "The resentment was recorded by Jesuit José de Acosta of a conversation with the Archbishop of Santo Domingo.", "In the words of one historian: \"The use of the name Jesus gave great offense.", "Both on the Continent and in England, it was denounced as blasphemous; petitions were sent to kings and to civil and ecclesiastical tribunals to have it changed; and even Pope Sixtus V had signed a Brief to do away with it.\"", "But nothing came of all the opposition; there were already congregations named after the Trinity and as \"God's daughters\".In 1537, the seven travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order.", "Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests.", "These initial steps led to the official founding in 1540.They were ordained in Venice by the bishop of Arbe (24 June).", "They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy.", "The Italian War of 1535-1538 renewed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Venice, the Pope, and the Ottoman Empire, had rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible.Again in 1540, they presented the project to Paul III.", "After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favourably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull (\"To the Government of the Church Militant\"), on 27 September 1540.This is the founding document of the Society of Jesus as an official Catholic religious order.", "Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General.", "Paul III's bull had limited the number of its members to sixty.", "This limitation was removed through the bull of Julius III in 1550.In 1543, Peter Canisius entered the Company.", "Ignatius sent him to Messina, where he founded the first Jesuit college in Sicily.Ignatius laid out his original vision for the new order in the \"Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus\", which is \"the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent official documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform\".", "He ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550.The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life, and apostolate of the new religious order.", "Its famous opening statement echoed Ignatius' military background:A fresco depicting Ignatius receiving the papal bull from Pope Paul III was created after 1743 by Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in Olomouc.Jesuits at Akbar's court in India, In fulfilling the mission of the \"Formula of the Institute of the Society\", the first Jesuits concentrated on a few key activities.", "First, they founded schools throughout Europe.", "Jesuit teachers were trained in both classical studies and theology, and their schools reflected this.", "These schools taught with a balance of Aristotelian methods with mathematics.", "Second, they sent out missionaries across the globe to evangelize those peoples who had not yet heard the Gospel, founding missions in widely diverse regions such as modern-day Paraguay, Japan, Ontario, and Ethiopia.", "One of the original seven arrived in India already in 1541.Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to preserve communion with Rome and the pope.", "The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the movement toward Protestantism in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and southern Germany.Ignatius wrote the Jesuit ''Constitutions'', adopted in 1553, which created a centralised organization and stressed acceptance of any mission to which the pope might call them.", "His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: (\"For the greater glory of God\").", "This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things normally considered of little importance.The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as an order of clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, and following a religious rule.The term ''Jesuit'' (of 15th-century origin, meaning \"one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus\") was first applied to the society in reproach (1544–1552).", "The term was never used by Ignatius of Loyola, but over time, members and friends of the society adopted the name with a positive meaning.===Early works===, 1598The Jesuits were founded just before the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ensuing Counter-Reformation that would introduce reforms within the Catholic Church, and so counter the Protestant Reformation throughout Catholic Europe.Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical church was in dire need of reform.", "Some of their greatest struggles were against corruption, venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Catholic Church.", "Ignatius insisted on a high level of academic preparation for the clergy in contrast to the relatively poor education of much of the clergy of his time.", "The Jesuit vow against \"ambitioning prelacies\" can be seen as an effort to counteract another problem evidenced in the preceding century.Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the church had to begin with the conversion of an individual's heart.", "One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion is the Ignatian retreat, called the Spiritual Exercises.", "During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ.", "They meet regularly with a spiritual director who guides their choice of exercises and helps them to develop a more discerning love for Christ.The retreat follows a \"Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive\" pattern in the tradition of the spirituality of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers.", "Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life.", "Further, he used it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the church.", "The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as \"retreats\".The Jesuits' contributions to the late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry.", "By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents.", "A precursor to liberal education, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought.", "This method of teaching was important in the context of the Scientific Revolution, as these universities were open to teaching new scientific and mathematical methodology.", "Further, many important thinkers of the Scientific Revolution were educated by Jesuit universities.In addition to the teachings of faith, the Jesuit (1599) would standardize the study of Latin, Greek, classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences, and the arts.", "Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials.The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland and Lithuania.", "Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world.", "Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion.", "Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of \"finding God in all things\", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music.", "The theater was a form of expression especially prominent in Jesuit schools.Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to kings during the early modern period.", "They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living and celebration of the Liturgy of Hours in common) allowed them to be flexible and meet diverse needs arising at the time.===Expansion of the order===Jesuit missionary, painting from 1779After much training and experience in theology, Jesuits went across the globe in search of converts to Christianity.", "Despite their dedication, they had little success in Asia, except in the Philippines.", "For instance, early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580.This was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence.", "Jesuits did, however, have much success in Latin America.", "Their ascendancy in societies in the Americas accelerated during the seventeenth century, wherein Jesuits created new missions in Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia; as early as 1603, there were 345 Jesuit priests in Mexico alone.Francis XavierFrancis Xavier, one of the original companions of Loyola, arrived in Goa (Portuguese India) in 1541 to carry out evangelical service in the Indies.", "In a 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, he requested an Inquisition to be installed in Goa to combat heresies like crypto-Judaism and crypto-Islam.", "Under Portuguese royal patronage, Jesuits thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded their activities to education and healthcare.", "In 1594 they founded the first Roman-style academic institution in the East, St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau, China.", "Founded by Alessandro Valignano, it had a great influence on the learning of Eastern languages (Chinese and Japanese) and culture by missionary Jesuits, becoming home to the first western sinologists such as Matteo Ricci.", "Jesuit efforts in Goa were interrupted by the expulsion of the Jesuits from Portuguese territories in 1759 by the powerful Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State in Portugal.The Portuguese Jesuit António de Andrade founded a mission in Western Tibet in 1624 (see also \"Catholic Church in Tibet\").", "Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville, reached Lhasa, in Tibet, in 1661.The Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideri established a new Jesuit mission in Lhasa and Central Tibet (1716–21) and gained an exceptional mastery of Tibetan language and culture, writing a long and very detailed account of the country and its religion as well as treatises in Tibetan that attempted to refute key Buddhist ideas and establish the truth of Catholic Christianity.Spanish missionary José de Anchieta was, together with Manuel da Nóbrega, the first Jesuit that Ignacio de Loyola sent to America.Jesuit missions in America became controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments.", "The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Native Americans and slavery.", "Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay, they formed Christian Native American city-states, called \"reductions\".", "These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model.", "The efforts of Jesuits like Antonio Ruiz de Montoya to protect the natives from enslavement by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers would contribute to the call for the society's suppression.", "Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion, and education of indigenous nations.", "They also built schools, organized people into villages, and created a writing system for the local languages of Brazil.", "José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega were the first Jesuits that Ignacio de Loyola sent to America.Bell made in Portugal for Nanbanji Church run by Jesuits in Japan, 1576–1587Jesuit scholars working in foreign missions were very dedicated in studying the local languages and strove to produce Latinized grammars and dictionaries.", "This included: Japanese (see , also known as , \"Vocabulary of the Japanese Language\", a Japanese–Portuguese dictionary written 1603); Vietnamese (Portuguese missionaries created the Vietnamese alphabet, which was later formalized by Avignon missionary Alexandre de Rhodes with his 1651 trilingual dictionary); Tupi (the main language of Brazil); and the pioneering study of Sanskrit in the West by Jean François Pons in the 1740s.Jesuit missionaries were active among indigenous peoples in New France in North America, many of them compiling dictionaries or glossaries of the First Nations and Native American languages they had learned.", "For instance, before his death in 1708, Jacques Gravier, vicar general of the Illinois Mission in the Mississippi River valley, compiled a Kaskaskia Illinois–French dictionary, considered the most extensive among works of the missionaries.", "Extensive documentation was left in the form of ''The Jesuit Relations'', published annually from 1632 until 1673.====Britain====Whereas Jesuits were active in the 16th century, due to the prosecution of Catholics in the Elizabethan times, an 'English' province was only established in 1623.Whereas the first pressing issue of early Jesuits, in what today is the UK, was to establish places for training priests, the Society's activities today are much broader than that.", "After an English College was opened in Rome (1579), a Jesuit seminary was opened at Valladolid (1589), then one in Seville (1592), which culminated in a place of study in Louvain (1614).", "This was the earliest foundation of what would later be called Heythrop College.", "Campion Hall founded in 1896, has been a presence within Oxford University since then.", "In terms of other longer-established manifestations of the Jesuits commitment to working in Britain, four Jesuit churches remain today in London alone, with three further places of workship in England, and two in Scotland.For a recent assessment of the Jesuits in Britain's work, see Melanie McDonagh's article.====China====Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi in the 1607 Chinese publication of Euclid's ''Elements''''Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, or, Chinese Knowledge Explained in Latin'', published by Philippe Couplet, Prospero Intorcetta, Christian Herdtrich, and François de Rougemont at Paris in 1687A map of the 200-odd Jesuit churches and missions established across China The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguese settlement on Macau, where they settled on Green Island and founded St. Paul's College.The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China.", "The scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when scientific innovation had declined in China:The Jesuits made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences.", "They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China.", "They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe.", "Through their correspondence, European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.For over a century, Jesuits such as Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci, Diego de Pantoja, Philippe Couplet, Michal Boym, and François Noël refined translations and disseminated Chinese knowledge, culture, history, and philosophy to Europe.", "Their Latin works popularized the name \"Confucius\" and had considerable influence on the Deists and other Enlightenment thinkers, some of whom were intrigued by the Jesuits' attempts to reconcile Confucian morality with Catholicism.Upon the arrival of the Franciscans and other monastic orders, Jesuit accommodation of Chinese culture and rituals led to the long-running Chinese Rites controversy.", "Despite the personal testimony of the Kangxi Emperor and many Jesuit converts that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius was a nonreligious token of respect, 's papal decree ruled that such behavior constituted impermissible forms of idolatry and superstition in 1704; his legate Tournon and Bishop Charles Maigrot of Fujian, tasked with presenting this finding to the Kangxi Emperor, displayed such extreme ignorance that the emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism.", "Tournon's summary and automatic excommunication for any violators of Clement's decree—upheld by the 1715 bull —led to the swift collapse of all the missions in China; the last Jesuits were finally expelled after 1721.==== Ireland ====The first Jesuit school in Ireland was established at Limerick by the Apostolic Visitor of the Holy See, David Wolfe.", "Wolfe had been sent to Ireland by Pope Pius IV with the concurrence of the third Jesuit General, Diego Laynez.", "He was charged with setting up grammar schools \"as a remedy against the profound ignorance of the people\".Wolfe's mission in Ireland initially concentrated on setting the sclerotic Irish Church on a sound footing, introducing the Tridentine Reforms and finding suitable men to fill vacant Sees.", "He established a house of religious women in Limerick who were known as the Menabochta (mna bochta, poor women) and in 1565 preparations began for establishing a school at Limerick.At his instigation, Richard Creagh, a priest of the Diocese of Limerick, was persuaded to accept the vacant Archdiocese of Armagh, and was consecrated at Rome in 1564.This early Limerick school operated in difficult circumstances.", "In April 1566, Good sent a detailed report to Rome of his activities via the Portuguese Jesuits.", "He informed the Jesuit General that he and Daniel had arrived at Limerick city two years beforehand and their situation there had been perilous.", "Both had arrived in the city in very bad health, but had recovered due to the kindness of the people.", "They established contact with Wolfe, but were only able to meet with him at night, as the English authorities were attempting to arrest the Legate.", "Wolfe charged them initially with teaching to the boys of Limerick, with an emphasis on religious instruction, and Good translated the catechism from Latin into English for this purpose.", "They remained in the city for eight months, before moving to Kilmallock in December 1565 under the protection of the Earl of Desmond, where they lived in more comfort than the primitive conditions they experienced in the city.", "However they were unable to support themselves at Kilmallock and three months later they returned to the city in Easter 1566, and strangely set up their house in accommodation owned by the Lord Deputy of Ireland, which was conveyed to them by certain influential friends.They recommenced teaching at Castle Lane, and imparting the sacraments, though their activities were restricted by the arrival of Royal Commissioners.", "Good reported that as he was an Englishman, English officials in the city cultivated him and he was invited to dine with them on a number of occasions, though he was warned to exercise prudence and avoid promoting the Petrine Primacy and the priority of the Mass amongst the sacraments with his students and congregation, and that his sermons should emphasize obedience to secular princes if he wished to avoid arrest.The number of scholars in their care was very small.", "An early example of a school play in Ireland is sent in one of Good's reports, which was performed on the Feast of St. John in 1566.The school was conducted in one large aula, but the students were divided into distinct classes.", "Good gives a highly detailed report of the curriculum taught and the top class studied the first and second parts of Johannes Despauterius's Commentarli grammatici, and read a few letters of Cicero or the dialogues of Frusius (André des Freux, SJ).", "The second class committed Donatus' texts in Latin to memory and read dialogues as well as works by Ēvaldus Gallus.", "Students in the third class learned Donatus by heart, though translated into English rather than through Latin.", "Young boys in the fourth class were taught to read.", "Progress was slow because there were too few teachers to conduct classes simultaneously.In the spirit of Ignatius's Roman College founded 14 years before, no fee was requested from pupils, though as a result the two Jesuits lived in very poor conditions and were very overworked with teaching and administering the sacraments to the public.", "In late 1568 the Castle Lane School, in the presence of Daniel and Good, was attacked and looted by government agents sent by Sir Thomas Cusack during the pacification of Munster.", "The political and religious climate had become more uncertain in the lead up to Pope Pius V's formal excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I, which resulted in a new wave of repression of Catholicism in England and Ireland.", "At the end of 1568 the Anglican Bishop of Meath, Hugh Brady, was sent to Limerick charged with a Royal Commission to seek out and expel the Jesuits.", "Daniel was immediately ordered to quit the city and went to Lisbon, where he resumed his studies with the Portuguese Jesuits.", "Good moved on to Clonmel, before establishing himself at Youghal until 1577.In 1571, after Wolfe had been captured and imprisoned at Dublin Castle, Daniel persuaded the Portuguese Province to agree a surety for the ransom of Wolfe, who was quickly banished on release.", "Daniel returned to Ireland the following year, but was immediately captured and incriminating documents were found on his person, which were taken as proof of his involvement with the rebellious cousin of the Earl of Desmond, James Fitzmaurice and a Spanish plot.", "He was removed from Limerick, taken to Cork \"just as if he were a thief or noted evildoer\".", "After being court-martialled by the Lord President of Munster, Sir John Perrot, he was sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered for treason and refused pardon in return for swearing the Act of Supremacy.", "His execution was carried out on 25 October 1572 and a report of it was sent by Fitzmaurice to the Jesuit Superior General in 1576, where he said that Daniel was \"cruelly killed because of me\".With Daniel dead and Wolfe dismissed, the Irish Jesuit foundation suffered a severe setback.", "Good is recorded as resident at Rome by 1577 and in 1586 the seizure of Earl of Desmond's estates resulted in a new permanent Protestant plantation in Munster, making the continuation of the Limerick school impossible for a time.", "It was not until the early 1600s that the Jesuit mission could again re-establish itself in the city, though the Jesuits kept a low profile existence in lodgings here and there.", "For instance a mission led by Fr.", "Nicholas Leinagh re-established itself at Limerick in 1601, though the Jesuit presence in the city numbered no more than 1 or 2 at a time in the years immediately following.In 1604, the Lord President of Munster, Sir Henry Brouncker - at Limerick, ordered all Jesuits from the city and Province, and offered £7 to anyone willing to betray a Jesuit priest to the authorities, and £5 for a Seminarian.", "Jesuit houses and schools throughout the Province, in the years thereafter, were subject to periodic crackdown and the occasional destruction of schools, imprisonment of teachers and the levying of heavy money penalties on parents are recorded in publications of the time.", "In 1615-17 the Royal Visitation Books, written up by Thomas Jones, the Anglican Archbishop of Dublin, records the suppression of Jesuit schools at Waterford, Limerick and Galway.", "Nevertheless, in spite of this occasional persecution, the Jesuits were able to exert a degree of discreet influence within the Province and city.", "For instance in 1606, largely through their efforts, a Catholic named Christopher Holywood was elected Mayor of the city.", "Four years earlier the resident Jesuit had raised a sum of \"200 cruzados\" for the purpose of founding a hospital in the city, though the project was disrupted by a severe outbreak of plague and repression by the Lord PresidentThe principal activities of the Order within the city at this time were devoted to preaching, administration of the sacraments and teaching.", "The School opened and closed intermittently in or around the area of Castle Lane, near Lahiffy's lane.", "During demolition work stones marked I.H.S., 1642 and 1609 were, in the 19th century, found inserted in a wall behind a tan yard near St Mary's Chapel which, according to Lenihan, were thought to mark the site of an early Jesuit School and Oratory.", "This building, at other times, had also functioned as a dance house and candle factory.For much of the 17th century, the Limerick Jesuit foundation established a more permanent and stable presence and the Jesuit Annals record a 'flourishing' school at Limerick in the 1640s.", "During the Confederacy the Jesuits had been able to go about their business unhindered and were invited to preach publicly from the pulpit of St. Mary's Cathedral on 4 occasions.", "Cardinal Rinuccini wrote to the Jesuit General in Rome praising the work of the Rector of the Limerick College, Fr.", "William O'Hurley, who was aided by Fr.", "Thomas Burke.", "However just a few years later, during the Protectorate era, only 18 of the Jesuits resident in Ireland managed to avoid capture by the authorities.", "Lenihan records that the Limerick College SJ, in 1656, moved to a hut in the middle of a bog which was difficult for the authorities to find.", "This foundation was headed up by Fr.", "Nicholas Punch who was aided by Frs.", "Maurice Patrick, Piers Creagh and James Forde and the school attracted a large number of students from around the locality.At the Restoration of Charles II the school moved back to Castle Lane, and remained largely undisturbed for the next 40 years, until the surrender of the city to Williamite forces in 1692.In 1671, Dr. James Douley was appointed Vicar Apostolic of Limerick and during his visitation to the Diocese reported to the Holy See that the Jesuits had a house and \"taught schools with great fruit, instructing the youth in the articles of faith and good morals.\"", "Dr Douley also noted that this and other Catholic schools operating in the Diocese were also attended by local Protestants.The Jesuit presence in Ireland, in the so-called Penal era after the Battle of the Boyne, ebbed and flowed.", "By 1700 they were only 6 or 7, recovering to 25 by 1750.Small Jesuit houses and schools existed at Athlone, Carrick-on-Suir, Cashel, Clonmel, Kilkenny, Waterford, New Ross, Wexford, and Drogheda, as well as Dublin and Galway.", "At Limerick there appears to have been a long hiatus following the defeat of the Jacobite forces and Begley states that Fr.", "Thomas O'Gorman was the first Jesuit to return to Limerick after the siege, arriving in 1728 and he took up residence in Jail Lane, near the Castle in the Englishtown.", "There he opened a school to \"impart the rudiments of the classics to the better class youth of the city.\"", "Fr.", "O'Gorman left in 1737 and was succeeded by Fr.", "John McGrath.", "Next came Fr.", "James McMahon, who was a nephew of the Primate of Armagh, Hugh MacMahon.", "Fr.", "McMahon lived at Limerick for thirteen years until his death in 1751.In 1746 Father Joseph Morony was sent from Bordeaux to join Father McMahon and the others.", "Fr.", "Morony remained at the Jail Lane site teaching at what Begley states was a \"high class school\" until 1773 when he was ordered to close the School and Oratory following the papal suppression of the Society of Jesus, 208 years after its foundation by Wolfe.", "Fr Morony then went to live in Dublin and worked as a secular priest.Despite the efforts of the Castle authorities and English government the Limerick school managed to survive the Protestant Reformation, the Cromwellian invasion and Williamite Wars, and subsequent Penal Laws.", "It was finally forced to close, not for religious or confessional reasons, but due to the political difficulties of the Jesuit Order elsewhere.Following the restoration of the Society of Jesus in 1814, the Jesuits gradually re-established a number of their schools throughout the country, starting with foundations at Kildare and Dublin.", "They returned to Limerick at the invitation of the Bishop of Limerick, Dr. John Ryan, in 1859 and also re-established a school at Galway in the same year.====Canada====Bressani map of 1657 depicting the martyrdom of Jean de BrébeufDuring the French colonisation of New France in the 17th century, Jesuits played an active role in North America.", "Samuel de Champlain established the foundations of the French colony at Québec in 1608.The native tribes that inhabited modern day Ontario, Québec, and the areas around Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay were the Montagnais, the Algonquins, and the Huron.", "Champlain believed that these had souls to be saved, so in 1614 he obtained the Recollects, a reform branch of the Franciscans in France, to convert the native inhabitants.", "In 1624 the French Recollects realized the magnitude of their task and sent a delegate to France to invite the Society of Jesus to help with this mission.", "The invitation was accepted, and Jesuits Jean de Brébeuf, Ennemond Masse, and Charles Lalemant arrived in Quebec in 1625.Lalemant is considered to have been the first author of one of the ''Jesuit Relations of New France'', which chronicled their evangelization during the 17th century.The Jesuits became involved in the Huron mission in 1626 and lived among the Huron peoples.", "Brébeuf learned the native language and created the first Huron language dictionary.", "Outside conflict forced the Jesuits to leave New France in 1629 when Quebec was surrendered to the English.", "But in 1632 Quebec was returned to the French under the Treaty of Saint Germain-en-Laye and the Jesuits returned to Huron territory, modern Huronia.", "After a series of epidemics of European-introduced diseases beginning in 1634, some Huron began to mistrust the Jesuits and accused them of being sorcerers casting spells from their books.In 1639, Jesuit Jerome Lalemant decided that the missionaries among the Hurons needed a local residence and established Sainte-Marie near present-day Midland, Ontario, which was meant to be a replica of European society.", "It became the Jesuit headquarters and an important part of Canadian history.", "Throughout most of the 1640s the Jesuits had modest success, establishing five chapels in Huronia and baptising more than one thousand Huron out of a population which may have exceeded 20,000 before the epidemics of the 1630s.", "However, the Iroquois of New York, rivals of the Hurons, grew jealous of the Hurons' wealth and control of the fur trade system and attacked Huron villages in 1648.They killed missionaries and burned villages, and the Hurons scattered.", "Both Jean de Brébeuf and Gabriel Lalemant were tortured and killed in the Iroquois raids; they have been canonized as martyrs in the Catholic Church.", "The Jesuit Paul Ragueneau burned down Sainte-Marie instead of allowing the Iroquois the satisfaction of destroying it.", "By late June 1649, the French and some Christian Hurons built Sainte-Marie II on Christian Island (Isle de Saint-Joseph).", "However, facing starvation, lack of supplies, and constant threats of Iroquois attack, the small Sainte-Marie II was abandoned in June 1650; the remaining Christian Hurons and Jesuits departed for Quebec and Ottawa.", "As a result of the Iroquois raids and outbreak of disease, many missionaries, traders, and soldiers died.", "Today, the Huron tribe, also known as the Wyandot, have a First Nations reserve in Quebec, Canada, and three major settlements in the United States.After the collapse of the Huron nation, the Jesuits undertook the task of converting the Iroquois, something they had attempted in 1642 with little success.", "In 1653 the Iroquois nation had a fallout with the Dutch.", "They then signed a peace treaty with the French and a mission was established.", "The Iroquois soon turned on the French again.", "In 1658, the Jesuits were having little success and were under constant threat of being tortured or killed, but continued their effort until 1687 when they abandoned their permanent posts in the Iroquois homeland.By 1700, Jesuits turned to maintaining Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa without establishing new posts.", "During the Seven Years' War, Quebec was captured by the British in 1759 and New France came under British control.", "The British barred the immigration of more Jesuits to New France, and by 1763, only 21 Jesuits were stationed in New France.", "By 1773 only 11 Jesuits remained.", "During the same year the British crown declared that the Society of Jesus in New France was dissolved.The dissolution of the order left in place substantial estates and investments, amounting to an income of approximately £5,000 a year, and the Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec, later succeeded by the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, assumed the task of allocating the funds to suitable recipients, chiefly schools.The Jesuit mission in Quebec was re-established in 1842.There were a number of Jesuit colleges founded in the decades following; one of these colleges evolved into present-day Laval University.====United States====In the United States, the order is best known for its missions to the Native Americans in the early 17th century, its network of colleges and universities, and (in Europe before 1773) its politically conservative role in the Catholic Counter Reformation.The Society of Jesus, in the United States, is organized into geographic provinces, each of which being headed by a provincial superior.", "Today, there are four Jesuit provinces operating in the United States: the USA East, USA Central and Southern, USA Midwest, and USA West Provinces.", "At their height, there were ten provinces.", "Though there had been mergers in the past, a major reorganization of the provinces began in early 21st century, with the aim of consolidating into four provinces by 2020.====Ecuador====The Church of the Society of Jesus (), known colloquially as , is a Jesuit church in Quito, Ecuador.", "It is among the best-known churches in Quito because of its large central nave, which is profusely decorated with gold leaf, gilded plaster and wood carvings.", "Inspired by two Roman Jesuit churches – the Chiesa del Gesù (1580) and the Chiesa di Sant'Ignazio di Loyola (1650) – is one of the most significant works of Spanish Baroque architecture in South America and Quito's most ornate church.Over the 160 years of its construction, the architects of incorporated elements of four architectural styles, although the Baroque is the most prominent.", "Mudéjar (Moorish) influence is seen in the geometrical figures on the pillars; the Churrigueresque characterizes much of the ornate decoration, especially in the interior walls; finally the Neoclassical style adorns the Chapel of Saint Mariana de Jesús (in early years a winery).====Mexico====Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó in the 18th century, the first permanent Jesuit mission in Baja California, established by Juan María de Salvatierra in 1697Main altar of the Jesuit colegio in Tepozotlan, now the Museo Nacional del VirreinatoFrancisco Clavijero (1731–1787) wrote an important history of Mexico.The Jesuits in New Spain distinguished themselves in several ways.", "They had high standards for acceptance to the order and many years of training.", "They attracted the patronage of elite families whose sons they educated in rigorous newly founded Jesuit (\"colleges\"), including Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo, Colegio de San Ildefonso, and the Colegio de San Francisco Javier, Tepozotlan.", "Those same elite families hoped that a son with a vocation to the priesthood would be accepted as a Jesuit.", "Jesuits were also zealous in evangelization of the indigenous, particularly on the northern frontiers.To support their and members of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits acquired landed estates that were run with the best-practices for generating income in that era.", "A number of these haciendas were donated by wealthy elites.", "The donation of a hacienda to the Jesuits was the spark igniting a conflict between 17th-century bishop of Puebla Don Juan de Palafox and the Jesuit colegio in that city.", "Since the Jesuits resisted paying the tithe on their estates, this donation effectively took revenue out of the church hierarchy's pockets by removing it from the tithe rolls.Many of Jesuit haciendas were huge, with Palafox asserting that just two colleges owned 300,000 head of sheep, whose wool was transformed locally in Puebla to cloth; six sugar plantations worth a million pesos and generating an income of 100,000 pesos.", "The immense Jesuit hacienda of Santa Lucía produced , the alcoholic drink made from fermented agave sap whose main consumers were the lower classes and indigenous peoples in Spanish cities.", "Although most haciendas had a free work force of permanent or seasonal labourers, the Jesuit haciendas in Mexico had a significant number of black slaves.The Jesuits operated their properties as an integrated unit with the larger Jesuit order; thus revenues from haciendas funded their .", "Jesuits did significantly expand missions to the indigenous in the northern frontier area and a number were martyred, but the crown supported those missions.", "Mendicant orders that had real estate were less economically integrated, so that some individual houses were wealthy while others struggled economically.", "The Franciscans, who were founded as an order embracing poverty, did not accumulate real estate, unlike the Augustinians and Dominicans in Mexico.The Jesuits engaged in conflict with the episcopal hierarchy over the question of payment of tithes, the ten percent tax on agriculture levied on landed estates for support of the church hierarchy from bishops and cathedral chapters to parish priests.", "Since the Jesuits were the largest religious order holding real estate, surpassing the Dominicans and Augustinians who had accumulated significant property, this was no small matter.", "They argued that they were exempt, due to special pontifical privileges.", "In the mid-17th century, bishop of Puebla, Don Juan de Palafox took on the Jesuits over this matter and was so soundly defeated that he was recalled to Spain, where he became the bishop of the minor diocese of Osma.As elsewhere in the Spanish empire, the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767.Their haciendas were sold off and their colegios and missions in Baja California were taken over by other orders.", "Exiled Mexican-born Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero wrote an important history of Mexico while in Italy, a basis for creole patriotism.", "Andrés Cavo also wrote an important text on Mexican history that Carlos María de Bustamante published in the early nineteenth-century.", "An earlier Jesuit who wrote about the history of Mexico was Diego Luis de Motezuma (1619–99), a descendant of the Aztec monarchs of Tenochtitlan.", "Motezuma's was completed in 1696.He \"aimed to show that Mexican emperors were a legitimate dynasty in the 17th-century in the European sense\".The Jesuits were allowed to return to Mexico in 1840 when General Antonio López de Santa Anna was once more president of Mexico.", "Their re-introduction to Mexico was \"to assist in the education of the poorer classes and much of their property was restored to them\".====Northern Spanish America====Acosta's (1590) text on the AmericasThe Jesuits arrived in the Viceroyalty of Peru by 1571; it was a key area of the Spanish empire, with not only dense indigenous populations but also huge deposits of silver at Potosí.", "A major figure in the first wave of Jesuits was José de Acosta (1540–1600), whose book (1590) introduced Europeans to Spain's American empire via fluid prose and keen observation and explanation, based on 15 years in Peru and some time in New Spain (Mexico).", "Viceroy of Peru Don Francisco de Toledo urged the Jesuits to evangelize the indigenous peoples of Peru, wanting to put them in charge of parishes, but Acosta adhered to the Jesuit position that they were not subject to the jurisdiction of bishops and to catechize in indigenous parishes would bring them into conflict with the bishops.", "For that reason, the Jesuits in Peru focused on education of elite men rather than the indigenous populations.Peter Claver ministering to African slaves at CartagenaTo minister to newly arrived African slaves, Alonso de Sandoval (1576–1651) worked at the port of Cartagena de Indias.", "Sandoval wrote about this ministry in (1627), describing how he and his assistant Pedro Claver, later canonized, met slave transport ships in the harbour, went below decks where 300–600 slaves were chained, and gave physical aid with water, while introducing the Africans to Christianity.", "In his treatise, he did not condemn slavery or the ill-treatment of slaves, but sought to instruct fellow Jesuits to this ministry and describe how he catechized the slaves.Rafael Ferrer was the first Jesuit of Quito to explore and found missions in the upper Amazon regions of South America from 1602 to 1610, which belonged to the Audiencia (high court) of Quito that was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until it was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717.In 1602, Ferrer began to explore the Aguarico, Napo, and Marañon rivers (Sucumbios region, in what is today Ecuador and Peru), and between 1604 and 1605 set up missions among the Cofane natives.", "He was martyred by an apostate native in 1610.In 1639, the Audiencia of Quito organized an expedition to renew its exploration of the Amazon river and the Quito Jesuit (Jesuita Quiteño) Cristóbal de Acuña was a part of this expedition.", "The expedition disembarked from the Napo river 16 February 1639 and arrived in what is today Pará Brazil on the banks of the Amazon river on 12 December 1639.In 1641, Acuña published in Madrid a memoir of his expedition to the Amazon river entitled , which for academics became a fundamental reference on the Amazon region.In 1637, the Jesuits Gaspar Cugia and Lucas de la Cueva from Quito began establishing the Mainas missions in territories on the banks of the Marañón River, around the Pongo de Manseriche region, close to the Spanish settlement of Borja.", "Between 1637 and 1652 there were 14 missions established along the Marañón River and its southern tributaries, the Huallaga and the Ucayali rivers.", "Jesuit Lucas de la Cueva and Raimundo de Santacruz opened up two new routes of communication with Quito, through the Pastaza and Napo rivers.Samuel Fritz's 1707 map showing the Amazon and the OrinocoBetween 1637 and 1715, Samuel Fritz founded 38 missions along the length of the Amazon river, between the Napo and Negro rivers, that were called the Omagua Missions.", "These missions were continually attacked by the Brazilian Bandeirantes beginning in the year 1705.In 1768, the only Omagua mission that was left was San Joaquin de Omaguas, since it had been moved to a new location on the Napo river away from the Bandeirantes.In the immense territory of Maynas, the Jesuits of Quito made contact with a number of indigenous tribes which spoke 40 different languages, and founded a total of 173 Jesuit missions encompassing 150,000 inhabitants.", "Because of the constant epidemics (smallpox and measles) and warfare with other tribes and the Bandeirantes, the total number of Jesuit Missions were reduced to 40 by 1744.The Jesuit missions offered the indigenous people Christianity, iron tools, and a small degree of protection from the slavers and the colonists.", "In exchange, the indigenous had to submit to Jesuit discipline and adopt, at least superficially, a life style foreign to their experience.", "The population of the missions was only sustained by frequent expeditions into the jungle by Jesuits, soldiers, and Christian Indians to capture indigenous people and force them to return or to settle in the missions.", "At the time when the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767, the Jesuits registered 36 missions run by 25 Jesuits in the Audiencia of Quito – 6 in the Napo and Aguarico Missions and 19 in the Pastaza and Iquitos Missions, with a population at 20,000 inhabitants.====Paraguay====The Guaraní people of eastern Paraguay and neighboring Brazil and Argentina were in crisis in the early 17th century.", "Recurrent epidemics of European diseases had reduced their population by up 50 percent and the forced labor of the encomiendas by the Spanish and mestizo colonists had made virtual slaves of many.", "Franciscan missionaries began establishing missions called reductions in the 1580s.", "The first Jesuits arrived in Asunción in 1588 and founded their first mission (or reduction) of San Ignacio Guazú in 1609.The objectives of the Jesuits were to make Christians of the Guaraní, impose European values and customs (which were regarded as essential to a Christian life), and isolate and protect the Guaraní from European colonists and slavers.", "\"Ruins of La Santisima Trinidad de Parana mission in Paraguay, founded by Jesuits in 1706In addition to recurrent epidemics, the Guaraní were threatened by the slave-raiding Bandeirantes from Brazil, who captured natives and sold them as slaves to work in sugar plantations or as concubines and household servants.", "Having depleted native populations near São Paulo, they discovered the richly populated Jesuit missions.", "Initially, the missions had few defenses against the slavers and thousands of Guaraní were captured and enslaved.", "Beginning in 1631, the Jesuits moved their missions from the Guayrá province (present day Brazil and Paraguay), about southwest to the three borders region of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil.", "About 10,000 of 30,000 Guaraní in the missions chose to accompany the Jesuits.", "In 1641 and 1642, armed by the Jesuits, Guaraní armies defeated the Bandeirantes and ended the worst of the slave trade in their region.", "From this point on the Jesuit missions enjoyed growth and prosperity, punctuated by epidemics.", "At the peak of their importance in 1732, the Jesuits presided over 141,000 Guaraní (including a sprinkling of other peoples) who lived in about 30 missions.The opinions of historians differ with regard to the Jesuit missions.", "The missions are much-romanticized with the Guaraní portrayed as innocent children of nature and the Jesuits as their wise and benevolent guides to an earthly utopia.", "\"Proponents...highlight that the Jesuits protected the Indians from exploitation and preserved the Guaraní language and other aspects of indigenous culture.\"", "\"By means of religion,\" wrote the 18th century philosopher d'Alembert, \"the Jesuits established a monarchical authority in Paraguay, founded solely on their powers of persuasion and on their lenient methods of government.", "Masters of the country, they rendered happy the people under their sway.\"", "Voltaire called the Jesuit missions \"a triumph of humanity\".To the contrary the detractors say that 'the Jesuits took away the Indians' freedom, forced them to radically change their lifestyle, physically abused them, and subjected them to disease.\"", "Moreover, the missions were inefficient and their economic success \"depended on subsidies from the Jesuit order, special protection and privileges from the Crown, and the lack of competition\" The Jesuits are portrayed as \"exploiters\" who \"sought to create a kingdom independent of the Spanish and Portuguese Crowns.", "\"The Comunero Revolt (1721 to 1735) was a serious protest by Spanish and mestizo Paraguayans against the Jesuit missions.", "The residents of Paraguay violently protested the pro-Jesuit government of Paraguay, Jesuit control of Guaraní labor, and what they regarded as unfair competition for the market for products such as yerba mate.", "Although the revolt ultimately failed and the missions remained intact, the Jesuits were expelled from institutions they had created in Asunción.", "In 1756, the Guaraní protested the relocation of seven missions, fighting (and losing) a brief war with both the Spanish and Portuguese.", "The Jesuits were accused of inciting the Guaraní to rebel.", "In 1767, Charles III of Spain (1759–88) expelled the Jesuits from the Americas.", "The expulsion was part of an effort in the Bourbon Reforms to assert more Spanish control over its American colonies.", "In total, 78 Jesuits departed from the missions leaving behind 89,000 Guaraní in 30 missions.", "====Philippines====The Jesuits were among the original 5 Catholic Religious Orders; alongside the Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans and Augustinian Recollects, who Evangelized the Philippines in support of Spanish colonization.", "The Jesuits worked particularly hard in converting the Muslims of Mindanao and Luzon from Islam to Christianity, in which case, they were successful among the cities of Zamboanga and Manila.", "Zamboanga in particular was run like the Jesuit Reductions in Paraguay and housed a large population of Peruvian and Latin American immigrants whereas Manila eventually became the capital of the Spanish colony.", "The papal brief, Dominus ac Redemptor, of Pope Clement XIV suppressing Jesuits and closing the Universidad de San Ignacio at Manila.", "In addition to missionary work, the Jesuits compiled artifacts and chronicled the precolonial history and culture of the Philippines.", "Jesuit chronicler Pedro Chirino chronicled the history of the Kedatuan of Madja-as in Panay and its war against Rajah Makatunao of Sarawak as well as the histories of other Visayan kingdoms.", "Meanwhile, another Jesuit, Francisco Combés, chronicled the history of the Venice of the Visayas, the Kedatuan of Dapitan, its temporary conquest by the Sultanate of Ternate, its re-establishment in Mindanao and its alliance against the Sultanates of Ternate and Lanao as vassals under Christian Spain.", "The Jesuits also established the first missions in Hindu Butuan, to convert it to Christianity.", "The Jesuits also founded many towns, farms, haciendas, educational institutes, libraries, and an observatory in the Philippines.", "The Jesuits were instrumental in the sciences of Medicine, Botany, Zoology, Astronomy and Seismology.", "They trained the Philippines' second saint San Pedro Calungsod who was martyred in Guam alongside Jesuit Priest Diego Luis de San Vitores.", "The eventual temporary suppression of the Jesuits due their role in anti-colonial and anti-slavery revolts among the Paraguay Reductions, alongside cooperation with the Recollects, allowed their vacated parishes to be put under control by the local nationalistic diocesan clergy, of whom, the martyrdom of three of them, the diocesan priests Gomburza, inspired Jose Rizal, (Also Jesuit Educated upon the restoration of the Jesuits), he became the Philippines' national hero, to successfully seed the start of the Philippine revolution against Spain.", "The Jesuits largely discredited the Freemasons who claimed responsibility for the American and French Revolutions by reverting Jose Rizal from Freemasonry back to Catholicism, and argued that since the Philippine Revolution was inspired by the allegedly Masonic ideals behind the French and American revolutions, the French and American Freemasons themselves betrayed their own founding ideals when the American Freemasons annexed the Philippines in Philippine-American War and the French Freemasons assented to the Treaty of Paris (1898) despite the First Philippine Republic being inspired by the ideals behind their revolutions.", "In 1953, after being expelled from China by the Communists, the Jesuits relocated their organization's nexus in Asia from China to the Philippines and brought along a sizeable Chinese diaspora.", "The Jesuits currently play a pivotal role in the nation-building of the Philippines with its various Ateneos and educational institutes training the country's intellectual elites.====Colonial Brazil====Manuel da Nóbrega on a commemorative Portuguese stamp of the 400th anniversary of the foundation of São Paulo, BrazilJesuit in 18th century, BrazilTomé de Sousa, first Governor General of Brazil, brought the first group of Jesuits to the colony.", "The Jesuits were officially supported by the King, who instructed Tomé de Sousa to give them all the support needed to Christianize the indigenous peoples.The first Jesuits, guided by Manuel da Nóbrega, Juan de Azpilcueta Navarro, Leonardo Nunes, and later José de Anchieta, established the first Jesuit missions in Salvador and in São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga, the settlement that gave rise to the city of São Paulo.", "Nóbrega and Anchieta were instrumental in the defeat of the French colonists of France Antarctique by managing to pacify the Tamoio natives, who had previously fought the Portuguese.", "The Jesuits took part in the foundation of the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1565.The success of the Jesuits in converting the indigenous peoples is linked to their efforts to understand the native cultures, especially their languages.", "The first grammar of the Tupi language was compiled by José de Anchieta and printed in Coimbra in 1595.The Jesuits often gathered the aborigines in communities (the Jesuit Reductions) where the natives worked for the community and were evangelised.The Jesuits had frequent disputes with other colonists who wanted to enslave the natives.", "The action of the Jesuits saved many natives from being enslaved by Europeans, but also disturbed their ancestral way of life and inadvertently helped spread infectious diseases against which the aborigines had no natural defenses.", "Slave labor and trade were essential for the economy of Brazil and other American colonies, and the Jesuits usually did not object to the enslavement of African peoples, but rather critiqued the conditions of slavery.", "In cases where individual Jesuit priests criticised the institution of African slavery, they were censored and sent back to Europe.===Suppression and restoration===The Suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma, and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was deeply troubling to Pope Clement XIII, the society's defender.", "On 21 July 1773 his successor, Pope Clement XIV, issued the papal brief , decreeing:The suppression was carried out on political grounds in all countries except Prussia for a time, and Russia, where Catherine the Great had forbidden its promulgation.", "Because millions of Catholics (including many Jesuits) lived in the Polish provinces recently part-annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, the Society was able to maintain its continuity and carry on its work all through the stormy period of suppression.", "Subsequently, Pope Pius VI granted formal permission for the continuation of the society in Russia and Poland, with Stanisław Czerniewicz elected superior of the province in 1782.He was followed by Gabriel Lenkiewicz, Franciszek Kareu and Gabriel Gruber until 1805, all elected locally as Temporary Vicars General.", "Pope Pius VII had resolved during his captivity in France to restore the Jesuits universally, and on his return to Rome he did so without much delay.", "On 7 August 1814, with the bull , he reversed the suppression of the society, and therewith another Polish Jesuit, Tadeusz Brzozowski, who had been elected as Superior in Russia in 1805, acquired universal jurisdiction.", "On his death in 1820 the Jesuits were expelled from Russia by tsar Alexander I.The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities established during the 19th century.", "During this time in the United States, 22 of the society's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits.", "It has been suggested that the experience of suppression had served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits.", "While this claim is debatable, Jesuits were generally supportive of papal authority within the church, and some members became associated with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870.In Switzerland, the constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in 1848, following the defeat of the Sonderbund Catholic defence alliance.", "The ban was lifted on 20 May 1973, when 54.9 per cent of voters accepted a referendum modifying the Constitution.=== Early 20th century ===In the Constitution of Norway from 1814, a relic from the earlier anti-Catholic laws of Denmark–Norway, Paragraph 2, known as the Jesuit clause, originally read: \"The Evangelical-Lutheran religion remains the public religion of the State.", "Those inhabitants, who confess thereto, are bound to raise their children to the same.", "Jesuits and monastic orders are not permitted.", "Jews are still prohibited from entry to the Realm.\"", "Jews were first allowed into the realm in 1851 after the famous Norwegian poet Henrik Wergeland had campaigned for it.", "Monastic orders were permitted in 1897, but the ban on Jesuits was only lifted in 1956.Republican Spain in the 1930s passed laws banning the Jesuits on grounds that they were obedient to a power different from the state.", "Pope Pius XI wrote about this: \"It was an expression of a soul deeply hostile to God and the Catholic religion, to have disbanded the Religious Orders that had taken a vow of obedience to an authority different from the legitimate authority of the State.", "In this way it was sought to do away with the Society of Jesus – which can well glory in being one of the soundest auxiliaries of the ''Chair of Saint Peter'' – with the hope, perhaps, of then being able with less difficulty to overthrow in the near future, the Christian faith and morale in the heart of the Spanish nation, which gave to the Church of God the grand and glorious figure of Ignatius Loyola.", "\"===Post-Vatican II===The 20th century witnessed both growth and decline of the order.", "Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have declined steadily since.", "Meanwhile, the number of Jesuit institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to a post–Vatican II focus on the establishment of Jesuit secondary schools in inner-city areas and an increase in voluntary lay groups inspired in part by the ''Spiritual Exercises''.", "Among the notable Jesuits of the 20th century, John Courtney Murray was called one of the \"architects of the Second Vatican Council\" and drafted what eventually became the council's endorsement of religious freedom, .In Latin America, the Jesuits had significant influence in the development of liberation theology, a movement that was controversial in the Catholic community after the negative assessment of it by Pope John Paul II in 1984.Under Superior General Pedro Arrupe, social justice and the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant themes of the work of the Jesuits.", "When Arrupe was paralyzed by a stroke in 1981, Pope John Paul II, not entirely pleased with the progressive turn of the Jesuits, took the unusual step of appointing the venerable and aged Paolo Dezza for an interim to oversee \"the authentic renewal of the Church\", instead of the progressive American priest Vincent O'Keefe whom Arrupe had preferred.", "In 1983 John Paul gave leave for the Jesuits to appoint a successor to Arrupe.On 16 November 1989, six Jesuit priests (Ignacio Ellacuría, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martín-Baró, Joaquin López y López, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado López), Elba Ramos their housekeeper, and Celia Marisela Ramos her daughter, were murdered by the Salvadoran military on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador, because they had been labeled as subversives by the government.", "The assassinations galvanized the society's peace and justice movements, including annual protests at the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation at Fort Benning, Georgia, United States, where several of the assassins had been trained under US government sponsorship.On 21 February 2001, the Jesuit priest Avery Dulles, an internationally known author, lecturer, and theologian, was created a cardinal of the Catholic Church by Pope John Paul II.", "The son of former Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, Avery Dulles was long known for his carefully reasoned argumentation and fidelity to the teaching office of the church.", "An author of 22 books and over 700 theological articles, Dulles died on 12 December 2008 at Fordham University, where he had taught for twenty years as the Laurence J. McGinley Professor of Religion and Society.", "He was, at his passing, one of ten Jesuit cardinals in the Catholic Church.In 2002, Boston College president and Jesuit priest William P. Leahy initiated the Church in the 21st Century program as a means of moving the church \"from crisis to renewal\".", "The initiative has provided the society with a platform for examining issues brought about by the worldwide Catholic sex abuse cases, including the priesthood, celibacy, sexuality, women's roles, and the role of the laity.Visit of Pope Benedict XVI to the Jesuit-run Pontifical Gregorian UniversityIn April 2005, Thomas J. Reese, editor of the American Jesuit weekly magazine ''America'', resigned at the request of the society.", "The move was widely published in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such as HIV/AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality, and the right of life for the unborn.", "Following his resignation, Reese spent a year-long sabbatical at Santa Clara University before being named a fellow at the Woodstock Theological Center in Washington, D.C., and later Senior Analyst for the ''National Catholic Reporter''.", "President Barack Obama appointed him to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom in 2014 and again in 2016.On 2 February 2006, Peter Hans Kolvenbach informed members of the Society of Jesus that, with the consent of Pope Benedict XVI, he intended to step down as Superior General in 2008, the year he would turn 80.On 22 April 2006, Feast of Our Lady, Mother of the Society of Jesus, Pope Benedict XVI greeted thousands of Jesuits on pilgrimage to Rome, and took the opportunity to thank God \"for having granted to your Company the gift of men of extraordinary sanctity and of exceptional apostolic zeal such as St Ignatius of Loyola, St Francis Xavier, and Bl Peter Faber\".", "He said \"St Ignatius of Loyola was above all a man of God, who gave the first place of his life to God, to his greater glory and his greater service.", "He was a man of profound prayer, which found its center and its culmination in the daily Eucharistic Celebration.", "\"In May 2006, Benedict XVI also wrote a letter to Superior General Peter Hans Kolvenbach on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Pope Pius XII's encyclical , on devotion to the Sacred Heart, because the Jesuits have always been \"extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion\".", "In his 3 November 2006 visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, Benedict XVI cited the university as \"one of the greatest services that the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church\".The 35th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus convened on 5 January 2008 and elected Adolfo Nicolás as the new Superior General on 19 January 2008.In a letter to the Fathers of the Congregation, Benedict XVI wrote:Pope Francis, the first Jesuit popeIn 2013, Jesuit Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio became Pope Francis.", "Before he became pope, he was appointed bishop when he was in \"virtual estrangement from the Jesuits\" since he was seen as \"an enemy of liberation theology\" and viewed by others as \"still far too orthodox\".", "He was criticised for colluding with the Argentine junta, while biographers characterised him as working to save the lives of other Jesuits.", "As a Jesuit pope, he has been stressing discernment over following rules, changing the culture of the clergy to steer away from clericalism and to move toward an ethic of service, i.e.", "to have the \"smell of sheep,\" staying close to the people.", "After his papal election, the Superior General of the Jesuits Adolfo Nicolás praised Pope Francis as a \"brother among brothers\".On 2 October 2016, General Congregation 36 convened in Rome, convoked by Superior General Adolfo Nicolás, who had announced his intention to resign at age 80.On 14 October, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Arturo Sosa, a Venezuelan, as its thirty-first Superior General.The General Congregation of Jesuits who elected Arturo Sosa in 2016 asked him to bring to completion the process of discerning Jesuit priorities for the time ahead.", "Sosa devised a plan that enlisted all Jesuits and their lay collaborators in the process of discernment over a 16-month period.", "Then in February 2019 he presented the results of the discernment, a list of four priorities for Jesuit ministries for the next ten years.Pope Francis gave his approval to these priorities, saying that they were in harmony with the church's present priorities and with the programmatic letter of his pontificate, ." ], [ "Ignatian spirituality", "The spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian spirituality, ultimately based on the Catholic faith and the gospels, is drawn from the ''Constitutions'', ''The Letters'', and ''Autobiography'', and most specially from Ignatius' ''Spiritual Exercises'', whose purpose is \"to conquer oneself and to regulate one's life in such a way that no decision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment\".", "The ''Exercises'' culminate in a contemplation whereby one develops a facility to \"find God in all things\"." ], [ "Formation", "The formation (training) of Jesuits seeks to prepare men spiritually, academically, and practically for the ministries they will be called to offer the church and world.", "Ignatius was strongly influenced by the Renaissance, and he wanted Jesuits to be able to offer whatever ministries were most needed at any given moment and, especially, to be ready to respond to missions (assignments) from the pope.", "Formation for priesthood normally takes between eight and fourteen years, depending on the man's background and previous education, and final vows are taken several years after that, making Jesuit formation among the longest of any of the religious orders." ], [ "Governance of the society", "The society is headed by a Superior General with the formal title ''Praepositus Generalis'', Latin for \"provost-general\", more commonly called Father General.", "He is elected by the General Congregation for life or until he resigns; he is confirmed by the pope and has absolute authority in running the Society.", "The current Superior General of the Jesuits is the Venezuelan Arturo Sosa who was elected on 14 October 2016.The Father General is assisted by \"assistants\", four of whom are \"assistants for provident care\" and serve as general advisors and a sort of inner council, and several other regional assistants, each of whom heads an \"assistancy\", which is either a geographic area (for instance the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry (for instance higher education).", "The assistants normally reside with Father General in Rome and along with others form an advisory council to the General.", "A vicar general and secretary of the society run day-to-day administration.", "The General is also required to have an admonitor, a confidential advisor whose task is to warn the General honestly and confidentially when he might be acting imprudently or contrary to the church's magisterium.", "The central staff of the General is known as the Curia.The society is divided into geographic areas called provinces, each of which is headed by a Provincial Superior, formally called Father Provincial, chosen by the Superior General.", "He has authority over all Jesuits and ministries in his area, and is assisted by a ''socius'' who acts as a sort of secretary and chief of staff.", "With the approval of the Superior General, the Provincial Superior appoints a novice master and a master of tertians to oversee formation, and rectors of local communities of Jesuits.", "For better cooperation and apostolic efficacy in each continent, the Jesuit provinces are grouped into six Jesuit Conferences worldwide.Each Jesuit community within a province is normally headed by a rector who is assisted by a \"minister\", from the Latin word for \"servant\", a priest who helps oversee the community's day-to-day needs.The General Congregation is a meeting of all of the assistants, provincials, and additional representatives who are elected by the professed Jesuits of each province.", "It meets irregularly and rarely, normally to elect a new superior general and/or to take up some major policy issues for the order.", "The Superior General meets more regularly with smaller councils composed of just the provincials." ], [ "Statistics", "+Jesuits in the World — January 2022RegionJesuits PercentageAfrica1,71212%Latin America1,85913%South Asia3,95527%Asia-Pacific1,48110%Europe3,38623%North America2,04614%Total14,439 , the Jesuits formed the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church.", "The Jesuits have experienced a decline in numbers in recent decades.", "As of 2022, the society had 14,439 members (10,432 priests, 837 brothers, 2,587 scholastics, and 583 novices).", "This represents a 59% percent decline since the Second Vatican Council (1965), when the society had a total membership of 36,038, of which 20,301 were priests.", "This decline is most pronounced in Europe and the Americas, with relatively modest membership gains occurring in Asia and Africa.", "According to Patrick Reilly of the ''National Catholic Register'', there seems to be no \"Pope Francis effect\" in counteracting the fall of vocations among the Jesuits.", "Twenty-eight novices took first vows in the Jesuits in the United States and Haiti in 2019.In September 2019, the superior general of the Jesuits, Arturo Sosa, estimated that by 2034 the number would decrease to about 10,000 Jesuits, with a much younger average age than in 2019, and with a shift away from Europe and into Latin America, Africa, and India.", "In 2008, their average age was 57.3 years: 63.4 years for priests, 29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers.The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa.", "The society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education.", "It operates colleges and universities in various countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines and India.", "In the United States the Jesuits have historical ties to 27 colleges and universities and 61 high schools.", "The degree to which the Jesuits are involved in the administration of each institution varies.", "As of September 2018, 15 of the 27 Jesuit universities in the US had non-Jesuit lay presidents.", "According to a 2014 article in ''The Atlantic'', \"the number of Jesuit priests who are active in everyday operations at the schools isn't nearly as high as it once was\".", "Worldwide it runs 322 secondary schools and 172 colleges and universities.", "A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning, lifelong spiritual and intellectual growth, and training men and women for others." ], [ "Habit and dress", "Jesuits do not have an official habit.", "The society's ''Constitutions'' gives the following instructions: \"The clothing too should have three characteristics: first, it should be proper; second, conformed to the usage of the country of residence; and third, not contradictory to the poverty we profess.\"", "(Const.", "577)Historically, a Jesuit-style cassock which the Jesuits call Soutane became \"standard issue\": it is similar to a robe which is wrapped around the body and was tied with a cincture, rather than the customary buttoned front.", "A tuftless biretta (only diocesan clergy wore tufts) and a ferraiolo (cape) completed the look.Today, most Jesuits in the United States wear the clerical collar and black clothing of ordinary priests." ], [ "Controversies", "===Slavery===Jesuit scholar Andrew Dial has calculated that the Jesuits owned more than 20,000 slaves worldwide in 1760, the great majority of them in the Americas.", "The Jesuits in some places protected the indigenous people of the Americas from slavers, notably the Guaraní in South America, but in other places they enslaved indigenous people after \"just wars\" in which indigenous people who resisted European colonization were defeated.", "The Jesuits also participated in the Atlantic slave trade employing thousands of African slaves on their large plantations scattered throughout the Americas.", "Antoine Lavalette, a slave-owning French Jesuit in Martinique, accumulated large debts which he was unable to pay which led to the banning of the Jesuits in France in 1764.In the United States, tobacco plantations utilizing African-American slave labor in Maryland and other states supported Jesuit institutions such as Georgetown University.", "In the 16th century, Jesuits were also complicit in the Portuguese trade in enslaved East Asians.", "In Europe, slaves were probably employed in Jesuit schools and institutions.", "The Jesuits justified their ownership of slaves and participation in the slave trade as a means of converting slaves to Catholicism.", "\"Enslaved people...were a captive audience for evangelization.", "\"===Power-seeking===The ''Monita Secreta'' (Secret Instructions of the Jesuits), published in 1612 and in 1614 in Kraków, is alleged to have been written by Claudio Acquaviva, the fifth general of the society, but was probably written by former Jesuit Jerome Zahorowski.", "It purports to describe the methods to be adopted by Jesuits for the acquisition of greater power and influence for the society and for the Catholic Church.", "The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' states the book is a forgery, fabricated to ascribe a sinister reputation to the Society of Jesus.===Political intrigue===The Jesuits were temporarily banished from France in 1594 after a man named Jean Châtel tried to assassinate the king of France, Henri IV.", "Under questioning, Châtel revealed that he had been educated by the Jesuits of the Collège de Clermont.", "The Jesuits were accused of inspiring Châtel's attack.", "Two of his former teachers were exiled and a third was hanged.", "The Collège de Clermont was closed, and the building was confiscated.", "The Jesuits were banned from France, although this ban was quickly lifted.In England, Henry Garnet, one of the leading English Jesuits, was hanged for misprision of treason because of his knowledge of the Gunpowder Plot (1605).", "The Plot was the attempted assassination of James VI and I, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in a single attack, by exploding the Houses of Parliament.", "Another Jesuit, Oswald Tesimond, managed to escape arrest for his involvement in this plot.===Casuistic justification===Jesuits have been accused of using casuistry to obtain justifications for unjustifiable actions (cf.", "formulary controversy and , by Blaise Pascal).", "Hence, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of the English language lists \"equivocating\" as a secondary denotation of the word \"Jesuit\".", "Modern critics of the Society of Jesus include Avro Manhattan, Alberto Rivera, and Malachi Martin, the latter being the author of ''The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church'' (1987).===Exclusion of those of Jewish or Muslim ancestry===Although in the first 30 years of the existence of the Society of Jesus there were many Jesuits who were ''conversos'' (Catholic-convert Jews), an anti-''converso'' faction led to the ''Decree de genere'' (1593) which proclaimed that either Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, was an insurmountable impediment for admission to the Society of Jesus.", "This new rule was contrary to the original wishes of Ignatius who \"said that he would take it as a special grace from our Lord to come from Jewish lineage\".", "The 16th-century ''Decree de genere'' was repealed in 1946.===Theological debates===Within the Catholic Church, there has existed a sometimes tense relationship between Jesuits and the Holy See, due to questioning of official church teaching and papal directives, such as those on abortion, birth control, women deacons, homosexuality, and liberation theology.", "At the same time, Jesuits have been appointed to prominent doctrinal and theological positions in the church; under Pope Benedict XVI, Archbishop Luis Ladaria Ferrer was Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith who is now, under Pope Francis, the Prefect of this Congregation.===Religious persecution===In the quest to evangelize, Jesuits persecuted people of other religions, including Hindus, Muslims and other Christians.", "The Goan Inquisition was one among various persecutions that Jesuits were involved in.", "Voltaire wrote about the Goan Inquisition:" ], [ "Nazi persecution", "The Catholic Church faced persecution in Nazi Germany.", "Hitler was anticlerical and had particular disdain for the Jesuits.", "According to John Pollard, the Jesuits' \"ethos represented the most intransigent opposition to the philosophy of Nazism\", and so the Nazis considered them as one of their most dangerous enemies.", "A Jesuit college in the city of Innsbruck served as a center for anti-Nazi resistance and was closed down by the Nazis in 1938.Jesuits were a target for Gestapo persecution, and many Jesuit priests were deported to death camps.", "Jesuits made up the largest contingent of clergy imprisoned in the Priest Barracks of Dachau Concentration Camp.", "Vincent Lapomarda lists some 30 Jesuits as having died at Dachau.", "Of the total of 152 Jesuits murdered by the Nazis across Europe, 43 died in the death camps and an additional 27 died from captivity or its results.The Superior General of Jesuits at the outbreak of war was Wlodzimierz Ledóchowski, a Pole.", "The Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland was particularly severe.", "Lapomarda wrote that Ledóchowski helped \"stiffen the general attitude of the Jesuits against the Nazis\" and that he permitted Vatican Radio to carry on its campaign against the Nazis in Poland.", "Vatican Radio was run by the Jesuit Filippo Soccorsi and spoke out against Nazi oppression, particularly with regard to Poland and to Vichy-French antisemitism.Jesuit Alfred Delp, member of the Kreisau Circle that operated within Nazi Germany was executed in February 1945Several Jesuits were prominent in the small German Resistance.", "Among the central membership of the Kreisau Circle of the Resistance were the Jesuit priests Augustin Rösch, Alfred Delp, and Lothar König.", "The Bavarian Jesuit Provincial, Augustin Rosch, ended the war on death row for his role in the July Plot to overthrow Hitler.", "Another non-military German Resistance group, dubbed the \"Frau Solf Tea Party\" by the Gestapo, included the Jesuit priest Friedrich Erxleben.", "The German Jesuit Robert Leiber acted as intermediary between Pius XII and the German Resistance.Among the Jesuit victims of the Nazis, Germany's Rupert Mayer has been beatified.", "Mayer was a Bavarian Jesuit who clashed with the Nazis as early as 1923.Continuing his critique following Hitler's rise to power, Mayer was imprisoned in 1939 and sent to Sachsenhausen death camp.", "As his health declined, the Nazis feared the creation of a martyr and sent him to the Abbey of Ettal in 1940.There he continued to give sermons and lectures against the evils of the Nazi régime, until his death in 1945.===Rescue efforts during the Holocaust===In his history of the heroes of the Holocaust, the Jewish historian Martin Gilbert notes that in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews, and that the Jesuits were one of the Catholic Orders that hid Jewish children in monasteries and schools to protect them from the Nazis.", "Fourteen Jesuit priests have been formally recognized by Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust of World War II: Roger Braun (1910–1981) of France, Pierre Chaillet (1900–1972) of France, Jean-Baptist De Coster (1896–1968) of Belgium, Jean Fleury (1905–1982) of France, Emile Gessler (1891–1958) of Belgium, Jean-Baptiste Janssens (1889–1964) of Belgium, Alphonse Lambrette (1884–1970) of Belgium, Emile Planckaert (1906–2006) of France, Jacob Raile (1894–1949) of Hungary, Henri Revol (1904–1992) of France, Adam Sztark (1907–1942) of Poland, Henri Van Oostayen (1906–1945) of Belgium, Ioannes Marangas (1901–1989) of Greece, and Raffaele de Chantuz Cubbe (1904–1983) of Italy.Several other Jesuits are known to have rescued or given refuge to Jews during that period.", "A plaque commemorating the 152 Jesuit priests who gave their lives during the Holocaust was installed in April 2007 at the Jesuits' Rockhurst University in Kansas City, Missouri, United States." ], [ "In science", "Jesuit scholars in China.", "Top: Matteo Ricci, Adam Schall and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623–88); Bottom: Paul Siu (Xu Guangqi), ''Colao'' or Prime Minister of State, and his granddaughter Candide Hiu.Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, the teaching of science in Jesuit schools, as laid down in the ''Ratio atque Institutio Studiorum Societatis Iesu'' (\"The Official Plan of studies for the Society of Jesus\") of 1599, was almost entirely based on the works of Aristotle.The Jesuits, nevertheless, have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science.", "For example, the Jesuits have dedicated significant study to fields from cosmology to seismology, the latter of which has been described as \"the Jesuit science\".", "The Jesuits have been described as \"the single most important contributor to experimental physics in the seventeenth century\".", "According to Jonathan Wright in his book ''God's Soldiers'', by the eighteenth century the Jesuits had \"contributed to the development of pendulum clocks, pantographs, barometers, reflecting telescopes and microscopes – to scientific fields as various as magnetism, optics, and electricity.", "They observed, in some cases before anyone else, the colored bands on Jupiter's surface, the Andromeda nebula, and Saturn's rings.", "They theorized about the circulation of the blood (independently of Harvey), the theoretical possibility of flight, the way the moon affected the tides, and the wave-like nature of light.", "\"The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy.", "One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were \"regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography\".", "The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods, \"a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible\"." ], [ "Notable members", "Notable Jesuits include missionaries, educators, scientists, artists, philosophers, and a pope.", "Among many distinguished early Jesuits was Francis Xavier, a missionary to Asia who converted more people to Catholicism than anyone before, and Robert Bellarmine, a Doctor of the Church.", "José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, founders of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, were Jesuit priests.", "Another famous Jesuit was Jean de Brébeuf, a French missionary who was martyred during the 17th century in what was once New France (now Québec) in Canada.In Spanish America, José de Acosta wrote a major work on early Peru and New Spain with important material on indigenous peoples.", "In South America, Peter Claver was notable for his mission to African slaves, building on the work of Alonso de Sandoval.", "Francisco Javier Clavijero was expelled from New Spain during the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767 and wrote an important history of Mexico during his exile in Italy.", "Eusebio Kino is renowned in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico (an area then called the Pimería Alta).", "He founded numerous missions and served as the peace-bringer between the tribes and the government of New Spain.", "Antonio Ruiz de Montoya was an important missionary in the Jesuit reductions of Paraguay.Baltasar Gracián was a 17th-century Spanish Jesuit and baroque prose writer and philosopher.", "He was born in Belmonte, near Calatayud (Aragon).", "His writings, particularly ''El Criticón'' (1651–7) and ''Oráculo Manual y Arte de Prudencia'' (\"The Art of Prudence\", 1647) were lauded by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche.In Scotland, John Ogilvie, a Jesuit, is the nation's only post-Reformation saint.Gerard Manley Hopkins was one of the first English poets to use sprung verse.", "Anthony de Mello was a Jesuit priest and psychotherapist who became widely known for his books which introduced Westerners to the East Indian traditions of spirituality.Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio of Argentina was elected Pope Francis on 13 March 2013 and is the first Jesuit to be elected pope.The Feast of All Jesuit Saints and Blesseds is celebrated on 5 November." ], [ "Gallery of Jesuit churches", "File:Church of the Gesù, Rome.jpg|The Church of the Gesù in Rome, is the mother church of the Jesuits.File:Iglesia de La Compañía, Quito, Ecuador, 2015-07-22, DD 128-130 HDR.JPG|''Iglesia de La Compañía'', Quito, Ecuador, interior with gold leafFile:StPierreParis.jpg|Church of Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris, FranceFile:Church of the Society of Jesus (Cusco, Peru) 2013-03-31 002.JPG|Jesuit church, Cuzco, PeruFile:Colegio de Belen.", "Havana, Cuba.jpg|Colegio de Belén, Havana, \"The Palace of Education\"File:Ateneo de Naga University Church facade 02.jpg|Christ the King Church in the Ateneo de Naga University campus, Naga City, PhilippinesFile:Fordham University 08.JPG|Fordham University Church at Rose Hill, Bronx, New York, USFile:St John, Creighton.jpg|St.", "John's Church in Creighton University campus, Omaha, Nebraska, USFile:New Orleans (LA, USA) Holy Name of Jesus Church.jpg|Holy Name of Jesus Church in the Loyola University New Orleans campus, New Orleans Louisiana USFile:Gesu Church Milwaukee.jpg|The Church of the Gesu in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, US, is the school church of Marquette University.File:XavierRockhurstcut.png|St.", "Francis Xavier Church, a Jesuit parish church across the street from the Rockhurst University campus, Kansas City, Missouri, USFile:St. Francis Xavier College Church - St. Louis 01.jpg|St.", "Francis Xavier College Church in the Saint Louis University campus, St. Louis, Missouri, USFile:Mission Santa Clara.jpg|The Santa Clara University's Mission Church is at the heart of Santa Clara University's historic campus Santa Clara, California, US.File:Saint Ignatius Church (San Francisco).jpg|St.", "Ignatius Church, parish church of the University of San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USFile:Phila ChurchoftheGesu02.jpg|the Church of the Gesu, Philadelphia is the school church of St. Joseph's Preparatory School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US.File:Eglise du Gèsu de Frascati.JPG|The Church of the Gesu in Frascati, province of Rome, ItalyFile:Gesu Montreal 01.jpg|The Église du Gesù in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, church and cultural venueFile:Jakarta Indonesia Jakarta-Cathedral-01.jpg|Jakarta Cathedral, Indonesia" ], [ "Institutions", "===Educational institutions===Although the work of the Jesuits today embraces a wide variety of apostolates, ministries, and civil occupations, they are probably most well known for their educational work, on all continents.", "Since the inception of the order, Jesuits have been teachers.", "Besides serving on the faculty of Catholic and secular schools, the Jesuits are the Catholic religious order with the second highest number of schools which they run: 168 tertiary institutions in 40 countries and 324 secondary schools in 55 countries.", "(The Brothers of the Christian Schools have over 560 Lasallian educational institutions.)", "They also run elementary schools at which they are less likely to teach.", "Many of the schools are named after Francis Xavier and other prominent Jesuits.After the Second Vatican Council, Jesuit schools had become a very controversial place of instruction as they abandoned teaching traditional Catholic education with things such as the mastery of Latin and the Baltimore Catechism.", "Jesuit schools replaced classic theological instruction from people like Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure to people like Karl Rahner and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin which was a very controversial move at the time.Jesuit educational institutions aim to promote the values of Eloquentia Perfecta.", "This is a Jesuit tradition that focuses on cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good.File:AltaGracia.jpg|Jesuit Block and Estancias of Córdoba, ArgentinaFile:Université de Namur - rue de Bruxelles - 02.jpg|Université de Namur, BelgiumFile:Biblioteca Unisinos.jpg|University of the Sinos Valley, BrazilFile:Saint Marys HFX.jpg|St.", "Mary's University, Halifax, CanadaFile:Extremo Suroccidental ce la Javeriana cut.png|Pontifical Xaverian University, Bogota, ColombiaFile:PUCEEcuador.png|Pontifical Catholic University, EcuadorFile:Alte Anatomie Ingolstadt.JPG|University of Ingolstadt, GermanyFile:Xaviers college.jpg|St.", "Xavier's College, Mumbai, IndiaFile:Building4sxc.JPG|St.", "Xavier's College, Kolkata, IndiaFile:Facciata small.jpg|Pontifical Gregorian University, Rome, ItalyFile:Sophia University, Yotsuya Campus, Tokyo, Japan.jpg|Sophia University, Tokyo, JapanFile:Elisabeth University of Music Hiroshima-shi 01.jpg|Elisabeth University of Music, Hiroshima, Japan.File:USJ Campus.jpg|St.", "Joseph University, Beirut, LebanonFile:Universidad del Pacifico plaza.jpg|University of Pacific, PeruFile:WTNaga BAHALANA A2a.JPG|Ateneo de Naga University, PhilippinesFile:SogangCut.png|Sogang University, Seoul, South KoreaFile:Deustuko Unibersitatea cut.jpg|University of Deusto, Bilbao, SpainFile:Universidad Pontificia de Comillas.jpg|Comillas Pontifical University, SpainFile:Keating Hall, Fordham University Rose Hill.jpg|Fordham University, New York City, United StatesFile:Bellarmine Hall at Fairfield University, CT.jpg|Fairfield University, Bellarmine Hall, Fairfield, Connecticut, United StatesFile:Sankt Georgen2.jpg|Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology, Frankfurt, GermanyFile:Georgetown University -23.JPG|Georgetown University, Washington DC, United States===Social and development institutions===Jesuits have become increasingly involved in works directed primarily toward social and economic development for the poor and marginalized.", "Included in this would be research, training, advocacy, and action for human development, as well as direct services.", "Most Jesuit schools have an office that fosters social awareness and social service in the classroom and through extracurricular programs, usually detailed on their websites.", "The Jesuits also run over 500 notable or stand-alone social or economic development centres in 56 countries around the world." ], [ "Publications", "The Sanctuary of Loyola in Azpeitia, Basque Country, Spain, the main Jesuit shrine in the birthplace of Ignatius of LoyolaJesuits are also known for their involvement in publications.", "Most Jesuit colleges and universities have their own presses which produce a variety of books, book series, textbooks, and academic publications.", "''La Civiltà Cattolica'', a periodical produced in Rome by the Jesuits, has often been used as a semi-official platform for popes and officials of the Roman Curia to float ideas for discussion or hint at future statements or positions, though authorship is limited to Jesuits.", "''The Way'' is an international journal of contemporary Christian spirituality published by the British Jesuits.In the United States of America, ''America'' magazine has long had a prominent place in Catholic intellectual circles Ignatius Press, founded by a Jesuit, is an independent publisher of Catholic books, most of which are of the popular academic or lay-intellectual variety.", "Manresa is a review of Ignatian spirituality published in Madrid, Spain.In Australia, the Jesuits produce a number of magazines, including ''Eureka Street'', ''Madonna'', ''Australian Catholics'', and ''Province Express''.In Germany, the Jesuits publish the journal ''Geist und Leben''.In Sweden the Catholic cultural magazine ''Signum'', edited by the Newman Institute, covers a broad spectrum of issues concerning faith, culture, research, and society.", "The printed version of ''Signum'' is published eight times per year." ], [ "See also", "* Ad maiorem Dei gloriam* Apostleship of Prayer* Blas Valera* Bollandist* Canadian Indian residential school system* Jesuit conspiracy theories* Jesuit Ivy* Jesuit missions among the Guaraní* Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos* Jesuit Refugee Service* List of Jesuit sites* List of saints of the Society of Jesus* Misiones Province*Missionaries * Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu* Igreja de São Roque* Sexual abuse scandal in the Society of Jesus* Thomas Weld (of Lulworth)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "===Surveys===History of the Jesuit missions in India, China and Japan (Luis de Guzmán, 1601).", "* Bangert, William V. ''A History of the Society of Jesus'' (2nd ed.", "1958) 552 pp.", "* Barthel, Manfred.", "''Jesuits: History & Legend of the Society of Jesus'' (1984) 347 pp.", "online free* Chapple, Christopher.", "''Jesuit Tradition in Education & Missions: A 450-Year Perspective'' (1993), 290 pp.", "* Mitchell, David.", "''Jesuits: A History'' (1981) 320 pp.", "* Molina, J. Michelle.", "''To Overcome Oneself: The Jesuit Ethic and Spirit of Global Expansion, 1520–1767'' (2013) online * O'Malley, John W. ''The Jesuits: A History from Ignatius to the Present'' (2014), 138 pp* Worcester, Thomas.", "ed.", "''The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits'' (2008), to 1773* Wright, Jonathan.", "''God's Soldiers: Adventure, Politics, Intrigue & Power: A History of the Jesuits'' (2004) 368 pp online free===Specialized studies===* Alden, Dauril.", "''Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, Its Empire & Beyond, 1540–1750'' (1996).", "* Brockey, Liam Matthew.", "''Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724'' (2007).", "* , Special Edition Published 1997 by Loyola University Press, US.", ".", "* Brodrick, James.", "''Saint Francis Xavier (1506–1552)'' (1952).", "* Brodrick, James.", "''Saint Ignatius Loyola: The Pilgrim Years 1491–1538'' (1998).", "* Burson, Jeffrey D. and Jonathan Wright, eds.", "''The Jesuit Suppression in Global Context: Causes, Events, and Consequences'' (Cambridge UP, 2015).", "* Bygott, Ursula M. L. ''With Pen & Tongue: The Jesuits in Australia, 1865–1939'' (1980).", "* Comerford, Kathleen M. ''Jesuit Libraries''.", "BRILL 2023.", "* Dalmases, Cándido de.", "''Ignatius of Loyola, Founder of the Jesuits: His Life & Work'' (1985).", "* Caraman, Philip.", "''Ignatius Loyola: A Biography of the Founder of the Jesuits'' (1990).", "* Edwards, Francis.", "''Jesuits in England from 1580 to the Present Day'' (1985).", "* Grendler, Paul F. \"Jesuit Schools and Universities in Europe 1548–1773.\"", "''Brill Research Perspectives in Jesuit Studies'' 1.1 (2019): 1–118.online* Healy, Róisin.", "''Jesuit Specter in Imperial Germany'' (2003).", "* Höpfl, Harro.", "''Jesuit Political Thought: The Society of Jesus & the State, c. 1540–1640'' (2004).", "* Hsia, Ronnie Po-chia.", "\"Jesuit Foreign Missions.", "A Historiographical Essay.\"", "''Journal of Jesuit Studies'' (2014) 1#1, pp. 47–65.", "* Kaiser, Robert Blair.", "''Inside the Jesuits: How Pope Francis is Changing the Church and the World'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014)* Klaiber, Jeffrey.", "''The Jesuits in Latin America: 1549–2000:: 450 Years of Inculturation, Defense of Human Rights, and Prophetic Witness''.", "St Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources 2009.", "* Lapomarda, Vincent A., ''The Catholic Bishops of Europe and the Nazi Persecutions of Catholics and Jews'', Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2012) * McCoog, Thomas M., ed.", "''Mercurian Project: Forming Jesuit Culture: 1573–1580'' (2004) (30 advanced essays by scholars).", "* Martin, A. Lynn.", "''Jesuit Mind.", "The Mentality of an Elite in Early Modern France'' (1988).", "* O'Malley, John.", "\"The Society of Jesus.\"", "in R. Po-chia Hsia, ed., ''A Companion to the Reformation World'' (2004), pp. 223–236.", "* O'Malley, John W. ed.", "''Saints or Devils Incarnate?", "Studies in Jesuit History'' (2013).", "* * Pomplun, Trent.", "''Jesuit on the Roof of the World: Ippolito Desideri's Mission to Tibet''.", "Oxford University Press (2010).", "* Roberts, Ian D. ''Harvest of Hope: Jesuit Collegiate Education in England, 1794–1914'' (1996).", "* Ronan, Charles E. and Bonnie B. C. Oh, eds.", "''East Meets West: The Jesuits in China, 1582–1773'' (1988).", "* Ross, Andrew C. ''Vision Betrayed: The Jesuits in Japan & China, 1542–1742'' (1994).", "* Santich, Jan Joseph.", "''Missio Moscovitica: The Role of the Jesuits in the Westernization of Russia, 1582–1689'' (1995).", "* Schmiedl, Joachim (2011).", "''Religious Orders as Transnational Networks of the Catholic Church'', EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: 25 March 2021 ( pdf).", "* Wright, Jonathan.", "\"From Immolation to Restoration: The Jesuits, 1773–1814.\"", "''Theological Studies'' (2014) 75#4 pp. 729–745.", "* Zhang, Qiong.", "''Making the New World their own: Chinese encounters with Jesuit science in the age of discovery'' (Brill, 2015).===United States===* Cushner, Nicholas P. ''Soldiers of God: The Jesuits in Colonial America, 1565–1767'' (2002) 402 pp.", "* Garraghan, Gilbert J.", "''The Jesuits Of The Middle United States'' (3 vol 1938) covers Midwest from 1800 to 1919 vol 1 online; vol 2; vol 3* McDonough, Peter.", "''Men astutely trained : a history of the Jesuits in the American century'' (1994), covers 1900 to 1960s; online free* Schroth, Raymond A.", "''The American Jesuits: A History'' (2009)===Primary sources===* Desideri, Ippolito.", "\"Mission to Tibet: The Extraordinary Eighteenth-Century Account of Father Ippolito Desideri.\"", "Translated by Michael J.", "Sweet.", "Edited by Leonard Zwilling.", "Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2010.", "* Donnelly, John Patrick, ed.", "''Jesuit Writings of the Early Modern Period: 1540–1640'' (2006)===In German===* Klaus Schatz.", "''Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd.", "1: 1814–1872'' Münster: Aschendorff Verlag, 2013.XXX, 274 S. .", "online review* Schatz.", "''Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd.", "2: 1872–1917''* Schatz.", "''Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd.", "3: 1917–1945''* Schatz.", "''Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd.", "4: 1945–1983''* Schatz.", "''Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd.", "5: Quellen, Glossar, Biogramme, Gesamtregister''" ], [ "External links", "* * ===Catholic Church documents===* Benedict XVI's Address to the Members of the Society of Jesus, 22 April 2006* Benedict XVI's Visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, 3 November 2006===Jesuit documents===* The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum of 1599* The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan, 1591–1610 * Letter of the Jesuit Social Justice Secretariat to the leaders of the G8, July 2005 * The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola===Other links===* The Jesuits, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Nigel Aston, Simon Ditchfield & Olwen Hutton (''In Our Time'', 18 January 2007)* * * Archives of Jezuïeten – Belgische (1832–1935) En Vlaamse (1935–) Provincie.", "16de Eeuw–2012 in ODIS – Online Database for Intermediary Structures * Journal of Jesuit Studies.", "Institute for Advanced Jesuit Studies.", "Boston College." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "July 15" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*484 BC – Dedication of the Temple of Castor and Pollux in ancient Rome*70 – First Jewish–Roman War: Titus and his armies breach the walls of Jerusalem.", "(17th of Tammuz in the Hebrew calendar).", "* 756 – An Lushan Rebellion: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang is ordered by his Imperial Guards to execute chancellor Yang Guozhong by forcing him to commit suicide or face a mutiny.", "General An Lushan has other members of the emperor's family killed.", "*1099 – First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final assault of a difficult siege.", "*1149 – The reconstructed Church of the Holy Sepulchre is consecrated in Jerusalem.", "*1207 – King John of England expels Canterbury monks for supporting Archbishop Stephen Langton.", "*1240 – Swedish–Novgorodian Wars: A Novgorodian army led by Alexander Nevsky defeats the Swedes in the Battle of the Neva.", "*1381 – John Ball, a leader in the Peasants' Revolt, is hanged, drawn and quartered in the presence of King Richard II of England.", "*1410 – Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War: Battle of Grunwald: The allied forces of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeat the army of the Teutonic Order.", "*1482 – Muhammad XII is crowned the twenty-second and last Nasrid king of Granada.===1601–1900===*1640 – The first university of Finland, the Royal Academy of Turku, is inaugurated in Turku.", "*1738 – Baruch Laibov and Alexander Voznitzin are burned alive in St. Petersburg, Russia.", "Vonitzin had converted to Judaism with Laibov's help, with the consent of Empress Anna Ivanovna.", "*1741 – Aleksei Chirikov sights land in Southeast Alaska.", "He sends men ashore in a longboat, making them the first Europeans to visit Alaska.", "*1789 – French Revolution: Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, is named by acclamation Colonel General of the new National Guard of Paris.", "*1799 – The Rosetta Stone is found in the Egyptian village of Rosetta by French Captain Pierre-François Bouchard during Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign.", "*1806 – Pike Expedition: United States Army Lieutenant Zebulon Pike begins an expedition from Fort Bellefontaine near St. Louis, Missouri, to explore the west.", "*1815 – Napoleonic Wars: Napoleon Bonaparte surrenders aboard .", "*1823 – A fire destroys the ancient Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome, Italy.", "*1834 – The Spanish Inquisition is officially disbanded after nearly 356 years.", "*1838 – Ralph Waldo Emerson delivers the Divinity School Address at Harvard Divinity School, discounting Biblical miracles and declaring Jesus a great man, but not God.", "The Protestant community reacts with outrage.", "*1849 – The first air raid in history occurs; Austria launches pilotless balloons against the city of Venice*1862 – American Civil War: The CSS ''Arkansas'', the most effective ironclad on the Mississippi River, battles with Union Navy ships commanded by Admiral David Farragut, severely damaging three ships and sustaining heavy damage herself.", "*1870 – Reconstruction Era of the United States: Georgia becomes the last of the former Confederate states to be readmitted to the Union.", "* 1870 – Canadian Confederation: Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory are transferred to Canada from the Hudson's Bay Company, and the province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories are established from these vast territories.", "*1888 – The stratovolcano Mount Bandai erupts, killing approximately 500 people in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan.===1901–present===*1910 – In his book ''Clinical Psychiatry'', Emil Kraepelin gives a name to Alzheimer's disease, naming it after his colleague Alois Alzheimer.", "*1916 – In Seattle, Washington, William Boeing and George Conrad Westervelt incorporate Pacific Aero Products (later renamed Boeing).", "*1918 – World War I: The Second Battle of the Marne begins near the River Marne with a German attack.", "*1920 – Aftermath of World War I: The Parliament of Poland establishes Silesian Voivodeship before the Polish-German plebiscite.", "*1922 – The Japanese Communist Party is established in Japan.", "*1927 – Massacre of July 15, 1927: Eighty-nine protesters are killed by Austrian police in Vienna.", "*1941 – The Holocaust: Nazi Germany begins the deportation of 100,000 Jews from the occupied Netherlands to extermination camps.", "*1946 – The State of North Borneo, now Sabah, Malaysia, is annexed by the United Kingdom.", "*1954 – The Boeing 367-80, the prototype for both the Boeing 707 and C-135 series, takes its first flight.", "*1955 – Eighteen Nobel laureates sign the Mainau Declaration against nuclear weapons, later co-signed by thirty-four others.", "*1966 – Vietnam War: The United States and South Vietnam begin Operation Hastings to push the North Vietnamese out of the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone.", "*1971 – The United Red Army is founded in Japan.", "*1974 – In Nicosia, Cyprus, Greek junta-sponsored nationalists launch a coup d'état, deposing President Makarios and installing Nikos Sampson as Cypriot president.", "*1975 – Space Race: Apollo–Soyuz Test Project features the dual launch of an Apollo spacecraft and a Soyuz spacecraft on the first joint Soviet-United States human-crewed flight.", "It was the last launch of both an Apollo spacecraft, and the Saturn family of rockets.", "*1979 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter gives his \"malaise speech\".", "*1983 – An attack at Orly Airport in Paris is launched by Armenian militant organisation ASALA, leaving eight people dead and 55 injured.", "* 1983 – Nintendo released the Famicom in Japan.", "*1996 – A Belgian Air Force C-130 Hercules carrying the Royal Netherlands Army marching band crashes on landing at Eindhoven Airport.", "*1998 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Tamil MP S. Shanmuganathan is killed by a claymore mine.", "*2002 – \"American Taliban\" John Walker Lindh pleads guilty to supplying aid to the enemy and possession of explosives during the commission of a felony.", "* 2002 – The Anti-Terrorism Court of Pakistan sentences British born Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh to death, and three others suspected of murdering ''The Wall Street Journal'' reporter Daniel Pearl to life.", "*2003 – AOL Time Warner disbands Netscape.", "The Mozilla Foundation is established on the same day.", "*2006 – Twitter, later one of the largest social media platforms in the world, is launched.", "*2009 – Caspian Airlines Flight 7908 crashes near Jannatabad, Qazvin, Iran, killing 168.", "*2012 – South Korean rapper Psy releases his hit single ''Gangnam Style''.", "*2014 – A train derails on the Moscow Metro, killing at least 24 and injuring more than 160 others.", "*2016 – Factions of the Turkish Armed Forces attempt a coup.", "*2018 – France win their second World Cup title, defeating Croatia 4–2." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 980 – Ichijō, Japanese emperor (d. 1011)*1273 – Ewostatewos, Ethiopian monk and saint (d. 1352)*1353 – Vladimir the Bold, Russian prince (d. 1410)*1359 – Antonio Correr, Italian cardinal (d. 1445)*1442 – Boček IV of Poděbrady, Bohemian nobleman (d. 1496)*1455 – Queen Yun, Korean queen (d. 1482)*1471 – Eskender, Ethiopian emperor (d. 1494)*1478 – Barbara Jagiellon, duchess consort of Saxony and Margravine consort of Meissen (d. 1534)*1573 – Inigo Jones, English architect, designed the Queen's House (d. 1652)*1600 – Jan Cossiers, Flemish painter (d. 1671)===1601–1900===*1606 – Rembrandt, Dutch painter and etcher (d. 1669)*1611 – Jai Singh I, maharaja of Jaipur (d. 1667)*1613 – Gu Yanwu, Chinese philologist and geographer (d. 1682)*1631 – Jens Juel, Danish politician and diplomat, Governor-general of Norway (d. 1700)* 1631 – Richard Cumberland, English philosopher (d. 1718)*1638 – Giovanni Buonaventura Viviani, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1693)*1704 – August Gottlieb Spangenberg, German bishop and theologian (d. 1792)*1779 – Clement Clarke Moore, American author, poet, and educator (d. 1863)*1793 – Almira Hart Lincoln Phelps, American educator, author, editor (d. 1884)*1796 – Thomas Bulfinch, American mythologist (d. 1867)*1799 – Reuben Chapman, American lawyer and politician, 13th Governor of Alabama (d. 1882)*1800 – Sidney Breese, American jurist and politician (d. 1878)*1808 – Henry Edward Manning, English cardinal (d. 1892)*1812 – James Hope-Scott, English lawyer and academic (d. 1873)*1817 – Sir John Fowler, 1st Baronet, English engineer, designed the Forth Bridge (d. 1898)*1827 – W. W. Thayer American lawyer and politician, 6th Governor of Oregon (d. 1899)*1848 – Vilfredo Pareto, Italian economist and sociologist (d. 1923)*1850 – Frances Xavier Cabrini, Italian-American nun and saint (d. 1917)*1852 – Josef Josephi, Polish-born singer and actor (d. 1920)*1858 – Emmeline Pankhurst, English political activist and suffragist (d. 1928)*1864 – Marie Tempest, English actress and singer (d. 1942)*1865 – Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe, Anglo-Irish businessman and publisher, founded the ''Amalgamated Press'' (d. 1922)* 1865 – Wilhelm Wirtinger, Austrian-German mathematician and theorist (d. 1945)*1867 – Jean-Baptiste Charcot, French physician and explorer (d. 1936)*1871 – Doppo Kunikida, Japanese journalist, author, and poet (d. 1908)*1880 – Enrique Mosca, Argentinian lawyer and politician (d. 1950)*1883 – Denny Barry Irish Hunger Striker (d. 1923)*1887 – Wharton Esherick, American sculptor (d. 1970)*1892 – Walter Benjamin, German philosopher and critic (d. 1940)*1893 – Enid Bennett, Australian-American actress (d. 1969)* 1893 – Dick Rauch, American football player and coach (d. 1970)*1894 – Tadeusz Sendzimir, Polish-American engineer (d. 1989)*1899 – Seán Lemass, Irish soldier and politician, 4th Taoiseach of Ireland (d. 1971)===1901–present===*1902 – Jean Rey, Belgian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of the European Commission (d. 1983)*1903 – Walter D. Edmonds, American journalist and author (d. 1998)* 1903 – K. Kamaraj, Indian journalist and politician (d. 1975)*1904 – Rudolf Arnheim, German-American psychologist and author (d. 2007)*1905 – Dorothy Fields, American songwriter (d. 1974)* 1905 – Anita Farra, Italian actress (d. 2008)*1906 – R. S. Mugali, Indian poet and academic (d. 1993)* 1906 – Rudolf Uhlenhaut, English-German engineer (d. 1989)*1909 – Jean Hamburger, French physician and surgeon (d. 1992)*1911 – Edward Shackleton, Baron Shackleton, English geographer and politician, Secretary of State for Air (d. 1994)*1913 – Cowboy Copas, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1963)* 1913 – Hammond Innes, English journalist and author (d. 1998)* 1913 – Abraham Sutzkever, Russian poet and author (d. 2010)*1914 – Birabongse Bhanudej, Thai racing driver and sailor, member of the Thai royal family (d. 1985)* 1914 – Akhtar Hameed Khan, Pakistani economist, scholar, and activist (d. 1999)* 1914 – Howard Vernon, Swiss-French actor (d. 1996)*1915 – Albert Ghiorso, American chemist and academic (d. 2010)* 1915 – Kashmir Singh Katoch, Indian army officer (d. 2007)*1916 – Sumner Gerard, American politician and diplomat (d. 2005)*1917 – Robert Conquest, English-American historian, poet, and academic (d. 2015)* 1917 – Joan Roberts, American actress and singer (d. 2012)* 1917 – Nur Muhammad Taraki, Afghan journalist and politician (d. 1979)*1918 – Bertram Brockhouse, Canadian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2003)* 1918 – Brenda Milner, English-Canadian neuropsychologist and academic*1919 – Fritz Langanke, German lieutenant (d. 2012)* 1919 – Iris Murdoch, Anglo-Irish British novelist and philosopher (d. 1999)*1921 – Henri Colpi, Swiss-French director and screenwriter (d. 2006)* 1921 – Robert Bruce Merrifield, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2006)*1922 – Leon M. Lederman, American physicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2018)* 1922 – Jean-Pierre Richard, French writer (d. 2019)*1924 – Jeremiah Denton, American admiral and politician (d. 2014)* 1924 – Marianne Bernadotte, Swedish actress and philanthropist*1925 – Philip Carey, American actor (d. 2009)* 1925 – Taylor Hardwick, American architect, designed Haydon Burns Library and Friendship Fountain Park (d. 2014)* 1925 – D. A. Pennebaker, American documentary filmmaker (d. 2019)* 1925 – Evan Hultman, American politician* 1925 – Antony Carbone, American actor (d. 2020)* 1925 – Pandel Savic, American football player (d. 2018)*1926 – Driss Chraïbi, Moroccan-French journalist and author (d. 2007)* 1926 – Leopoldo Galtieri, Argentinian general and politician, 44th President of Argentina (d. 2003)* 1926 – Raymond Gosling, English physicist and academic (d. 2015)* 1926 – Sir John Graham, 4th Baronet, English diplomat (d. 2019)*1927 – Nan Martin, American actress (d. 2010)* 1927 – Carmen Zapata, American actress (d. 2014)* 1927 – Håkon Brusveen, Norwegian cross-country skier (d. 2021)*1928 – Carl Woese, American microbiologist and biophysicist (d. 2012)* 1928 – Viramachaneni Vimla Devi, Indian parliamentarian (d. 1967)*1929 – Charles Anthony, American tenor and actor (d. 2012)* 1929 – Francis Bebey, Cameroonian-French guitarist (d. 2001)* 1929 – Ian Stewart, Scottish racing driver (d. 2017)*1930 – Jacques Derrida, Algerian-French philosopher and academic (d. 2004)* 1930 – Richard Garneau, Canadian journalist and sportscaster (d. 2013)* 1930 – Stephen Smale, American mathematician and computer scientist* 1930 – Einosuke Akiya, Japanese Buddhist leader*1931 – Clive Cussler, American archaeologist and author (d. 2020)* 1931 – Joanna Merlin, American actress and casting director (d. 2023)* 1931 – Jacques-Yvan Morin, Canadian lawyer and politician, Deputy Premier of Quebec*1932 – Ed Litzenberger, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2010)*1933 – Guido Crepax, Italian author and illustrator (d. 2003)* 1933 – M. T. Vasudevan Nair, Indian author and screenwriter*1934 – Harrison Birtwistle, English composer and academic (d. 2022)* 1934 – Eva Krížiková, Czech actress (d. 2020)* 1934 – Risto Jarva, Finnish director and producer (d. 1977)*1935 – Donn Clendenon, American baseball player and lawyer (d. 2005)* 1935 – Alex Karras, American football player, wrestler, and actor (d. 2012)* 1935 – Ken Kercheval, American actor and director (d. 2019)*1936 – George Voinovich, American lawyer and politician, 65th Governor of Ohio (d. 2016)*1937 – Prabhash Joshi, Indian journalist (d. 2009)*1938 – Bill Alsup, American racing driver (d. 2016)* 1938 – Ernie Barnes, American football player, actor, and painter (d. 2009)* 1938 – Carmen Callil, Australian publisher, founded Virago Press* 1938 – Barry Goldwater, Jr., American lawyer and politician*1939 – Aníbal Cavaco Silva, Portuguese economist and politician, 19th President of the Portuguese Republic*1940 – Chris Cord, American racing driver* 1940 – Denis Héroux, Canadian director and producer (d. 2015)* 1940 – Ronald Gene Simmons, American sergeant and convicted murderer (d. 1990)* 1940 – Robert Winston, English surgeon, academic, and politician*1942 – Vivian Malone Jones, American civil rights activist (d. 2005)*1943 – Jocelyn Bell Burnell, Northern Irish astrophysicist, astronomer, and academic*1944 – Millie Jackson, American singer-songwriter* 1944 – Jan-Michael Vincent, American actor (d. 2019)* 1944 – Nigel Williams, English conservator (d. 1992)*1945 – David Arthur Granger, Guyanese politician, 9th President of Guyana* 1945 – Peter Lewis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1945 – Jürgen Möllemann, German soldier and politician, Vice-Chancellor of Germany (d. 2003)*1946 – Linda Ronstadt, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress* 1946 – Hassanal Bolkiah, Sultan of Brunei*1947 – Lydia Davis, American short story writer, novelist, and essayist* 1947 – Pridiyathorn Devakula, Thai economist and politician, Thai Minister of Finance* 1947 – Roky Erickson, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2019)*1948 – Twinkle, English singer-songwriter (d. 2015)* 1948 – Dimosthenis Kourtovik, Greek anthropologist and critic* 1948 – Artimus Pyle, American rock drummer and songwriter*1949 – Carl Bildt, Swedish politician and diplomat, Prime Minister of Sweden* 1949 – Trevor Horn, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer * 1949 – Richard Russo, American novelist, short story writer, and screenwriter*1950 – Colin Barnett, Australian economist and politician, 29th Premier of Western Australia* 1950 – Arianna Huffington, Greek-American journalist and publisher*1951 – Gregory Isaacs, Jamaican-English singer-songwriter (d. 2010)* 1951 – Jesse Ventura, American wrestler, actor, and politician, 38th Governor of Minnesota*1952 – John Cleland, British racing driver* 1952 – Celia Imrie, English actress* 1952 – Terry O'Quinn, American actor* 1952 – David Pack, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1952 – Marky Ramone, American drummer and songwriter * 1952 – Johnny Thunders, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1991)*1953 – Jean-Bertrand Aristide, Haitian priest and politician, 49th President of Haiti* 1953 – Sultanah Haminah, Malaysian royal consort* 1953 – Mohamad Shahrum Osman, Malaysian politician* 1953 – Alicia Bridges, American singer-songwriter*1954 – John Ferguson, Australian rugby league player* 1954 – Giorgos Kaminis, American-Greek lawyer and politician, 78th Mayor of Athens* 1954 – Mario Kempes, Argentinian footballer and manager*1956 – Ashoke Sen, Indian theoretical physicist and string theorist* 1956 – Ian Curtis, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1980)* 1956 – Nicholas Harberd, British botanist, educator, and academician * 1956 – Barry Melrose, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster* 1956 – Steve Mortimer, Australian rugby league player, coach, and administrator* 1956 – Joe Satriani, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1956 – Wayne Taylor, South African racing driver*1958 – Gary Heale, English footballer and coach* 1958 – Mac Thornberry, American lawyer and politician*1959 – Vincent Lindon, French actor, director, and screenwriter*1961 – Lolita Davidovich, Canadian actress* 1961 – Jean-Christophe Grangé, French journalist and screenwriter* 1961 – Forest Whitaker, American actor*1962 – Nikos Filippou, Greek basketball player and manager* 1962 – Michelle Ford, Australian swimmer*1963 – Brigitte Nielsen, Danish-Italian actress* 1963 – Steve Thomas, English-Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1965 – Alistair Carmichael, Scottish lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland* 1965 – Gero Miesenböck, Austrian neuroscientist and educator* 1965 – David Miliband, English politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs*1966 – Jason Bonham, English singer-songwriter and drummer* 1966 – Irène Jacob, French-Swiss actress*1967 – Adam Savage, American actor and special effects designer* 1967 – Elbert West, American singer-songwriter (d. 2015)*1968 – Eddie Griffin, American comedian, actor, and producer*1969 – Ain Tammus, Estonian footballer and coach*1970 – Tarkan Gözübüyük, Turkish bass player and producer*1972 – Scott Foley, American actor*1973 – Brian Austin Green, American actor* 1973 – Buju Banton, Jamaican singer*1975 – Cherry, American wrestler and manager* 1975 – Danny Law, English cricketer* 1975 – Ben Pepper, Australian basketball player*1976 – Steve Cunningham, American boxer* 1976 – Marco Di Vaio, Italian footballer* 1976 – Diane Kruger, German actress and model* 1976 – Gabriel Iglesias, Mexican-American comedian and voice actor*1977 – D. J. Kennington, Canadian racing driver * 1977 – André Nel, South African cricketer* 1977 – Lana Parrilla, American actress* 1977 – John St. Clair, American football player* 1977 – Ray Toro, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1978 – Miguel Olivo, Dominican baseball player*1979 – Laura Benanti, American actress and singer* 1979 – Alexander Frei, Swiss footballer* 1979 – Edda Garðarsdóttir, Icelandic footballer* 1979 – Renata Kučerová, Czech tennis player*1980 – Reggie Abercrombie, American baseball player* 1980 – Jonathan Cheechoo, Canadian ice hockey player* 1980 – Julia Perez, Indonesian singer and actress (d. 2017)*1981 – Alou Diarra, French footballer* 1981 – Petros Klampanis, Greek bassist and composer* 1981 – Marius Stankevičius, Lithuanian footballer*1982 – Julien Canal, French racing driver* 1982 – Neemia Tialata, New Zealand rugby player* 1982 – Aída Yéspica, Venezuelan model and actress*1983 – Salvatore Iovino, American racing driver * 1983 – Nelson Merlo, Brazilian racing driver* 1983 – Heath Slater, American wrestler*1984 – Angelo Siniscalchi, Italian footballer* 1984 – Veronika Velez-Zuzulová, Slovak skier*1986 – Tyler Kennedy, Canadian ice hockey player*1987 – Yahya Abdul-Mateen II, American actor *1989 – Alisa Kleybanova, Russian tennis player* 1989 – Anthony Randolph, American basketball player*1990 – Olly Alexander, English singer and actor * 1990 – Zach Bogosian, American ice hockey player* 1990 – Damian Lillard, American basketball player* 1990 – Tyler Young, American racing driver*1991 – Danilo, Brazilian footballer* 1991 – Derrick Favors, American basketball player* 1991 – Evgeny Tishchenko, Russian boxer* 1991 – Nuria Párrizas Díaz, Spanish tennis player*1992 – Tobias Harris, American basketball player* 1992 – Wayde van Niekerk, South African sprinter*1993 – Håvard Nielsen, Norwegian footballer* 1993 – Harrison Rhodes, American racing driver* 1993 – Masataka Yoshida, Japanese baseball player*1996 – Vivianne Miedema, Dutch football player*1997 – Jil Teichmann, Swiss tennis player*1998 – Noah Gragson, American racing driver*1999 – Mohamed Sobhy, Egyptian footballer*2008 – Iain Armitage, American child actor" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 756 – Yang Guifei, consort of Xuan Zong (b.", "719)* 998 – Abū al-Wafā' Būzjānī, Persian mathematician and astronomer (b.", "940)*1015 – Vladimir the Great, Grand prince of Kievan Rus' (b. c. 958)*1274 – Bonaventure, Italian bishop and saint (b.", "1221)*1291 – Rudolf I of Germany (b.", "1218)*1299 – King Eric II of Norway (b. c. 1268)*1381 – John Ball, English Lollard priest*1388 – Agnes of Durazzo, titular Latin empress consort of Constantinople (b.", "1313)*1397 – Catherine of Henneberg, German ruler (b. c. 1334)*1406 – William, Duke of Austria*1410 – Ulrich von Jungingen, German Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (b.", "1360)*1445 – Joan Beaufort, Queen of Scotland*1542 – Lisa del Giocondo, subject of Leonardo da Vinci's painting ''Mona Lisa'' (b.", "1479)*1544 – René of Châlon (b.", "1519)*1571 – Shimazu Takahisa, Japanese daimyō (b.", "1514)===1601–1900===*1609 – Annibale Carracci, Italian painter and illustrator (b.", "1560)*1614 – Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme, French soldier, historian, and author (b.", "1540)*1655 – Girolamo Rainaldi, Italian architect (b.", "1570)*1685 – James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, Dutch-English general and politician, Governor of Kingston-upon-Hull (b.", "1649)*1750 – Vasily Tatishchev, Russian ethnographer and politician (b.", "1686)*1765 – Charles-André van Loo, French painter (b.", "1705)*1767 – Michael Bruce, Scottish poet and composer (b.", "1746)*1789 – Jacques Duphly, French harpsichord player and composer (b.", "1715)*1828 – Jean-Antoine Houdon, French sculptor (b.", "1741)*1839 – Winthrop Mackworth Praed, English poet and politician (b.", "1802)*1844 – Claude Charles Fauriel, French philologist and historian (b.", "1772)*1851 – Anne-Marie Javouhey, French nun, founder of the Sisters of St Joseph of Cluny (b.", "1779)* 1851 – Juan Felipe Ibarra, Argentinian general and politician (b.", "1787)*1857 – Carl Czerny, Austrian pianist and composer (b.", "1791)*1858 – Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov, Russian painter (b.", "1806)*1883 – General Tom Thumb, American circus performer (b.", "1838)*1885 – Rosalía de Castro, Spanish author and poet (b.", "1837)*1890 – Gottfried Keller, Swiss author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1819)*1898 – Jean-Baptiste Salpointe, French-American archbishop (b.", "1825)===1901–present===*1904 – Anton Chekhov, Russian playwright and short story writer (b.", "1860)*1919 – Emil Fischer, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1852)*1929 – Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Austrian author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1874)*1930 – Leopold Auer, Hungarian violinist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1845)* 1930 – Leonora Barry, Irish-born American social activist (b.", "1849)*1931 – Ladislaus Bortkiewicz, Russian-German economist and mathematician (b.", "1868)*1932 – Bahíyyih Khánum, Iranian writer and leader in the Baha'i faith (b.", "1846) * 1932 – Cornelis Jacobus Langenhoven, South African poet and politician (b.", "1873)*1933 – Irving Babbitt, American scholar, critic, and academic (b.", "1865)* 1933 – Freddie Keppard, American cornet player (b.", "1890)*1940 – Eugen Bleuler, Swiss psychiatrist and physician (b.", "1857)* 1940 – Robert Wadlow, American giant, 8\"11' 271 cm (b.", "1918)*1942 – Wenceslao Vinzons, Filipino lawyer and politician (b.", "1910)*1944 – Marie-Victorin Kirouac, Canadian botanist and academic (b.", "1885)*1946 – Razor Smith, English cricketer and coach (b.", "1877)*1947 – Walter Donaldson, American soldier and songwriter (b.", "1893)*1948 – John J. Pershing, American general (b.", "1860)*1953 – Geevarghese Mar Ivanios, Indian archbishop, founded the Order of the Imitation of Christ (b.", "1882)*1957 – James M. Cox, American publisher and politician, 46th Governor of Ohio (b.", "1870)* 1957 – Vasily Maklakov, a Russian lawyer and politician (b.", "1869)*1959 – Ernest Bloch, Swiss-American composer and academic (b.", "1880)* 1959 – Vance Palmer, Australian author and critic (b.", "1885)*1960 – Set Persson, Swedish politician (b.", "1897)* 1960 – Lawrence Tibbett, American singer and actor (b.", "1896)*1961 – John Edward Brownlee, Canadian lawyer and politician, 5th Premier of Alberta (b.", "1884)* 1961 – Nina Bari, Russian mathematician (b.", "1901)*1965 – Francis Cherry, American lawyer and politician, 35th Governor of Arkansas (b.", "1908)*1966 – Seyfi Arkan, Turkish architect (b.", "1903)*1969 – Grace Hutchins, American labor reformer and researcher (b.", "1885)*1974 – Christine Chubbuck, American journalist (b.", "1944)*1976 – Paul Gallico, American journalist and author (b.", "1897)*1977 – Donald Mackay, Australian businessman and activist (b.", "1933)*1979 – Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, Mexican academic and politician, 29th President of Mexico (b.", "1911)*1981 – Frédéric Dorion, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician (b.", "1898)*1982 – Bill Justis, American saxophonist, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1926)*1986 – Billy Haughton, American harness racer and trainer (b.", "1923)*1988 – Eleanor Estes, American librarian, author, and illustrator (b.", "1906)*1989 – Laurie Cunningham, English footballer (b.", "1956)*1990 – Zaim Topčić, Yugoslav and Bosnian writer (b.", "1920)* 1990 – Margaret Lockwood, English actress (b.", "1916)* 1990 – Omar Abu Risha, Syrian poet and diplomat, 4th Syrian Ambassador to the United States (b.", "1910)*1991 – Bert Convy, American actor, singer, and game show host (b.", "1933)*1992 – Hammer DeRoburt, Nauruan educator and politician, 1st President of Nauru (b.", "1922)* 1992 – Chingiz Mustafayev, Azerbaijani journalist and author (b.", "1960)*1997 – Justinas Lagunavičius, Lithuanian basketball player (b.", "1924)* 1997 – Gianni Versace, Italian fashion designer, founded Versace (b.", "1946)*1998 – S. Shanmuganathan, Sri Lankan politician (b.", "1960)*2000 – Louis Quilico, Canadian opera singer and educator (b.", "1925)*2001 – C. Balasingham, Sri Lankan lawyer and civil servant (b.", "1917)*2003 – Roberto Bolaño, Chilean novelist, short-story writer, poet, and essayist (b.", "1953)* 2003 – Elisabeth Welch, American actress and singer (b.", "1904)*2006 – Robert H. Brooks, American businessman, founder of Hooters and Naturally Fresh, Inc. (b.", "1937)* 2006 – Alireza Shapour Shahbazi, Iranian archaeologist and academic (b.", "1942)*2008 – György Kolonics, Hungarian canoe racer (b.", "1972)*2010 – James E. Akins, American politician and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Saudi Arabia (b.", "1926)*2011 – Friedrich Wilhelm Schnitzler, German landowner and politician (b.", "1928) * 2011 – Googie Withers, British-Australian actress (b.", "1917)*2012 – Boris Cebotari, Moldovan footballer (b.", "1975)* 2012 – Tsilla Chelton, Israeli-French actress (b.", "1919)* 2012 – Grant Feasel, American football player (b.", "1960)* 2012 – David Fraser, English general (b.", "1920)* 2012 – Celeste Holm, American actress and singer (b.", "1917)* 2012 – Yoichi Takabayashi, Japanese director and screenwriter (b.", "1931)*2013 – Ninos Aho, Syrian-American poet and activist (b.", "1945)* 2013 – Henry Braden, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1944)* 2013 – Tom Greenwell, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1956)* 2013 – Earl Gros, American football player (b.", "1940)* 2013 – Noël Lee, Chinese-American pianist and composer (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Meskerem Legesse, Ethiopian runner (b.", "1986)* 2013 – John T. Riedl, American computer scientist and academic (b.", "1962)*2014 – Óscar Acosta, Honduran author, poet, and diplomat (b.", "1933)* 2014 – James MacGregor Burns, American historian, political scientist, and author (b.", "1918)* 2014 – Edward Perl, American neuroscientist and academic (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Robert A. Roe, American soldier and politician (b.", "1924)*2015 – Masahiko Aoki, Japanese-American economist and academic (b.", "1938)* 2015 – Wan Li, Chinese politician, 4th Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (b.", "1916)* 2015 – Aubrey Morris, British actor (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Dave Somerville, Canadian singer (b.", "1933)*2017 – Martin Landau, American film and television actor (b.", "1928)*2021 – Peter R. de Vries, Dutch investigative journalist and crime reporter (b.", "1956)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Bon Festival (Kantō region, Japan)*Christian feast day:**Abhai (Syriac Orthodox Church)**Anne-Marie Javouhey**Bernhard II, Margrave of Baden-Baden**Bonaventure**Dispersion of the Apostles (formerly by the Catholic Church)**Donald of Ogilvy**Edith of Polesworth**Edith of Wilton**Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor**Plechelm**Quriaqos and Julietta (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox)**Swithun **Vladimir the Great (Eastern Orthodox; Catholic Church)**July 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Earliest day on which Birthday of Don Luis Muñoz Rivera can fall, while July 21 is the latest; celebrated on the third Monday of July.", "(Puerto Rico)*Earliest day on which Galla Bayramy can fall, while July 21 is the latest; celebrated on the third Sunday of July.", "(Turkmenistan)*Earliest day on which Marine Day can fall, while July 21 is the latest; celebrated on the third Monday of July.", "(Japan)*Earliest day on which President's Day can fall, while July 21 is the latest; celebrated on the third Monday of July.", "(Botswana)*Elderly Men Day (Kiribati)*Festival of Santa Rosalia (Palermo, Sicily)*Sultan's Birthday (Brunei Darussalam)*Statehood Day (Ukraine)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "July 17" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 180 – Twelve inhabitants of Scillium (near Kasserine, modern-day Tunisia) in North Africa are executed for being Christians.", "This is the earliest record of Christianity in that part of the world.", "*1048 – Damasus II is elected pope, and dies 23 days later.", "*1203 – The Fourth Crusade assaults Constantinople.", "The Byzantine emperor Alexios III Angelos flees from his capital into exile.", "*1402 – Zhu Di, better known by his era name as the Yongle Emperor, assumes the throne over the Ming dynasty of China.", "*1429 – Hundred Years' War: Charles VII of France is crowned the King of France in the Reims Cathedral after a successful campaign by Joan of Arc.", "*1453 – Battle of Castillon: The last battle of the Hundred Years' War, the French under Jean Bureau defeat the English under the Earl of Shrewsbury, who is killed in the battle in Gascony.===1601–1900===*1717 – King George I of Great Britain sails down the River Thames with a barge of 50 musicians, where George Frideric Handel's ''Water Music'' is premiered.", "*1762 – Former emperor Peter III of Russia is murdered.", "*1771 – Bloody Falls massacre: Chipewyan chief Matonabbee, traveling as the guide to Samuel Hearne on his Arctic overland journey, massacres a group of unsuspecting Inuit.", "*1791 – Members of the French National Guard under the command of General Lafayette open fire on a crowd of radical Jacobins at the Champ de Mars, Paris, during the French Revolution, killing scores of people.", "*1794 – The 16 Carmelite Martyrs of Compiègne are executed ten days prior to the end of the French Revolution's Reign of Terror.", "*1821 – The Kingdom of Spain cedes the territory of Florida to the United States.", "*1850 – Vega became the first star (other than the Sun) to be photographed.", "*1867 – Harvard School of Dental Medicine is established in Boston, Massachusetts.", "It is the first dental school in the U.S. that is affiliated with a university.", "*1899 – NEC Corporation is organized as the first Japanese joint venture with foreign capital.===1901–present===*1901 – Liner sets east to west transatlantic record of five days, eleven hours and five minutes.", "*1902 – Willis Carrier creates the first air conditioner in Buffalo, New York.", "*1917 – King George V issues a Proclamation stating that the male line descendants of the British Royal Family will bear the surname Windsor.", "*1918 – Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and his immediate family and retainers are executed by Bolshevik Chekists at the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg, Russia.", "* 1918 – The , the ship that rescued the 705 survivors from the , is sunk off Ireland by the German ; five lives are lost.", "*1919 – The form of government in the Republic of Finland is officially confirmed.", "For this reason, July 17 is known as the ''Day of Democracy'' (''Kansanvallan päivä'') in Finland.", "*1932 – Altona Bloody Sunday: A riot between the Nazi Party paramilitary forces, the SS and SA, and the German Communist Party ensues.", "*1936 – Spanish Civil War: An Armed Forces rebellion against the recently elected leftist Popular Front government of Spain starts the civil war.", "*1938 – Douglas Corrigan takes off from Brooklyn to fly the \"wrong way\" to Ireland and becomes known as \"Wrong Way\" Corrigan.", "*1944 – Port Chicago disaster: Near the San Francisco Bay, two ships laden with ammunition for the war explode in Port Chicago, California, killing 320.", "* 1944 – World War II: At Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery in Normandy Field Marshal Erwin Rommel is seriously injured by allied aircraft while returning to his headquarters.", "*1945 – World War II: The main three leaders of the Allied nations, Winston Churchill, Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin, meet in the German city of Potsdam to decide the future of a defeated Germany.", "*1953 – The largest number of United States midshipman casualties in a single event results from an aircraft crash in Florida, killing 44.", "*1955 – Disneyland is dedicated and opened by Walt Disney in Anaheim, California.", "*1962 – Nuclear weapons testing: The \"Small Boy\" test shot Little Feller I becomes the last atmospheric test detonation at the Nevada National Security Site.", "*1963 – Zakaria bin Muhammad Amin established MDTA Mahbatul Ulum, the successor of Al-Khairiyah Islamic boarding school, a first educational institution in Bengkalis which was closed during Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies*1968 – Abdul Rahman Arif is overthrown and the Ba'ath Party is installed as the governing power in Iraq with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr as the new Iraqi President.", "*1973 – King Mohammed Zahir Shah of Afghanistan, while having surgery in Italy, is deposed by his cousin Mohammed Daoud Khan.", "*1975 – Apollo–Soyuz Test Project: An American Apollo and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft dock with each other in orbit marking the first such link-up between spacecraft from the two nations.", "*1976 – East Timor is annexed and becomes the 27th province of Indonesia.", "* 1976 – The opening of the Summer Olympics in Montreal is marred by 25 African teams boycotting the games because of New Zealand's participation.", "Contrary to rulings by other international sports organizations, the IOC had declined to exclude New Zealand because of their participation in South African sporting events during apartheid.", "*1979 – Nicaraguan dictator General Anastasio Somoza Debayle resigns and flees to Miami, Florida, United States.", "*1981 – A structural failure leads to the collapse of a walkway at the Hyatt Regency in Kansas City, Missouri, killing 114 people and injuring more than 200.", "*1984 – The national drinking age in the United States was changed from 18 to 21.", "*1985 – Founding of the EUREKA Network by former head of states François Mitterrand (France) and Helmut Kohl (Germany).", "*1989 – First flight of the B-2 Spirit Stealth Bomber.", "* 1989 – Holy See–Poland relations are restored.", "*1996 – TWA Flight 800: Off the coast of Long Island, New York, a Paris-bound TWA Boeing 747 explodes, killing all 230 on board.", "*1997 – After takeoff from Husein Sastranegara International Airport, Sempati Air Flight 304 crashes into a residential neighborhood in Bandung, killing 28 people.", "*1998 – The 7.0 Papua New Guinea earthquake triggers a tsunami that destroys ten villages in Papua New Guinea, killing up to 2,700 people, and leaving several thousand injured.", "* 1998 – A diplomatic conference adopts the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, establishing the permanent international court in The Hague, to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.", "*2000 – During approach to Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Airport, Alliance Air Flight 7412 suddenly crashes into a residential neighborhood in Patna India, killing 60 people.", "*2001 – Concorde is brought back into service nearly a year after the July 2000 crash.", "*2006 – The 7.7 Pangandaran tsunami earthquake severely affects the Indonesian island of Java, killing 668 people, and leaving more than 9,000 injured.", "*2007 – TAM Airlines Flight 3054, an Airbus A320, crashes into a warehouse after landing too fast and missing the end of the São Paulo–Congonhas Airport runway, killing 199 people.", "*2014 – Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, a Boeing 777, crashes near the border of Ukraine and Russia after being shot down.", "All 298 people on board are killed.", "* 2014 – A French regional train on the Pau-Bayonne line crashes into a high-speed train near the town of Denguin, resulting in at least 25 injuries.", "*2015 – At least 120 people are killed and 130 injured by a suicide bombing in Diyala Governorate, Iraq.", "*2018 – Scott S. Sheppard announces that his team has discovered a dozen irregular moons of Jupiter." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1487 – Ismail I of Iran (d. 1524)*1499 – Maria Salviati, Italian noblewoman (d. 1543)*1531 – Antoine de Créqui Canaples, Roman Catholic cardinal (d. 1574)===1601–1900===*1674 – Isaac Watts, English hymnwriter and theologian (d. 1748)*1695 – Christian Karl Reinhard of Leiningen-Dachsburg-Falkenburg-Heidesheim (d. 1766)*1698 – Pierre Louis Maupertuis, French mathematician and philosopher (d. 1759)*1708 – Frederick Christian, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth (d. 1769)*1714 – Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, German philosopher and academic (d. 1762)*1744 – Elbridge Gerry, American merchant and politician, 5th Vice President of the United States (d. 1814)*1763 – John Jacob Astor, German-American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1848)*1774 – John Wilbur, American minister and theologian (d. 1856)*1797 – Paul Delaroche, French painter and academic (d. 1856)*1823 – Leander Clark, American businessman, judge, and politician (d. 1910)*1831 – Xianfeng Emperor of China (d. 1861)*1837 – Joseph-Alfred Mousseau, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician, 7th Secretary of State for Canada (d. 1886)*1839 – Ephraim Shay, American engineer, invented the Shay locomotive (d. 1916)*1853 – Alexius Meinong, Ukrainian-Austrian philosopher and academic (d. 1920)*1868 – Henri Nathansen, Danish director and playwright (d. 1944)*1870 – Charles Davidson Dunbar, Scottish soldier and bagpipe player (d. 1939)*1871 – Lyonel Feininger, German-American painter and illustrator (d. 1956)*1873 – Many Benner, French painter (d. 1965)*1879 – Jack Laviolette, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 1960)*1882 – James Somerville, English admiral and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Somerset (d. 1949)*1888 – Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Ukrainian-Israeli novelist, short story writer and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)*1889 – Erle Stanley Gardner, American lawyer and author (d. 1970)*1894 – Georges Lemaître, Belgian priest, astronomer, and cosmologist (d. 1966)*1896 – Rupert Atkinson, English RAF officer (d. 1919)*1898 – Berenice Abbott, American photographer (d. 1991)* 1898 – Osmond Borradaile, Canadian soldier and cinematographer (d. 1999)*1899 – James Cagney, American actor and dancer (d. 1986)===1901–present===*1901 – Luigi Chinetti, Italian-American race car driver (d. 1994)* 1901 – Bruno Jasieński, Polish poet and author (d. 1938)* 1901 – Patrick Smith, Irish farmer and politician, Minister for Agriculture, Food and the Marine (d. 1982)*1902 – Christina Stead, Australian author and academic (d. 1983)*1905 – William Gargan, American actor (d. 1979)*1910 – James Coyne, Canadian lawyer and banker, 2nd Governor of the Bank of Canada (d. 2012)* 1910 – Frank Olson, American chemist and microbiologist (d. 1953)*1911 – Lionel Ferbos, American trumpet player (d. 2014)* 1911 – Heinz Lehmann, German-Canadian psychiatrist and academic (d. 1999)*1912 – Erwin Bauer, German race car driver (d. 1958)* 1912 – Art Linkletter, Canadian-American radio and television host (d. 2010)*1913 – Bertrand Goldberg, American architect, designed the Marina City Building (d. 1997)*1914 – Eleanor Steber, American soprano and educator (d. 1990)*1915 – Bijon Bhattacharya, Indian actor, singer, and screenwriter (d. 1978)* 1915 – Arthur Rothstein, American photographer and educator (d. 1985)*1916 – Eleanor Hadley, American economist and policymaker (d. 2007)*1917 – Lou Boudreau, American baseball player and manager (d. 2001)* 1917 – Phyllis Diller, American actress, comedian, and voice artist (d. 2012)* 1917 – Kenan Evren, Turkish general and politician, 7th President of Turkey (d. 2015)* 1917 – Christiane Rochefort, French author (d. 1998)*1918 – Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio, Guatemalan soldier and politician, President of Guatemala (d. 2003)*1919 – Albert Stubbins, English footballer (d. 2002)*1920 – Gordon Gould, American physicist and academic, invented the laser (d. 2005)* 1920 – Juan Antonio Samaranch, Spanish businessman, 7th President of the International Olympic Committee (d. 2010)*1921 – George Barnes, American guitarist, producer, and songwriter (d. 1977)* 1921 – Louis Lachenal, French mountaineer (d. 1955)* 1921 – Mary Osborne, American guitarist (d. 1992)* 1921 – Toni Stone, American baseball player (d. 1996)* 1921 – František Zvarík, Slovak actor (d. 2008)*1923 – Jeanne Block''',''' American psychologist (d. 1981)* 1923 – John Cooper, English car designer, co-founded the Cooper Car Company (d. 2000)*1924 – Garde Gardom, Canadian lawyer and politician, 26th Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia (d. 2013)*1925 – Jimmy Scott, American singer and actor (d. 2014)* 1925 – Mohammad Hasan Sharq, Afghan politician*1926 – Édouard Carpentier, French-Canadian wrestler (d. 2010)* 1926 – Willis Carto, American activist and theorist (d. 2015)*1928 – Vince Guaraldi, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1976)*1929 – Sergei K. Godunov, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 2023)*1932 – Niccolò Castiglioni, Italian composer (d. 1996)* 1932 – Red Kerr, American basketball player and coach (d. 2009)* 1932 – Wojciech Kilar, Polish pianist and composer (d. 2013)* 1932 – Karla Kuskin, American author and illustrator (d. 2009)* 1932 – Slick Leonard, American basketball player and coach (d. 2021)* 1932 – Ian Moir, Australian rugby league player (d. 1990)* 1932 – Quino, Spanish-Argentinian cartoonist (d. 2020)* 1932 – Hal Riney, American businessman, founded Publicis & Hal Riney (d. 2008)*1933 – Keiko Awaji, Japanese actress (d. 2014)* 1933 – Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici, Maltese politician, 9th Prime Minister of Malta (d. 2022)* 1933 – Tony Pithey, Zimbabwean-South African cricketer (d. 2006)*1934 – Lucio Tan, Chinese-Filipino billionaire businessman and educator*1935 – Diahann Carroll, American actress and singer (d. 2019)* 1935 – Peter Schickele, American composer and educator (d. 2024)* 1935 – Donald Sutherland, Canadian actor and producer*1938 – Hermann Huppen, Belgian author and illustrator*1939 – Andrée Champagne, Canadian actress and politician (d. 2020)* 1939 – Spencer Davis, Welsh singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020)*1940 – Tim Brooke-Taylor, English actor and screenwriter (d. 2020)*1941 – Daryle Lamonica, American football player (d. 2022)* 1941 – Bob Taylor, English cricketer* 1941 – Achim Warmbold, German race car driver and manager*1942 – Don Kessinger, American baseball player and manager* 1942 – Gale Garnett, New Zealand–born Canadian singer* 1942 – Connie Hawkins, American basketball player (d. 2017)* 1942 – Zoot Money, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player*1943 – LaVyrle Spencer, American author and educator*1944 – Mark Burgess, New Zealand cricketer and footballer* 1944 – Catherine Schell, Hungarian-English actress* 1944 – Carlos Alberto Torres, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2016)*1945 – Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia* 1945 – John Patten, Baron Patten, English politician, Secretary of State for Education*1946 – Chris Crutcher, American novelist and short story writer* 1946 – Ted Sampley, American POW/MIA activist (d. 2009)*1947 – Joyce Anelay, Baroness Anelay of St John's, English educator and politician* 1947 – Robert Begerau, German footballer and manager* 1947 – Queen Camilla of the United Kingdom* 1947 – Wolfgang Flür, German musician (Kraftwerk)* 1947 – Mick Tucker, English rock drummer (Sweet) (d. 2002)*1948 – Ron Asheton, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2009)* 1948 – Luc Bondy, Swiss director and producer (d. 2015)*1949 – Geezer Butler, English bass player and songwriter* 1949 – Charley Steiner, American journalist and sportscaster*1950 – Phoebe Snow, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2011)* 1950 – Tengku Sulaiman Shah, Malaysian corporate figure* 1950 – Sadhan Chandra Majumder, Bangladeshi politician*1951 – Lucie Arnaz, American actress and singer* 1951 – Mark Bowden, American journalist and author* 1951 – Andrew Robathan, English soldier and politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces*1952 – David Hasselhoff, American actor, singer, and producer* 1952 – Nicolette Larson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1997)* 1952 – Thé Lau, Dutch singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015)* 1952 – Robert R. McCammon, American author*1954 – Angela Merkel, German chemist and politician, Chancellor of Germany from 2005 to 2021.", "* 1954 – Edward Natapei, Vanuatuan politician, 6th Prime Minister of Vanuatu (d. 2015)* 1954 – J. Michael Straczynski, American author, screenwriter, and producer*1955 – Sylvie Léonard, Canadian actress and screenwriter* 1955 – Paul Stamets, American mycologist and author*1956 – Julie Bishop, Australian lawyer and politician, 38th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs* 1956 – Bryan Trottier, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach*1957 – Bruce Crump, American drummer and songwriter (d. 2015)* 1957 – Wendy Freedman, Canadian-American cosmologist and astronomer*1958 – Wong Kar-wai, Chinese director, producer, and screenwriter* 1958 – Suzanne Moore, English journalist* 1958 – Susan Silver, American music manager* 1958 – Thérèse Rein, Australian businesswoman, founded Ingeus*1959 – Pola Uddin, Baroness Uddin, Bangladeshi-English politician*1960 – Kim Barnett, English cricketer and coach* 1960 – Mark Burnett, English-American screenwriter and producer* 1960 – Nancy Giles, American journalist and actress* 1960 – Robin Shou, Hong Kong martial artist and actor* 1960 – Dawn Upshaw, American soprano* 1960 – Jan Wouters, Dutch footballer and manager*1961 – António Costa, Portuguese politician, 119th Prime Minister of Portugal* 1961 – Jeremy Hardy, English comedian and actor (d. 2019)*1963 – Regina Belle, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress* 1963 – Letsie III of Lesotho* 1963 – Matti Nykänen, Finnish ski jumper and singer (d. 2019)*1964 – Heather Langenkamp, American actress and producer*1965 – Craig Morgan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1965 – Alex Winter, English-American actor, film director and screenwriter*1966 – Lou Barlow, American guitarist and songwriter* 1966 – Sten Tolgfors, Swedish lawyer and politician, 30th Swedish Minister of Defence*1969 – Jason Clarke, Australian actor* 1969 – Scott Johnson, American cartoonist* 1969 – Jaan Kirsipuu, Estonian cyclist*1971 – Calbert Cheaney, American basketball player and coach* 1971 – Cory Doctorow, Canadian author and activist* 1971 – Nico Mattan, Belgian cyclist*1972 – Elizabeth Cook, American singer and guitarist* 1972 – Donny Marshall, American basketball player and sportscaster* 1972 – Jason Rullo, American drummer* 1972 – Jaap Stam, Dutch footballer and manager* 1972 – Eric Williams, American basketball player*1973 – Eric Moulds, American football player*1974 – Claudio López, Argentine footballer *1975 – Andre Adams, New Zealand cricketer* 1975 – Elena Anaya, Spanish actress* 1975 – Darude, Finnish DJ and producer* 1975 – Harlette, Australian-English fashion designer* 1975 – Loretta Harrop, Australian triathlete* 1975 – Konnie Huq, English television presenter* 1975 – Terence Tao, Australian-American mathematician*1976 – Luke Bryan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1976 – Gino D'Acampo, Italian chef and author* 1976 – Dagmara Domińczyk, Polish-American actress* 1976 – Marcos Senna, Brazilian-Spanish footballer* 1976 – Anders Svensson, Swedish footballer and sportscaster* 1976 – Eric Winter, American actor*1977 – Andrew Downton, Australian cricketer* 1977 – Leif Hoste, Belgian cyclist* 1977 – Marc Savard, Canadian ice hockey player*1978 – Ricardo Arona, Brazilian mixed martial artist* 1978 – Panda Bear, American musician and songwriter* 1978 – Jason Jennings, American baseball player* 1978 – Justine Triet, French film director and screenwriter*1979 – Mike Vogel, American actor*1980 – Javier Camuñas, Spanish footballer* 1980 – Brett Goldstein, British actor, comedian and writer* 1980 – Ryan Miller, American ice hockey player*1981 – Hely Ollarves, Venezuelan runner*1982 – Omari Banks, Anguillan cricketer*1983 – Adam Lind, American baseball player*1985 – Loui Eriksson, Swedish ice hockey player* 1985 – Neil McGregor, Scottish footballer*1986 – DeAngelo Smith, American football player*1987 – Darius Boyd, Australian rugby league player* 1987 – Jeremih, American singer, songwriter, and record producer*1992 – Billie Lourd, American actress* 1992 – Tatu Sinisalo, Finnish actor*1994 – Kali Uchis, American singer-songwriter*1998 – Rosana Serrano, Cuban rower*2005 – Connor Bedard, Canadian ice hockey player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 521 – Magnus Felix Ennodius, Gallo-Roman bishop* 855 – Leo IV, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "790)* 952 – Wu Hanyue, Chinese noblewoman (b.", "913)* 961 – Du, empress dowager of the Song Dynasty*1070 – Baldwin VI, count of Flanders (b.", "1030)*1085 – Robert Guiscard, Norman adventurer*1119 – Baldwin VII, count of Flanders (b.", "1093)*1210 – Sverker II, king of Sweden (b.", "1210)*1304 – Edmund Mortimer, 2nd Baron Mortimer (b.", "1251)*1399 – Jadwiga, queen of Poland (b.", "1374)*1453 – Dmitry Shemyaka, Grand Prince of Moscow* 1453 – John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, English commander and politician (b.", "1387)*1531 – Hosokawa Takakuni, Japanese commander (b.", "1484)*1571 – Georg Fabricius, German poet and historian (b.", "1516)*1588 – Mimar Sinan, Ottoman architect and engineer, designed the Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Mosque and Süleymaniye Mosque (b.", "1489)===1601–1900===*1603 – Mózes Székely, Hungarian noble (b.", "1553)*1642 – William, Count of Nassau-Siegen, German count, field marshal of the Dutch State Army (b.", "1592)*1645 – Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset, English-Scottish politician, Lord Chamberlain of the United Kingdom (b.", "1587)*1704 – Pierre-Charles Le Sueur, French fur trader and explorer (b.", "1657)*1709 – Robert Bolling, English planter and merchant (b.", "1646)*1725 – Thomas King, English and British soldier, MP for Queenborough, lieutenant-governor of Sheerness (b. before 1660?).", "*1762 – Peter III of Russia (b.", "1728)*1790 – Adam Smith, Scottish economist and philosopher (b.", "1723)*1791 – Martin Dobrizhoffer, Austrian missionary and author (b.", "1717)*1793 – Charlotte Corday, French murderer (b.", "1768)*1794 – John Roebuck, English chemist and businessman (b.", "1718)*1845 – Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1764)*1871 – Karl Tausig, Polish virtuoso pianist, arranger and composer (b.", "1841)*1878 – Aleardo Aleardi, Italian poet and politician (b.", "1812)*1879 – Maurycy Gottlieb, Ukrainian-Polish painter (b.", "1856)*1881 – Jim Bridger, American scout and explorer (b.", "1804)*1883 – Tự Đức, Vietnamese emperor (b.", "1829)*1885 – Jean-Charles Chapais, Canadian farmer and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Agriculture (b.", "1811)*1893 – Frederick A. Johnson, American banker and politician (b.", "1833)*1894 – Leconte de Lisle, French poet and translator (b.", "1818)* 1894 – Josef Hyrtl, Austrian anatomist and biologist (b.", "1810)*1900 – Thomas McIlwraith, Scottish-Australian politician, 8th Premier of Queensland (b.", "1835)===1901–present===*1907 – Hector Malot, French author and critic (b.", "1830)*1912 – Henri Poincaré, French mathematician, physicist, and engineer (b.", "1854)*1918 – Victims of the Shooting of the Romanov family:** Nicholas II of Russia (b.", "1868)** Alexandra Fyodorovna of Russia (b.", "1872)** Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia (b.", "1895)** Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia (b.", "1897)** Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia (b.", "1899)** Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia (b.", "1901)** Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia (b.", "1904)** Anna Demidova (b.", "1878)** Ivan Kharitonov (b.", "1872)** Alexei Trupp (b.", "1858)** Yevgeny Botkin (b.", "1865)*1925 – Lovis Corinth, German painter (b.", "1858)*1928 – Giovanni Giolitti, Italian politician, 13th Prime Minister of Italy (b.", "1842)* 1928 – Álvaro Obregón, Mexican general and politician, 39th President of Mexico (b.", "1880)*1932 – Rasmus Rasmussen, Norwegian actor, singer, and director (b.", "1862)*1935 – George William Russell, Irish poet and painter (b.", "1867)*1942 – Robina Nicol, New Zealand photographer and suffragist (b.", "1861)*1944 – William James Sidis, American mathematician and anthropologist (b.", "1898)*1945 – Ernst Busch, German field marshal (b.", "1885)*1946 – Florence Fuller, South African-born Australian artist (b.", "1867)* 1946 – Draža Mihailović, Serbian general (b.", "1893)*1950 – Evangeline Booth, English 4th General of The Salvation Army (b.", "1865)* 1950 – Antonie Nedošinská, Czech actress (b.", "1885)*1959 – Billie Holiday, American singer (b.", "1915)* 1959 – Eugene Meyer, American businessman and publisher (b.", "1875)*1960 – Maud Menten, Canadian physician and biochemist (b.", "1879)*1961 – Ty Cobb, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1886)* 1961 – Emin Halid Onat, Turkish architect and academic (b.", "1908)*1967 – John Coltrane, American saxophonist and composer (b.", "1926)*1974 – Dizzy Dean, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.", "1910)*1975 – Konstantine Gamsakhurdia, Georgian author (b.", "1893)*1980 – Don \"Red\" Barry, American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1912)* 1980 – Boris Delaunay, Russian mathematician and academic (b.", "1890)*1988 – Bruiser Brody, American football player and wrestler (b.", "1946)*1989 – Itubwa Amram, Nauruan pastor and politician (b.", "1922)*1991 – John Patrick Spiegel, American psychiatrist and academic (b.", "1911)*1994 – Jean Borotra, French tennis player (b.", "1898)*1995 – Juan Manuel Fangio, Argentinian race car driver (b.", "1911)*1996 – Victims of TWA Flight 800:** Michel Breistroff, French ice hockey player (b.", "1971)** Marcel Dadi, Tunisian-French guitarist (b.", "1951)** David Hogan, American composer (b.", "1949)** Jed Johnson, American interior designer and director (b.", "1948)* 1996 – Chas Chandler, English bass player and producer (b.", "1938)*1998 – Lillian Hoban, American author and illustrator (b.", "1925)*2001 – Katharine Graham, American publisher (b.", "1917)*2002 – Joseph Luns, Dutch politician and Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1911)*2003 – David Kelly, Welsh weapons inspector (b.", "1944)* 2003 – Rosalyn Tureck, American pianist and harpsichord player (b.", "1914)* 2003 – Walter Zapp, Latvian-Swiss inventor, invented the Minox (b.", "1905)*2005 – Geraldine Fitzgerald, Irish-American actress (b.", "1913)* 2005 – Edward Heath, English colonel and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1916)* 2005 – Joe Vialls, Australian journalist and theorist (b.", "1944)*2006 – Sam Myers, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1936)* 2006 – Mickey Spillane, American crime novelist (b.", "1918)*2007 – Grant Forsberg, American actor and businessman (b.", "1959)* 2007 – Júlio Redecker, Brazilian politician (b.", "1956)* 2007 – Paulo Rogério Amoretty Souza, Brazilian lawyer and businessman (b.", "1945)*2009 – Walter Cronkite, American journalist and actor (b.", "1916)* 2009 – Leszek Kołakowski, Polish historian and philosopher (b.", "1927)*2010 – Larry Keith, American actor (b.", "1931)*2011 – David Ngoombujarra, Australian actor (b.", "1967)*2012 – Richard Evatt, English boxer (b.", "1973)* 2012 – Forrest S. McCartney, American general (b.", "1931)* 2012 – İlhan Mimaroğlu, Turkish-American composer and producer (b.", "1926)* 2012 – William Raspberry, American journalist and academic (b.", "1935)* 2012 – Marsha Singh, Indian-English politician (b.", "1954)*2013 – Henri Alleg, English-French journalist and author (b.", "1921)* 2013 – Peter Appleyard, English-Canadian vibraphone player and composer (b.", "1928)* 2013 – Vincenzo Cerami, Italian screenwriter and producer (b.", "1940)* 2013 – Don Flye, American tennis player (b.", "1933)* 2013 – Ian Gourlay, English general (b.", "1920)* 2013 – David White, Scottish footballer and manager (b.", "1933)*2014 – Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 victims:** Liam Davison, Australian author and critic (b.", "1957)** Shuba Jay, Malaysian actress (b.", "1976)** Joep Lange, Dutch physician and academic (b.", "1954)** Willem Witteveen, Dutch scholar and politician (b.", "1952)* 2014 – Henry Hartsfield, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1933)* 2014 – Otto Piene, German sculptor and academic (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Elaine Stritch, American actress and singer (b.", "1925)*2015 – Bill Arnsparger, American football player and coach (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Jules Bianchi, French race car driver (b.", "1989)* 2015 – Owen Chadwick, English rugby player, historian, and academic (b.", "1916)* 2015 – Van Miller, American sportscaster (b.", "1927)* 2015 – John Taylor, English pianist and educator (b.", "1942)*2019 – Marie Sophie Hingst, German historian and blogger who falsely claimed to be descended from Holocaust survivors*2020 – John Lewis, American Politician and Civil Rights Leader.", "(b.", "1940)* 2020 – Ekaterina Alexandrovskaya, Russian-Australian pair skater (b.", "2000)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Alexius of Rome (Western Church)** Andrew Zorard** Cynehelm** Cynllo** Inácio de Azevedo** Jadwiga of Poland** Magnus Felix Ennodius** Marcellina** Martyrs of Compiègne** Blessed Pavel Peter Gojdič (Greek Catholic Church)** Pope Leo IV** Romanov sainthood (Russian Orthodox Church)** Speratus and companions** William White (Episcopal Church)** July 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Constitution Day (South Korea)* Gion Matsuri (Yasaka Shrine, Kyoto)* Independence Day (Slovakia)* International Firgun Day (International)* King's Birthday (Lesotho)* U Tirot Sing Day (Meghalaya, India)* World Day for International Justice (International)* World Emoji Day (International)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "July 18" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*477 BC – Battle of the Cremera as part of the Roman–Etruscan Wars.", "Veii ambushes and defeats the Roman army.", "*387 BC – Roman-Gaulish Wars: Battle of the Allia: A Roman army is defeated by raiding Gauls, leading to the subsequent sacking of Rome.", "* 362 – Roman–Persian Wars: Emperor Julian arrives at Antioch with a Roman expeditionary force (60,000 men) and stays there for nine months to launch a campaign against the Persian Empire.", "* 452 – Sack of Aquileia: After an earlier defeat on the Catalaunian Plains, Attila lays siege to the metropolis of Aquileia and eventually destroys it.", "* 645 – Chinese forces under general Li Shiji besiege the strategic fortress city of Anshi (Liaoning) during the Goguryeo–Tang War.", "*1195 – Battle of Alarcos: Almohad forces defeat the Castilian army of Alfonso VIII and force its retreat to Toledo.", "*1290 – King Edward I of England issues the Edict of Expulsion, banishing all Jews (numbering about 16,000) from England.", "*1334 – The bishop of Florence blesses the first foundation stone for the new ''campanile'' (bell tower) of the Florence Cathedral, designed by the artist Giotto di Bondone.", "*1389 – France and England agree to the Truce of Leulinghem, inaugurating a 13-year peace, the longest period of sustained peace during the Hundred Years' War.", "*1507 – In Brussels, Prince Charles I is crowned Duke of Burgundy and Count of Flanders, a year after inheriting the title.", "*1555 – The College of Arms is reincorporated by Royal charter signed by Queen Mary I of England and King Philip II of Spain.===1601–1900===*1723 – Johann Sebastian Bach leads the first performance of his cantata ''Erforsche mich, Gott, und erfahre mein Herz'', BWV 136, in Leipzig on the eighth Sunday after Trinity.", "*1806 – A gunpowder magazine explosion in Birgu, Malta, kills around 200 people.", "*1812 – The Treaties of Orebro end both the Anglo-Russian and Anglo-Swedish Wars.", "*1841 – Coronation of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil.", "*1857 – Louis Faidherbe, French governor of Senegal, arrives to relieve French forces at Kayes, effectively ending El Hajj Umar Tall's war against the French.", "*1862 – First ascent of Dent Blanche, one of the highest summits in the Alps.", "*1863 – American Civil War: Second Battle of Fort Wagner: One of the first formal African American military units, the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, supported by several white regiments, attempts an unsuccessful assault on Confederate-held Battery Wagner.", "*1870 – The First Vatican Council decrees the dogma of papal infallibility.", "*1872 – The Ballot Act 1872 in the United Kingdom introduced the requirement that parliamentary and local government elections be held by secret ballot.===1901–present===*1914 – The U.S. Congress forms the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, giving official status to aircraft within the U.S. Army for the first time.", "*1925 – Adolf Hitler publishes ''Mein Kampf''.", "*1942 – World War II: During the Beisfjord massacre in Norway, 15 Norwegian paramilitary guards help members of the SS to kill 288 political prisoners from Yugoslavia.", "* 1942 – The Germans test fly the Messerschmitt Me 262 using its jet engines for the first time.", "*1944 – World War II: Hideki Tōjō resigns as Prime Minister of Japan because of numerous setbacks in the war effort.", "*1966 – Human spaceflight: Gemini 10 is launched from Cape Kennedy on a 70-hour mission that includes docking with an orbiting Agena target vehicle.", "* 1966 – A racially charged incident in a bar sparks the six-day Hough riots in Cleveland, Ohio; 1,700 Ohio National Guard troops intervene to restore order.", "*1968 – Intel is founded in Mountain View, California.", "*1976 – Nadia Comăneci becomes the first person in Olympic Games history to score a perfect 10 in gymnastics at the 1976 Summer Olympics.", "*1981 – A Canadair CL-44 and Sukhoi Su-15 collide in mid-air near Yerevan, Armenia, killing four.", "*1982 – Two hundred sixty-eight Guatemalan ''campesinos'' (\"peasants\" or \"country people\") are slain in the Plan de Sánchez massacre.", "*1984 – McDonald's massacre in San Ysidro, California: James Oliver Huberty kills 21 people and injures 19 others before being shot dead by police.", "*1992 – A picture of Les Horribles Cernettes was taken, which became the first ever photo posted to the World Wide Web.", "*1994 – The bombing of the Asociación Mutual Israelita Argentina (Argentine Jewish Community Center) in Buenos Aires kills 85 people (mostly Jewish) and injures 300.", "* 1994 – Rwandan genocide: The Rwandan Patriotic Front takes control of Gisenyi and north western Rwanda, forcing the interim government into Zaire and ending the genocide.", "*1995 – On the Caribbean island of Montserrat, the Soufrière Hills volcano erupts.", "Over the course of several years, it devastates the island, destroying the capital, forcing most of the population to flee.", "*1996 – Storms provoke severe flooding on the Saguenay River, beginning one of Quebec's costliest natural disasters ever.", "* 1996 – Battle of Mullaitivu: The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam capture the Sri Lanka Army's base, killing over 1,200 soldiers.", "*2002 – A Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer crashes near Estes Park, Colorado, killing both crew members.", "*2012 – At least seven people are killed and 32 others are injured after a bomb explodes on an Israeli tour bus at Burgas Airport, Bulgaria.", "*2013 – The Government of Detroit, with up to $20 billion in debt, files for the largest municipal bankruptcy in U.S.", "history.", "*2014 – The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant requires Christians to either accept dhimmi status, emigrate from ISIL lands, or be killed.", "*2019 – A man sets fire to an anime studio in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, Japan, killing at least 35 people and injuring dozens of others." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1013 – Hermann of Reichenau, German composer, mathematician, and astronomer (b.", "1013)*1501 – Isabella of Austria, queen of Denmark (d. 1526)*1504 – Heinrich Bullinger, Swiss pastor and reformer (d. 1575)*1534 – Zacharius Ursinus, German theologian (d. 1583)*1552 – Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1612)===1601–1900===*1634 – Johannes Camphuys, Dutch politician, Governor-general of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1695)*1659 – Hyacinthe Rigaud, French painter (d. 1743)*1670 – Giovanni Bononcini, Italian cellist and composer (d. 1747)*1702 – Maria Clementina Sobieska, Polish noble (d. 1735)*1718 – Saverio Bettinelli, Italian poet, playwright, and critic (d. 1808)*1720 – Gilbert White, English ornithologist and ecologist (d. 1793)*1724 – Maria Antonia of Bavaria, Electress of Saxony (d. 1780)*1750 – Frederick Adolf, duke of Östergötland (d. 1803)*1796 – Immanuel Hermann Fichte, German philosopher and academic (d. 1879)*1811 – William Makepeace Thackeray, English author and poet (d. 1863)*1818 – Louis Gerhard De Geer, Swedish lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1896)*1821 – Pauline Viardot, French soprano and composer (d. 1910)*1837 – Vasil Levski, Bulgarian priest and activist (d. 1873)*1842 – William D. Coleman, 13th President of Liberia (d. 1908)*1843 – Virgil Earp, American marshal (d. 1905)*1845 – Tristan Corbière, French poet (d. 1875)*1848 – W. G. Grace, English cricketer and physician (d. 1915)*1853 – Hendrik Lorentz, Dutch physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1928)*1861 – Kadambini Ganguly, Indian physician, one of the first Indian women to obtain a degree (d. 1923) *1864 – Philip Snowden, 1st Viscount Snowden, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1937)*1867 – Margaret Brown, American philanthropist and activist (d. 1932)*1871 – Giacomo Balla, Italian painter (d. 1958)* 1871 – Sada Yacco, Japanese actress and dancer (d. 1946)*1872 – Julius Fučík, Czech composer and conductor of military bands (d. 1916)*1881 – Larry McLean, Canadian-American baseball player (d. 1921)*1884 – Alberto di Jorio, Italian cardinal (d. 1979)*1886 – Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr., American general (d. 1945)*1887 – Vidkun Quisling, Norwegian military officer and politician, Minister President of Norway (d. 1945)*1889 – Kōichi Kido, Japanese politician, 13th Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan (d. 1977)*1890 – Frank Forde, Australian educator and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1983)*1892 – Arthur Friedenreich, Brazilian footballer (d. 1969)*1893 – David Ogilvy, 12th Earl of Airlie, Scottish peer, soldier and courtier (d. 1968)*1895 – Olga Spessivtseva, Russian-American ballerina (d. 1991)* 1895 – Machine Gun Kelly, American gangster (d. 1954)*1897 – Ernest Eldridge, English race car driver and engineer (d. 1935)*1898 – John Stuart, Scottish-English actor (d. 1979)*1899 – Ernst Scheller, German soldier and politician, 8th Mayor of Marburg (d. 1942)*1900 – Nathalie Sarraute, French lawyer and author (d. 1999)===1901–present===*1902 – Jessamyn West, American author (d. 1984)* 1902 – Chill Wills, American actor (d. 1978)*1906 – S. I. Hayakawa, Canadian-American academic and politician (d. 1992)* 1906 – Clifford Odets, American director, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1963)*1908 – Peace Pilgrim, American mystic and activist (d. 1981)* 1908 – Lupe Vélez, Mexican-American actress and dancer (d. 1944)* 1908 – Beatrice Aitchison, American mathematician, statistician, and transportation economist (d. 1997)*1909 – Bishnu Dey, Indian poet, critic, and academic (d. 1982)* 1909 – Andrei Gromyko, Belarusian-Russian economist and politician, Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1989)* 1909 – Mohammed Daoud Khan, Afghan commander and politician, 1st President of Afghanistan (d. 1978)* 1909 – Harriet Nelson, American singer and actress (d. 1994)*1910 – Diptendu Pramanick, Indian businessman (d. 1989)* 1910 – Mamadou Dia, Senegalese politician; 1st Prime Minister of Senegal (d. 2009)*1911 – Hume Cronyn, Canadian-American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2003)*1913 – Red Skelton, American actor and comedian (d. 1997)*1914 – Gino Bartali, Italian cyclist (d. 2000)* 1914 – Oscar Heisserer, French footballer (d. 2004)*1915 – Carequinha, Brazilian clown and actor (d. 2006)* 1915 – Louis Le Bailly, British Royal Navy officer (d. 2010) *1916 – Charles Kittel, American physicist (d. 2019)*1917 – Henri Salvador, French singer and guitarist (d. 2008)* 1917 – Paul Streeten, Austrian-born British economics professor (d. 2019)*1918 – Nelson Mandela, South African lawyer and politician, 1st President of South Africa, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)*1919 – Lilia Dale, Italian actress (d. 1991)*1920 – Eric Brandon, English race car driver and businessman (d. 1982)*1921 – Peter Austin, English brewer, founded Ringwood Brewery (d. 2014)* 1921 – Aaron Beck, American psychiatrist and academic (d. 2021)* 1921 – John Glenn, American colonel, astronaut, and politician (d. 2016)* 1921 – Richard Leacock, English-French director and producer (d. 2011)* 1921 – Heinz Bennent, German actor (d. 2011)*1922 – Thomas Kuhn, American physicist, historian, and philosopher (d. 1996)*1923 – Jerome H. Lemelson, American engineer and businessman (d. 1997)* 1923 – Michael Medwin, English actor (d. 2020)*1924 – Inge Sørensen, Danish swimmer (d. 2011)* 1924 – Tullio Altamura, Italian actor*1925 – Shirley Strickland, Australian runner and hurdler (d. 2004)* 1925 – Friedrich Zimmermann, German lawyer and politician, German Federal Minister of the Interior (d. 2012)* 1925 – Raymond Jones, Australian Modernist architect (d. 2022)* 1925 – Windy McCall, American baseball relief pitcher (d. 2015)*1926 – Margaret Laurence, Canadian author and academic (d. 1987)* 1926 – Nita Bieber, American actress (d. 2019)* 1926 – Bernard Pons, French politician and medical doctor (d. 2022)* 1926 – Maunu Kurkvaara, Finnish film director and screenwriter (d. 2023)* 1926 – Elizabeth Jennings, English poet (d. 2001)*1927 – Mehdi Hassan, Pakistani ''ghazal'' singer and playback singer (d. 2012)* 1927 – Kurt Masur, German conductor and educator (d. 2015)* 1927 – Antonio García-Trevijano, Spanish republican, political activist, and author (d. 2018)* 1927 – Keith MacDonald, Canadian politician (d. 2021)* 1927 – Anthony Mirra, American gangster, member of the Bonanno Crime Family (d. 1982)*1928 – Andrea Gallo, Italian priest and author (d. 2013)* 1928 – Baddiewinkle, American internet personality*1929 – Dick Button, American former figure skater and actor* 1929 – Screamin' Jay Hawkins, American R&B singer-songwriter, musician, and actor (d. 2000) *1932 – Robert Ellis Miller, American director and screenwriter (d. 2017)*1933 – Jean Yanne, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2003)* 1933 – Yevgeny Yevtushenko, Russian poet and playwright (d. 2017)*1934 – Edward Bond, English director, playwright, and screenwriter* 1934 – Darlene Conley, American actress (d. 2007)*1935 – Tenley Albright, American former figure skater and physician* 1935 – Jayendra Saraswathi, Indian guru, 69th Shankaracharya (d. 2018)*1937 – Roald Hoffmann, Polish chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1937 – Hunter S. Thompson, American journalist and author (d. 2005)*1938 – John Connelly, English footballer (d. 2012)* 1938 – Ian Stewart, Scottish keyboard player and manager (d. 1985)* 1938 – Paul Verhoeven, Dutch director, producer, and screenwriter*1939 – Brian Auger, English rock and jazz keyboard player * 1939 – Dion DiMucci, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1939 – Jerry Moore, American football player and coach*1940 – James Brolin, American actor* 1940 – Joe Torre, American baseball player, manager, and executive*1941 – Frank Farian, German songwriter and producer (d. 2024)* 1941 – Lonnie Mack, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)* 1941 – Martha Reeves, American singer and politician *1942 – Giacinto Facchetti, Italian footballer (d. 2006)* 1942 – Adolf Ogi, Swiss politician, 84th President of the Swiss Confederation*1943 – Joseph J. Ellis, American historian and author*1944 – David Hemery, English hurdler and author*1945 – Pat Doherty, Irish Republican politician*1946 – Kalpana Mohan, Indian actress (d. 2012)*1947 – Steve Forbes, American publisher and politician*1948 – Carlos Colón Sr., Puerto Rican-American wrestler and promoter* 1948 – Jeanne Córdova, American journalist and activist (d. 2016)* 1948 – Hartmut Michel, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1949 – Dennis Lillee, Australian cricketer and coach*1950 – Richard Branson, English businessman, founded Virgin Group* 1950 – Jack Dongarra, American computer scientist and academic* 1950 – Kostas Eleftherakis, Greek footballer* 1950 – Glenn Hughes, American disco singer and actor (d. 2001)* 1950 – Shahid Khan, Pakistani-American businessman and sports executive* 1950 – Jack Layton, Canadian political scientist, academic, and politician (d. 2011)* 1950 – Mark Udall, American educator and politician*1951 – Elio Di Rupo, Belgian chemist, academic, and politician, 68th Prime Minister of Belgium* 1951 – Margo Martindale, American actress*1954 – Ricky Skaggs, American singer-songwriter, mandolin player, and producer *1955 – Bernd Fasching, Austrian painter and sculptor*1957 – Nick Faldo, English golfer and sportscaster* 1957 – Keith Levene, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2022) *1960 – Simon Heffer, English journalist and author*1961 – Elizabeth McGovern, American actress* 1961 – Alan Pardew, English footballer and manager* 1961 – Pasi Rautiainen, Finnish footballer, coach, and manager*1962 – Shaun Micallef, Australian comedian, producer, and screenwriter*1963 – Marc Girardelli, Austrian-Luxembourgian skier* 1963 – Martín Torrijos, Panamanian economist and politician, 35th President of Panama*1964 – Wendy Williams, American talk show host*1965 – Vesselina Kasarova, Bulgarian soprano*1966 – Dan O'Brien, American decathlete and coach*1967 – Vin Diesel, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1968 – Grant Bowler, New Zealand-Australian actor* 1968 – Scott Gourley, Australian rugby player*1969 – Elizabeth Gilbert, American author* 1969 – The Great Sasuke, Japanese wrestler and politician*1971 – Penny Hardaway, American basketball player and coach* 1971 – Sukhwinder Singh, Indian singer-songwriter and actor*1974 – Alan Morrison, British poet*1975 – Torii Hunter, American baseball player* 1975 – Daron Malakian, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1975 – M.I.A., English rapper and producer*1976 – Elsa Pataky, Spanish actress* 1976 – Go Soo-hee, South Korean actress*1977 – Alexander Morozevich, Russian chess player and author* 1977 – Kelly Reilly, English actress*1978 – Adabel Guerrero, Argentinian actress, singer, and dancer* 1978 – Shane Horgan, Irish rugby player and sportscaster* 1978 – Crystal Mangum, American murderer responsible for making false rape allegations in the Duke lacrosse case* 1978 – Joo Sang-wook, South Korean actor* 1978 – Ben Sheets, American baseball player and coach* 1978 – Mélissa Theuriau, French journalist*1979 – Deion Branch, American football player* 1979 – Joey Mercury, American wrestler and producer*1980 – Kristen Bell, American actress* 1980 – David Blu, American–Israeli basketball player* 1980 – Ryōko Hirosue, Japanese actress *1981 – Dennis Seidenberg, German ice hockey player*1982 – Ryan Cabrera, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1982 – Priyanka Chopra, Indian actress, singer, and film producer* 1982 – Carlo Costly, Honduran footballer *1983 – Mishaal Al-Saeed, Suadi Arabian footballer* 1983 – Carlos Diogo, Uruguayan footballer* 1983 – Aaron Gillespie, American singer-songwriter and drummer * 1983 – Mikk Pahapill, Estonian decathlete* 1983 – Jan Schlaudraff, German footballer*1985 – Chace Crawford, American actor* 1985 – Panagiotis Lagos, Greek footballer* 1985 – James Norton, English actor*1986 – Natalia Mikhailova, Russian ice dancer*1987 – Tontowi Ahmad, Indonesian badminton player*1988 – Änis Ben-Hatira, German-Tunisian footballer* 1988 – César Villaluz, Mexican footballer*1989 – Jamie Benn, Canadian ice hockey player* 1989 – Sebastian Mielitz, German footballer* 1989 – Yohan Mollo, French footballer*1990 – Canelo Álvarez, Mexican boxer*1991 – Mandy Rose, American wrestler and television personality* 1991 – Eugenio Suárez, Venezuelan baseball player*1993 – Lee Tae-min, South Korean singer and actor* 1993 – Michael Lichaa, Australian rugby league player*1994 – Nilo Soares, East Timorese footballer*1996 – Smriti Mandhana, Indian cricketer*1996 – Shudufhadzo Musida, Miss South Africa 2020*1997 – Noah Lyles, American sprinter*2001 – Agustina Roth, Argentine BMX rider" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*707 – Emperor Monmu of Japan (b.", "683)* 715 – Muhammad bin Qasim, Umayyad general (b.", "695)* 912 – Zhu Wen, Chinese emperor (b.", "852)* 924 – Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn al-Furat, Abbasid vizier (b.", "855)* 928 – Stephen II, patriarch of Constantinople* 984 – Dietrich I, bishop of Metz*1100 – Godfrey of Bouillon, Frankish knight (b.", "1016)*1185 – Stefan, first Archbishop of Uppsala (b. before 1143)*1194 – Guy of Lusignan, king consort of Jerusalem (b. c. 1150)*1232 – John de Braose, Marcher Lord of Bramber and Gower*1270 – Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury *1300 – Gerard Segarelli, Italian religious leader, founded the Apostolic Brethren (b.", "1240)*1450 – Francis I, Duke of Brittany (b.", "1414)*1488 – Alvise Cadamosto, Italian explorer (b.", "1432)*1566 – Bartolomé de las Casas, Spanish bishop and historian (b. c.1484)*1591 – Jacobus Gallus, Slovenian composer (b.", "1550)===1601–1900===*1608 – Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg (b.", "1546)*1610 – Caravaggio, Italian painter (b.", "1571)*1639 – Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, German general (b.", "1604)*1650 – Robert Levinz, English Royalist, hanged in London by Parliamentary forces as a spy (b.", "1615)*1695 – Johannes Camphuys, Dutch politician, Governor-general of the Dutch East Indies (b.", "1634)*1698 – Johann Heinrich Heidegger, Swiss theologian and author (b.", "1633)*1721 – Jean-Antoine Watteau, French painter (b.", "1684)*1730 – François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy, French general (b.", "1644)*1756 – Pieter Langendijk, Dutch poet and playwright (b.", "1683)*1792 – John Paul Jones, Scottish-American admiral and diplomat (b.", "1747)*1817 – Jane Austen, English novelist (b.", "1775)*1837 – Vincenzo Borg, Maltese merchant and rebel leader (b.", "1777)*1863 – Robert Gould Shaw, American colonel (b.", "1837)*1872 – Benito Juárez, Mexican lawyer and politician, 26th President of Mexico (b.", "1806)*1884 – Ferdinand von Hochstetter, Austrian geologist and academic (b.", "1829)*1890 – Lydia Becker, English journalist, author, and activist, co-founded the ''Women's Suffrage Journal'' (b.", "1827)*1892 – Thomas Cook, English travel agent, founded the Thomas Cook Group (b.", "1808)*1899 – Horatio Alger, American novelist and journalist (b.", "1832)===1901–present===*1916 – Benjamin C. Truman, American journalist and author (b.", "1835)*1925 – Louis-Nazaire Bégin, Canadian cardinal (b.", "1840)*1932 – Jean Jules Jusserand, French author and diplomat, French Ambassador to the United States (b.", "1855)*1937 – Julian Bell, English poet and academic (b.", "1908)*1938 – Marie of Romania (b.", "1875)*1944 – Thomas Sturge Moore, English author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1870)*1947 – Evald Tipner, Estonian footballer and ice hockey player (b.", "1906)*1948 – Herman Gummerus, Finnish historian, academic, and politician (b.", "1877)*1949 – Vítězslav Novák, Czech composer and educator (b.", "1870)* 1949 – Francisco Javier Arana, Guatemalan Army colonel and briefly Guatemalan head of state (b.", "1905)*1950 – Carl Clinton Van Doren, American critic and biographer (b.", "1885)*1952 – Paul Saintenoy, Belgian architect and historian (b.", "1862)*1954 – Machine Gun Kelly, American gangster (b.", "1895)*1966 – Bobby Fuller, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1942)*1968 – Corneille Heymans, Belgian physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1892)*1969 – Mary Jo Kopechne, American educator and secretary (b.", "1940)*1973 – Jack Hawkins, English actor (b.", "1910)*1975 – Vaughn Bodē, American illustrator (b.", "1941)*1981 – Sonja Branting-Westerståhl, Swedish lawyer (b.", "1890)*1982 – Roman Jakobson, Russian–American linguist and theorist (b.", "1896)*1984 – Lally Bowers, English actress (b.", "1914)* 1984 – Grigori Kromanov, Estonian director and screenwriter (b.", "1926)*1987 – Gilberto Freyre, Brazilian sociologist, anthropologist, historian, writer, painter, journalist and congressman (b.", "1907)*1988 – Nico, German singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and actress (b.", "1938)* 1988 – Joly Braga Santos, Portuguese composer and conductor (b.", "1924)*1989 – Donnie Moore, American baseball player (b.", "1954)* 1989 – Rebecca Schaeffer, American model and actress (b.", "1967)*1990 – Karl Menninger, American psychiatrist and author (b.", "1896)* 1990 – Yun Posun, South Korean politician, 2nd President of South Korea (b.", "1897)*2001 – Mimi Fariña, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1945)*2002 – Metin Toker, Turkish journalist and author (b.", "1924)*2004 – André Castelot, Belgian-French historian and author (b.", "1911)* 2004 – Émile Peynaud, French wine maker (b.", "1912)*2005 – Amy Gillett, Australian cyclist and rower (b.", "1976)* 2005 – William Westmoreland, American general (b.", "1914)*2006 – Henry Hewes, American theater writer (b.", "1917)*2007 – Jerry Hadley, American tenor (b.", "1952)* 2007 – Kenji Miyamoto, Japanese politician (b.", "1908)*2009 – Henry Allingham, English soldier (b.", "1896)* 2009 – Jill Balcon, English actress (b.", "1925)*2012 – Yosef Shalom Eliashiv, Lithuanian-Israeli rabbi and author (b.", "1910)* 2012 – Jean François-Poncet, French politician and diplomat, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1928)* 2012 – Dawoud Rajiha, Syrian general and politician, Syrian Minister of Defense (b.", "1947)* 2012 – Assef Shawkat, Syrian general and politician (b.", "1950)* 2012 – Hasan Turkmani, Syrian general and politician, Syrian Minister of Defense (b.", "1935)* 2012 – Rajesh Khanna, Indian actor (b.", "1942)*2013 – Vaali, Indian poet, songwriter, and actor (b.", "1931)* 2013 – Olivier Ameisen, French-American cardiologist and academic (b.", "1953)*2014 – Andreas Biermann, German footballer (b.", "1980)* 2014 – João Ubaldo Ribeiro, Brazilian journalist, author, and academic (b.", "1941)* 2014 – Dietmar Schönherr, Austrian-Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1926)*2015 – Alex Rocco, American actor (b.", "1936)*2018 – Jonathan Gold, American food critic (b.", "1960)* 2018 – Adrian Cronauer, American radio personality (b.", "1938)*2021 – Tom O'Connor, English comedian (b.", "1939)*2023 – Oommen Chandy, Indian politician, former Chief Minister of Kerala (b.", "1943)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Arnulf of Metz**Bruno of Segni**Camillus de Lellis (optional memorial, United States only)**Eadburh (or Edburga) of Bicester**Elizabeth Ferard (Church of England)**Frederick of Utrecht**Maternus of Milan**Pambo**Philastrius**Symphorosa**Theodosia of Constantinople**July 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Constitution Day (Uruguay)*Nelson Mandela International Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "July 19" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*AD 64 – The Great Fire of Rome causes widespread devastation and rages on for six days, destroying half of the city.", "* 484 – Leontius, Roman usurper, is crowned Eastern emperor at Tarsus (modern Turkey).", "He is recognized in Antioch and makes it his capital.", "*711 – Umayyad conquest of Hispania: Battle of Guadalete: Umayyad forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by King Roderic.", "* 939 – Battle of Simancas: King Ramiro II of León defeats the Moorish army under Caliph Abd-al-Rahman III near the city of Simancas.", "* 998 – Arab–Byzantine wars: Battle of Apamea: Fatimids defeat a Byzantine army near Apamea.", "*1333 – Wars of Scottish Independence: Battle of Halidon Hill: The English win a decisive victory over the Scots.", "*1544 – Italian War of 1542–46: The first Siege of Boulogne begins.", "*1545 – The Tudor warship ''Mary Rose'' sinks off Portsmouth; in 1982 the wreck is salvaged in one of the most complex and expensive projects in the history of maritime archaeology.", "*1553 – The attempt to install Lady Jane Grey as Queen of England collapses after only nine days.", "*1588 – Anglo-Spanish War: Battle of Gravelines: The Spanish Armada is sighted in the English Channel.===1601–1900===*1701 – Representatives of the Iroquois Confederacy sign the Nanfan Treaty, ceding a large territory north of the Ohio River to England.", "*1702 – Great Northern War: A numerically superior Polish-Saxon army of Augustus II the Strong, operating from an advantageous defensive position, is defeated by a Swedish army half its size under the command of King Charles XII in the Battle of Klissow.", "*1817 – Unsuccessful in his attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi for the Russian-American Company, Georg Anton Schäffer is forced to admit defeat and leave Kauaʻi.", "*1821 – Coronation of George IV of the United Kingdom.", "*1832 – The British Medical Association is founded as the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association by Sir Charles Hastings at a meeting in the Board Room of the Worcester Infirmary.", "*1843 – Brunel's steamship the is launched, becoming the first ocean-going craft with an iron hull and screw propeller, becoming the largest vessel afloat in the world.", "*1845 – Great New York City Fire of 1845: The last great fire to affect Manhattan begins early in the morning and is subdued that afternoon.", "The fire kills four firefighters and 26 civilians and destroys 345 buildings.", "*1848 – Women's rights: A two-day Women's Rights Convention opens in Seneca Falls, New York.", "*1863 – American Civil War: Morgan's Raid: At Buffington Island in Ohio, Confederate General John Hunt Morgan's raid into the north is mostly thwarted when a large group of his men are captured while trying to escape across the Ohio River.", "*1864 – Taiping Rebellion: Third Battle of Nanking: The Qing dynasty finally defeats the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.", "*1870 – Franco-Prussian War: France declares war on Prussia.", "*1900 – The first line of the Paris Métro opens for operation.===1901–present===*1903 – Maurice Garin wins the first Tour de France.", "*1916 – World War I: Battle of Fromelles: British and Australian troops attack German trenches as part of the Battle of the Somme.", "*1934 – The rigid airship surprised the near Clipperton Island with a mail delivery for President Franklin D. Roosevelt, demonstrating its potential for tracking ships at sea.", "*1936 – Spanish Civil War: The CNT and UGT call a general strike in Spain – mobilizing workers' militias against the Nationalist forces.", "*1940 – World War II: Battle of Cape Spada: The Royal Navy and the Regia Marina clash; the Italian light cruiser ''Bartolomeo Colleoni'' sinks, with 121 casualties.", "* 1940 – Field Marshal Ceremony: First occasion in World War II that Adolf Hitler appoints field marshals due to military achievements.", "* 1940 – World War II: Army order 112 forms the Intelligence Corps of the British Army.", "*1942 – World War II: The Second Happy Time of Hitler's submarines comes to an end, as the increasingly effective American convoy system compels them to return to the central Atlantic.", "*1943 – World War II: Rome is heavily bombed by more than 500 Allied aircraft, inflicting thousands of casualties.", "*1947 – Prime Minister of the shadow Burmese government, Bogyoke Aung San and eight others are assassinated.", "* 1947 – Korean politician Lyuh Woon-hyung is assassinated.", "*1952 – Opening of the Summer Olympics in Helsinki, Finland.", "*1957 – The largely autobiographical novel ''The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold'' by Evelyn Waugh was published.", "*1961 – Tunisia imposes a blockade on the French naval base at Bizerte; the French would capture the entire town four days later.", "*1963 – Joe Walker flies a North American X-15 to a record altitude of 106,010 meters (347,800 feet) on X-15 Flight 90.Exceeding an altitude of 100 km, this flight qualifies as a human spaceflight under international convention.", "*1964 – Vietnam War: At a rally in Saigon, South Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyễn Khánh calls for expanding the war into North Vietnam.", "*1967 – Piedmont Airlines Flight 22, a Piedmont Airlines Boeing 727-22 and a twin-engine Cessna 310 collided over Hendersonville, North Carolina, USA.", "Both aircraft were destroyed and all passengers and crew were killed, including John T. McNaughton, an advisor to Robert McNamara.", "*1969 – Chappaquiddick incident: U.S.", "Senator Ted Kennedy crashes his car into a tidal pond at Chappaquiddick Island, Massachusetts, killing his passenger Mary Jo Kopechne.", "*1972 – Dhofar Rebellion: British SAS units help the Omani government against Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman rebels in the Battle of Mirbat.", "*1976 – Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal is created.", "*1977 – The world's first Global Positioning System (GPS) signal was transmitted from Navigation Technology Satellite 2 (NTS-2) and received at Rockwell Collins in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, at 12:41 a.m. Eastern time (ET).", "*1979 – The Sandinista rebels overthrow the government of the Somoza family in Nicaragua.", "* 1979 – The oil tanker ''SS Atlantic Empress'' collides with another oil tanker, causing the largest ever ship-borne oil spill.", "*1980 – Opening of the Summer Olympics in Moscow.", "*1981 – In a private meeting with U.S. President Ronald Reagan, French President François Mitterrand reveals the existence of the ''Farewell Dossier'', a collection of documents showing the Soviet Union had been stealing American technological research and development.", "*1982 – In one of the first militant attacks by Hezbollah, David S. Dodge, president of the American University of Beirut, is kidnapped.", "*1983 – The first three-dimensional reconstruction of a human head in a CT is published.", "*1985 – The Val di Stava dam collapses killing 268 people in Val di Stava, Italy.", "*1989 – United Airlines Flight 232 crashes in Sioux City, Iowa killing 111.", "*1992 – A car bomb kills Judge Paolo Borsellino and five members of his escort.", "*1997 – The Troubles: The Provisional Irish Republican Army resumes a ceasefire to end their 25-year paramilitary campaign to end British rule in Northern Ireland.", "*2011 – Guinean President Alpha Condé survives an attempted assassination and coup d'état at his residence in Conakry.", "*2012 – Syrian civil war: The People's Protection Units (YPG) capture the city of Kobanî without resistance, starting the Rojava conflict in Northeast Syria.", "*2014 – Gunmen in Egypt's western desert province of New Valley Governorate attack a military checkpoint, killing at least 21 soldiers.", "Egypt reportedly declares a state of emergency on its border with Sudan.", "*2018 – The Knesset passes the controversial Nationality Bill, which defines the State of Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 810 – Muhammad al-Bukhari, Persian scholar (d. 870)*1223 – Baibars, sultan of Egypt (d. 1277)*1420 – William VIII, Marquess of Montferrat (d. 1483)*1569 – Conrad Vorstius, Dutch theologian (d. 1622)===1601–1900===*1670 – Richard Leveridge, English singer-songwriter (d. 1758)*1688 – Giuseppe Castiglione, Italian missionary and painter (d. 1766)*1744 – Heinrich Christian Boie, German author and poet (d. 1806)*1759 – Marianna Auenbrugger, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1782)* 1759 – Seraphim of Sarov, Russian monk and saint (d. 1833)*1771 – Thomas Talbot, Irish-Canadian colonel and politician (d. 1853)*1794 – José Justo Corro, Mexican politician and president (d. 1864)*1789 – John Martin, English painter, engraver, and illustrator (d. 1854)*1800 – Juan José Flores, Venezuelan general and politician, 1st President of Ecuador (d. 1864)*1814 – Samuel Colt, American businessman, founded the Colt's Manufacturing Company (d. 1862)*1819 – Gottfried Keller, Swiss author, poet, and playwright (d. 1890)*1822 – Princess Augusta of Cambridge (d. 1916)*1827 – Mangal Pandey, Indian soldier (d. 1857)*1834 – Edgar Degas, French painter, sculptor, and illustrator (d. 1917)*1835 – Justo Rufino Barrios, Guatemalan president (d. 1885)*1842 – Frederic T. Greenhalge, English-American lawyer and politician, 38th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1896)*1846 – Edward Charles Pickering, American astronomer and physicist (d. 1919)*1849 – Ferdinand Brunetière, French scholar and critic (d. 1906)*1860 – Lizzie Borden, American woman, tried and acquitted for the murders of her father and step-mother in 1892 (d. 1927)*1864 – Fiammetta Wilson, English astronomer (d. 1920)*1865 – Georges Friedel, French mineralogist and crystallographer (d. 1933)* 1865 – Charles Horace Mayo, American surgeon, co-founder of the Mayo Clinic (d. 1939)*1868 – Florence Foster Jenkins, American soprano and educator (d. 1944)*1869 – Xenophon Stratigos, Greek general and politician, Greek Minister of Transport (d. 1927)*1875 – Alice Dunbar Nelson, American poet and activist (d. 1935)*1876 – Joseph Fielding Smith, American religious leader, 10th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1972)*1877 – Arthur Fielder, English cricketer (d. 1949)*1881 – Friedrich Dessauer, German physicist and philosopher (d. 1963)*1883 – Max Fleischer, Austrian-American animator and producer (d. 1972)*1886 – Michael Fekete, Hungarian-Israeli mathematician and academic (d. 1957)*1888 – Enno Lolling, German physician (d. 1945)*1890 – George II of Greece (d. 1947)*1892 – Dick Irvin, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1957)*1893 – Vladimir Mayakovsky, Russian actor, playwright, and poet (d. 1930)*1894 – Aleksandr Khinchin, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1959)* 1894 – Khawaja Nazimuddin, Bangladeshi-Pakistani politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Pakistan (d. 1965)* 1894 – Percy Spencer, American physicist and inventor of the microwave oven (d. 1969)*1895 – Xu Beihong, Chinese painter and academic (d. 1953)*1896 – Reginald Baker, English film producer (d. 1985)* 1896 – A. J. Cronin, Scottish physician and novelist (d. 1981)* 1896 – Bob Meusel, American baseball player and sailor (d. 1977)*1898 – Herbert Marcuse, German-American sociologist and philosopher (d. 1979)*1899 – Balai Chand Mukhopadhyay, Indian physician, author, poet, and playwright (d. 1979)===1901–present===*1902 – Samudrala Sr., Indian singer, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1968)*1904 – Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, American lawyer and farmer (d. 1985)*1907 – Isabel Jewell, American actress (d. 1972)*1908 – Daniel Fry, American contactee (d. 1992)* 1908 – Hans Trippel, German engineer, developed Amphicar (d. 2001)*1909 – Balamani Amma, Indian poet and author (d. 2004)*1912 – Peter Leo Gerety, American prelate (d. 2016)*1913 – Kay Linaker, American actress and screenwriter (d. 2008)*1914 – Marius Russo, American baseball player (d. 2005)*1915 – Åke Hellman, Finnish painter (d. 2017)*1916 – Phil Cavarretta, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010)*1917 – William Scranton, American captain and politician, 13th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2013)*1919 – Patricia Medina, English-American actress (d. 2012)* 1919 – Miltos Sachtouris, Greek poet and author (d. 2005)* 1919 – Ron Searle, English-Canadian soldier, publisher, and politician, 4th Mayor of Mississauga (d. 2015)*1920 – Robert Mann, American violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 2018)* 1920 – Richard Oriani, Salvadoran-American metallurgist and engineer (d. 2015)*1921 – Harold Camping, American evangelist, author, radio host (d. 2013)* 1921 – André Moynet, French soldier, race car driver, and politician (d. 1993)* 1921 – Elizabeth Spencer, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (d. 2019)* 1921 – Rosalyn Sussman Yalow, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)*1922 – George McGovern, American lieutenant, historian, and politician (d. 2012)* 1922 – Rachel Robinson, American professor, registered nurse, and the widow of baseball player Jackie Robinson*1923 – Theo Barker, English historian (d. 2001)* 1923 – Alex Hannum, American basketball player and coach (d. 2002)* 1923 – Joseph Hansen, American author and poet (d. 2004)* 1923 – William A. Rusher, American lawyer and journalist (d. 2011)* 1923 – Lon Simmons, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2015)*1924 – Stanley K. Hathaway, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 40th United States Secretary of the Interior (d. 2005)* 1924 – Pat Hingle, American actor and producer (d. 2009)* 1924 – Arthur Rankin Jr., American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2014)*1925 – Sue Thompson, American singer (d. 2021)*1926 – Helen Gallagher, American actress, singer, and dancer*1928 – Samuel John Hazo, American author* 1928 – Choi Yun-chil, South Korean long-distance runner and a two-time national champion in the marathon (d. 2020)*1929 – Gaston Glock, Austrian engineer and businessman, co-founded Glock Ges.m.b.H.", "(d. 2023)* 1929 – Orville Turnquest, Bahamian politician*1932 – Buster Benton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1996)* 1932 – Jan Lindblad, Swedish biologist and photographer (d. 1987)*1934 – Francisco de Sá Carneiro, Portuguese lawyer and politician, 111th Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1980)*1935 – Nick Koback, American baseball player and golfer (d. 2015)*1936 – David Colquhoun, English pharmacologist and academic*1937 – George Hamilton IV, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014)* 1937 – Richard Jordan, American actor (d. 1993)*1938 – Jayant Narlikar, Indian astrophysicist and astronomer* 1938 – Tom Raworth, English poet and academic (d. 2017)*1941 – Vikki Carr, American singer and actress* 1941 – Neelie Kroes, Dutch politician and diplomat, European Commissioner for Digital Economy and Society*1943 – Han Sai Por, Singaporean sculptor and academic* 1943 – Carla Mazzuca Poggiolini, Italian journalist and politician*1944 – Tim McIntire, American actor and singer (d. 1986)* 1944 – Andres Vooremaa, Estonian chess player *1945 – Paule Baillargeon, Canadian actress, director, and screenwriter*1946 – Alan Gorrie, Scottish singer-songwriter and musician* 1946 – Ilie Năstase, Romanian tennis player and politician*1947 – André Forcier, Canadian director and screenwriter* 1947 – Hans-Jürgen Kreische, German footballer and manager* 1947 – Bernie Leadon, American guitarist and songwriter* 1947 – Brian May, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and astrophysicist *1948 – Keith Godchaux, American keyboard player and songwriter (d. 1980)*1949 – Kgalema Motlanthe, South African politician, 3rd President of South Africa*1950 – Per-Kristian Foss, Norwegian politician, Norwegian Minister of Finance* 1950 – Freddy Moore, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2022)* 1950 – Adrian Noble, English director and screenwriter*1951 – Abel Ferrara, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1952 – Allen Collins, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 1990)* 1952 – Jayne Anne Phillips American novelist and short story writer*1953 – Howard Schultz, American businessman and author*1954 – Mark O'Donnell, American playwright (d. 2012)* 1954 – Steve O'Donnell, American screenwriter and producer* 1954 – Srđa Trifković, Serbian-American journalist and historian*1955 – Roger Binny, Indian cricketer and sportscaster* 1955 – Dalton McGuinty, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Premier of Ontario* 1956 – Mark Crispin, American computer scientist, designed the IMAP (d. 2012)*1958 – Brad Drewett, Australian tennis player and sportscaster (d. 2013)* 1958 – Robert Gibson, American wrestler* 1958 – David Robertson, American conductor*1959 – Juan J. Campanella, Argentinian director, producer, and screenwriter*1960 – Atom Egoyan, Egyptian-Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter* 1960 – Kevin Haskins, English drummer and songwriter *1961 – Harsha Bhogle, Indian journalist and author* 1961 – Maria Filatova, Russian gymnast* 1961 – Lisa Lampanelli, American comedian, actress, and author* 1961 – Benoît Mariage, Belgian director and screenwriter* 1961 – Hideo Nakata, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter* 1961 – Campbell Scott, American actor, director, and producer*1962 – Anthony Edwards, American actor and director*1963 – Thomas Gabriel Fischer, Swiss musician* 1963 – Garth Nix, Australian author*1964 – Teresa Edwards, American basketball player* 1964 – Masahiko Kondō, Japanese singer-songwriter and race car driver*1965 – Evelyn Glennie, Scottish musician* 1965 – Claus-Dieter Wollitz, German footballer and manager*1967 – Yael Abecassis, Israeli model and actress* 1967 – Jean-François Mercier, Canadian comedian, screenwriter, and television host*1968 – Robb Flynn, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1968 – Pavel Kuka, Czech footballer and manager* 1968 – Jim Norton, American comedian, actor, and author*1969 – Matthew Libatique, American cinematographer*1970 – Bill Chen, American poker player and software designer* 1970 – Christopher Luxon, New Zealand politician, 42nd Prime Minister of New Zealand* 1970 – Nicola Sturgeon, Scottish lawyer and politician, First Minister of Scotland*1971 – Rene Busch, Estonian tennis player and coach* 1971 – Vitali Klitschko, Ukrainian boxer and politician, Mayor of Kyiv* 1971 – Michael Modest, American wrestler* 1971 – Catriona Rowntree, Australian television host* 1971 – Lesroy Weekes, Montserratian cricketer*1972 – Ebbe Sand, Danish footballer and manager*1973 – Martin Powell, English keyboard player and songwriter * 1973 – Scott Walker, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1974 – Rey Bucanero, Mexican wrestler* 1974 – Francisco Copado, German footballer and manager* 1974 – Josée Piché, Canadian ice dancer* 1974 – Vince Spadea, American tennis player* 1974 – Preston Wilson, American baseball player and sportscaster*1975 – Luca Castellazzi, Italian footballer*1976 – Benedict Cumberbatch, English actor* 1976 – Gonzalo de los Santos, Uruguayan footballer and manager*1977 – Jean-Sébastien Aubin, Canadian ice hockey player* 1977 – Tony Mamaluke, American wrestler and manager* 1977 – Ed Smith, English cricketer and journalist*1979 – Rick Ankiel, American baseball player* 1979 – Josué Anunciado de Oliveira, Brazilian footballer* 1979 – Dilhara Fernando, Sri Lankan cricketer* 1979 – Luke Young, English footballer*1980 – Xavier Malisse, Belgian tennis player* 1980 – Giorgio Mondini, Italian race car driver* 1980 – Chris Sullivan, American actor*1981 – Nenê, Brazilian footballer* 1981 – David Bernard, Jamaican cricketer* 1981 – Mark Gasnier, Australian rugby player and sportscaster* 1981 – Jimmy Gobble, American baseball player* 1981 – Grégory Vignal, French footballer*1982 – Christopher Bear, American drummer * 1982 – Phil Coke, American baseball player* 1982 – Jared Padalecki, American actor* 1982 – Jess Vanstrattan, Australian footballer*1983 – Helen Skelton, English television host and actress* 1983 – Fedor Tyutin, Russian ice hockey player*1984 – Andrea Libman, Canadian voice actress* 1984 – Adam Morrison, American basketball player* 1984 – Ryan O'Byrne, Canadian ice hockey player* 1984 – Lewis Price, Welsh footballer*1985 – LaMarcus Aldridge, American basketball player* 1985 – Zhou Haibin, Chinese footballer* 1985 – Marina Kuzina, Russian basketball player* 1985 – Hadi Norouzi, Iranian footballer (d. 2015)*1986 – Leandro Greco, Italian footballer* 1986 – Jinder Mahal, Canadian wrestler*1987 – Yan Gomes, Brazilian-American baseball player* 1987 – Jon Jones, American mixed martial artist* 1987 – Marc Murphy, Australian footballer*1988 – Shane Dawson, American comedian and actor* 1988 – Kevin Großkreutz, German footballer* 1988 – Jakub Kovář, Czech ice hockey player*1989 – Patrick Corbin, American baseball player* 1989 – Sam McKendry, Australian-New Zealand rugby league player*1991 – Eray İşcan, Turkish footballer*1992 – Jake Nicholson, English footballer*1994 – Christian Welch, Australian rugby league player*1996 – Paul Momirovski, Australian rugby league player*1998 – Erin Cuthbert, footballer* 1998 – Ronaldo Vieira, Bissau-Guinean footballer*2003 – Tyler Downs, American Olympic diver" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 514 – Symmachus, pope of the Catholic Church* 806 – Li Shigu, Chinese general (b.", "778)* 973 – Kyunyeo, Korean monk and poet (b.", "917)* 998 – Damian Dalassenos, Byzantine general (b.", "940)*1030 – Adalberon, French bishop*1234 – Floris IV, Dutch nobleman (b.", "1210)*1249 – Jacopo Tiepolo, doge of Venice*1333 – John Campbell, Scottish nobleman* 1333 – Alexander Bruce, Scottish nobleman* 1333 – Sir Archibald Douglas, Scottish nobleman* 1333 – Maol Choluim II, Scottish nobleman* 1333 – Kenneth de Moravia, 4th Earl of Sutherland*1374 – Petrarch, Italian poet and scholar (b.", "1304)*1415 – Philippa of Lancaster, Portuguese queen (b.", "1360)*1543 – Mary Boleyn, English daughter of Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire (b.", "1499)===1601–1900===*1631 – Cesare Cremonini, Italian philosopher and academic (b.", "1550)*1742 – William Somervile, English poet and author (b.", "1675)*1810 – Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Prussian queen (b.", "1776)*1814 – Matthew Flinders, English navigator and cartographer (b.", "1774)*1824 – Agustín de Iturbide, Mexican general and emperor (b.", "1783)*1838 – Pierre Louis Dulong, French physicist and chemist (b.", "1785)*1850 – Margaret Fuller, American journalist and critic (b.", "1810)*1855 – Konstantin Batyushkov, Russian poet and translator (b.", "1787)*1857 – Stefano Franscini, Swiss statistician and politician (b.", "1796)*1878 – Yegor Ivanovich Zolotarev, Russian mathematician and academic (b.", "1847)*1882 – John William Bean, English criminal and failed regicide (b.", "1824)*1896 – Abraham H. Cannon, American publisher and religious leader (b.", "1859)===1901–present===*1913 – Clímaco Calderón, Colombian lawyer and politician, 15th President of Colombia (b.", "1852)*1925 – John Indermaur, British lawyer (b.", "1851)*1930 – Robert Stout, Scottish-New Zealand politician, 13th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b.", "1844)*1933 – Kaarle Krohn, Finnish historian and academic (b.", "1863)*1939 – Rose Hartwick Thorpe, American poet and author (b.", "1850)*1941 – Špiro Bocarić, Serbian painter, victim of Genocide of Serbs*1943 – Yekaterina Budanova, Russian captain and pilot (b.", "1916)* 1943 – Carlo Zangarini, Italian poet and opera librettist (b.", "1873)*1947 – U Razak, Burmese educator and politician (b.", "1898)* 1947 – Aung San, Burmese general and politician (b.", "1915)* 1947 – Lyuh Woon-hyung, South Korean politician (b.", "1886)*1963 – William Andrew, English priest (b.", "1884)*1965 – Syngman Rhee, South Korean journalist and politician, 1st President of South Korea (b.", "1875)*1967 – John T. McNaughton, United States Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs and an advisor to Robert McNamara (b.", "1921)* 1967 – Odell Shepard, American poet and politician, 66th Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (b.", "1884)*1969 – Stratis Myrivilis, Greek soldier and author (b.", "1890)*1974 – Ernő Schwarz, Hungarian-American soccer player and coach (b.", "1904)*1975 – Lefty Frizzell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1928)*1977 – Karl Ristikivi, Estonian geographer, author, and poet (b.", "1912)*1980 – Margaret Craven, American journalist and author (b.", "1901)* 1980 – Nihat Erim, Turkish jurist and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Turkey (b.", "1912)* 1980 – Hans Morgenthau, German-American political scientist, philosopher, and academic (b.", "1904)*1981 – Roger Doucet, Canadian tenor (b.", "1919)*1982 – Hugh Everett III, American physicist and mathematician (b.", "1930)*1984 – Faina Ranevskaya, Russian actress (b.", "1896)* 1984 – Aziz Sami, Iraqi writer and translator (b.", "1895)*1985 – Janusz Zajdel, Polish author (b.", "1938)*1989 – Kazimierz Sabbat, Polish businessman and politician, President of the Republic of Poland (b.", "1913)*1990 – Eddie Quillan, American actor (b.", "1907)*1992 – Paolo Borsellino, Italian lawyer and judge (b.", "1940)*1994 – Victor Barbeau, Canadian author and academic (b.", "1896)*1998 – Elmer Valo, Polish-American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1921)*2002 – Dave Carter, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1952)* 2002 – Alan Lomax, American historian, scholar, and activist (b.", "1915) *2003 – Bill Bright, American evangelist and author, founded the Campus Crusade for Christ (b.", "1921)* 2003 – Pierre Graber, Swiss politician, President of the Swiss National Council (b.", "1908)*2004 – Sylvia Daoust, Canadian sculptor (b.", "1902)* 2004 – J. Gordon Edwards, American entomologist, mountaineer, and DDT advocate (b.", "1919)* 2004 – Francis A. Marzen, American priest and journalist (b.", "1924)* 2004 – Zenkō Suzuki, Japanese politician, 70th Prime Minister of Japan (b.", "1911)*2005 – Edward Bunker, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1933)*2006 – Jack Warden, American actor (b.", "1920)*2007 – A. K. Faezul Huq, Bangladeshi journalist, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1945)* 2007 – Roberto Fontanarrosa, Argentinian cartoonist (b.", "1944)*2008 – Dercy Gonçalves, Brazilian comedian and actress (b.", "1907)*2009 – Frank McCourt, American author and educator (b.", "1930)* 2009 – Henry Surtees, English race car driver (b.", "1991)*2010 – Cécile Aubry, French actress, author, television screenwriter and director (b.", "1928)* 2010 – Jon Cleary, Australian author and playwright (b.", "1917)*2012 – Humayun Ahmed, Bangladeshi director and playwright (b.", "1948)* 2012 – Tom Davis, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b.", "1952) * 2012 – Mohammad Hassan Ganji, Iranian meteorologist and academic (b.", "1912)* 2012 – Omar Suleiman, Egyptian general and politician, 16th Vice President of Egypt (b.", "1935) * 2012 – Sylvia Woods, American businesswoman, co-founded Sylvia's Restaurant of Harlem (b.", "1926) * 2012 – Valiulla Yakupov, Islamic cleric (b.", "1963)*2013 – Mikhail Gorsheniov, Russian singer-songwriter (b.", "1973)* 2013 – Geeto Mongol, Canadian-American wrestler and trainer (b.", "1931)* 2013 – Mel Smith, English actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1952)* 2013 – Bert Trautmann, German footballer and manager (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Phil Woosnam, Welsh-American soccer player and manager (b.", "1932)* 2013 – Peter Ziegler, Swiss geologist and academic (b.", "1928)* 2013 – Leyla Erbil, Turkish author (b.", "1931)*2014 – Rubem Alves, Brazilian theologian (b.", "1933)* 2014 – David Easton, Canadian-American political scientist and academic (b.", "1917)* 2014 – Paul M. Fleiss, American pediatrician and author (b.", "1933)* 2014 – James Garner, American actor (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Jerzy Jurka, Polish biologist (b.", "1950)* 2014 – Ray King, English footballer and manager (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Ingemar Odlander, Swedish journalist (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Harry Pougher, English cricketer (b.", "1941)* 2014 – Leen Vleggeert, Dutch politician (b.", "1931)* 2014 – John Winkin, American baseball player, coach, and journalist (b.", "1919)*2015 – Van Alexander, American composer and conductor (b.", "1915)* 2015 – Galina Prozumenshchikova, Ukrainian-Russian swimmer and journalist (b.", "1948)* 2015 – Carmino Ravosa, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (b.", "1930)* 2015 – Gennadiy Seleznyov, Russian journalist and politician, 2nd Speaker of the Duma (b.", "1947)*2016 – Garry Marshall, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1934)*2018 – Jon Schnepp, American producer, director, voice actor, editor, writer, cartoonist, animator, and cinematographer (b.", "1967)* 2018 – Denis Ten, Kazakhstani figure skater (b.", "1993)*2019 – Rutger Hauer, Dutch actor, director, and producer (b.", "1944)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Palace Day* Christian feast day:** Arsenius (Catholic Church)** Bernold, Bishop of Utrecht** Justa and Rufina** Kirdjun (or Abakerazum)** Macrina the Younger, Sister of St.", "Basil the Great** Symmachus** July 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Martyrs' Day (Myanmar) * Sandinista Day or Liberation Day (Nicaragua)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jan Karon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jan Karon''' (born March 14, 1937) is an American novelist who writes for both adults and young readers.", "She is the author of the ''New York Times''-bestselling Mitford novels, featuring Father Timothy Kavanagh, an Episcopal priest, and the fictional village of Mitford.", "Her most recent Mitford novel, ''To Be Where You Are'', was released in September 2017.She has been designated a lay Canon for the Arts in the Episcopal Diocese of Quincy (Illinois) by Keith Ackerman, Episcopal Bishop of Quincy, and in May 2000 she was awarded the Degree, Doctor of Humane Letters honoris causa by Nashotah House, a theological seminary in Nashotah Wisconsin.", "{“More from Mitford” Volume 4, Number 10, Fall 2000.}", "In 2015, she was awarded the Library of Virginia's Literary Lifetime Achievement Award." ], [ "Early life", "Jan Karon was born in the Blue Ridge foothills town of Lenoir, North Carolina as '''Janice Meredith Wilson'''.", "She was named after the novel ''Janice Meredith''.", "Before she was 4, her parents split up and left her with her maternal grandparents on a farm a few miles from Lenoir in Hudson, North Carolina.", "Her mother Wanda, who was 15 at Jan's birth, went to Charlotte.", "Her father, Robert Wilson, joined the Royal Canadian Air Force.At age 12, Jan moved to Charlotte to rejoin her mother, who had married Toby Setzer and had two more children.", "She dropped out of school in ninth grade, at 14, and married Robert Freeland in South Carolina, where girls her age could do so legally.", "Freeland, who was five years older, worked at a Charlotte tire store, while Jan worked in a clothing store.", "At age 15, she gave birth to her only child, Candace Freeland.Jan and Freeland's marriage was troubled from the beginning, and tragedy rocked it further.", "While Freeland was sitting in a car with one of his brothers and one or more friends, a gun was handed through the window and went off.", "The bullet punctured one of Robert Freeland's lungs and chipped his spine, nearly killing him and leaving him paralyzed.", "Jan was distraught, the marriage suffered, and she filed for divorce." ], [ "Career", "Janice, age 18, was on her own with her daughter Candace.", "She took a receptionist job at Walter J. Klein Co., a Charlotte advertising agency.", "Bored with answering the phone, she submitted writing examples.", "Klein soon had her writing advertising copy.", "In her early 20s, Jan married Bill Orth, a Duke Power chemist.", "Orth was active with her in theater and the Unitarian Church.", "By the late 1960s, Jan and Orth were divorced, and she married a third time, to Arthur Karon, a clothing salesman, and became Jan Karon.", "Arthur moved his wife and her daughter to Berkeley, California, where they lived for three years.In California, Karon practiced Judaism, but she did not convert from Christianity.", "Karon wanted to be a novelist, and tried all through the 1960s.", "When Karon's third marriage ended she returned to Charlotte and again worked in advertising.", "By 1985, Karon had moved to Raleigh and the McKinney & Silver advertising agency, where she had worked in the late 1970s.", "Karon and Michael Winslow, a Mckinney designer, collaborated on a tourism campaign, interviewing artisans, musicians and others for print ads aimed at showing that North Carolina had other attractions besides theme parks and big hotels.", "One ad featured mountain musicians under the headline, \"The Best Place to Hear Old English Music Is 3,000 Miles West of London.\"", "The campaign, which ran in ''National Geographic'' and other magazines, won the 1987 Kelly Award, the print advertising equivalent of the Academy Award.", "Karon and Winslow split a $100,000 prize.In 1988, Karon quit her job, traded her Mercedes for a used Toyota and moved to Blowing Rock, North Carolina.", "In Blowing Rock, Karon began writing Father Tim stories for the ''Blowing Rocket'' newspaper.", "An agent circulated Karon's fiction to publishers, but got only rejections.", "In 1994, Karon herself placed her work with a small religious publisher, which brought out a volume titled ''At Home in Mitford''.", "Karon kept writing, and employed her marketing skills to promote her book, writing press releases and cold-calling bookstores.", "But the publisher offered limited distribution and little marketing muscle of its own.", "Two more Mitford novels appeared.", "Sales remained modest.", "Then Karon's friend Mary Richardson, mother of Carolina Panthers' owner Jerry Richardson, showed ''At Home in Mitford'' to Nancy Olson, owner of Quail Ridge Books & Music in Raleigh.", "Olson felt there was a large audience looking for clean, well-written fiction.", "She sent Karon's book to a New York agent friend, who got it to Carolyn Carlson, an editor at Viking Penguin and daughter of a Lutheran minister.", "Carlson faced opposition at Viking Penguin, a mainstream publisher unused to Christian fiction.", "But in 1996 the New York firm brought out Karon's first three titles as paperbacks.", "By the late 1990s, Karon's books were ''New York Times'' bestsellers.In 2021 Karon founded The Mitford Museum in her former elementary school in Hudson, NC.", "The museum features family history as well as a wealth of information about her writing.", "Happy Endings Bookstore sells signed copies of her books along with Mitford-related items.", "The museum is open Wednesday-Saturday from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m." ], [ "Personal life", "In 2000, Karon left Blowing Rock and moved to Albemarle County, Virginia, where she restored a historic 1816 home and 100 acre farm, Esmont Farm, built by Dr. Charles Cocke (who served in both houses of the Virginia General Assembly before the American Civil War)." ], [ "Works", "=== ''The Mitford Years'' ===*''At Home in Mitford'' (1994)*''A Light in the Window'' (1995)*''These High, Green Hills'' (1996)*''Out to Canaan'' (1997)*''A New Song'' (1999)*''A Common Life: The Wedding Story'' (2001) — takes place after ''A Light in the Window''*''In This Mountain'' (2002)*''Shepherds Abiding'' (2003)*''Light from Heaven'' (2005)*''Home to Holly Springs'' (2007)*''In the Company of Others'' (2010)*''Somewhere Safe with Somebody Good'' (2014)*''Come Rain or Come Shine'' (2015)*''To Be Where You Are'' (2017)=== Mitford companion books ===*''Patches of Godlight: Father Tim's Favorite Quotes'' (2001)*''The Mitford Snowmen'' (2001)*''Esther's Gift: A Mitford Christmas Story'' (2002)*''Jan Karon's Mitford Cookbook and Kitchen Reader'' (2004)*''A Continual Feast: Words of Comfort and Celebration, collected by Father Tim'' (2005)*''The Mitford Bedside Companion'' (2006)*''Bathed in Prayer: Father Tim's Prayers, Sermons, and Reflections from the Mitford Series'' (2018)=== Children's books ===*''Miss Fannie's Hat'' (1998)*''Jeremy: The Tale of an Honest Bunny'' (2000)*''Jan Karon Presents: Violet Comes to Stay'' (2006)*''Jan Karon Presents:'' ''Violet Goes to the Country'' (2007)=== Other books ===*''The Trellis and the Seed: A Book of Encouragement for All Ages'' (2003)=== Short works ===\"The Day Aunt Maude Left\" in ''Response'' 1.4 (1961)" ], [ "Archive", "Jan Karon's papers are held at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library at the University of Virginia, and regular additions are made to document Karon's new works.", "The papers include preparatory materials for all of Karon's books, personal correspondence and papers, extensive papers related to her historical restoration of Esmont Farm, and correspondence with readers." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official site for the Mitford series author* December 6, 2005 lecture given by Karon at the National Cathedral, entitled ''Wrestling with and Writing from the Heart''* Current biography at Penguin* The Mitford Museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph Haydn" ], [ "Introduction", "Thomas Hardy (1791)'''Franz Joseph Haydn''' ( , ; 31 March 173231 May 1809) was an Austrian composer of the Classical period.", "He was instrumental in the development of chamber music such as the string quartet and piano trio.", "His contributions to musical form have led him to be called \"Father of the Symphony\" and \"Father of the String quartet\".Haydn spent much of his career as a court musician for the wealthy Esterházy family at their Eszterháza Castle.", "Until the later part of his life, this isolated him from other composers and trends in music so that he was, as he put it, \"forced to become original\".", "Yet his music circulated widely, and for much of his career he was the most celebrated composer in Europe.He was a friend and mentor of Mozart, a tutor of Beethoven, and the elder brother of composer Michael Haydn." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life===St.", "Stephen's Cathedral.", "In the foreground is the Kapellhaus (demolished 1804) where Haydn lived as a chorister.Joseph Haydn was born in Rohrau, Austria, a village that at that time stood on the border with Hungary.", "His father was Mathias Haydn, a wheelwright who also served as \"Marktrichter\", or marketplace supervisor.", "Haydn's mother Maria, née Koller, had previously worked as a cook in the palace of Count Harrach, the presiding aristocrat of Rohrau.", "Neither parent could read music; however, Mathias was an enthusiastic folk musician, who during the journeyman period of his career had taught himself to play the harp.", "According to Haydn's later reminiscences, his family was extremely musical, and they frequently sang together and with their neighbours.Haydn's parents had noticed that their son was musically gifted and knew that in Rohrau he would have no chance to obtain serious musical training.", "It was for this reason that, around the time Haydn turned six, they accepted a proposal from their relative Johann Matthias Frankh, the schoolmaster and choirmaster in Hainburg, that Haydn be apprenticed to Frankh in his home to train as a musician.", "Haydn therefore went off with Frankh to Hainburg and he never again lived with his parents.Life in the Frankh household was not easy for Haydn, who later remembered being frequently hungry and humiliated by the filthy state of his clothing.", "He began his musical training there, and could soon play both harpsichord and violin.", "He also sang treble parts in the church choir.There is reason to think that Haydn's singing impressed those who heard him, because in 1739 he was brought to the attention of Georg Reutter the Younger, the director of music in St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna, who happened to be visiting Hainburg and was looking for new choirboys.", "Haydn passed his audition with Reutter, and after several months of further training moved to Vienna (1740), where he worked for the next nine years as a chorister.", "It is also popularly believed that Haydn sang at the funeral of Antonio Vivaldi in 1741.Haydn lived in the Kapellhaus next to the cathedral, along with Reutter, Reutter's family, and the other four choirboys, which after 1745 included his younger brother Michael.", "The choirboys were instructed in Latin and other school subjects as well as voice, violin, and keyboard.", "Reutter was of little help to Haydn in the areas of music theory and composition, giving him only two lessons in his entire time as chorister.", "However, since St. Stephen's was one of the leading musical centres in Europe, Haydn learned a great deal simply by serving as a professional musician there.Like Frankh before him, Reutter did not always bother to make sure Haydn was properly fed.", "As he later told his biographer Albert Christoph Dies, Haydn was motivated to sing well, in hopes of gaining more invitations to perform before aristocratic audiences, where the singers were usually served refreshments.locations where Haydn lived or visited=== Struggles as a freelancer ===By 1749, Haydn had matured physically to the point that he was no longer able to sing high choral parts.", "Empress Maria Theresa herself complained to Reutter about his singing, calling it \"crowing\".", "One day, Haydn carried out a prank, snipping off the pigtail of a fellow chorister.", "This was enough for Reutter: Haydn was first caned, then summarily dismissed and sent into the streets.", "He had the good fortune to be taken in by a friend, Johann Michael Spangler, who shared his family's crowded garret room with Haydn for a few months.", "Haydn immediately began his pursuit of a career as a freelance musician.Morzin Palace, Dolní Lukavice, Czech RepublicHaydn struggled at first, working at many different jobs: as a music teacher, as a street serenader, and eventually, in 1752, as valet-accompanist for the Italian composer Nicola Porpora, from whom he later said he learned \"the true fundamentals of composition\".", "He was also briefly in Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz's employ, playing the organ in the Bohemian Chancellery chapel at the Judenplatz.While a chorister, Haydn had not received any systematic training in music theory and composition.", "As a remedy, he worked his way through the counterpoint exercises in the text ''Gradus ad Parnassum'' by Johann Joseph Fux and carefully studied the work of Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, whom he later acknowledged as an important influence.", "He said of CPE Bach's first six keyboard sonatas, \"I did not leave my clavier till I played them through, and whoever knows me thoroughly must discover that I owe a great deal to Emanuel Bach, that I understood him and have studied him with diligence.\"", "According to Griesinger and Dies, in the 1750s Haydn studied an encyclopedic treatise by Johann Mattheson, a German composer.As his skills increased, Haydn began to acquire a public reputation, first as the composer of an opera, ''Der krumme Teufel'', \"The Limping Devil\", written for the comic actor , whose stage name was \"Bernardon\".", "The work was premiered successfully in 1753, but was soon closed down by the censors due to \"offensive remarks\".", "Haydn also noticed, apparently without annoyance, that works he had simply given away were being published and sold in local music shops.", "Between 1754 and 1756 Haydn also worked freelance for the court in Vienna.", "He was among several musicians who were paid for services as supplementary musicians at balls given for the imperial children during carnival season, and as supplementary singers in the imperial chapel (the ''Hofkapelle'') in Lent and Holy Week.With the increase in his reputation, Haydn eventually obtained aristocratic patronage, crucial for the career of a composer in his day.", "Countess Thun, having seen one of Haydn's compositions, summoned him and engaged him as her singing and keyboard teacher.", "In 1756, Baron Carl Josef Fürnberg employed Haydn at his country estate, Weinzierl, where the composer wrote his first string quartets.", "Of them, Philip G. Downs said \"they abound in novel effects and instrumental combinations that can only be the result of humorous intent\".", "Their enthusiastic reception encouraged Haydn to write more.", "It was a turning point in his career.", "As a result of the performances, he became in great demand both as a performer and a teacher.", "Fürnberg later recommended Haydn to Count Morzin, who, in 1757, became his first full-time employer.", "His salary was a respectable 200 florins a year, plus free board and lodging.===The years as Kapellmeister===Haydn's wife.", "Unauthenticated miniature attributed to Ludwig GuttenbrunnHaydn's job title under Count Morzin was ''Kapellmeister'', that is, music director.", "He led the count's small orchestra in Unterlukawitz and wrote his first symphonies for this ensemble – perhaps numbering in the double figures.", "Philip Downs comments of these first symphonies: \"the seeds of the future are there, his works already exhibit a richness and profusion of material, and a disciplined yet varied expression.\"", "In 1760, with the security of a Kapellmeister position, Haydn married.", "His wife was the former Maria Anna Theresia Keller (1729–1800), the sister of Therese (b.", "1733), with whom Haydn had previously been in love.", "Haydn and his wife had a completely unhappy marriage, from which time permitted no escape.", "They produced no children, and both took lovers.Count Morzin soon suffered financial reverses that forced him to dismiss his musical establishment, but Haydn was quickly offered a similar job (1761) by Prince Paul Anton, head of the immensely wealthy Esterházy family.", "Haydn's job title was only Vice-Kapellmeister, but he was immediately placed in charge of most of the Esterházy musical establishment, with the old Kapellmeister Gregor Werner retaining authority only for church music.", "When Werner died in 1766, Haydn was elevated to full Kapellmeister.As a \"house officer\" in the Esterházy establishment, Haydn wore livery and followed the family as they moved among their various palaces, most importantly the family's ancestral seat Schloss Esterházy in Eisenstadt and later on Esterháza, a grand new palace built in rural Hungary in the 1760s.", "Haydn had a huge range of responsibilities, including composition, running the orchestra, playing chamber music for and with his patrons, and eventually the mounting of operatic productions.", "Despite this backbreaking workload, the job was in artistic terms a superb opportunity for Haydn.", "The Esterházy princes (Paul Anton, then from 1762 to 1790 Nikolaus I) were musical connoisseurs who appreciated his work and gave him daily access to his own small orchestra.", "During the nearly thirty years that Haydn worked at the Esterházy court, he produced a flood of compositions, and his musical style continued to develop.Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, Haydn's most important patronMuch of Haydn's activity at the time followed the musical taste of his patron Prince Nikolaus.", "In about 1765, the prince obtained and began to learn to play the baryton, an uncommon musical instrument similar to the bass viol, but with a set of plucked sympathetic strings.", "Haydn was commanded to provide music for the prince to play, and over the next ten years produced about 200 works for this instrument in various ensembles, the most notable of which are the 126 baryton trios.", "Around 1775, the prince abandoned the baryton and took up a new hobby: opera productions, previously a sporadic event for special occasions, became the focus of musical life at court, and the opera theater the prince had built at Esterháza came to host a major season, with multiple productions each year.", "Haydn served as company director, recruiting and training the singers and preparing and leading the performances.", "He wrote several of the operas performed and wrote substitution arias to insert into the operas of other composers.1779 was a watershed year for Haydn, as his contract was renegotiated: whereas previously all his compositions were the property of the Esterházy family, he now was permitted to write for others and sell his work to publishers.", "Haydn soon shifted his emphasis in composition to reflect this (fewer operas, and more quartets and symphonies) and he negotiated with multiple publishers, both Austrian and foreign.", "His new employment contract \"acted as a catalyst in the next stage in Haydn's career, the achievement of international popularity.", "By 1790 Haydn was in the paradoxical position ... of being Europe's leading composer, but someone who spent his time as a duty-bound Kapellmeister in a remote palace in the Hungarian countryside.\"", "The new publication campaign resulted in the composition of a great number of new string quartets (the six-quartet sets of Op.", "33, 50, 54/55, and 64).", "Haydn also composed in response to commissions from abroad: the Paris symphonies (1785–1786) and the original orchestral version of ''The Seven Last Words of Christ'' (1786), a commission from Cádiz, Spain.View of EszterházaThe remoteness of Eszterháza, which was farther from Vienna than Eisenstadt, led Haydn gradually to feel more isolated and lonely.", "He longed to visit Vienna because of his friendships there.", "Of these, a particularly important one was with Maria Anna von Genzinger (1754–1793), the wife of Prince Nikolaus's personal physician in Vienna, who began a close, platonic relationship with the composer in 1789.Haydn wrote to Mrs. Genzinger often, expressing his loneliness at Esterháza and his happiness for the few occasions on which he was able to visit her in Vienna.", "Later on, Haydn wrote to her frequently from London.", "Her premature death in 1793 was a blow to Haydn, and his F minor variations for piano, Hob.", "XVII:6, may have been written in response to her death.Another friend in Vienna was Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, whom Haydn had met sometime around 1784.According to later testimony by Michael Kelly and others, the two composers occasionally played in string quartets together.", "Haydn was hugely impressed with Mozart's work and praised it unstintingly to others.", "Mozart evidently returned the esteem, as seen in his dedication of a set of six quartets, now called the \"Haydn\" quartets, to his friend.", "In 1785 Haydn was admitted to the same Masonic lodge as Mozart, the \"\" in Vienna.=== The London journeys ===Portrait by Ludwig Guttenbrunn, painted , depicts Haydn c. 1770In 1790, Prince Nikolaus died and was succeeded as prince by his son Anton.", "Following a trend of the time, Anton sought to economize by dismissing most of the court musicians.", "Haydn retained a nominal appointment with Anton, at a reduced salary of 400 florins, as well as a 1000-florin pension from Nikolaus.", "Since Anton had little need of Haydn's services, he was willing to let him travel, and the composer accepted a lucrative offer from Johann Peter Salomon, a German violinist and impresario, to visit England and conduct new symphonies with a large orchestra.The choice was a sensible one because Haydn was already a very popular composer there.", "Since the death of Johann Christian Bach in 1782, Haydn's music had dominated the concert scene in London; \"hardly a concert did not feature a work by him\".", "Haydn's work was widely distributed by publishers in London, including Forster (who had their own contract with Haydn) and Longman & Broderip (who served as agent in England for Haydn's Vienna publisher Artaria).", "Efforts to bring Haydn to London had been made since 1782, though Haydn's loyalty to Prince Nikolaus had prevented him from accepting.After fond farewells from Mozart and other friends, Haydn departed from Vienna with Salomon on 15 December 1790, arriving in Calais in time to cross the English Channel on New Year's Day of 1791.It was the first time that the 58-year-old composer had seen the sea.", "Arriving in London, Haydn stayed with Salomon in Great Pulteney Street (London, near Piccadilly Circus) working in a borrowed studio at the Broadwood piano firm nearby.It was the start of a very auspicious period for Haydn: both the 1791–1792 journey, along with a repeat visit in 1794–1795, were greatly successful.", "Audiences flocked to Haydn's concerts; he augmented his fame and made large profits, thus becoming financially secure.", "Charles Burney reviewed the first concert thus: \"Haydn himself presided at the piano-forte; and the sight of that renowned composer so electrified the audience, as to excite an attention and a pleasure superior to any that had ever been caused by instrumental music in England.\"", "Haydn made many new friends and, for a time, was involved in a romantic relationship with Rebecca Schroeter.Hanover Square Rooms, principal venue of Haydn's performances in LondonMusically, Haydn's visits to England generated some of his best-known work, including the ''Surprise'', ''Military'', ''Drumroll'' and ''London'' symphonies; the ''Rider'' quartet; and the \"Gypsy Rondo\" piano trio.", "The great success of the overall enterprise does not mean that the journeys were free of trouble.", "Notably, his very first project, the commissioned opera ''L'anima del filosofo'' was duly written during the early stages of the trip, but the opera's impresario John Gallini was unable to obtain a license to permit opera performances in the theatre he directed, the King's Theatre.", "Haydn was well paid for the opera (£300) but much time was wasted.", "Thus only two new symphonies, no.", "95 and no.", "96 ''Miracle'', could be premiered in the 12 concerts of Salomon's spring concert series in 1791.Another problem arose from the jealously competitive efforts of a senior, rival orchestra, the Professional Concerts, who recruited Haydn's old pupil Ignaz Pleyel as a rival visiting composer; the two composers, refusing to play along with the concocted rivalry, dined together and put each other's symphonies on their concert programs.The end of Salomon's series in June gave Haydn a rare period of relative leisure.", "He spent some of the time in the country (Hertingfordbury), but also had time to travel, notably to Oxford, where he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the university.", "The symphony performed for the occasion, no.", "92 has since come to be known as the ''Oxford Symphony'', although it had been written two years before, in 1789.Four further new symphonies (Nos.", "93, 94, 97 and 98) were performed in early 1792.Haydn as portrayed by John Hoppner in England in 1791While traveling to London in 1790, Haydn had met the young Ludwig van Beethoven in his native city of Bonn.", "On Haydn's return, Beethoven came to Vienna and was Haydn's pupil up until the second London journey.", "Haydn took Beethoven with him to Eisenstadt for the summer, where Haydn had little to do, and taught Beethoven some counterpoint.", "While in Vienna, Haydn purchased a house for himself and his wife in the suburbs and started remodeling it.", "He also arranged for the performance of some of his London symphonies in local concerts.By the time he arrived on his second journey to England (1794–1795), Haydn had become a familiar figure on the London concert scene.", "The 1794 season was dominated by Salomon's ensemble, as the Professional Concerts had abandoned their efforts.", "The concerts included the premieres of the 99th, 100th, and 101st symphonies.", "For 1795, Salomon had abandoned his own series, citing difficulty in obtaining \"vocal performers of the first rank from abroad\", and Haydn joined forces with the Opera Concerts, headed by the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti.", "These were the venue of the last three symphonies, 102, 103, and 104.The final benefit concert for Haydn (\"Dr. Haydn's night\") at the end of the 1795 season was a great success and was perhaps the peak of his English career.", "Haydn's biographer Griesinger wrote that Haydn \"considered the days spent in England the happiest of his life.", "He was everywhere appreciated there; it opened a new world to him\".=== Years of celebrity in Vienna ===Haydn returned to Vienna in 1795.Prince Anton had died, and his successor Nikolaus II proposed that the Esterházy musical establishment be revived with Haydn serving again as Kapellmeister.", "Haydn took up the position on a part-time basis.", "He spent his summers with the Esterházys in Eisenstadt, and over the course of several years wrote six masses for them including the Lord Nelson mass in 1798.Wax sculpture of Haydn by Franz Thaler, c. 1800By this time Haydn had become a public figure in Vienna.", "He spent most of his time in his home, a large house in the suburb of Windmühle, and wrote works for public performance.", "In collaboration with his librettist and mentor Gottfried van Swieten, and with funding from van Swieten's Gesellschaft der Associierten, he composed his two great oratorios, ''The Creation'' (1798) and ''The Seasons'' (1801).", "Both were enthusiastically received.", "Haydn frequently appeared before the public, often leading performances of ''The Creation'' and ''The Seasons'' for charity benefits, including Tonkünstler-Societät programs with massed musical forces.", "He also composed instrumental music: the popular ''Trumpet Concerto'', and the last nine in his long series of string quartets, including the ''Fifths'', ''Emperor'', and ''Sunrise''.", "Directly inspired by hearing audiences sing God Save the King in London, in 1797 Haydn wrote a patriotic \"Emperor's Hymn\" \"\", (\"God Save Emperor Francis\").", "This achieved great success and became \"the enduring emblem of Austrian identity right up to the First World War\" (Jones).", "The melody was used for von Fallersleben's (1841), which was written as part of the German unification movement and whose third stanza is today the national anthem of the Federal Republic of Germany.", "(Modern Austria uses a different anthem.", ")During the later years of this successful period, Haydn faced incipient old age and fluctuating health, and he had to struggle to complete his final works.", "His last major work, from 1802, was the sixth mass for the Esterházys, the ''Harmoniemesse''.===Retirement, illness, and death===By the end of 1803, Haydn's condition had declined to the point that he became physically unable to compose.", "He suffered from weakness, dizziness, inability to concentrate and painfully swollen legs.", "Since diagnosis was uncertain in Haydn's time, it is unlikely that the precise illness can ever be identified, though Jones suggests arteriosclerosis.", "The illness was especially hard for Haydn because the flow of fresh musical ideas continued unabated, although he could no longer work them out as compositions.", "His biographer Dies reported Haydn saying in 1806:\"I must have something to do—usually musical ideas are pursuing me, to the point of torture, I cannot escape them, they stand like walls before me.", "If it's an allegro that pursues me, my pulse keeps beating faster, I can get no sleep.", "If it's an adagio, then I notice my pulse beating slowly.", "My imagination plays on me as if I were a clavier.\"", "Haydn smiled, the blood rushed to his face, and he said \"I am really just a living clavier.", "\"a museum) where Haydn spent the last years of his lifeThe winding down of Haydn's career was gradual.", "The Esterházy family kept him on as Kapellmeister to the very end (much as they had with his predecessor Werner long before), but they appointed new staff to lead their musical establishment: Johann Michael Fuchs in 1802 as Vice-Kapellmeister and Johann Nepomuk Hummel as Konzertmeister in 1804.Haydn's last summer in Eisenstadt was in 1803, and his last appearance before the public as a conductor was a charity performance of ''The Seven Last Words'' on 26 December 1803.As debility set in, he made largely futile efforts at composition, attempting to revise a rediscovered ''Missa brevis'' from his teenage years and complete his final string quartet.", "The former project was abandoned for good in 1805, and the quartet was published with just two movements.Haydn was well cared for by his servants, and he received many visitors and public honors during his last years, but they could not have been very happy years for him.", "During his illness, Haydn often found solace by sitting at the piano and playing his \"Emperor's Hymn\".", "A final triumph occurred on 27 March 1808 when a performance of ''The Creation'' was organized in his honour.", "The very frail composer was brought into the hall on an armchair to the sound of trumpets and drums and was greeted by Beethoven, Salieri (who led the performance) and by other musicians and members of the aristocracy.", "Haydn was both moved and exhausted by the experience and had to depart at intermission.Bergkirche in Eisenstadt, site of Haydn's tombHaydn lived on for 14 more months.", "His final days were hardly serene, as in May 1809 the French army under Napoleon launched an attack on Vienna and on 10 May bombarded his neighborhood.", "According to Griesinger, \"Four case shots fell, rattling the windows and doors of his house.", "He called out in a loud voice to his alarmed and frightened people, 'Don't be afraid, children, where Haydn is, no harm can reach you!'.", "But the spirit was stronger than the flesh, for he had hardly uttered the brave words when his whole body began to tremble.\"", "More bombardments followed until the city fell to the French on 13 May.", "Haydn, was, however, deeply moved and appreciative when on 17 May a French cavalry officer named Sulémy came to pay his respects and sang, skillfully, an aria from ''The Creation''.On 26 May Haydn played his \"Emperor's Hymn\" with unusual gusto three times; the same evening he collapsed and was taken to what proved to be to his deathbed.", "He died peacefully in his own home at 12:40 a.m. on 31 May 1809, aged 77.On 15 June, a memorial service was held in the Schottenkirche at which Mozart's Requiem was performed.", "Haydn's remains were interred in the local Hundsturm cemetery until 1820, when they were moved to Eisenstadt by Prince Nikolaus.", "His head took a different journey; it was stolen by phrenologists shortly after burial, and the skull was reunited with the other remains only in 1954, now interred in a tomb in the north tower of the Bergkirche." ], [ "Character and appearance", "Haydn's signature on a work of music: ''di me giuseppe Haydn'' (\"by me Joseph Haydn\").", "He writes in Italian, a language he often used professionally.", "''Laus Deo'' (\"praise be to God\") at the conclusion of a Haydn manuscriptJames Webster writes of Haydn's public character thus: \"Haydn's public life exemplified the Enlightenment ideal of the ''honnête homme'' (''honest man''): the man whose good character and worldly success enable and justify each other.", "His modesty and probity were everywhere acknowledged.", "These traits were not only prerequisites to his success as Kapellmeister, entrepreneur and public figure, but also aided the favorable reception of his music.\"", "Haydn was especially respected by the Esterházy court musicians whom he supervised, as he maintained a cordial working atmosphere and effectively represented the musicians' interests with their employer; see Papa Haydn and the tale of the \"Farewell\" Symphony.", "Haydn had a robust sense of humor, evident in his love of practical jokes and often apparent in his music, and he had many friends.", "For much of his life he benefited from a \"happy and naturally cheerful temperament\", but in his later life, there is evidence for periods of depression, notably in the correspondence with Mrs. Genzinger and in Dies's biography, based on visits made in Haydn's old age.Haydn was a devout Catholic who often turned to his rosary when he had trouble composing, a practice that he usually found to be effective.", "He normally began the manuscript of each composition with in the name of the Lord and ended with praise be to God.", "He retained this practice even in his secular works; he frequently only uses the initials \"L. D.\", \"S. D. G.\" , or and sometimes adds, \"et om si \" ( – and all saints)Haydn's early years of poverty and awareness of the financial precariousness of musical life made him astute and even sharp in his business dealings.", "Some contemporaries (usually, it has to be said, wealthy ones) were surprised and even shocked at this.", "Webster writes: \"As regards money, Haydn…always attempted to maximize his income, whether by negotiating the right to sell his music outside the Esterházy court, driving hard bargains with publishers or selling his works three and four times over to publishers in different countries; he regularly engaged in 'sharp practice'\" which nowadays might be regarded as plain fraud.", "But those were days when copyright was in its infancy, and the pirating of musical works was common.", "Publishers had few qualms about attaching Haydn's name to popular works by lesser composers, an arrangement that effectively robbed the lesser musician of livelihood.", "Webster notes that Haydn's ruthlessness in business might be viewed more sympathetically in light of his struggles with poverty during his years as a freelancer—and that outside the world of business, in his dealings, for example, with relatives, musicians and servants, and in volunteering his services for charitable concerts, Haydn was a generous man – offering to teach the two infant sons of Mozart for free after their father's death.", "When Haydn died he was certainly comfortably off, but by middle class rather than aristocratic standards.Portrait of Joseph Haydn by Christian Ludwig Seehas, 1785Haydn was short in stature, perhaps as a result of having been underfed throughout most of his youth.", "He was not handsome, and like many in his day he was a survivor of smallpox; his face was pitted with the scars of this disease.", "His biographer Dies wrote: \"he couldn't understand how it happened that in his life he had been loved by many a pretty woman.", "'They couldn't have been led to it by my beauty.His nose, large and aquiline, was disfigured by the polyps he suffered during much of his adult life, an agonizing and debilitating disease that at times prevented him from writing music." ], [ "Works", "James Webster summarizes Haydn's role in the history of classical music as follows:=== Structure and character of his music ===A central characteristic of Haydn's music is the development of larger structures out of very short, simple musical motifs, often derived from standard accompanying figures.", "The music is often quite formally concentrated, and the important musical events of a movement can unfold rather quickly.Original copy of \"\" in Haydn's handHaydn's work was central to the development of what came to be called sonata form.", "His practice, however, differed in some ways from that of Mozart and Beethoven, his younger contemporaries who likewise excelled in this form of composition.", "Haydn was particularly fond of the so-called monothematic exposition, in which the music that establishes the dominant key is similar or identical to the opening theme.", "Haydn also differs from Mozart and Beethoven in his recapitulation sections, where he often rearranges the order of themes compared to the exposition and uses extensive thematic development.Haydn's formal inventiveness also led him to integrate the fugue into the classical style and to enrich the rondo form with more cohesive tonal logic (see sonata rondo form).", "Haydn was also the principal exponent of the double variation form—variations on two alternating themes, which are often major- and minor-mode versions of each other.Perhaps more than any other composer's, Haydn's music is known for its humor.", "The most famous example is the sudden loud chord in the slow movement of his \"Surprise\" symphony; Haydn's many other musical jokes include numerous false endings (e.g., in the quartets Op.", "33 No.", "2 and Op.", "50 No.", "3), and the remarkable rhythmic illusion placed in the trio section of the third movement of Op.", "50 No.", "1.Much of the music was written to please and delight a prince, and its emotional tone is correspondingly upbeat.", "This tone also reflects, perhaps, Haydn's fundamentally healthy and well-balanced personality.", "Occasional minor-key works, often deadly serious in character, form striking exceptions to the general rule.", "Haydn's fast movements tend to be rhythmically propulsive and often impart a great sense of energy, especially in the finales.", "Some characteristic examples of Haydn's \"rollicking\" finale type are found in the \"London\" Symphony No.", "104, the String Quartet Op.", "50 No.", "1, and the Piano Trio Hob XV: 27.Haydn's early slow movements are usually not too slow in tempo, relaxed, and reflective.", "Later on, the emotional range of the slow movements increases, notably in the deeply felt slow movements of the quartets Op.", "76 Nos.", "3 and 5, the Symphonies No.", "98 and 102, and the Piano Trio Hob XV: 23.The minuets tend to have a strong downbeat and a clearly popular character.", "Over time, Haydn turned some of his minuets into \"scherzi\" which are much faster, at one beat to the bar.One of the most apt tributes to Haydn was spoken by the poet John Keats.", "Keats, dying of tuberculosis, was brought to Rome by his friends in November 1820, in the hope that the climate might help to mitigate his suffering.", "(The poet died a few weeks later on 23 February 1821, at the age of 25.)", "According to his friend Joseph Severn:===Style===Haydn's early work dates from a period in which the compositional style of the High Baroque (seen in J. S. Bach and Handel) had gone out of fashion.", "This was a period of exploration and uncertainty, and Haydn, born 18 years before the death of Bach, was himself one of the musical explorers of this time.", "An older contemporary whose work Haydn acknowledged as an important influence was Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach.Tracing Haydn's work over the six decades in which it was produced (roughly from 1749 to 1802), one finds a gradual but steady increase in complexity and musical sophistication, which developed as Haydn learned from his own experience and that of his colleagues.", "Several important landmarks have been observed in the evolution of Haydn's musical style.In the late 1760s and early 1770s, Haydn entered a stylistic period known as \"Sturm und Drang\" (\"storm and stress\").", "This term is taken from a literary movement of about the same time, though it appears that the musical development actually preceded the literary one by a few years.", "The musical language of this period is similar to what went before, but it is deployed in work that is more intensely expressive, especially in the works in minor keys.", "James Webster describes the works of this period as \"longer, more passionate, and more daring\".", "Some of the most famous compositions of this time are the \"Trauer\" (Mourning) Symphony No.", "44, \"Farewell\" Symphony No.", "45, the Piano Sonata in C minor (Hob.", "XVI/20, L. 33), and the six \"Sun\" Quartets Op.", "20, all from c. 1771–72.It was also around this time that Haydn became interested in writing fugues in the Baroque style, and three of the Op.", "20 quartets end with a fugue.Following the climax of the \"Sturm und Drang\", Haydn returned to a lighter, more overtly entertaining style.", "There are no quartets from this period, and the symphonies take on new features: the scoring often includes trumpets and timpani.", "These changes are often related to a major shift in Haydn's professional duties, which moved him away from \"pure\" music and toward the production of comic operas.", "Several of the operas were Haydn's own work (see List of operas by Joseph Haydn); these are seldom performed today.", "Haydn sometimes recycled his opera music in symphonic works, which helped him continue his career as a symphonist during this hectic decade.", "''Joseph Haydn Playing Quartets''In 1779, an important change in Haydn's contract permitted him to publish his compositions without prior authorization from his employer.", "This may have encouraged Haydn to rekindle his career as a composer of \"pure\" music.", "The change made itself felt most dramatically in 1781, when Haydn published the six Op.", "33 String Quartets, announcing (in a letter to potential purchasers) that they were written in \"a new and completely special way\".", "Charles Rosen has argued that this assertion on Haydn's part was not just sales talk but meant quite seriously, and he points out a number of important advances in Haydn's compositional technique that appear in these quartets, advances that mark the advent of the Classical style in full flower.", "These include a fluid form of phrasing, in which each motif emerges from the previous one without interruption, the practice of letting accompanying material evolve into melodic material, and a kind of \"Classical counterpoint\" in which each instrumental part maintains its own integrity.", "These traits continue in the many quartets that Haydn wrote after Op.", "33.In the 1790s, stimulated by his England journeys, Haydn developed what Rosen calls his \"popular style\", a method of composition that, with unprecedented success, created music having great popular appeal but retaining a learned and rigorous musical structure.", "An important element of the popular style was the frequent use of folk or folk-like material (see Haydn and folk music).", "Haydn took care to deploy this material in appropriate locations, such as the endings of sonata expositions or the opening themes of finales.", "In such locations, the folk material serves as an element of stability, helping to anchor the larger structure.", "Haydn's popular style can be heard in virtually all of his later work, including the twelve \"London\" symphonies, the late quartets and piano trios, and the two late oratorios.The return to Vienna in 1795 marked the last turning point in Haydn's career.", "Although his musical style evolved little, his intentions as a composer changed.", "While he had been a servant, and later a busy entrepreneur, Haydn wrote his works quickly and in profusion, with frequent deadlines.", "As a rich man, Haydn now felt that he had the privilege of taking his time and writing for posterity.", "This is reflected in the subject matter of ''The Creation'' (1798) and ''The Seasons'' (1801), which address such weighty topics as the meaning of life and the purpose of humankind and represent an attempt to render the sublime in music.", "Haydn's new intentions also meant that he was willing to spend much time on a single work: both oratorios took him over a year to complete.", "Haydn once remarked that he had worked on ''The Creation'' so long because he wanted it to last.The change in Haydn's approach was important in the history of classical music, as other composers were soon following his lead.", "Notably, Beethoven adopted the practice of taking his time and aiming high.===Identifying Haydn's works===Anthony van Hoboken prepared a comprehensive catalogue of Haydn's works.", "The Hoboken catalogue assigns a catalog number to each work, called its Hoboken number (abbreviated H. or Hob.).", "These Hoboken numbers are often used in identifying Haydn's compositions.Haydn's string quartets also have Hoboken numbers, but they are usually identified instead by their opus numbers, which have the advantage of indicating the groups of six quartets that Haydn published together.", "For example, the string quartet Opus 76, No.", "3 is the third of the six quartets published in 1799 as Opus 76.===Instruments===An \"Anton Walter in Wien\" fortepiano used by the composer is now on display in .", "In Vienna in 1788 Haydn bought himself a fortepiano made by Wenzel Schantz.", "When the composer was visiting London for the first time, an English piano builder, John Broadwood, supplied him with a concert grand." ], [ "See also", "* List of compositions by Joseph Haydn* List of concertos by Joseph Haydn* List of masses by Joseph Haydn* List of operas by Joseph Haydn* List of piano trios by Joseph Haydn* List of solo piano compositions by Joseph Haydn* List of string quartets by Joseph Haydn* List of symphonies by Joseph Haydn* Joseph Haydn's ethnicity* Haydn's birthplace* List of Haydn's residences" ], [ "References", "'''Informational notes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography''''''Biographical sources'''* * English translation in: One of the first biographies of Haydn, written on the basis of 30 interviews carried out during the composer's old age.", "* Highly detailed discussion of life and work; in German.", "* The first edition was published in 1946 with Karl Geiringer as the sole author.", "* A translation from the original German: .", "Like Dies's, a biography produced from interviews with the elderly Haydn.", "* Reissued 2010 by Cambridge University Press.", "* Originally published in 1950.Gives a sympathetic and witty account of Haydn's life, along with a survey of the music.", "* Focuses on biography rather than musical works; an up-to-date study benefiting from recent scholarly research on Haydn's life and times.", "* A comprehensive one-volume collection of detailed contributions by Haydn scholars.", "* An extensive compilation of original sources in five volumes.", "* Biography chapters by Robbins Landon, excerpted from and rich in original source documents.", "Analysis and appreciation of the works by Jones.", "* Published separately as * * Published separately as a book: Careful scholarship with little subjective interpretation; covers both life and music, and includes a very detailed list of works.", "'''Criticism and analysis'''* On jokes in Haydn and Beethoven.", "* Surveys the decline in Haydn's reputation in the nineteenth century before examining the factors that led to a resurgence in the twentieth.", "* First edition published in 1971.Covers much of Haydn's output and seeks to explicate Haydn's central role in the creation of the classical style.", "The work has been influential, provoking both positive citation and work (e.g., ) written in reaction.", "* .", "Further discussion of Haydn's style and technique as it relates to sonata form.", "* * * This book focuses on a single work, but contains many observations and opinions about Haydn in general." ], [ "Further reading", "* On the sublime in Haydn's later works; in German.", "* Covers each of the genres Haydn composed in as well as stylistic and interpretive contexts and performance and reception.", "* Sixty-seven scholars contribute over eighty entries as well as seven longer thematic essays on biography and identity, ideas, institutions, musical materials, people and networks, performance, and place.", "* * A brief (55-page) introduction to Haydn's string quartets.", "* * Covers not just Op.", "50 but also its relevance to Haydn's other output as well as his earlier quartets.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* \"Joseph Haydn\" by Karl Geiringer, Raymond L. Knapp, H. C. Robbins Landon, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* * * Joseph Haydn-Institut (in German)* The Haydn Society of North America*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jimi Hendrix" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Marshall''' \"'''Jimi'''\" '''Hendrix''' (born '''Johnny Allen Hendrix'''; November 27, 1942September 18, 1970) was an American guitarist, songwriter and singer.", "Although his mainstream career spanned only four years, he is widely regarded as the greatest and one of the most influential electric guitarists in the history of popular music, and one of the most celebrated musicians of the 20th century.", "The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame describes him as \"arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music.", "\"Born in Seattle, Washington, Hendrix began playing guitar at age 15.In 1961, he enlisted in the US Army, but was discharged the following year.", "Soon afterward, he moved to Clarksville, then Nashville, Tennessee, and began playing gigs on the chitlin' circuit, earning a place in the Isley Brothers' backing band and later with Little Richard, with whom he continued to work through mid-1965.He then played with Curtis Knight and the Squires before moving to England in late 1966 after bassist Chas Chandler of the Animals became his manager.", "Within months, Hendrix had earned three UK top ten hits with the Jimi Hendrix Experience: \"Hey Joe\", \"Purple Haze\", and \"The Wind Cries Mary\".", "He achieved fame in the US after his performance at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967, and in 1968 his third and final studio album, ''Electric Ladyland'', reached number one in the US.", "The double LP was Hendrix's most commercially successful release and his first and only number one album.", "The world's highest-paid performer, he headlined the Woodstock Festival in 1969 and the Isle of Wight Festival in 1970 before his accidental death in London from barbiturate-related asphyxia in September 1970.Hendrix was inspired by American rock and roll and electric blues.", "He favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain, and was instrumental in popularizing the previously undesirable sounds caused by guitar amplifier feedback.", "He was also one of the first guitarists to make extensive use of tone-altering effects units in mainstream rock, such as fuzz distortion, Octavia, wah-wah, and Uni-Vibe.", "He was the first musician to use stereophonic phasing effects in recordings.", "Holly George-Warren of ''Rolling Stone'' commented: \"Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source.", "Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion, but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled, fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began.", "\"Hendrix was the recipient of several music awards during his lifetime and posthumously.", "In 1967, readers of ''Melody Maker'' voted him the Pop Musician of the Year and in 1968, ''Billboard'' named him the Artist of the Year and ''Rolling Stone'' declared him the Performer of the Year.", "''Disc and Music Echo'' honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970, ''Guitar Player'' named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year.", "The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005.", "''Rolling Stone'' ranked the band's three studio albums, ''Are You Experienced'' (1967), ''Axis: Bold as Love'' (1967), and ''Electric Ladyland'' (1968), among the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\", and they ranked Hendrix as the greatest guitarist and the sixth-greatest artist of all time.", "Hendrix was named the greatest guitarist of all time by ''Rolling Stone'' in 2023." ], [ "Ancestry and childhood", "alt=A black and white image (c.1912) of two well-dressed people in their early 20s to late 30s.Hendrix was of African American, Irish and alleged Cherokee descent.", "His paternal grandfather, Bertran Philander Ross Hendrix, was born in 1866 from an extramarital affair between a woman named Fanny and a grain merchant from Urbana, Ohio, or Illinois, one of the wealthiest men in the area at that time.", "Hendrix's paternal grandmother, Zenora \"Nora\" Rose Moore, was a former dancer and vaudeville performer who co-founded Fountain Chapel in Hogan's Alley.", "Hendrix and Moore relocated to Vancouver, Canada, where they had a son they named James Allen Hendrix on June 10, 1919; the family called him \"Al\".In 1941, after moving to Seattle, Washington, Al met Lucille Jeter (1925–1958) at a dance; they married on March 31, 1942.Lucille's father (Jimi's maternal grandfather) was Preston Jeter (born 1875), whose mother was born in similar circumstances as Bertran Philander Ross Hendrix.", "Lucille's mother, Clarice (''née'' Lawson), had African American ancestors who had been enslaved people.", "Al, who had been drafted by the US Army to serve in World War II, left to begin his basic training three days after the wedding.", "Johnny Allen Hendrix was born on November 27, 1942, in Seattle; he was the first of Lucille's five children.", "In 1946, Johnny's parents changed his name to James Marshall Hendrix, in honor of Al and his late brother Leon Marshall.Stationed in Alabama at the time of Hendrix's birth, Al was denied the standard military furlough afforded servicemen for childbirth; his commanding officer placed him in the stockade to prevent him from going AWOL to see his infant son in Seattle.", "He spent two months locked up without trial, and, while in the stockade, received a telegram announcing his son's birth.", "During Al's three-year absence, Lucille struggled to raise their son.", "When Al was away, Hendrix was mostly cared for by family members and friends, especially Lucille's sister Delores Hall and her friend Dorothy Harding.", "Al received an honorable discharge from the US Army on September 1, 1945.Two months later, unable to find Lucille, Al went to the Berkeley, California, home of a family friend named Mrs.", "Champ, who had taken care of and attempted to adopt Hendrix; this is where Al saw his son for the first time.After returning from service, Al reunited with Lucille, but his inability to find steady work left the family impoverished.", "They both struggled with alcohol, and often fought when intoxicated.", "The violence sometimes drove Hendrix to withdraw and hide in a closet in their home.", "His relationship with his brother Leon (born 1948) was close but precarious; with Leon in and out of foster care, they lived with an almost constant threat of fraternal separation.", "In addition to Leon, Hendrix had three younger siblings: Joseph, born in 1949, Kathy in 1950, and Pamela in 1951, all of whom Al and Lucille gave up to foster care and adoption.", "The family frequently moved, staying in cheap hotels and apartments around Seattle.", "On occasion, family members would take Hendrix to Vancouver to stay at his grandmother's.", "A shy and sensitive boy, he was deeply affected by his life experiences.", "In later years, he confided to a girlfriend that he had been the victim of sexual abuse by a man in uniform.", "On December 17, 1951, when Hendrix was nine years old, his parents divorced; the court granted Al custody of him and Leon.=== First instruments ===At Horace Mann Elementary School in Seattle during the mid-1950s, Hendrix's habit of carrying a broom with him to emulate a guitar gained the attention of the school's social worker.", "After more than a year of his clinging to a broom like a security blanket, she wrote a letter requesting school funding intended for underprivileged children, insisting that leaving him without a guitar might result in psychological damage.", "Her efforts failed, and Al refused to buy him a guitar.In 1957, while helping his father with a side-job, Hendrix found a ukulele among the garbage they were removing from an older woman's home.", "She told him that he could keep the instrument, which had only one string.", "Learning by ear, he played single notes, following along to Elvis Presley songs, particularly \"Hound Dog\".", "By the age of 33, Hendrix's mother Lucille had developed cirrhosis of the liver, and on February 2, 1958, she died when her spleen ruptured.", "Al refused to take James and Leon to attend their mother's funeral; he instead gave them shots of whiskey and told them that was how men should deal with loss.", "In 1958, Hendrix completed his studies at Washington Junior High School and began attending, but did not graduate from, Garfield High School.In mid-1958, at age 15, Hendrix acquired his first acoustic guitar, for $5 ().", "He played for hours daily, watching others and learning from more experienced guitarists, and listening to blues artists such as Muddy Waters, B.B.", "King, Howlin' Wolf, and Robert Johnson.", "The first tune Hendrix learned to play was the television theme \"Peter Gunn\".", "Around that time, Hendrix jammed with boyhood friend Sammy Drain and his keyboard-playing brother.", "In 1959, attending a concert by Hank Ballard & The Midnighters in Seattle, Hendrix met the group's guitarist Billy Davis.", "Davis showed him some guitar licks and got him a short gig with the Midnighters.", "The two remained friends until Hendrix's death in 1970.Soon after he acquired the acoustic guitar, Hendrix formed his first band, the Velvetones.", "Without an electric guitar, he could barely be heard over the sound of the group.", "After about three months, he realized that he needed an electric guitar.", "In mid-1959, his father relented and bought him a white Supro Ozark.", "Hendrix's first gig was with an unnamed band in the Jaffe Room of Seattle's Temple De Hirsch, but they fired him between sets for showing off.", "He joined the Rocking Kings, which played professionally at venues such as the Birdland club.", "When his guitar was stolen after he left it backstage overnight, Al bought him a red Silvertone Danelectro." ], [ "Military service", "Hendrix in the US Army, 1961Before Hendrix was 19 years old, law authorities had twice caught him riding in stolen cars.", "Given a choice between prison or joining the Army, he chose the latter and enlisted on May 31, 1961.After completing eight weeks of basic training at Fort Ord, California, he was assigned to the 101st Airborne Division and stationed at Fort Campbell, Kentucky.", "He arrived on November 8, and soon afterward he wrote to his father: \"There's nothing but physical training and harassment here for two weeks, then when you go to jump school ... you get hell.", "They work you to death, fussing and fighting.\"", "In his next letter home, Hendrix, who had left his guitar in Seattle at the home of his girlfriend Betty Jean Morgan, asked his father to send it to him as soon as possible, stating: \"I really need it now.\"", "His father obliged and sent the red Silvertone Danelectro on which Hendrix had hand-painted the words \"Betty Jean\" to Fort Campbell.", "His apparent obsession with the instrument contributed to his neglect of his duties, which led to taunting and physical abuse from his peers, who at least once hid the guitar from him until he had begged for its return.", "In November 1961, fellow serviceman Billy Cox walked past an army club and heard Hendrix playing.", "Impressed by Hendrix's technique, which Cox described as a combination of \"John Lee Hooker and Beethoven\", Cox borrowed a bass guitar and the two jammed.", "Within weeks, they began performing at base clubs on the weekends with other musicians in a loosely organized band, the Casuals.Hendrix completed his paratrooper training and, on January 11, 1962, Major General Charles W. G. Rich awarded him the prestigious Screaming Eagles patch.", "By February, his personal conduct had begun to draw criticism from his superiors.", "They labeled him an unqualified marksman and often caught him napping while on duty and failing to report for bed checks.", "On May 24, Hendrix's platoon sergeant, James C. Spears, filed a report in which he stated: \"He has no interest whatsoever in the Army ...", "It is my opinion that Private Hendrix will never come up to the standards required of a soldier.", "I feel that the military service will benefit if he is discharged as soon as possible.\"", "On June 29, 1962, Hendrix was granted a general discharge under honorable conditions.", "Hendrix later spoke of his dislike of the army and that he had received a medical discharge after breaking his ankle during his 26th parachute jump, but no Army records have been produced that indicate that he received or was discharged for any injuries." ], [ "Career", "=== Early years ===In September 1962, after Cox was discharged from the Army, he and Hendrix moved about across the state line from Fort Campbell to Clarksville, Tennessee, and formed a band, the King Kasuals.", "In Seattle, Hendrix saw Butch Snipes play with his teeth and now the Kasuals' second guitarist, Alphonso \"Baby Boo\" Young, was performing this guitar gimmick.", "Not to be upstaged, Hendrix also learned to play in this way.", "He later explained: \"The idea of doing that came to me... in Tennessee.", "Down there you have to play with your teeth or else you get shot.", "There's a trail of broken teeth all over the stage.", "\"Although they began playing low-paying gigs at obscure venues, the band eventually moved to Nashville's Jefferson Street, which was the traditional heart of the city's black community and home to a thriving rhythm and blues music scene.", "They earned a brief residency playing at a popular venue in town, the Club del Morocco, and for the next two years Hendrix made a living performing at a circuit of venues throughout the South that were affiliated with the Theater Owners Booking Association (TOBA), widely known as the chitlin' circuit.", "In addition to playing in his own band, Hendrix performed as a backing musician for various soul, R&B, and blues musicians, including Wilson Pickett, Slim Harpo, Sam Cooke, Ike & Tina Turner and Jackie Wilson.In January 1964, feeling he had outgrown the circuit artistically, and frustrated by having to follow the rules of bandleaders, Hendrix decided to venture out on his own.", "He moved into the Hotel Theresa in Harlem, where he befriended Lithofayne Pridgon, known as \"Faye\", who became his girlfriend.", "A Harlem native with connections throughout the area's music scene, Pridgon provided him with shelter, support, and encouragement.", "Hendrix also met the Allen twins, Arthur and Albert.", "In February 1964, Hendrix won first prize in the Apollo Theater amateur contest.", "Hoping to secure a career opportunity, he played the Harlem club circuit and sat in with various bands.", "At the recommendation of a former associate of Joe Tex, Ronnie Isley granted Hendrix an audition that led to an offer to become the guitarist with the Isley Brothers' backing band, the I.B.", "Specials, which he readily accepted.=== First recordings ===In March 1964, Hendrix recorded the two-part single \"Testify\" with the Isley Brothers.", "Released in June, it failed to chart.", "In May, he provided guitar instrumentation for the Don Covay song, \"Mercy Mercy\".", "Issued in August by Rosemart Records and distributed by Atlantic, the track reached number 35 on the ''Billboard'' chart.Hendrix toured with the Isleys during much of 1964, but near the end of October, after growing tired of playing the same set every night, he left the band.", "Soon afterward, Hendrix joined Little Richard's touring band, the Upsetters.", "During a stop in Los Angeles in February 1965, he recorded his first and only single with Richard, \"I Don't Know What You Got (But It's Got Me)\", written by Don Covay and released by Vee-Jay Records.", "Richard's popularity was waning at the time, and the single peaked at number 92, where it remained for one week before dropping off the chart.", "Hendrix met singer Rosa Lee Brooks while staying at the Wilcox Hotel in Hollywood, and she invited him to participate in a recording session for her single, which included the Arthur Lee penned \"My Diary\" as the A-side, and \"Utee\" as the B-side.", "Hendrix played guitar on both tracks, which also included background vocals by Lee.", "The single failed to chart, but Hendrix and Lee began a friendship that lasted several years; Hendrix later became an ardent supporter of Lee's band, Love.In July 1965, Hendrix made his first television appearance on Nashville's Channel 5 ''Night Train''.", "Performing in Little Richard's ensemble band, he backed up vocalists Buddy and Stacy on \"Shotgun\".", "The video recording of the show marks the earliest known footage of Hendrix performing.", "Richard and Hendrix often clashed over tardiness, wardrobe, and Hendrix's stage antics, and in late July, Richard's brother Robert fired him.On July 27, Hendrix signed his first recording contract with Juggy Murray at Sue Records and Copa Management.", "He then briefly rejoined the Isley Brothers, and recorded a second single with them, \"Move Over and Let Me Dance\" backed with \"Have You Ever Been Disappointed\".", "Later that year, he joined a New York-based R&B band, Curtis Knight and the Squires, after meeting Knight in the lobby of a hotel where both men were staying.", "Hendrix performed with them for eight months.In October 1965, he and Knight recorded the single, \"How Would You Feel\" backed with \"Welcome Home\".", "Despite his two-year contract with Sue, Hendrix signed a three-year recording contract with entrepreneur Ed Chalpin on October 15.While the relationship with Chalpin was short-lived, his contract remained in force, which later caused legal and career problems for Hendrix.", "During his time with Knight, Hendrix briefly toured with Joey Dee and the Starliters, and worked with King Curtis on several recordings including Ray Sharpe's two-part single, \"Help Me\".", "Hendrix earned his first composer credits for two instrumentals, \"Hornets Nest\" and \"Knock Yourself Out\", released as a Curtis Knight and the Squires single in 1966.Feeling restricted by his experiences as an R&B sideman, Hendrix moved in 1966 to New York City's Greenwich Village, which had a vibrant and diverse music scene.", "There, he was offered a residency at the Cafe Wha?", "on MacDougal Street and formed his own band that June, Jimmy James and the Blue Flames, which included future Spirit guitarist Randy California.", "The Blue Flames played at several clubs in New York and Hendrix began developing his guitar style and material that he would soon use with the Experience.", "In September, they gave some of their last concerts at the Cafe Au Go Go in Manhattan, as the backing group for a singer and guitarist then billed as John Hammond.=== The Jimi Hendrix Experience ===Hendrix with the Experience (Noel Redding and Mitch Mitchell) in 1968By May 1966, Hendrix was struggling to earn a living wage playing the R&B circuit, so he briefly rejoined Curtis Knight and the Squires for an engagement at one of New York City's most popular nightspots, the Cheetah Club.", "During a performance, Linda Keith, the girlfriend of Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards, noticed Hendrix and was \"mesmerised\" by his playing.", "She invited him to join her for a drink, and the two became friends.While Hendrix was playing as Jimmy James and the Blue Flames, Keith recommended him to Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham and producer Seymour Stein.", "They failed to see Hendrix's musical potential and rejected him.", "Keith referred him to Chas Chandler, who was leaving the Animals and was interested in managing and producing artists.", "Chandler saw Hendrix play in Cafe Wha?, a Greenwich Village, New York City nightclub.", "Chandler liked the Billy Roberts song \"Hey Joe\", and was convinced he could create a hit single with the right artist.", "Impressed with Hendrix's version of the song, he brought him to London on September 24, 1966, and signed him to a management and production contract with himself and ex-Animals manager Michael Jeffery.", "That night, Hendrix gave an impromptu solo performance at The Scotch of St James and began a relationship with Kathy Etchingham that lasted for two and a half years.Hendrix on stage at alt=A black and white photograph of a man playing an electric guitar.Following Hendrix's arrival in London, Chandler began recruiting members for a band designed to highlight his talents, the Jimi Hendrix Experience.", "Hendrix met guitarist Noel Redding at an audition for the New Animals, where Redding's knowledge of blues progressions impressed Hendrix.", "Another important criterion for Hendrix was fashion—according to author Keith Shadwick, \"what he really liked was Redding's hairstyle.\"", "Chandler asked Redding if he wanted to play bass guitar in Hendrix's band; Redding agreed.", "Chandler began looking for a drummer and soon after contacted Mitch Mitchell through a mutual friend.", "Mitchell, who had recently been fired from Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames, participated in a rehearsal with Redding and Hendrix where they found common ground in their shared interest in rhythm and blues.", "When Chandler phoned Mitchell later that day to offer him the position, he readily accepted.", "Chandler also convinced Hendrix to change the spelling of his first name from ''Jimmy'' to the more exotic ''Jimi''.On October 1, 1966, Chandler brought Hendrix to the London Polytechnic at Regent Street, where Cream was scheduled to perform, and where Hendrix and guitarist Eric Clapton met.", "Clapton later said: \"He asked if he could play a couple of numbers.", "I said, 'Of course', but I had a funny feeling about him.\"", "Halfway through Cream's set, Hendrix took the stage and performed a frantic version of the Howlin' Wolf song \"Killing Floor\".", "In 1989, Clapton described the performance: \"He played just about every style you could think of, and not in a flashy way.", "I mean he did a few of his tricks, like playing with his teeth and behind his back, but it wasn't in an upstaging sense at all, and that was it ...", "He walked off, and my life was never the same again\".==== UK success ====In mid-October 1966, Chandler arranged an engagement for the Experience as Johnny Hallyday's supporting act during a brief tour of France.", "Thus, the Jimi Hendrix Experience performed their first show on October 13, 1966, at the Novelty in Evreux.", "Their enthusiastically received 15-minute performance at the Olympia theatre in Paris on October 18 marks the earliest known recording of the band.", "In late October, Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp, managers of the Who, signed the Experience to their newly formed label, Track Records, and the group recorded their first song, \"Hey Joe\", on October 23.", "\"Stone Free\", which was Hendrix's first songwriting effort after arriving in England, was recorded on November 2.alt=A black and white photograph of a man playing an electric guitar.From November 8 to 11, 1966, The Jimi Hendrix Experience had a short residency at the Big Apple club in Munich, their first gigs in Germany.", "At this occasion Hendrix had a show experience that would define him from then on: when trying to escape in panic from a frenetic audience that had pulled him off the stage, he smashed his guitar for the first time in a sound explosion on stage, which was perceived by the audience as part of the show.", "Observing the audience's reaction, Chandler decided that this show of violence had to become a permanent feature of the Experience's show.In mid-November, they performed at the Bag O'Nails nightclub in London, with Clapton, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Jeff Beck, Pete Townshend, Brian Jones, Mick Jagger, and Kevin Ayers in attendance.", "Ayers described the crowd's reaction as stunned disbelief: \"All the stars were there, and I heard serious comments, you know 'shit', 'Jesus', 'damn' and other words worse than that.\"", "The performance earned Hendrix his first interview, published in ''Record Mirror'' with the headline: \"Mr.", "Phenomenon\".", "\"Now hear this ... we predict that Hendrix is going to whirl around the business like a tornado\", wrote Bill Harry, who asked the rhetorical question: \"Is that full, big, swinging sound really being created by only three people?\"", "Hendrix said: \"We don't want to be classed in any category ...", "If it must have a tag, I'd like it to be called, 'Free Feeling'.", "It's a mixture of rock, freak-out, rave and blues\".", "Through a distribution deal with Polydor Records, the Experience's first single, \"Hey Joe\", backed with \"Stone Free\", was released on December 16, 1966.After appearances on the UK television shows ''Ready Steady Go!''", "and ''Top of the Pops'', \"Hey Joe\" entered the UK charts on December 29 and peaked at number six.", "Further success came in March 1967 with the UK number three hit \"Purple Haze\", and in May with \"The Wind Cries Mary\", which remained on the UK charts for eleven weeks, peaking at number six.", "On March 12, 1967, he performed at the Troutbeck Hotel, Ilkley, West Yorkshire, where, after about 900 people turned up (the hotel was licensed for 250) the local police stopped the gig due to safety concerns.On March 31, 1967, while the Experience waited to perform at the London Astoria, Hendrix and Chandler discussed ways in which they could increase the band's media exposure.", "When Chandler asked journalist Keith Altham for advice, Altham suggested that they needed to do something more dramatic than the stage show of the Who, which involved the smashing of instruments.", "Hendrix joked: \"Maybe I can smash up an elephant\", to which Altham replied: \"Well, it's a pity you can't set fire to your guitar\".", "Chandler then asked road manager Gerry Stickells to procure some lighter fluid.", "During the show, Hendrix gave an especially dynamic performance before setting his guitar on fire at the end of a 45-minute set.", "In the wake of the stunt, members of London's press labeled Hendrix the \"Black Elvis\" and the \"Wild Man of Borneo\".An enduring urban legend in the UK maintains that a possible explanation for the feral parakeets that have appeared in Great Britain since the mid-20th century may derive from a single pair of the birds that were released by Hendrix on Carnaby Street in the 1960s.", "According to a study, however, which mapped historical news reports of sightings of the birds, the myth is not true.==== ''Are You Experienced'' ====After the UK chart success of their first two singles, \"Hey Joe\" and \"Purple Haze\", the Experience began assembling material for a full-length LP.", "In London, recording began at De Lane Lea Studios, and later moved to the prestigious Olympic Studios.", "The album, ''Are You Experienced'', features a diversity of musical styles, including blues tracks such as \"Red House\" and the R&B song \"Remember\".", "It also included the experimental science fiction piece, \"Third Stone from the Sun\" and the post-modern soundscapes of the title track, with prominent backwards guitar and drums.", "\"I Don't Live Today\" served as a medium for Hendrix's guitar feedback improvisation and \"Fire\" was driven by Mitchell's drumming.Released in the UK on May 12, 1967, ''Are You Experienced'' spent 33 weeks on the charts, peaking at number two.", "It was prevented from reaching the top spot by the Beatles' ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band''.", "On June 4, 1967, Hendrix opened a show at the Saville Theatre in London with his rendition of ''Sgt.", "Pepper'' title track, which was released just three days previous.", "Beatles manager Brian Epstein owned the Saville at the time, and both George Harrison and Paul McCartney attended the performance.", "McCartney described the moment: \"The curtains flew back and he came walking forward playing 'Sgt.", "Pepper'.", "It's a pretty major compliment in anyone's book.", "I put that down as one of the great honors of my career.\"", "Released in the US on August 23 by Reprise Records, ''Are You Experienced'' reached number five on the ''Billboard'' 200.In 1989, Noe Goldwasser, the founding editor of ''Guitar World'', described ''Are You Experienced'' as \"the album that shook the world ... leaving it forever changed\".", "In 2005, ''Rolling Stone'' called the double-platinum LP Hendrix's \"epochal debut\", and they ranked it the 15th greatest album of all time, noting his \"exploitation of amp howl\", and characterizing his guitar playing as \"incendiary ... historic in itself\".==== Monterey Pop Festival ====Author Michael Heatley wrote: \"The iconic image by Ed Caraeff of Hendrix summoning the flames higher with his fingers will forever conjure up memories of Monterey for those who were there and the majority of us who weren't.", "\"Although popular in Europe at the time, the Experience's first US single, \"Hey Joe\", failed to reach the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart upon its release on May 1, 1967.Their fortunes improved when McCartney recommended them to the organizers of the Monterey Pop Festival.", "He insisted that the event would be incomplete without Hendrix, whom he called \"an absolute ace on the guitar\".", "McCartney agreed to join the board of organizers on the condition that the Experience perform at the festival in mid-June.On June 18, 1967, introduced by Brian Jones as \"the most exciting performer he had ever heard\", Hendrix opened with a fast arrangement of Howlin' Wolf's song \"Killing Floor\", wearing what Shadwick described as \"clothes as exotic as any on display elsewhere\".", "Shadwick wrote: \"Hendrix was not only something utterly new musically, but an entirely original vision of what a black American entertainer should and could look like.\"", "The Experience went on to perform renditions of \"Hey Joe\", B.B.", "King's \"Rock Me Baby\", Chip Taylor's \"Wild Thing\", and Bob Dylan's \"Like a Rolling Stone\", and four original compositions: \"Foxy Lady\", \"Can You See Me\", \"The Wind Cries Mary\", and \"Purple Haze\".", "The set ended with Hendrix destroying his guitar and tossing pieces of it out to the audience.", "''Rolling Stone'' Alex Vadukul wrote:Caraeff stood on a chair next to the edge of the stage and took four monochrome pictures of Hendrix burning his guitar.", "Caraeff was close enough to the fire that he had to use his camera to protect his face from the heat.", "''Rolling Stone'' later colorized the image, matching it with other pictures taken at the festival before using the shot for a 1987 magazine cover.", "According to author Gail Buckland, the final frame of \"Hendrix kneeling in front of his burning guitar, hands raised, is one of the most famous images in rock\".", "Author and historian Matthew C. Whitaker wrote that \"Hendrix's burning of his guitar became an iconic image in rock history and brought him national attention\".", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' asserted that, upon leaving the stage, Hendrix \"graduated from rumor to legend\".", "Author John McDermott wrote that \"Hendrix left the Monterey audience stunned and in disbelief at what they'd just heard and seen\".", "According to Hendrix: \"I decided to destroy my guitar at the end of a song as a sacrifice.", "You sacrifice things you love.", "I love my guitar.\"", "The performance was filmed by D. A. Pennebaker and included in the concert documentary ''Monterey Pop'', which helped Hendrix gain popularity with the US public.After the festival, the Experience was booked for five concerts at Bill Graham's Fillmore, with Big Brother and the Holding Company and Jefferson Airplane.", "The Experience outperformed Jefferson Airplane during the first two nights and replaced them at the top of the bill on the fifth.", "Following their successful West Coast introduction, which included a free open-air concert at Golden Gate Park and a concert at the Whisky a Go Go, the Experience was booked as the opening act for the first American tour of the Monkees.", "The Monkees requested Hendrix as a supporting act because they were fans, but their young audience disliked the Experience, who left the tour after six shows.", "Chandler later said he engineered the tour to gain publicity for Hendrix.==== ''Axis: Bold as Love'' ====The second Experience album, ''Axis: Bold as Love'', opens with the track \"EXP\", which uses microphonic and harmonic feedback in a new, creative fashion.", "It also showcased an experimental stereo panning effect in which sounds emanating from Hendrix's guitar move through the stereo image, revolving around the listener.", "The piece reflected his growing interest in science fiction and outer space.", "He composed the album's title track and finale around two verses and two choruses, during which he pairs emotions with personas, comparing them to colors.", "The song's coda features the first recording of stereo phasing.", "Shadwick described the composition as \"possibly the most ambitious piece on ''Axis'', the extravagant metaphors of the lyrics suggesting a growing confidence\" in Hendrix's songwriting.", "His guitar playing throughout the song is marked by chordal arpeggios and contrapuntal motion, with tremolo-picked partial chords providing the musical foundation for the chorus, which culminates in what musicologist Andy Aledort described as \"simply one of the greatest electric guitar solos ever played\".", "The track fades out on tremolo-picked 32nd note double stops.The scheduled release date for ''Axis'' was almost delayed when Hendrix lost the master tape of side one of the LP, leaving it in the back seat of a London taxi.", "With the deadline looming, Hendrix, Chandler, and engineer Eddie Kramer remixed most of side one in a single overnight session, but they could not match the quality of the lost mix of \"If 6 Was 9\".", "Redding had a tape recording of this mix, which had to be smoothed out with an iron as it had gotten wrinkled.", "During the verses, Hendrix doubled his singing with a guitar line which he played one octave lower than his vocals.", "Hendrix voiced his disappointment about having re-mixed the album so quickly, and he felt that it could have been better had they been given more time.", "''Axis'' featured psychedelic cover art that depicts Hendrix and the Experience as various avatars of Vishnu, incorporating a painting of them by Roger Law, from a photo-portrait by Karl Ferris.", "The painting was then superimposed on a copy of a mass-produced religious poster.", "Hendrix stated that the cover, which Track spent $5,000 producing, would have been more appropriate had it highlighted his American Indian heritage.", "He said: \"You got it wrong ...", "I'm not that kind of Indian.\"", "Track released the album in the UK on December 1, 1967, where it peaked at number five, spending 16 weeks on the charts.", "In February 1968, ''Axis: Bold as Love'' reached number three in the US.While author and journalist Richie Unterberger described ''Axis'' as the least impressive Experience album, according to author Peter Doggett, the release \"heralded a new subtlety in Hendrix's work\".", "Mitchell said: \"''Axis'' was the first time that it became apparent that Jimi was pretty good working behind the mixing board, as well as playing, and had some positive ideas of how he wanted things recorded.", "It could have been the start of any potential conflict between him and Chas in the studio.", "\"==== ''Electric Ladyland'' ====Recording for the Experience's third and final studio album, ''Electric Ladyland'', began as early as December 20, 1967, at Olympic Studios.", "Several songs were attempted; however, in April 1968, the Experience, with Chandler as producer and engineers Eddie Kramer and Gary Kellgren, moved the sessions to the newly opened Record Plant Studios in New York.", "As the sessions progressed, Chandler became increasingly frustrated with Hendrix's perfectionism and his demands for repeated takes.", "Hendrix also allowed numerous friends and guests to join them in the studio, which contributed to a chaotic and crowded environment in the control room and led Chandler to sever his professional relationship with Hendrix.", "Redding later recalled: \"There were tons of people in the studio; you couldn't move.", "It was a party, not a session.\"", "Redding, who had formed his own band in mid-1968, Fat Mattress, found it increasingly difficult to fulfill his commitments with the Experience, so Hendrix played many of the bass parts on ''Electric Ladyland''.", "The album's cover stated that it was \"produced and directed by Jimi Hendrix\".During the ''Electric Ladyland'' recording sessions, Hendrix began experimenting with other combinations of musicians, including Jefferson Airplane's Jack Casady and Traffic's Steve Winwood, who played bass and organ, respectively, on the 15-minute slow-blues jam, \"Voodoo Chile\".", "During the album's production, Hendrix appeared at an impromptu jam with B.B.", "King, Al Kooper, and Elvin Bishop.", "''Electric Ladyland'' was released on October 25, and by mid-November it had reached number one in the US, spending two weeks at the top spot.", "The double LP was Hendrix's most commercially successful release and his only number one album.", "It peaked at number six in the UK, spending 12 weeks on the chart.", "''Electric Ladyland'' included Hendrix's cover of a Bob Dylan song, \"All Along the Watchtower\", which became Hendrix's highest-selling single and his only US top 40 hit, peaking at number 20; the single reached number five in the UK.", "\"Burning of the Midnight Lamp\", his first recorded song to feature a wah-wah pedal, was added to the album.", "It was originally released as his fourth single in the UK in August 1967 and reached number 18 on the charts.In 1989, Noe Goldwasser, the founding editor of ''Guitar World'', described ''Electric Ladyland'' as \"Hendrix's masterpiece\".", "According to author Michael Heatley, \"most critics agree\" that the album is \"the fullest realization of Jimi's far-reaching ambitions.\"", "In 2004, author Peter Doggett wrote: \"For pure experimental genius, melodic flair, conceptual vision and instrumental brilliance, ''Electric Ladyland'' remains a prime contender for the status of rock's greatest album.\"", "Doggett described the LP as \"a display of musical virtuosity never surpassed by any rock musician.", "\"=== Break-up of the Experience ===The white building (left) is 23 uprightIn January 1969, after an absence of more than six months, Hendrix briefly moved back into his girlfriend Kathy Etchingham's apartment in Brook Street, London, next door to the home of the composer Handel.", "After a performance of \"Voodoo Child\", on BBC's ''Happening for Lulu'' show in January 1969, the band stopped midway through an attempt at their first hit \"Hey Joe\" and then launched into an instrumental version of \"Sunshine of Your Love\", as a tribute to the recently disbanded band Cream, until director and producer Stanley Dorfman was forced to bring the song to a premature end.", "The Experience bass player Noel Redding describes in his autobiography, \"as the minutes ticked by on his live show, short of running onto the set to stop us or pulling the plug, there was nothing he could do.", "We played past the point where Lulu might have joined us, played through the time for talking at the end, played through Stanley tearing his hair, pointing to his watch and silently screaming at us.", "We played out the show...Afterwards, Dorfman refused to speak to us, but the result is one of the most widely used bits of film we ever did.", "Certainly, it’s the most relaxed.\"", "Dorfman recalls at the BBC club after the show, he found Hendrix to be \"a very sweet man, very quiet, he didn’t know he’d done anything wrong at all.\"", "However according to rock and roll legend, Hendrix was banned from working at the BBC again.", "During this time, the Experience toured Scandinavia, West Germany, and gave their final two performances in France.", "On February 18 and 24, they played sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall, which were the last European appearances of this lineup.By February 1969, Redding had grown weary of Hendrix's unpredictable work ethic and his creative control over the Experience's music.", "During the previous month's European tour, interpersonal relations within the group had deteriorated, particularly between Hendrix and Redding.", "In his diary, Redding documented the building frustration during early 1969 recording sessions: \"On the first day, as I nearly expected, there was nothing doing ... On the second it was no show at all.", "I went to the pub for three hours, came back, and it was still ages before Jimi ambled in.", "Then we argued ... On the last day, I just watched it happen for a while, and then went back to my flat.\"", "The last Experience sessions that included Redding—a re-recording of \"Stone Free\" for use as a possible single release—took place on April 14 at Olmstead and the Record Plant in New York.", "Hendrix then flew bassist Billy Cox to New York; they started recording and rehearsing together on April 21.The last performance of the original Experience lineup took place on June 29, 1969, at Barry Fey's Denver Pop Festival, a three-day event held at Denver's Mile High Stadium that was marked by police using tear gas to control the audience.", "The band narrowly escaped from the venue in the back of a rental truck, which was partly crushed by fans who had climbed on top of the vehicle.", "Before the show, a journalist angered Redding by asking why he was there; the reporter then informed him that two weeks earlier Hendrix announced that he had been replaced with Billy Cox.", "The next day, Redding quit the Experience and returned to London.", "He announced that he had left the band and intended to pursue a solo career, blaming Hendrix's plans to expand the group without allowing for his input as a primary reason for leaving.", "Redding later said: \"Mitch and I hung out a lot together, but we're English.", "If we'd go out, Jimi would stay in his room.", "But any bad feelings came from us being three guys who were traveling too hard, getting too tired, and taking too many drugs ...", "I liked Hendrix.", "I don't like Mitchell.", "\"Soon after Redding's departure, Hendrix began lodging at the eight-bedroom Ashokan House, in the hamlet of Boiceville near Woodstock in upstate New York, where he had spent some time vacationing in mid-1969.Manager Michael Jeffery arranged the accommodations in the hope that the respite might encourage Hendrix to write material for a new album.", "During this time, Mitchell was unavailable for commitments made by Jeffery, which included Hendrix's first appearance on US TV—on ''The Dick Cavett Show''—where he was backed by the studio orchestra, and an appearance on ''The Tonight Show'' where he appeared with Cox and session drummer Ed Shaughnessy.=== Woodstock ===peace sign at the start of his performance of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" at Woodstock, August 18, 1969.|alt=A color image of three men standing on stage performing musicBy 1969, Hendrix was the world's highest-paid rock musician.", "In August, he headlined the Woodstock Music and Art Fair that included many of the most popular bands of the time.", "For the concert, he added rhythm guitarist Larry Lee and conga players Juma Sultan and Jerry Velez.", "The band rehearsed for less than two weeks before the performance, and according to Mitchell, they never connected musically.", "Before arriving at the engagement, Hendrix heard reports that the size of the audience had grown enormously, which concerned him as he did not enjoy performing for large crowds.", "He was an important draw for the event, and although he accepted substantially less money for the appearance than his usual fee, he was the festival's highest-paid performer.Hendrix decided to move his midnight Sunday slot to Monday morning, closing the show.", "The band took the stage around 8:00 a.m, by which time Hendrix had been awake for more than three days.", "The audience, which peaked at an estimated 400,000 people, was reduced to 30,000.The festival MC, Chip Monck, introduced the group as \"the Jimi Hendrix Experience\", but Hendrix clarified: \"We decided to change the whole thing around and call it 'Gypsy Sun and Rainbows'.", "For short, it's nothin' but a 'Band of Gypsys'.", "\"Hendrix's performance included a rendition of the US national anthem, \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", with copious feedback, distortion, and sustain to imitate the sounds made by rockets and bombs.", "Contemporary political pundits described his interpretation as a statement against the Vietnam War.", "Three weeks later Hendrix said: \"We're all Americans ... it was like 'Go America!'...", "We play it the way the air is in America today.", "The air is slightly static, see.\"", "Immortalized in the 1970 documentary film, ''Woodstock'', Hendrix's version became part of the sixties zeitgeist.", "Pop critic Al Aronowitz of the ''New York Post'' wrote: \"It was the most electrifying moment of Woodstock, and it was probably the single greatest moment of the sixties.\"", "Images of the performance showing Hendrix wearing a blue-beaded white leather jacket with fringe, a red head-scarf, and blue jeans are regarded as iconic pictures that capture a defining moment of the era.", "He played \"Hey Joe\" during the encore, concluding the 3-day festival.", "Upon leaving the stage, he collapsed from exhaustion.", "In 2011, the editors of ''Guitar World'' named his performance of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" the greatest performance of all time.=== Band of Gypsys ===A legal dispute arose in 1966 regarding a record contract that Hendrix had entered into the previous year with producer Ed Chalpin.", "After two years of litigation, the parties agreed to a resolution that granted Chalpin the distribution rights to an album of original Hendrix material.", "Hendrix decided that they would record the LP, ''Band of Gypsys'', during two live appearances.", "In preparation for the shows he formed an all-black power trio with Cox and drummer Buddy Miles, formerly with Wilson Pickett, the Electric Flag, and the Buddy Miles Express.", "Critic John Rockwell described Hendrix and Miles as jazz-rock fusionists, and their collaboration as pioneering.", "Others identified a funk and soul influence in their music.", "Concert promoter Bill Graham called the shows \"the most brilliant, emotional display of virtuoso electric guitar\" that he had ever heard.", "Biographers have speculated that Hendrix formed the band in an effort to appease members of the Black Power movement and others in the black communities who called for him to use his fame to speak up for civil rights.Hendrix had been recording with Cox since April and jamming with Miles since September, and the trio wrote and rehearsed material which they performed at a series of four shows over two nights on December 31 and January 1, at the Fillmore East.", "They used recordings of these concerts to assemble the LP, which was produced by Hendrix.", "The album includes the track \"Machine Gun\", which musicologist Andy Aledort described as the pinnacle of Hendrix's career, and \"the premiere example of his unparalleled genius as a rock guitarist ...", "In this performance, Jimi transcended the medium of rock music, and set an entirely new standard for the potential of electric guitar.\"", "During the song's extended instrumental breaks, Hendrix created sounds with his guitar that sonically represented warfare, including rockets, bombs, and diving planes.The ''Band of Gypsys'' album was the only official live Hendrix LP made commercially available during his lifetime; several tracks from the Woodstock and Monterey shows were released later that year.", "The album was released in April 1970 by Capitol Records; it reached the top ten in both the US and the UK.", "That same month a single was issued with \"Stepping Stone\" as the A-side and \"Izabella\" as the B-side, but Hendrix was dissatisfied with the quality of the mastering and he demanded that it be withdrawn and re-mixed, preventing the songs from charting and resulting in Hendrix's least successful single; it was also his last.On January 28, 1970, a third and final Band of Gypsys appearance took place; they performed during a music festival at Madison Square Garden benefiting the anti-Vietnam War Moratorium Committee titled the \"Winter Festival for Peace\".", "American blues guitarist Johnny Winter was backstage before the concert; he recalled: \"Hendrix came in with his head down, sat on the couch alone, and put his head in his hands ...", "He didn't move until it was time for the show.\"", "Minutes after taking the stage he snapped a vulgar response at a woman who had shouted a request for \"Foxy Lady\".", "He then began playing \"Earth Blues\" before telling the audience: \"That's what happens when earth fucks with space\".", "Moments later, he briefly sat down on the drum riser before leaving the stage.", "Both Miles and Redding later stated that Jeffery had given Hendrix LSD before the performance.", "Miles believed that Jeffery gave Hendrix the drugs in an effort to sabotage the current band and bring about the return of the original Experience lineup.", "Jeffery fired Miles after the show and Cox quit, ending the Band of Gypsys.=== Cry of Love Tour ===Soon after the abruptly ended Band of Gypsys performance and their subsequent dissolution, Jeffery made arrangements to reunite the original Experience lineup.", "Although Hendrix, Mitchell, and Redding were interviewed by ''Rolling Stone'' in February 1970 as a united group, Hendrix never intended to work with Redding.", "When Redding returned to New York in anticipation of rehearsals with a re-formed Experience, he was told that he had been replaced with Cox.", "During an interview with ''Rolling Stone'' Keith Altham, Hendrix defended the decision: \"It's nothing personal against Noel, but we finished what we were doing with the Experience and Billy's style of playing suits the new group better.\"", "Although an official name was never adopted for the lineup of Hendrix, Mitchell, and Cox, promoters often billed them as the Jimi Hendrix Experience or just Jimi Hendrix.During the first half of 1970, Hendrix sporadically worked on material for what would have been his next LP.", "Many of the tracks were posthumously released in 1971 as ''The Cry of Love''.", "He had started writing songs for the album in 1968, but in April 1970 he told Keith Altham that the project had been abandoned.", "Soon afterward, he and his band took a break from recording and began the Cry of Love tour at the L.A. Forum, performing for 20,000 people.", "Set-lists during the tour included numerous Experience tracks as well as a selection of newer material.", "Several shows were recorded, and they produced some of Hendrix's most memorable live performances.", "At one of them, the second Atlanta International Pop Festival, on July 4, he played to the largest American audience of his career.", "According to authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz, as many as 500,000 people attended the concert.", "On July 17, they appeared at the New York Pop Festival; Hendrix had again consumed too many drugs before the show, and the set was considered a disaster.", "The American leg of the tour, which included 32 performances, ended in Honolulu, Hawaii, on August 1, 1970.This would be Hendrix's final concert appearance in the US.=== Electric Lady Studios ===In 1968, Hendrix and Jeffery jointly invested in the purchase of the Generation Club in Greenwich Village.", "They had initially planned to reopen the establishment, but when an audit of Hendrix's expenses revealed that he had incurred exorbitant fees by block-booking recording studios for lengthy sessions at peak rates they decided to convert the building into a studio of his own.", "Hendrix could then work as much as he wanted while also reducing his recording expenditures, which had reached a reported $300,000 annually.", "Architect and acoustician John Storyk designed Electric Lady Studios for Hendrix, who requested that they avoid right angles where possible.", "With round windows, an ambient lighting machine, and a psychedelic mural, Storyk wanted the studio to have a relaxing environment that would encourage Hendrix's creativity.", "The project took twice as long as planned and cost twice as much as Hendrix and Jeffery had budgeted, with their total investment estimated at $1 million.Hendrix first used Electric Lady on June 15, 1970, when he jammed with Steve Winwood and Chris Wood of Traffic; the next day, he recorded his first track there, \"Night Bird Flying\".", "The studio officially opened for business on August 25, and a grand opening party was held the following day.", "Immediately afterwards, Hendrix left for England; he never returned to the States.", "He boarded an Air India flight for London with Cox, joining Mitchell for a performance as the headlining act of the Isle of Wight Festival on August 31, 1970.=== European tour ===When the European leg of the Cry of Love tour began, Hendrix was longing for his new studio and creative outlet, and was not eager to fulfill the commitment.", "On September 2, 1970, he abandoned a performance in Aarhus after three songs, stating: \"I've been dead a long time\".", "Four days later, he gave his final concert appearance, at the Isle of Fehmarn Festival in West Germany.", "He was met with booing and jeering from fans in response to his cancellation of a show slated for the end of the previous night's bill due to torrential rain and risk of electrocution.", "Immediately following the festival, Hendrix, Mitchell, and Cox traveled to London.Three days after the performance, Cox, who was suffering from severe paranoia after either taking LSD or being given it unknowingly, quit the tour and went to stay with his parents in Pennsylvania.", "Within days of Hendrix's arrival in England, he had spoken with Chas Chandler, Alan Douglas, and others about leaving his manager, Michael Jeffery.", "On September 16, Hendrix performed in public for the last time during an informal jam at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in Soho with Eric Burdon and his latest band, War.", "They began by playing a few of their recent hits, and after a brief intermission Hendrix joined them during \"Mother Earth\" and \"Tobacco Road\".", "He died less than 48 hours later." ], [ "Drugs and alcohol", "Hendrix entered a small club in Clarksville, Tennessee, in July 1962, drawn in by live music.", "He stopped for a drink and ended up spending most of the $400 ($3,924 in 2022 terms) that he had saved during his time in the Army.", "\"I went in this jazz joint and had a drink,\" he explained.", "\"I liked it and I stayed.", "People tell me I get foolish, good-natured sometimes.", "Anyway, I guess I felt real benevolent that day.", "I must have been handing out bills to anyone that asked me.", "I came out of that place with sixteen dollars left.\"", "Alcohol eventually became \"the scourge of his existence, driving him to fits of pique, even rare bursts of atypical, physical violence\".Roby and Schreiber assert that Hendrix first used LSD when he met Linda Keith in late 1966.Shapiro and Glebbeek, however, assert that Hendrix used it in June 1967 at the earliest while attending the Monterey Pop Festival.", "According to Hendrix biographer Charles Cross, the subject of drugs came up one evening in 1966 at Keith's New York apartment.", "One of Keith's friends offered Hendrix \"acid\", a street name for LSD, but Hendrix asked for LSD instead, showing what Cross describes as \"his naivete and his complete inexperience with psychedelics\".", "Before that, Hendrix had only sporadically used drugs, including cannabis, hashish, amphetamines, and occasionally cocaine.", "After 1967, he regularly used cannabis, hashish, LSD, and amphetamines, particularly while touring.", "According to Cross, \"few stars were as closely associated with the drug culture as Jimi\".=== Drug abuse and violence ===When Hendrix drank to excess or mixed drugs with alcohol, often he became angry and violent.", "His friend Herbie Worthington said Hendrix \"simply turned into a bastard\" when he drank.", "According to friend Sharon Lawrence, liquor \"set off a bottled-up anger, a destructive fury he almost never displayed otherwise\".In January 1968, the Experience travelled to Sweden to start a one-week tour of Europe.", "During the early morning hours of the first day, Hendrix got into a drunken brawl in the Hotel Opalen in Gothenburg, smashing a plate-glass window and injuring his right hand, for which he received medical treatment.", "The incident culminated in his arrest and release, pending a court appearance that resulted in a large fine.In 1969, Hendrix rented a house in Benedict Canyon, California, that was burglarized.", "Later, while under the influence of drugs and alcohol, he accused his friend Paul Caruso of the theft, threw punches and stones at him, and chased him away from his house.", "A few days later Hendrix hit his girlfriend, Carmen Borrero, above her eye with a vodka bottle during a drunken, jealous rage, and gave her a cut that required stitches.=== Canadian drug charges and trial ===Hendrix was passing through customs at Toronto International Airport on May 3, 1969, when authorities found a small amount of heroin and hashish in his luggage, and charged him with drug possession.", "He was released on $10,000 bail, and was required to return on May 5 for an arraignment hearing.", "The incident proved stressful for Hendrix, and it weighed heavily on his mind during the seven months leading up to his December 1969 trial.", "For the Crown to prove possession, they had to show that Hendrix knew that the drugs were there.", "During the jury trial, he testified that a fan had given him a vial of what he thought was legal medication which he put in his bag.", "He was acquitted of the charges.", "Mitchell and Redding later revealed that everyone had been warned about a planned drug bust the day before flying to Toronto; both men also stated that they believed that the drugs had been planted in Hendrix's bag without his knowledge." ], [ "Death, post-mortem, and burial", "The Samarkand Hotel, where Hendrix spent his final hoursDetails concerning Hendrix's last day and death are disputed.", "He spent much of September 17, 1970, in London with Monika Dannemann, the only witness to his final hours.", "Dannemann said that she prepared a meal for them at her apartment in the Samarkand Hotel around 11 p.m., when they shared a bottle of wine.", "She drove him to the residence of an acquaintance at approximately 1:45 a.m., where he remained for about an hour before she picked him up and drove them back to her flat at 3 a.m. She said that they talked until around 7 a.m., when they went to sleep.", "Dannemann awoke around 11 a.m. and found Hendrix breathing but unconscious and unresponsive.", "She called for an ambulance at 11:18 a.m., and it arrived nine minutes later.", "Paramedics transported Hendrix to St Mary Abbots Hospital where Dr. John Bannister pronounced him dead at 12:45 p.m. on September 18.Coroner Gavin Thurston ordered a post-mortem examination which was performed on September 21 by Professor Robert Donald Teare, a forensic pathologist.", "Thurston completed the inquest on September 28 and concluded that Hendrix aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates.", "Citing \"insufficient evidence of the circumstances\", he declared an open verdict.", "Dannemann later revealed that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets, 18 times the recommended dosage.Desmond Henley embalmed Hendrix's body which was flown to Seattle on September 29.Hendrix's family and friends held a service at Dunlap Baptist Church in Seattle's Rainier Valley on Thursday, October 1; his body was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in nearby Renton, the location of his mother's grave.", "Family and friends traveled in 24 limousines, and more than 200 people attended the funeral, including Mitch Mitchell, Noel Redding, Miles Davis, John Hammond, and Johnny Winter.Hendrix is often cited as one example of an allegedly disproportionate number of musicians dying at age 27, including Brian Jones, Alan Wilson, Jim Morrison, and Janis Joplin in the same era, a phenomenon referred to as the 27 Club." ], [ "Unauthorized and posthumous releases", "By 1967, as Hendrix was gaining in popularity, many of his pre-Experience recordings were marketed to an unsuspecting public as Jimi Hendrix albums, sometimes with misleading later images of Hendrix.", "The recordings, which came under the control of producer Ed Chalpin of PPX, with whom Hendrix had signed a recording contract in 1965, were often re-mixed between their repeated reissues, and licensed to record companies such as Decca and Capitol.", "Hendrix publicly denounced the releases, describing them as \"malicious\" and \"greatly inferior\", stating: \"At PPX, we spent on average about one hour recording a song.", "Today I spend at least twelve hours on each song.\"", "These unauthorized releases have long constituted a substantial part of his recording catalogue, amounting to hundreds of albums.Some of Hendrix's unfinished fourth studio album was released as the 1971 title ''The Cry of Love''.", "Although the album reached number three in the US and number two in the UK, producers Mitchell and Kramer later complained that they were unable to make use of all the available songs because some tracks were used for 1971's ''Rainbow Bridge''; still others were issued on 1972's ''War Heroes''.", "Material from ''The Cry of Love'' was re-released in 1997 as ''First Rays of the New Rising Sun'', along with the other tracks that Mitchell and Kramer had wanted to include.", "Four years after Hendrix's death, producer Alan Douglas acquired the rights to produce unreleased music by Hendrix; he attracted criticism for using studio musicians to replace or add tracks.In 1993, MCA Records delayed a multimillion-dollar sale of Hendrix's publishing copyrights because Al Hendrix was unhappy about the arrangement.", "He acknowledged that he had sold distribution rights to a foreign corporation in 1974, but stated that it did not include copyrights and argued that he had retained veto power of the sale of the catalogue.", "Under a settlement reached in July 1995, Al Hendrix regained control of his son's song and image rights.", "He subsequently licensed the recordings to MCA through the family-run company Experience Hendrix LLC, formed in 1995.In August 2009, Experience Hendrix announced that it had entered a new licensing agreement with Sony Music Entertainment's Legacy Recordings division, to take effect in 2010.Legacy and Experience Hendrix launched the 2010 Jimi Hendrix Catalog Project starting with the release of ''Valleys of Neptune'' in March of that year.", "In the months before his death, Hendrix recorded demos for a concept album tentatively titled ''Black Gold'', now in the possession of Experience Hendrix LLC, but it has not been released." ], [ "Equipment", "=== Guitars ===Hendrix played a variety of guitars but was most prominently associated with the Fender Stratocaster.", "He acquired his first in 1966, when a girlfriend loaned him enough money to purchase a used Stratocaster built around 1964.He used it often during performances and recordings.", "In 1967, he described the Stratocaster as \"the best all-around guitar for the stuff we're doing\"; he praised its \"bright treble and deep bass\".Hendrix mainly played right-handed guitars that were turned upside down and restrung for left-hand playing.", "Because of the slant of the Stratocaster's bridge pickup, his lowest string had a brighter sound, while his highest string had a darker sound, the opposite of the intended design.", "Hendrix also used Fender Jazzmasters, Duosonics, two different Gibson Flying Vs, a Gibson Les Paul, three Gibson SGs, a Gretsch Corvette, and a Fender Jaguar.", "He used a white Gibson SG Custom for his performances on ''The Dick Cavett Show'' in September 1969, and a black Gibson Flying V during the Isle of Wight festival in 1970.=== Amplifiers ===During 1965 and 1966, while Hendrix was playing back-up for soul and R&B acts in the US, he used an 85-watt Fender Twin Reverb amplifier.", "When Chandler brought Hendrix to England in October 1966, he supplied him with 30-watt Burns amps, which Hendrix thought were too small for his needs.", "After an early London gig when he was unable to use his Fender Twin, he asked about the Marshall amps he had noticed other groups using.", "Years earlier, Mitch Mitchell had taken drum lessons from Marshall founder Jim Marshall, and he introduced Hendrix to Marshall.", "At their initial meeting, Hendrix bought four speaker cabinets and three 100-watt Super Lead amplifiers; he grew accustomed to using all three in unison.", "The equipment arrived on October 11, 1966, and the Experience used it during their first tour.Marshall amps were important to the development of Hendrix's overdriven sound and his use of feedback, creating what author Paul Trynka described as a \"definitive vocabulary for rock guitar\".", "Hendrix usually turned all the control knobs to the maximum level, which became known as the Hendrix setting.", "During the four years prior to his death, he purchased between 50 and 100 Marshall amplifiers.", "Jim Marshall said Hendrix was \"the greatest ambassador\" his company ever had.=== Effects ===A 1968 King Vox-Wah wah-wah pedal similar to the one owned by HendrixOne of Hendrix's signature effects was the wah-wah pedal, which he first heard used with an electric guitar in Cream's \"Tales of Brave Ulysses\", released in May 1967.That July, while performing at the Scene club in New York City, Hendrix met Frank Zappa, whose band the Mothers of Invention were performing at the adjacent Garrick Theater.", "Hendrix was fascinated by Zappa's application of the pedal, and he experimented with one later that evening.", "He used a wah pedal during the opening to \"Voodoo Child (Slight Return)\", creating one of the best-known wah-wah riffs of the classic rock era.", "He also uses the effect on \"Up from the Skies\", \"Little Miss Lover\", and \"Still Raining, Still Dreaming\".Hendrix used a Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face and a Vox wah pedal during recording sessions and performances, but also experimented with other guitar effects.", "He enjoyed a fruitful long-term collaboration with electronics enthusiast Roger Mayer, whom he once called \"the secret\" of his sound.", "Mayer introduced him to the Octavia, an octave-doubling effect pedal, in December 1966, and he first recorded with it during the guitar solo to \"Purple Haze\".Hendrix also used the Uni-Vibe, designed to simulate the modulation effects of a rotating Leslie speaker.", "He uses the effect during his performance at Woodstock and on the Band of Gypsys track \"Machine Gun\", which prominently features the Uni-vibe along with an Octavia and a Fuzz Face.", "For performances, he plugged his guitar into the wah-wah, which was connected to the Fuzz Face, then the Uni-Vibe, and finally a Marshall amplifier." ], [ "Influences", "As an adolescent in the 1950s, Hendrix became interested in rock and roll artists such as Elvis Presley, Little Richard, and Chuck Berry.", "In 1968, he told ''Guitar Player'' magazine that electric blues artists Muddy Waters, Elmore James, and B.", "B.", "King inspired him during the beginning of his career; he also cited Eddie Cochran as an early influence.", "Of Muddy Waters, the first electric guitarist of which Hendrix became aware, he said: \"I heard one of his records when I was a little boy and ''it scared me to death'' because I heard all of these ''sounds''.\"", "In 1970, he told ''Rolling Stone'' that he was a fan of western swing artist Bob Wills and while he lived in Nashville, the television show the ''Grand Ole Opry''.Cox stated that during their time serving in the US military, he and Hendrix primarily listened to southern blues artists such as Jimmy Reed and Albert King.", "According to Cox, \"King was a very, very powerful influence\".", "Howlin' Wolf also inspired Hendrix, who performed Wolf's \"Killing Floor\" as the opening song of his US debut at the Monterey Pop Festival.", "The influence of soul artist Curtis Mayfield can be heard in Hendrix's guitar playing, and the influence of Bob Dylan can be heard in Hendrix's songwriting; he was known to play Dylan's records repeatedly, particularly ''Highway 61 Revisited'' and ''Blonde on Blonde''." ], [ "Legacy", "The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography for the Experience states: \"Jimi Hendrix was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music.", "Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before.", "His boundless drive, technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah-wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll.\"", "Musicologist Andy Aledort described Hendrix as \"one of the most creative\" and \"influential musicians that has ever lived\".", "Music journalist Chuck Philips wrote: \"In a field almost exclusively populated by white musicians, Hendrix has served as a role model for a cadre of young black rockers.", "His achievement was to reclaim title to a musical form pioneered by black innovators like Little Richard and Chuck Berry in the 1950s.", "\"Hendrix favored overdriven amplifiers with high volume and gain.", "He was instrumental in developing the previously undesirable technique of guitar amplifier feedback and helped to popularize use of the wah-wah pedal in mainstream rock.", "He rejected the standard barre chord fretting technique used by most guitarists in favor of fretting the low 6th string root notes with his thumb.", "He applied this technique during the beginning bars of \"Little Wing\", which allowed him to sustain the root note of chords while also playing melody.", "This method has been described as piano style, with the thumb playing what a pianist's left hand would play and the other fingers playing melody as a right hand.", "Having spent several years fronting a trio, he developed an ability to play rhythm chords and lead lines together, giving the audio impression that more than one guitarist was performing.", "He was the first artist to incorporate stereophonic phasing effects in rock music recordings.", "Holly George-Warren of ''Rolling Stone'' wrote: \"Hendrix pioneered the use of the instrument as an electronic sound source.", "Players before him had experimented with feedback and distortion, but Hendrix turned those effects and others into a controlled, fluid vocabulary every bit as personal as the blues with which he began.", "\"While creating his unique musical voice and guitar style, Hendrix synthesized diverse genres, including blues, R&B, soul, British rock, American folk music, 1950s rock and roll, and jazz.", "Musicologist David Moskowitz emphasized the importance of blues music in Hendrix's playing style, and according to authors Steven Roby and Brad Schreiber, \"He explored the outer reaches of psychedelic rock\".", "His influence is evident in a variety of popular music formats, and he has contributed significantly to the development of hard rock, heavy metal, funk, post-punk, grunge, and hip hop music.", "His lasting influence on modern guitar players is difficult to overstate; his techniques and delivery have been abundantly imitated by others.", "Despite his hectic touring schedule and notorious perfectionism, he was a prolific recording artist who left behind numerous unreleased recordings.", "More than 40 years after his death, Hendrix remains as popular as ever, with annual album sales exceeding that of any year during his lifetime.As with his contemporary Sly Stone, Hendrix embraced the experimentalism of white musicians in progressive rock in the late 1960s and inspired a wave of progressive soul musicians that emerged by the next decade.", "He has directly influenced numerous funk and funk rock artists, including Prince, George Clinton, John Frusciante of Red Hot Chili Peppers, Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic, and Ernie Isley of the Isley Brothers.", "Hendrix influenced post-punk guitarists such as John McGeoch of Siouxsie and the Banshees and Robert Smith of The Cure.", "Grunge guitarists such as Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains, and Mike McCready and Stone Gossard of Pearl Jam have cited Hendrix as an influence.", "Hendrix's influence also extends to many hip hop artists, including De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Digital Underground, Beastie Boys, and Run–D.M.C.", "Miles Davis was deeply impressed by Hendrix, and he compared Hendrix's improvisational abilities with those of saxophonist John Coltrane.", "Desert blues artists from the Sahara desert region including Mdou Moctar and Tinariwen have also acknowledged Hendrix's influence.Rock and roll fans still debate whether Hendrix actually said that Chicago co-founder Terry Kath was a better guitar player than him, but Kath named Hendrix as a major influence: \"But then there was Hendrix, man.", "Jimi was really the last cat to freak me.", "Jimi was playing all the stuff I had in my head.", "I couldn't believe it, when I first heard him.", "Man, no one can ever do what he did with a guitar.", "No one can ever take his place.", "\"Hendrix also influenced Black Sabbath, industrial artist Marilyn Manson, blues musician Stevie Ray Vaughan, Randy Hansen, Uli Jon Roth, Kiss's Ace Frehley, Metallica Kirk Hammett, Aerosmith's Brad Whitford, Judas Priest's Richie Faulkner, instrumental rock guitarist Joe Satriani, King's X singer/bassist Doug Pinnick, Adrian Belew, and heavy metal virtuoso Yngwie Malmsteen, who said: \"Hendrix created modern electric playing, without question ...", "He was the first.", "He started it all.", "The rest is history.\"", "\"For many\", Hendrix was \"the preeminent black rocker\", according to Jon Caramanica.", "Members of the Soulquarians, an experimental black music collective active during the late 1990s and early 2000s, were influenced by the creative freedom in Hendrix's music and extensively used Electric Lady Studios to work on their own music.=== Recognition and awards ===Hendrix statue outside Dimbola Lodge, Isle of WightHendrix received several prestigious rock music awards during his lifetime and posthumously.", "In 1967, readers of ''Melody Maker'' voted him the Pop Musician of the Year.", "In 1968, ''Rolling Stone'' declared him the Performer of the Year.", "Also in 1968, the City of Seattle gave him the keys to the city.", "''Disc & Music Echo'' newspaper honored him with the World Top Musician of 1969 and in 1970 ''Guitar Player'' magazine named him the Rock Guitarist of the Year.", "''Rolling Stone'' ranked his three non-posthumous studio albums, ''Are You Experienced'' (1967), ''Axis: Bold as Love'' (1967), and ''Electric Ladyland'' (1968) among the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.", "They ranked Hendrix number one on their list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time, and number six on their list of the 100 greatest artists of all time.", "''Guitar World'''s readers voted six of Hendrix's solos among the top 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of All Time: \"Purple Haze\" (70), \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" (52; from ''Live at Woodstock''), \"Machine Gun\" (32; from ''Band of Gypsys''), \"Little Wing\" (18), \"Voodoo Child (Slight Return)\" (11), and \"All Along the Watchtower\" (5).", "''Rolling Stone'' placed seven of his recordings in their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time: \"Purple Haze\" (17), \"All Along the Watchtower\" (47) \"Voodoo Child (Slight Return)\" (102), \"Foxy Lady\" (153), \"Hey Joe\" (201), \"Little Wing\" (366), and \"The Wind Cries Mary\" (379).", "They also included three of Hendrix's songs in their list of the ''100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time'': \"Purple Haze\" (2), \"Voodoo Child\" (12), and \"Machine Gun\" (49).Madame Tussauds, LondonA star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was dedicated to Hendrix on November 14, 1991, at 6627 Hollywood Boulevard.", "The Jimi Hendrix Experience was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992, and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005.In 1998, Hendrix was inducted into the Native American Music Hall of Fame during its first year.", "In 1999, readers of ''Rolling Stone'' and ''Guitar World'' ranked Hendrix among the most important musicians of the 20th century.", "In 2005, his debut album, ''Are You Experienced'', was one of 50 recordings added that year to the US National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress, \"to be preserved for all time ... as part of the nation's audio legacy\".", "In Seattle, November 27, 1992, which would have been Hendrix's 50th birthday, was made Jimi Hendrix Day, largely due to the efforts of his boyhood friend, guitarist Sammy Drain.The blue plaque identifying Hendrix's former residence at 23 Brook Street, London, was the first issued by English Heritage to commemorate a pop star.", "Next door is the former residence of George Frideric Handel, 25 Brook Street, which opened to the public as the Handel House Museum in 2001.From 2016 the museum made use of the upper floors of 23 for displays about Hendrix and was rebranded as Handel & Hendrix in London.A memorial statue of Hendrix playing a Stratocaster stands near the corner of Broadway and Pine Streets in Seattle.", "In May 2006, the city renamed a park near its Central District Jimi Hendrix Park, in his honor.", "In 2012, an official historic marker was erected on the site of the July 1970 Second Atlanta International Pop Festival near Byron, Georgia.", "The marker text reads, in part: \"Over thirty musical acts performed, including rock icon Jimi Hendrix playing to the largest American audience of his career.", "\"Hendrix's music has received a number of Hall of Fame Grammy awards, starting with a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1992, followed by two Grammys in 1999 for his albums ''Are You Experienced'' and ''Electric Ladyland''; ''Axis: Bold as Love'' received a Grammy in 2006.In 2000, he received a Hall of Fame Grammy award for his original composition, \"Purple Haze\", and in 2001, for his recording of Dylan's \"All Along the Watchtower\".", "Hendrix's rendition of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" was honored with a Grammy in 2009.The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Hendrix in 2014.On August 21, 2016, Hendrix was inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame in Dearborn, Michigan.", "The James Marshall \"Jimi\" Hendrix United States Post Office in Renton Highlands near Seattle, about a mile from Hendrix's grave and memorial, was renamed for Hendrix in 2019.On June 23, 2019, the Band of Gypsys were inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame, at the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History in Detroit, Michigan.", "Billy Cox, the last surviving member of the group, was on hand to accept, along with representatives of the Buddy Miles and Hendrix estates." ], [ "Discography", "'''The Jimi Hendrix Experience'''* ''Are You Experienced'' (1967)* ''Axis: Bold as Love'' (1967)* ''Electric Ladyland'' (1968)'''Jimi Hendrix/Band of Gypsys'''* ''Band of Gypsys'' (1970)" ], [ "See also", "* The Electric Lady Studio Guitar, a sculpture made in honour of Hendrix." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Documentaries", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Articles concerning disputes about rights to the Hendrix musical publishing estate.", "''Los Angeles Times''* FBI Records: The Vault – James Marshall \"Jimi\" Hendrix at vault.fbi.gov" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Johann Elert Bode" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johann Elert Bode''' (; 19 January 1747 – 23 November 1826) was a German astronomer known for his reformulation and popularisation of the Titius–Bode law.", "Bode determined the orbit of Uranus and suggested the planet's name." ], [ "Life and career", "Bode was born in Hamburg.", "As a youth, he suffered from a serious eye disease that particularly damaged his right eye; he continued to have trouble with his eyes throughout his life.His early promise in mathematics brought him to the attention of Johann Georg Büsch, who allowed Bode to use his own library for study.He began his career with the publication of a short work on the solar eclipse of 5 August 1766.This was followed by an elementary treatise on astronomy entitled ''Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels'' (1768, 10th ed.", "1844), the success of which led to his being invited to Berlin by Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1772 for the purpose of computing ephemerides on an improved plan.", "There he founded, in 1774, the well-known ''Astronomisches Jahrbuch'', 51 yearly volumes of which he compiled and issued.He became director of the Berlin Observatory in 1786, from which he retired in 1825.There he published the ''Uranographia'' in 1801, a celestial atlas that aimed both at scientific accuracy in showing the positions of stars and other astronomical objects, as well as the artistic interpretation of the stellar constellation figures.", "The ''Uranographia'' marks the climax of an epoch of artistic representation of the constellations.", "Later atlases showed fewer and fewer elaborate figures until they were no longer printed on such tables.Bode also published another small star atlas, intended for astronomical amateurs (''Vorstellung der Gestirne'').", "He is credited with the discovery of Bode's Galaxy (M81).", "Comet Bode (C/1779 A1) is named after him; its orbit was calculated by Erik Prosperin.", "Asteroid 998 Bodea, discovered on 6 August 1923 by Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg, was also christened in his honour, the letter 'a' added to its name to fulfil the convention that asteroids were given feminine names.His name became attached to the 'law' discovered by Johann Daniel Titius in 1766.Bode first makes mention of it in the ''Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels'' in a footnote, and although it is often officially called the Titius–Bode law, it is also commonly just called Bode's law.", "This law attempts to explain the distances of the planets from the Sun in a formula although ironically it breaks down for the planet Neptune which was later discovered in Berlin.", "It was the discovery of Uranus at a position predicted by the law which aroused great interest in it.", "There was a gap (with no planet) between Mars and Jupiter, and Bode urged a search for a planet in this region which culminated in a group formed for this purpose, the so-called \"celestial police\".", "However before the group initiated a search, they were trumped by the discovery of the asteroid Ceres by Giuseppe Piazzi from Palermo in 1801, at Bode's predicted position.Latterly, the law fell out of favour when it was realised that Ceres was only one of a small number of asteroids and when Neptune was found not to be in a position required by the law.", "The discovery of planets around other stars has brought the law back into discussion.Front page of a 1772 edition of ''Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels''Bode himself was directly involved in research leading from the discovery of a planet – that of Uranus in 1781.Although Uranus was the first planet to be discovered by telescope, it is just about visible with the naked eye.", "Bode consulted older star charts and found numerous examples of the planet's position being given while being mistaken for a star, for example, John Flamsteed, Astronomer Royal in Britain, had listed it in his catalogue of 1690 as a star with the name ''34 Tauri''.", "These earlier sightings allowed an exact calculation of the orbit of the new planet.Bode was also responsible for giving the new planet its name.", "The discoverer William Herschel proposed to name it after George III which was not accepted so readily in other countries.", "Bode opted for Uranus, with the apparent logic that just as Saturn was the father of Jupiter, the new planet should be named after the father of Saturn.", "There were further alternatives proposed, but ultimately Bode's suggestion became the most widely used – however it had to wait until 1850 before gaining official acceptance in Britain when the Nautical Almanac Office switched from using the name ''Georgium Sidus'' to ''Uranus''.In 1789, Bode's Royal Academy colleague Martin Klaproth was inspired by Bode's name for the planet to name his newly discovered element \"uranium\".37From 1787 to 1825 Bode was director of the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut.", "In 1794, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.", "In April 1789 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.Bode died in Berlin on 23 November 1826, aged 79." ], [ "Selected writings", "Section of a plate from ''Uranographia'' showing the constellation Orion''Allgemeine Betrachtungen über das Weltgebäude'', 1808* 1768 (10th ed.", "1844) ''Anleitung zur Kentniss des Gestirnten Himmels'' (The most famous of Bode's writings.", "In this work, he first announced Bode's law.", ")* 1774–1957 ''Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch für 1776–1959'' (The astronomical yearbook published by Berlin Observatory.", ")* 1776 ''Sammlung astronomischer Tafeln'' (3 vols.", ")* 1776 (3rd ed.", "1808) ''Erläuterung der Sternkunde'', an introductory book on the constellations and their tales, which was reprinted more than ten times* 1782 ''Vorstellung der Gestirne ... des Flamsteadschen Himmelsatlas'' (Bode's revised and enlarged edition of Fortin's small star atlas of Flamsteed.", "):: ''Verzeichniss'' (Containing the above star atlas, and including 5,058 stars observed by Flamsteed, Hevelius, T. Mayer, de la Caille, Messier, le Monnier, Darquier and Bode himself.", ")* 1801 ''Uranographia sive Astrorum Descriptio'' (A large star atlas illustrated with twenty copper plates.", ")::''Allgemeine Beschreibung und Nachweisung der Gestirne'' (A star catalogue listing 17,240 stars.", ")* His works were highly effective in diffusing throughout Germany a taste for astronomy.File:Bode-1.jpg|alt=|1772 copy of ''Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels''File:Bode-2.jpg|alt=|Front page illustration from 1772 copy of ''Anleitung zur kenntniss''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* - ''Acta Historica Astronomiae'', Vol.", "30 – A new, comprehensive biography and the source for some of the material on this page.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * AtlasCoelestis.com: ''Vorstellung der Gestirne'' by J.E.", "Bode, 1782 – last.", "Retrieved 7 September 2007,* AtlasCoelestis.com: ''Uranographia'', Berlino 1801 – last.", "Retrieved 7 September 2007,* Brief Biography of Bode* Bode's 'Complete Catalog of hitherto observed Nebulous Stars and Star Clusters,' 1779, with links to his deep sky observations and discoveries.", "* ''Vorstellung der Gestirne'', Berlin und Stralsand : Bey Gottlieb August Lange.", "1782.– Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library.", "* ''Vorstellung der Gestirne'', Berlin und Stralfund ; bey Gottlieb August Lange.", "1805.– Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library.", "* Vorstellung der gestirne da www.atlascoelestis.com* Uranographia, Berlino 1801, colorato a mano da www.atlascoelestis.com* Anleitung zur Kenntniss des Gestirnten Himmels, Berlin 1788 da www.atlascoelestis.com* Von dem neuen zwischen Mars und Jupiter entdeckten achten Hauptplaneten des Sonnensystems, Berlin, Himburg, 1802 da www.atlascoelestis.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Janet Reno" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Janet Wood Reno ''' (July 21, 1938 – November 7, 2016) was an American lawyer and public official who served as the first female and 78th United States attorney general.", "Reno, a member of the Democratic Party, held the position from 1993 to 2001, making her the second-longest serving attorney general, behind only William Wirt.Reno was born and raised in Miami, Florida.", "After leaving to attend Cornell University and Harvard Law School, she returned to Miami where she started her career at private law firms.", "Her first foray into government was as a staff member for the Judiciary Committee of the Florida House of Representatives.", "She then worked for the Dade County State Attorney's Office before returning to private practice.", "She was elected to the Office of State Attorney five times and was the first woman to serve as a state attorney in Florida.", "President Bill Clinton appointed her attorney general in 1993, a position she held until Clinton left office in 2001." ], [ "Early life and education", "Reno was born in Miami, Florida.", "Reno's mother, Jane Wallace (née Wood), wrote a weekly home improvement column for ''The Miami News'' under a male pseudonym and later became an investigative reporter for the paper.", "Janet's father, Henry Olaf Reno (né Rasmussen), was an emigrant from Denmark and a reporter for the ''Miami Herald'' for 43 years.", "Janet Reno had three younger siblings: Mark; writer Robert Reno; and Maggy Hurchalla.", "In 1943, the Reno family moved to a house in then-rural South Miami; it came with enough land to keep farm animals, including cows, chicken, ducks, goats, and turkeys.", "Reno helped her parents churn butter, which the family sold to make ends meet.As the family expanded, they outgrew the house and couldn't afford a larger one.", "Jane Reno decided to build a new home herself near the Everglades, learning masonry, electrical work, and plumbing for the task.", "The Reno family moved to the house Jane built when Janet was 8 years old.", "The house would be Reno's lifelong home and a source of inspiration; she later said, \"the house is a symbol to me that you can do anything you really want if it's the right thing to do and you put your mind to it.\"", "The Renos' lot for the house originally was 21 acres, some of which they later sold to pay for the children's education.Reno attended public school in Miami-Dade County, Florida.", "After she completed middle school in 1951, Reno's parents sent her to stay with her uncle who served as a U.S. military judge in Regensburg, Germany.", "There, Janet continued her education and traveled around Europe during breaks from school.", "After a year, Reno returned to Florida where she was a debating champion and salutatorian at Coral Gables Senior High School.", "In 1956 she enrolled at Cornell University, where she majored in chemistry, became president of the Women's Self-Government Association, and earned her room and board.", "After graduating from Cornell, Reno enrolled at Harvard Law School, one of 16 women in a class of 500 students.", "She graduated from Harvard in 1963." ], [ "Early career", "From 1963 to 1971, Reno worked as an attorney for two Miami law firms.", "In 1971, she joined the staff of the Judiciary Committee of the Florida House of Representatives.", "The following year, Reno unsuccessfully ran for a seat in Florida's state house.", "In 1973, she worked on a project to revise the state's system of rules and regulations for criminal procedures.", "Later in the same year, she accepted a position with the Dade County State Attorney's Office led by Richard Gerstein.", "Shortly after joining the office, Gerstein made Reno his chief assistant.", "Reno did not try any cases during her time working for Gerstein.", "She worked for the Judiciary Circuit, and left the state attorney's office in 1976 to become a partner in a private law firm, Steel, Hector & Davis.", "Gerstein decided to retire in 1977, creating a vacancy with Florida governor Reubin Askew to appoint a successor.", "Reno was one of two candidates Gerstein recommended to replace him.===State Attorney===Portrait of Florida's first woman State Attorney Janet Reno in 1978.In January 1978, Governor Askew appointed Reno the State Attorney for Dade County (now called Miami-Dade County).", "She was the first woman to serve as a state attorney in Florida.", "She was elected to the Office of State Attorney in November 1978 and was returned to office by the voters four more times.", "Reno ran as a liberal, pro-choice Democrat even though Miami-Dade was a conservative county.", "Reno did not always face serious challengers, although in 1984 Cuban-American lawyer Jose Garcia-Pedrosa ran against Reno, and picked up the endorsement of the ''Miami Herald'' editorial board.", "In spite of his support among Miami's Hispanic voters, Reno won the election decisively.The office she led included 95 attorneys and an annual caseload that included 15,000 felonies and 40,000 misdemeanors.", "As state attorney, she developed a reputation for ethical behavior, going so far as to purchase a car at sticker price to avoid the appearance of impropriety.==== Drug court ====She established a drug court which was later replicated in other parts of the country.", "She worked actively in various civic organizations, including the Miami Coalition for a Safe and Drug Free Community and the Beacon Council, which was formed to address Miami-Dade's economic development.==== McDuffie trial ====In May 1980, Reno prosecuted five white policemen who were accused of beating a black insurance salesman, Arthur McDuffie, to death.", "The policemen were all acquitted.", "During the resulting 1980 Miami riots, eighteen people were killed, with looters in Liberty City angrily chanting \"Reno!", "Reno!", "Reno!\"", "Reno met with nearly all of her critics, and a few months later, she won reelection in a landslide.==== Child abuse prosecutions ====During Reno's tenure as state attorney, she began what the PBS series ''Frontline'' described as a \"crusade\" against accused child abusers.", "Reno pioneered the \"Miami Method\", \"a controversial technique for eliciting intimate details from young children and inspired passage of a law allowing them to testify by closed-circuit television, out of the possibly intimidating presence of their suspected molesters.\"", "Bobby Fijnje, \"a 14-year-old boy, was acquitted after his attorneys discredited the children's persistent interrogations by a psychologist who called herself the 'yucky secrets doctor'.\"", "Grant Snowden was acquitted, retried, convicted, and eventually freed by a federal appeals court after 12 years in prison.", "\"Reno's \"model case\" was against Frank Fuster, co-owner of the Country Walk Babysitting Service in a suburb of Miami, Florida.", "In 1984, he was found guilty of 14 counts of abuse and sentenced to prison with a minimum of 165 years.", "Fuster was convicted based in large part on the testimony of his 18-year-old wife, Ileana Flores, who pleaded guilty and testified against him, after allegedly being tortured.", "In a 2002 episode of ''Frontline'', Flores maintained that she and her ex-husband were innocent, and that Reno personally pressured her to confess.", "The number and timing of Reno's visits are in dispute.", "Fuster remains imprisoned.In 1989, as Florida state attorney, Reno pressed adult charges against 13-year-old Bobby Fijnje, who was accused of sexually molesting 21 children in his care during church services.", "The charges were driven by the testimony of children interviewed by mental-health professionals using techniques later discredited.", "Fijnje refused plea-bargain offers.", "During the trial, the prosecution was unable to present any witnesses to the alleged abuse.", "After two years of investigation and trial, Fijnje was acquitted of all charges.When Reno was nominated for attorney general in the Clinton administration, ''the Nation'' and ''Miami New Times'' raised questions about her handling of these cases, Debbie Nathan's journal article was faxed to the White House, and Fijnje's father (a Dutch diplomat) \"sent a letter to the Senate Judiciary Committee\".", "However, Reno was not directly questioned about them.", "When she was asked in 2002, Reno said that she lacked the time to review the Country Walk case files.==== Death penalty ====Although Reno personally opposed the death penalty, her office secured 80 capital punishment convictions during her tenure.", "None of these were executed during her tenure, but five were later executed." ], [ "U.S. Attorney General", "President Clinton's Cabinet, 1993.The President is seated front right, with Vice President Al Gore seated front left.Reno in the White House Rose Garden with Vice President Gore and President ClintonNational Peace Officers' Memorial ServiceReno looks on as Sen. Joe Biden speaks at the signing of the 1994 Biden Crime BillPresident-elect Bill Clinton had vowed to assemble an administration that \"looked like America\", and it was widely assumed that one of the major cabinet posts would go to a woman.", "On February 11, 1993, Clinton introduced Reno as his nominee for United States Attorney General, stating that he wanted to hire a woman for the job but had also considered multiple male candidates.", "Both of his previous choices, Zoë Baird and Kimba Wood, faced problems because both had employed undocumented immigrants as nannies.", "Clinton said he had discounted Reno early in his search because she did not have experience in the Justice Department or federal law, but ultimately he came to understand that she had experience with a variety of criminal law issues from her role as State Attorney.", "On March 11, 1993, the Senate confirmed Reno by a vote of 98 to 0.She was sworn in the next day, becoming the first woman to serve as U.S. Attorney General.", "As Attorney General, Reno oversaw the Justice Department and its 95,000 employees.", "Reno remained Attorney General for the rest of Clinton's presidency, making her the longest-serving Attorney General since William Wirt in 1829.In 1994, Reno tasked the Justice Department with compiling a report on DNA exoneration.", "The science was still new at that point in time.", "Reno commissioned the report after reading about the exoneration of a death row inmate.", "She wanted to know how many cases existed like the one she read about and what the Department of Justice could learn from it.", "The resulting report concluded there was a strong possibility that many more wrongful convictions that could be cleared with DNA evidence existed.", "Reno changed policies on how to interview eyewitnesses and laboratory protocols in response.The following Department of Justice actions occurred during Reno's tenure:* The 51-day Waco siege standoff and resulting 76 deaths—the Branch Davidians—in Waco, Texas.", "(The standoff began on February 28, 1993, twelve days before Reno was installed as attorney-general.)", "Reno in congressional testimony stated that she authorized the FBI assault on the Branch Davidians because of reports that militia groups were en route to Waco during the standoff \"either to help Branch Davidian leader David Koresh or to attack him.\"", "The FBI had also, erroneously, reported to Reno that children were being abused at the compound.", "Reno publicly expressed her regret of the decision to storm the compound, and accepted full responsibility for the loss of life.", "* The antitrust division brought suit against the software company Microsoft for violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act.", "The Justice Department alleged that Microsoft was bundling its browser with its operating system to decrease competition for other browser makers.", "Microsoft executive Steve Ballmer responded to the suit saying \"To Heck with Janet Reno\", a comment for which he later expressed regret.", "The case was ultimately settled in 2001, after Reno's departure.", "* Declining to question anyone in the Wenatchee child abuse prosecutions, with Reno concluding there was no \"evidence of prosecutable violations of federal civil rights law\".", "* Prosecution resulting in the conviction of 21 of the Montana Freemen, a group that did not believe there should be government above the county level, after an 81-day armed standoff which ended without loss of life.", "In March 1996, Montana Freemen began a 61-day standoff with the FBI after the FBI arrested three members of the group for refusing to leave property from which they had been evicted.", "Following the tragedy at Waco, the FBI was determined to avoid violence, and Reno assured the public that the FBI was looking for a peaceful solution to the standoff.", "* Capture and conviction of Ted Kaczynski, the Unabomber.", "* Capture and conviction of Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols for the Oklahoma City bombing.", "* Capture and conviction of those who conducted the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, resulting in life-sentences of Sheik Omar Abdel-Rahman and four conspirators.", "* Leak to the news media regarding Richard Jewell that led to the widespread and incorrect presumption of his guilt in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing.", "She later apologized, saying \"I'm very sorry it happened.", "I think we owe him an apology.", "I regret the leak.", "\"* The government's unsuccessful defense of the Communications Decency Act, which culminated in the Supreme Court decision ''Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union''.", "* Identification of the correct suspect (Eric Rudolph) in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing and other bombings, who remained a fugitive throughout her tenure.", "Rudolph was apprehended in 2003 and pleaded guilty to the attacks.", "* Capture and conviction of Mir Qazi for the 1993 shootings at CIA Headquarters.", "* The armed seizure of six-year-old Elián González and his return to his father, who eventually took him home to Cuba; Elián's mother and stepfather had died in a dangerous trip by sea, and though his U.S. relatives had lost custody to his father in court, local officials did not enforce the ruling.", "Reno made the decision to remove Elián González from the house of a relative.=== Clinton administration investigations ===In 1994, Reno appointed Robert Fiske special counsel to investigate Bill Clinton's involvement in Whitewater, a controversy stemming from Clinton's business dealings during his time as Governor of Arkansas.", "Fiske wrapped up his criminal investigation within six months, and found no link between Whitewater and the suicide of former Deputy White House Counsel Vince Foster.", "Congress reauthorized the investigation and in August 1994, a panel of judges from the U.S. Court of Appeals overseeing the special counsel refused to reappoint Fiske.", "The panel considered it a conflict of interest for Fiske to investigate Clinton because Reno, a member of the Clinton Administration, appointed Fiske.", "Instead, the panel appointed former member of the Reagan and Bush Administrations Ken Starr to continue the Whitewater investigation.", "Starr concluded the Whitewater investigation in December 1997 due to insufficient evidence.", "The following month, Starr received permission from Reno to redirect his probe into conduct related to the Paula Jones and Monica Lewinsky affairs.", "Starr's Report, issued in September 1998, listed eleven grounds for impeachment against Clinton.In 1998, the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee, in a party line vote, voted to recommend the House cite Reno for contempt of Congress for not turning over two internal Justice Department memos related to a campaign finance controversy during the impeachment of President Bill Clinton.", "Reno contended she refused to turn over the documents sought because the documents would reveal prosecutor strategy in an ongoing investigation.", "Reno argued that her actions were in defense of the principle that prosecutors should be free of political influence.", "The full House of Representatives never voted on the resolution and the documents were turned over to the House." ], [ "Later career", "Reno ran for Governor of Florida in 2002, but lost in the Democratic primary to Bill McBride 44% to 44.4%.", "Voting problems arose in the election, and she did not concede defeat until a week later.After her tenure as United States Attorney General and her unsuccessful gubernatorial bid, Reno toured the country giving speeches on topics relating to the criminal justice system.", "On March 31, 2006, she spoke at a criminology conference at the University of Pennsylvania.", "She stated that she believed the education system in the United States needs to be improved, as there is a link between the quality of education and the crime rate.", "She also believed that too much money has been diverted away from the juvenile court system and that the government should find some way to make the juvenile courts work effectively, so as to prevent problems in troubled children and adolescents before these problems are exacerbated by the time they reach adulthood.Reno was a founding member of the board of directors for the Innocence Project, a nonprofit organization which assists prisoners who may be exonerated through DNA testing, in 2004.By 2013 she was director emeritus of the board of directors." ], [ "Personal life", "Reno never married and did not have children.", "She took Spanish lessons during her time as state attorney.", "She remained active after her diagnosis of Parkinson's disease in 1995; she learned inline skating in 1996.After her mother's death in 1992, Reno inherited her childhood home.", "In response to a 1998 ''Saturday Night Live'' sketch, which portrayed her as lonely, former Justice Department public affairs director Carl Stern said, \"Both in Florida and in Washington she has a great many friends whose homes she visits, and she goes to plays, her dance card is full.\"" ], [ "Death", "Reno died from Parkinson's disease on November 7, 2016.She was surrounded by friends and family at the end of her life, including her sister Maggy and her goddaughter.", "Upon her death, President Barack Obama praised Reno for her \"intellect, integrity, and fierce commitment to justice\" and President Clinton released a statement thanking Reno \"for her service, counsel, and friendship\"." ], [ "Awards and honors", "''Glamour'' magazine named Reno one of its \"Women of the Year\" for 1993.In 2000, Reno was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.", "In March 2008, Reno received the Council on Litigation Management's Professionalism Award, which recognizes and commemorates an individual who has demonstrated the unique ability to lead others by example in the highest standard of their profession.On April 17, 2009, Reno was awarded the Justice Award by the American Judicature Society.", "Eric Holder, Attorney General in the Obama Administration, presented the award to Reno.", "Seth Andersen, Executive Vice President of AJS said the award recognizes \"her commitment to improving our systems of justice and educating Americans about our great common enterprise – to ensure equality under the law\".", "The award is the highest given by the AJS, and recognizes significant contributions toward improvements in the administration of justice within the United States." ], [ "In popular culture", "Reno had a higher profile than many of her immediate predecessors.", "She appeared on the cover of ''Time'' and was the subject of a ''Vanity Fair'' profile.", "Late night hosts frequently joked about her height and perceived lack of traditional femininity, and Will Ferrell repeatedly portrayed Reno on ''Saturday Night Live''.", "In 2001, Reno appeared alongside Ferrell on ''Saturday Night Live'' in the final installment of the recurring sketch \"Janet Reno's Dance Party\".", "In a 2007 Super Bowl XLI TV commercial, Reno was among the guests at Chad Ochocinco's Super Bowl party.", "Reno curated a compilation of old-time American songs performed by contemporary artists, titled ''Song of America''.", "Reno worked with music producer Ed Pettersen (her niece's husband) on the project.", "Reno said her goal with the project was to share music with her great-nieces and great-nephews.", "In 2013, Reno voiced herself for the \"Dark Knight Court\" episode of ''The Simpsons''.", "She was depicted by Jane Lynch in ''Manhunt: Unabomber'', a fictionalized account of the true story of the FBI's hunt for the Unabomber.", "Anquette, an R&B girl group from Miami, dedicated a song to her on their 1988 album ''Respect''." ], [ "See also", "* List of female United States Cabinet members" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "; Attribution* ''This article incorporates text from the Department of Justice Web site (), which is in the public domain.''" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Biography at the United States Department of Justice* * Interview by MTV" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Wayne" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marion Robert Morrison''' (May 26, 1907 – June 11, 1979), professionally known as '''John Wayne''' and nicknamed '''The Duke''' or '''Duke Wayne''', was an American actor who became a popular icon through his starring roles in films which were produced during Hollywood's Golden Age, especially through his starring roles in Western and war movies.", "His career flourished from the silent era of the 1920s through the American New Wave, as he appeared in a total of 179 film and television productions.", "He was among the top box-office draws for three decades, and appeared with many other important Hollywood stars of his era.", "In 1999, the American Film Institute selected Wayne as one of the greatest male stars of classic American cinema.Wayne was born in Winterset, Iowa, but grew up in Southern California.", "After losing his football scholarship to the University of Southern California from a bodysurfing accident, he began working for the Fox Film Corporation.", "He appeared mostly in small parts, but his first leading role came in Raoul Walsh's Western ''The Big Trail'' (1930), an early widescreen film epic that was a box-office failure.", "He played leading roles in numerous during the 1930s, most of them also Westerns, without becoming a major name.", "John Ford's ''Stagecoach'' (1939) made Wayne a mainstream star, and he starred in 142 motion pictures altogether.", "According to one biographer, \"John Wayne personified for millions the nation's frontier heritage.", "\"Wayne's other roles in Westerns include a cattleman driving his herd on the Chisholm Trail in ''Red River'' (1948), a Civil War veteran whose niece is abducted by a tribe of Comanches in ''The Searchers'' (1956), a troubled rancher competing with a lawyer (James Stewart) for a woman's hand in ''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance'' (1962), and a cantankerous one-eyed marshal in ''True Grit'' (1969), for which he received the Academy Award for Best Actor.", "He is also remembered for his roles in ''The Quiet Man'' (1952) with Maureen O'Hara, ''Rio Bravo'' (1959) with Dean Martin, and ''The Longest Day'' (1962).", "In his final screen performance, he starred as an aging gunfighter battling cancer in ''The Shootist'' (1976).", "He made his last public appearance at the Academy Awards ceremony on April 9, 1979, and died of stomach cancer two months later.", "In 1980, he was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor of the United States." ], [ "Early life", "The house in Winterset, Iowa, where Wayne was bornWayne was born Marion Robert Morrison on May 26, 1907, at 224 South Second Street in Winterset, Iowa.", "The local paper, ''Winterset Madisonian'', reported on page 4 of the edition of May 30, 1907, that Wayne weighed 13 lb (around 6 kg) at birth.", "Wayne claimed his middle name was soon changed from Robert to Michael when his parents decided to name their next son Robert, but extensive research has found no such legal change, although it might have been changed informally or the documentation may have been lost.", "Wayne's legal name apparently remained Marion Robert Morrison his entire life although to this day his original name is almost always referred to as Marion Michael Morrison.Wayne's father, Clyde Leonard Morrison (1884–1937), was the son of American Civil War veteran Marion Mitchell Morrison (1845–1915).", "Wayne's mother, the former Mary \"Molly\" Alberta Brown (1885–1970), was from Lancaster County, Nebraska.", "Wayne had Scottish, Scotch-Irish, English, and Irish ancestry.", "His great-great-grandfather Robert Morrison (b.", "1782) left County Antrim, Ireland, with his mother, arriving in New York in 1799 and eventually settling in Adams County, Ohio.", "The Morrisons were originally from the Isle of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland.", "He was raised Presbyterian.Wayne's family moved to Palmdale, California, and then in 1916 to Glendale at 404 Isabel Street, where his father worked as a pharmacist.", "He attended Glendale Union High School, where he performed well in both sports and academics.", "Wayne was part of his high school's football team and its debating team.", "He was also the president of the Latin Society and contributed to the school's newspaper sports column.A local fireman at the station on his route to school in Glendale started calling him \"Little Duke\" because he never went anywhere without his huge Airedale Terrier, Duke.", "He preferred \"Duke\" to \"Marion\", and the nickname stuck.", "Wayne attended Wilson Middle School in Glendale.", "As a teen, he worked in an ice-cream shop for a man who shod horses for Hollywood studios.", "He was also active as a member of the Order of DeMolay.", "He played football for the 1924 league champion Glendale High School team.Wayne applied to the U.S.", "Naval Academy, but was not accepted due to poor grades.", "Instead, he attended the University of Southern California (USC), majoring in pre-law.", "He was a member of the Trojan Knights and Sigma Chi fraternities.", "Wayne, who stood tall, also played on the USC football team under coach Howard Jones.", "A broken collarbone injury curtailed his athletic career; Wayne later noted that he was too terrified of Jones' reaction to reveal the actual cause of his injury, a bodysurfing accident.", "He lost his athletic scholarship, and without funds, had to leave the university." ], [ "Career", "=== Early works and first lead role ===As a favor to coach Jones, who had given silent Western film star Tom Mix tickets to USC games, director John Ford and Mix hired Wayne as a prop boy and extra.", "Wayne later credited his walk, talk, and persona to his acquaintance with Wyatt Earp, who was good friends with Tom Mix.", "Wayne soon moved to bit parts, establishing a longtime friendship with the director who provided most of those roles, John Ford.", "Early in this period, he had a minor, uncredited role as a guard in the 1926 film ''Bardelys the Magnificent''.", "Wayne also appeared with his USC teammates playing football in ''Brown of Harvard'' (1926), ''The Dropkick'' (1927), and ''Salute'' (1929) and Columbia's ''Maker of Men'' (filmed in 1930, released in 1931).With Marguerite Churchill in the widescreen ''The Big Trail'' (1930); John Wayne's first role as a leading manWhile working for Fox Film Corporation in bit roles, Wayne was given on-screen credit as \"'''Duke Morrison'''\" only once, in ''Words and Music'' (1929).", "Director Raoul Walsh saw him moving studio furniture while working as a prop boy and cast him in his first starring role in ''The Big Trail'' (1930).", "For his screen name, Walsh suggested \"Anthony Wayne\", after Revolutionary War General \"Mad\" Anthony Wayne.", "Fox Studios chief Winfield Sheehan rejected it as sounding \"too Italian\".", "Walsh then suggested \"John Wayne\".", "Sheehan agreed, and the name was set.", "Wayne was not even present for the discussion.", "His pay was raised to $105 a week.", "''The Big Trail'' was to be the first big-budget outdoor spectacle of the sound era, made at a then-staggering cost over $2 million (over $32.8 million equivalent in 2021), using hundreds of extras and wide vistas of the American Southwest, still largely unpopulated at the time.", "To take advantage of the breathtaking scenery, it was filmed in two versions, a standard 35 mm version and another in the new 70 mm Grandeur film process, using an innovative camera and lenses.", "Many in the audience who saw it in Grandeur stood and cheered, but only a handful of theaters were equipped to show the film in its widescreen process, and the effort was largely wasted at the time.", "The film was considered a huge box-office flop at the time, but came to be highly regarded by modern critics.=== Subsequent films, breakthrough, and war years ===''The Big Trail'' (1930) lobby cardLobby card for ''Girls Demand Excitement'' (1931)With Evalyn Knapp and Natalie Kingston in ''His Private Secretary'' (1933)Wayne as \"Singin' Sandy\" Saunders in ''Riders of Destiny'' (1933)With Jean Rogers and Ward Bond in ''Conflict'' (1936)Marsha Hunt in ''Born to the West'' (1937)With Joan Blondell in ''Lady for a Night'' (1942)After the commercial failure of ''The Big Trail'', Wayne was relegated to small roles in A pictures, including Columbia's ''The Deceiver'' (1931), in which he played a corpse.", "He appeared in the serial ''The Three Musketeers'' (1933), an updated version of the Alexandre Dumas novel in which the protagonists were soldiers in the French Foreign Legion in then-contemporary North Africa.", "He played the lead, with his name over the title, in many low-budget Poverty Row Westerns, mostly at Monogram Pictures and serials for Mascot Pictures Corporation.", "By Wayne's own estimation, he appeared in about 80 of these horse operas from 1930 to 1939.In ''Riders of Destiny'' (1933), he became one of the first singing cowboys of film, albeit via dubbing.", "Wayne also appeared in some of the ''Three Mesquiteers'' Westerns, whose title was a play on the Dumas classic.", "He was mentored by stuntmen in riding and other Western skills.", "Stuntman Yakima Canutt and Wayne developed and perfected stunts and onscreen fisticuffs techniques that are still in use.", "One of the main innovations with which Wayne is credited in these early Poverty Row Westerns is allowing the good guys to fight as convincingly as the bad guys, by not always making them fight clean.", "Wayne claimed, \"Before I came along, it was standard practice that the hero must always fight clean.", "The heavy was allowed to hit the hero in the head with a chair or throw a kerosene lamp at him or kick him in the stomach, but the hero could only knock the villain down politely and then wait until he rose.", "I changed all that.", "I threw chairs and lamps.", "I fought hard and I fought dirty.", "I fought to win.", "\"Wayne's second breakthrough role came with John Ford's ''Stagecoach'' (1939).", "Because of Wayne's B-movie status and track record in low-budget Westerns throughout the 1930s, Ford had difficulty getting financing for what was to be an A-budget film.", "After rejection by all the major studios, Ford struck a deal with independent producer Walter Wanger in which Claire Trevor—a much bigger star at the time—received top billing.", "''Stagecoach'' was a huge critical and financial success, and Wayne became a mainstream star.", "Cast member Louise Platt credited Ford as saying at the time that Wayne would become the biggest star ever because of his appeal as the archetypal \"everyman\".America's entry into World War II resulted in a deluge of support for the war effort from all sectors of society, and Hollywood was no exception.", "Wayne was exempted from service due to his age (34 at the time of Pearl Harbor) and family status (classified as 3-A – family deferment).", "Wayne repeatedly wrote to John Ford saying he wanted to enlist, on one occasion inquiring whether he could get into Ford's military unit.", "Wayne did not attempt to prevent his reclassification as 1-A (draft eligible), but Republic Studios was emphatically resistant to losing him, since he was their only A-list actor under contract.", "Herbert J. Yates, president of Republic, threatened Wayne with a lawsuit if he walked away from his contract, and Republic Pictures intervened in the Selective Service process, requesting Wayne's further deferment.U.S.", "National Archives records indicate that Wayne, in fact, did make an application to serve in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), precursor to the modern CIA, but his bid was ultimately unsuccessful.", "Wayne toured U.S. bases and hospitals in the South Pacific for three months in 1943 and 1944, with the USO.", "During this trip, he carried out a request from William J. Donovan, head of the OSS, to assess whether General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the South West Pacific Area, or his staff were hindering the work of the OSS.", "Donovan later issued Wayne an OSS Certificate of Service to memorialize Wayne's contribution to the OSS mission.By many accounts, his failure to serve in the military later became the most painful part of his life.", "His widow later suggested that his patriotism in later decades sprang from guilt, writing: \"He would become a 'superpatriot' for the rest of his life trying to atone for staying home.", "\"Wayne's first color film was ''Shepherd of the Hills'' (1941), in which he co-starred with his longtime friend Harry Carey.", "The following year, he appeared in his only film directed by Cecil B. DeMille, the Technicolor epic ''Reap the Wild Wind'' (1942), in which he co-starred with Ray Milland and Paulette Goddard; it was one of the rare times he played a character with questionable values.Like most Hollywood stars of his era, Wayne appeared as a guest on radio programs, such as: ''The Hedda Hopper Show'' and ''The Louella Parsons Show''.", "He made a number of appearances in dramatic roles, mainly recreations for radio of his own film roles, on such programs as ''Screen Directors Playhouse'' and ''Lux Radio Theatre''.", "For six months in 1942, Wayne starred in his own radio adventure series, ''Three Sheets to the Wind'', produced by film director Tay Garnett.", "In the series, an international spy/detective show, Wayne played Dan O'Brien, a detective who used alcoholism as a mask for his investigatory endeavors.", "The show was intended by Garnett to be a pilot of sorts for a film version, though the motion picture never came to fruition.", "No episodes of the series featuring Wayne seem to have survived, though a demonstration episode with Brian Donlevy in the leading role does exist.", "Wayne, not Donlevy, played the role throughout the series' run on NBC.Wayne (right) acting in a short clip from ''Angel and the Badman'' (1947) (click to play)Director Robert Rossen offered the starring role in ''All the King's Men'' (1949) to Wayne, but he refused, believing the script to be un-American in many ways.", "Broderick Crawford, who was eventually cast in the role, won the 1949 Oscar for best male actor, ironically beating out Wayne, who had been nominated for ''Sands of Iwo Jima'' (1949).=== 1950s ===He lost the leading role of Jimmy Ringo in ''The Gunfighter'' (1950) to Gregory Peck due to his refusal to work for Columbia Pictures because its chief, Harry Cohn, had mistreated him years before when he was a young contract player.", "Cohn had bought the project for Wayne, but Wayne's grudge was too deep, and Cohn sold the script to Twentieth Century Fox, which cast Peck in the role Wayne badly wanted, but for which he refused to bend.Batjac, the production company co-founded by Wayne in 1952, was named after the fictional shipping company Batjak in ''Wake of the Red Witch'' (1948), a film based on the novel by Garland Roark.", "(A spelling error by Wayne's secretary was allowed to stand, accounting for the variation.)", "Batjac (and its predecessor, Wayne-Fellows Productions) was the arm through which Wayne produced many films for himself and other stars.", "Its best-known non-Wayne productions were ''Seven Men From Now'' (1956), which started the classic collaboration between director Budd Boetticher and star Randolph Scott, and ''Gun the Man Down'' (1956) with contract player James Arness as an outlaw.One of Wayne's most popular roles was in ''The High and the Mighty'' (1954), directed by William Wellman, and based on a novel by Ernest K. Gann.", "His portrayal of a heroic copilot won widespread acclaim.", "Wayne also portrayed aviators in ''Flying Tigers'' (1942), ''Flying Leathernecks'' (1951), ''Island in the Sky'' (1953), ''The Wings of Eagles'' (1957), and ''Jet Pilot'' (1957).He appeared in nearly two dozen of John Ford's films over 20 years, including ''She Wore a Yellow Ribbon'' (1949), ''The Quiet Man'' (1952), ''The Wings of Eagles'' (1957).", "The first movie in which he called someone \"Pilgrim\", Ford's ''The Searchers'' (1956), is often considered to contain Wayne's finest and most complex performance.On May 14, 1958, Hal Kanter's ''I Married a Woman'' starring George Gobel and Diana Dors had its Los Angeles opening.", "In it, Wayne had a cameo as himself.", "On October 2, John Huston's ''The Barbarian and the Geisha'', in which Wayne played the lead and clashed with his director all the way, had its New York opening.Howard Hawks's ''Rio Bravo'' premiered on March 18, 1959.In it, Wayne plays the lead with a supporting cast including Dean Martin, Ricky Nelson, Angie Dickinson, Walter Brennan and Ward Bond.", "John Ford's ''The Horse Soldiers'' had its world premiere in Shreveport, Louisiana on June 18.Set during the Civil War, Wayne shares the lead with William Holden.Wayne notoriously portrayed Genghis Khan in ''The Conqueror'' (1956), which was panned by critics.=== 1960s ===Wayne and James Stewart in ''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance'' (1962)In 1960, Wayne directed and produced ''The Alamo'' portraying Davy Crockett, with Richard Widmark as Jim Bowie.", "Wayne was nominated for an Oscar as the producer in the Best Picture category.", "That year Wayne also played the lead in Henry Hathaway's ''North to Alaska'' also starring Stewart Granger and Ernie Kovacs.", "In 1961, Wayne shared the lead with Stuart Whitman in Michael Curtiz's ''The Comancheros''.On May 23, 1962, Wayne starred in John Ford's ''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance'' with James Stewart.", "May 29 marked the premiere of Howard Hawks's ''Hatari!", "'', shot on location in Africa with Wayne playing the lead capturing wild animals from the beds of trucks; all the scenes with animals in the film are real.", "On October 4, ''The Longest Day'' started its theatrical run, with Wayne memorably acting with an ensemble cast.", "Although the other top-level actors in the film accepted a token payment of only $10,000 each to play their roles, making the all-star cast feasible for the budget, Wayne was paid a quarter of a million dollars due to an earlier dispute with producer Darryl F. Zanuck.", "During this time, the cast of the television drama, ''Combat!", "'', were preparing for the inaugural season.", "The principal cast (including Vic Morrow) were to go through a week of basic training at the Army's Infantry Training Center at Fort Ord in northern California.", "Morrow noted that the instructors who worked with the cast at Fort Ord had one common request: not to act like John Wayne.", "\"Poor John,\" Morrow told a reporter.", "\"I wonder if he knows he's almost a dirty word in the Army.", "\"On February 20, 1963, Wayne acted in a segment of ''How the West Was Won'' directed by John Ford.", "On June 12, Wayne played the lead in his final John Ford film, ''Donovan's Reef'', co-starring Lee Marvin.", "On November 13, another film starring Wayne premiered, Andrew V. McLaglen's ''McLintock!", "'', once again opposite Maureen O'Hara.In 1964, Wayne played the leading role in Henry Hathaway's ''Circus World'' with Claudia Cardinale and Rita Hayworth.On February 15, 1965, Wayne played the brief cameo role of a centurion in George Stevens's ''The Greatest Story Ever Told''.", "On April 6, he shared the screen with Kirk Douglas and Patricia Neal in Otto Preminger's ''In Harm's Way''.", "On June 13, he acted in Henry Hathaway's ''The Sons of Katie Elder'' with Dean Martin.In 1966, Wayne appeared in a cameo role for Melville Shavelson's ''Cast a Giant Shadow'' starring Kirk Douglas.On May 24, 1967, Wayne played the lead in Burt Kennedy's ''The War Wagon'' with Kirk Douglas as the second lead.", "His second movie that year, Howard Hawks's ''El Dorado'', a highly successful partial remake of ''Rio Bravo'' with Robert Mitchum playing Dean Martin's original role, premiered on June 7.In 1968, Wayne co-directed with Ray Kellogg ''The Green Berets.''", "the only major film made during the Vietnam War in support of the war.", "Wayne wanted to make this movie because at that time Hollywood had little interest in making movies about the Vietnam War.", "During the filming of ''The Green Berets'', the Degar or Montagnard people of Vietnam's Central Highlands, fierce fighters against communism, bestowed on Wayne a brass bracelet that he wore in the film and all subsequent films.", "Also that year, Wayne played the lead in Andrew V. McLaglen's ''Hellfighters'', a film about the crews who put out oil rig fires.", "Katharine Ross played a supporting role.On June 13, 1969, Henry Hathaway's ''True Grit'' premiered.", "For his role as Rooster Cogburn, Wayne won the Best Actor Oscar at the Academy Awards.", "In November of that year another film starring Wayne was released, Andrew V. McLaglen's ''The Undefeated'' with Rock Hudson.=== 1970s: later career ===Wayne and Richard Boone at ''Big Jake'' screening, 1971On June 24, 1970, Andrew V. McLaglen's ''Chisum'' started to play in cinemas.", "Wayne took the role of the owner of a cattle ranch, who finds out that a businessman is trying to own neighboring land illegally.", "On September 16, Howard Hawks' ''Rio Lobo'' premiered.", "Wayne played Col. Cord McNally, who confronts Confederate soldiers who stole a shipment of gold at the end of the Civil War.", "This was another remake of ''Rio Bravo'' albeit without a second lead the box office calibre of Dean Martin or Robert Mitchum.In June 1971, George Sherman's ''Big Jake'' made its debut.", "Wayne played the role of an estranged father who must track down a gang who kidnapped his grandson.", "The film was a critically acclaimed hit.In 1972, Wayne starred in Mark Rydell's ''The Cowboys.''", "Vincent Canby of ''The New York Times'', who did not particularly care for the film, wrote: \"Wayne is, of course, marvelously indestructible, and he has become an almost perfect father figure\".", "The same year, he was selected in the last round of the NFL draft by the Atlanta Falcons for his past football experience, though the pick was disallowed by league officials as he was 64 years old at the time.On February 7, 1973, Burt Kennedy's ''The Train Robbers'' opened; Wayne appeared alongside Ann-Margret, Rod Taylor and Ben Johnson.", "On June 27, Andrew V. McLaglen's ''Cahill U.S.", "Marshal'' premiered, with Wayne, George Kennedy and Gary Grimes.", "It was a box office failure.In 1974, Wayne took on the role of the eponymous detective in John Sturges's crime drama ''McQ''.On March 25, 1975, Douglas Hickox's ''Brannigan'' premiered.", "In it, Wayne played a Chicago police lieutenant named Jim Brannigan on the hunt in London for an organized-crime leader.", "On October 17, ''Rooster Cogburn'' started its theatrical run; Wayne reprised his role as U.S.", "Marshal Reuben J.", "\"Rooster\" Cogburn with strong elements of the plot of ''The African Queen'' along with Katharine Hepburn as his leading lady.In 1976, Wayne starred in Don Siegel's ''The Shootist'', also starring Lauren Bacall, Ron Howard and James Stewart.", "It was Wayne's final cinematic role, whose main character, J.", "B.", "Books, was dying of cancer, to which Wayne himself succumbed three years later.", "It contains numerous plot similarities to ''The Gunfighter'' of nearly 30 years before, a role which Wayne had wanted, but turned down.", "Upon its theatrical release, it grossed $13,406,138 domestically.", "About $6 million were earned as US theatrical rentals.", "The film received positive reviews.", "It was named one of the Ten Best Films of 1976 by the National Board of Review.", "Film critic Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' ranked ''The Shootist'' number 10 on his list of the 10 best films of 1976.The film was nominated for an Oscar, a Golden Globe, a BAFTA film award, and a Writers Guild of America award." ], [ "Personal life", "Wayne was married three times and divorced twice.", "His wives included one of Spanish American descent, Josephine Alicia Saenz, and two from Latin America, Esperanza Baur and Pilar Pallete.", "He had four children with Josephine: Michael Wayne (1934–2003), Mary Antonia \"Toni\" Wayne LaCava (1936–2000), Patrick Wayne (born 1939), and Melinda Wayne Munoz (1940–2022).", "He had three more children with Pilar: Aissa Wayne (born 1956), John Ethan Wayne (born 1962), and Marisa Wayne (born 1966).John and Ethan Wayne with Walter Knott in 1969 Several of Wayne's children entered the film and television industry.", "Son Ethan was billed as John Ethan Wayne in a few films, and played one of the leads in the 1990s update of the ''Adam-12'' television series.", "Ethan has also appeared on the History Channel show ''Pawn Stars'' to help authenticate merchandise supposedly related to his father's career.", "Granddaughter Jennifer Wayne, daughter of Aissa, is a member of the country music group Runaway June.Wayne with third wife Pilar Pallete at Knott's Berry Farm in 1971 In 1973, Wayne was encouraged by Pilar, an avid tennis player, to build the John Wayne Tennis Club in Newport Beach, California.", "In 1995, the club was sold to Ken Stuart, former general manager, and became the Palisades Tennis Club.", "In ''The Quiet Man'' (1952), Wayne tells Michaeleen \"Óge\" Flynn (portrayed by Barry Fitzgerald) that he is six feet \"four and a half\" (194 cm), an assertion corroborated by Pilar's book ''John Wayne: My Life With the Duke''.His divorce from Esperanza Baur, a Mexican former actress, was stormy.", "She believed that Wayne and co-star Gail Russell were having an affair, a claim that both Wayne and Russell denied.", "The night the film ''Angel and the Badman'' (1947) wrapped, the usual party was held for cast and crew, and Wayne came home very late.", "Esperanza was in a drunken rage by the time he arrived, and she attempted to shoot him as he walked through the front door.Wayne had several high-profile affairs, including one with Merle Oberon that lasted from 1938 to 1947.After his separation from Pilar, in 1973, Wayne became romantically involved and lived with his former secretary Pat Stacy (1941–1995) until his death in 1979.Stacy published a book about her life with him in 1983, titled ''Duke: A Love Story''.Wayne's hair began to thin in the 1940s, and he had begun to wear a hairpiece by the end of the decade.", "He was occasionally seen in public without the hairpiece (such as, according to ''Life'', at Gary Cooper's funeral).", "During an appearance at Harvard University, Wayne was asked by a student, \"Is it true that your toupée is real hair?\"", "He responded: \"Well sir, that's real hair.", "Not mine, but real hair.", "\"A close friend, California Congressman Alphonzo E. Bell Jr., wrote of Wayne: \"Duke's personality and sense of humor were very close to what the general public saw on the big screen.", "It is perhaps best shown in these words he had engraved on a plaque: 'Each of us is a mixture of some good and some not so good qualities.", "In considering one's fellow man, it's important to remember the good things. ...", "We should refrain from making judgments just because a fella happens to be a dirty, rotten S.O.B.", "'\"Wayne was fond of literature, his favorite authors being Charles Dickens, Arthur Conan Doyle, and Agatha Christie.", "His favorite books were ''David Copperfield'', and Conan Doyle's historical novels ''The White Company'' and ''Sir Nigel''.Wayne was a chess player.", "Roger Ebert recalls that on the set of ''Chisum'', \"we were playing a chess game, both of us bending over the board on an upended apple crate.", "Wayne, slouched in his old stitched leather director's chair, had a crowd of kibitzers: wranglers, extras, old cronies, drinking buddies, a couple of Mexican stuntmen.", "He studied the board, roared with laughter, and said, 'God...damn it!", "You've trapped my queen!'", "We studied the board.", "I made a decisive move.", "'Why the ''hell'' did I just say that?'", "he asked.", "If I hadn't-a...said it, you wouldn't-a...seen it.'\"", "According to Michael Munn, when Wayne was asked about Rock Hudson's sexuality, he replied, \"Who the hell cares if he's a queer?", "The man plays great chess.", "\"He used the same 1873 Colt Single Action Army revolver in many of the Westerns in which he appeared.Wayne had been a chain smoker of cigarettes since young adulthood and was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1964.He underwent successful surgery to remove his entire left lung and two ribs.", "Despite efforts by his business associates to prevent him from going public with his illness for fear that it would cost him work, Wayne announced he had cancer and called on the public to get preventive examinations.", "Five years later, Wayne was declared cancer-free.", "Wayne has been credited with coining the term \"the Big C\" as a euphemism for cancer.", "Wayne biographer Michael Munn chronicled Wayne's drinking habits.", "According to Sam O'Steen's memoir, ''Cut to the Chase'', studio directors knew to shoot Wayne's scenes before noon, because by afternoon, he \"was a mean drunk\".", "Roger Ebert quotes him as saying: \"Tequila makes your head hurt.", "Not from your hangover.", "From falling over and hitting your head.", "\"He was a Freemason, a Master Mason in Marion McDaniel Lodge No.", "56 F&AM, in Tucson, Arizona.", "He became a 32nd Degree Scottish Rite Mason and later joined the Al Malaikah Shrine Temple in Los Angeles.", "He became a member of the York Rite.", "During the early 1960s, Wayne traveled often to Panama, and he purchased the island of Taborcillo off that nation's Pacific coast.", "It was sold by his estate at his death.Wayne's yacht, the ''Wild Goose'', was one of his favorite possessions.", "He kept it docked in Newport Beach Harbor, and it was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2011." ], [ "Political views", "Wayne in ''The Challenge of Ideas'' (1961)Wayne meets with President Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger in San Clemente, California, July 1972Republican Convention in Miami, 1968Throughout most of his life, Wayne was a vocally prominent conservative Republican in Hollywood, supporting anti-communist positions.", "However, he voted for Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1936 presidential election and expressed admiration for Roosevelt's successor, fellow Democratic President Harry S. Truman, despite having supported Republican candidate Thomas E. Dewey in 1948.He took part in creating the conservative Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals in February 1944 before being elected its president in 1949.An ardent anti-communist and vocal supporter of the House Un-American Activities Committee, he made ''Big Jim McLain'' (1952) with himself as a HUAC investigator to demonstrate his support for the cause of anti-communism.", "His personal views found expression as a proactive inside enforcer of the \"Black List\", denying employment and undermining careers of many actors and writers who had expressed their personal political beliefs earlier in life.", "Soviet leader Joseph Stalin is alleged to have said that Wayne should be assassinated for his frequently espoused anti-communist politics, despite being a fan of his movies.", "Wayne was a supporter of Senator Joseph McCarthy.Wayne supported Vice President Richard Nixon in the presidential election of 1960, but expressed his vision of patriotism when John F. Kennedy won the election: \"I didn't vote for him, but he's my president, and I hope he does a good job.\"", "He used his star power to support conservative causes, including rallying support for the Vietnam War by producing, co-directing, and starring in the financially successful film ''The Green Berets'' (1968).", "In 1960, he joined the anti-communist John Birch Society, but quit after the organization denounced fluoridation of water supplies as a communist plot.", "In 1964, Wayne was a staunch supporter of Barry Goldwater, and actively campaigned for him.Due to his status as the highest-profile Republican star in Hollywood, wealthy Texas Republican Party backers asked Wayne to run for national office in 1968, like his friend and fellow actor Senator George Murphy.", "He declined, joking that he did not believe the public would seriously consider an actor in the White House.", "Instead, he supported his friend Ronald Reagan's campaigns for Governor of California in 1966 and 1970.He was asked to be the running mate for Democratic Alabama Governor George Wallace, who had been nominated for president by the American Independent Party, in his 1968 campaign, but he immediately rejected the offer and actively campaigned for Richard Nixon; Wayne addressed the 1968 Republican National Convention on its opening day.In 1971, Wayne wrote to President Richard Nixon, who was a friend, to oppose Nixon's planned trip to China.", "Wayne enclosed some hate literature on \"that Jew, Kissinger,\" who had negotiated the historic meeting with Chinese leaders.Wayne openly differed with many conservatives over the issue of returning the Panama Canal, as he supported the Panama Canal Treaty in the mid-1970s; while Republican leaders such as Reagan, Jesse Helms, and Strom Thurmond had wanted the U.S. to retain full control of the canal, Wayne and fellow conservative William F. Buckley believed that the Panamanians had the right to the canal and sided with President Jimmy Carter.", "Wayne was a close friend of Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos Herrera, and Wayne's first wife Josephine was a native of Panama.", "His support of the treaty brought him hate mail for the first time in his life.In 1973 actor Marlon Brando refused an Oscar he had won, due to \"the treatment of American Indians today by the film industry\"; Brando did not attend the award ceremony but asked Native American civil rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather to attend and deliver a refusal speech in the event that he won.", "Wayne, who has been described as \"serial slaughterer of Native Americans on-screen and self-professed white supremacist off it\", was in the wings, and was so angry about her presence there that Littlefeather said \"he was coming towards me to forcibly take me off the stage, and he had to be restrained by six security men to prevent him from doing so.\"", "However, an investigation in 2022 found that this is unlikely to have happened, and Littlefeather had no way of witnessing this take place.Roger Ebert writes that Wayne had a sense of humor about his politics.", "He recalls Wayne giving him a tour of his house: \"He pointed out autographed photos of Eisenhower, Nixon, Goldwater, and J. Edgar Hoover.", "I said I had to take a pee.", "On the wall of the bathroom opening off the den, he had a photo of Hubert Humphrey, inscribed 'with warm appreciation for your continued Support.'\"", "Colorado Congresswoman Pat Schroeder recalled that \"John Wayne gave me a silver cigarette lighter during the Vietnam War that said 'Fuck Communism' on it.", "I didn't know how to do that.", "I still don't.", "\"Left-wing activist Abbie Hoffman paid tribute to Wayne's singularity, saying, \"I like Wayne's wholeness, his style.", "As for his politics, well—I suppose even cavemen felt a little admiration for the dinosaurs that were trying to gobble them up.", "\"===1971 ''Playboy'' interview===Wayne signing the helmet of Pfc.", "Fonzell Wofford during a visit at Chu Lai, South Vietnam, in June 1966In May 1971, ''Playboy'' magazine published an interview with Wayne, in which he expressed his support for the Vietnam War, and made headlines for his opinions about social issues and race relations in the United States:In the same ''Playboy'' interview, he also responded to questions about whether social programs were good for the country:In February 2019, the ''Playboy'' interview resurfaced, which resulted in calls for John Wayne Airport to be renamed.", "John Wayne's son, Ethan, defended him, stating, \"It would be an injustice to judge someone based on an interview that's being used out of context.\"", "The calls for changing the airport's name back to Orange County Airport were renewed during the George Floyd protests in June 2020.In October 2019, USC student activists called for removing an exhibit dedicated to Wayne, citing the interview.", "In July 2020, it was announced that the exhibit would be removed." ], [ "Death", "Although he enrolled in a cancer vaccine study in an attempt to ward off the disease, Wayne died of stomach cancer on June 11, 1979, at the UCLA Medical Center.", "He was buried in the Pacific View Memorial Park Cemetery in Corona del Mar, Newport Beach.", "According to his son Patrick and his grandson Matthew Muñoz, who was a priest in the California Diocese of Orange, Wayne converted to Roman Catholicism shortly before his death.", "He requested that his tombstone read \"''Feo, Fuerte y Formal''\", a Spanish epitaph Wayne described as meaning \"ugly, strong, and dignified\".", "His grave, which was unmarked for 20 years, has been marked since 1999 with the quotation:" ], [ "Acting evaluation", "Lobby card for ''The Big Trail'' (1930) with Tully Marshall and WayneLobby card for ''Sagebrush Trail'' (1933) with Wayne and Yakima CanuttThe Comancheros'' (1961)In 1974, film critic Charles Champlin wrote of Wayne: \"Wayne is a motion picture actor, first, last and always, who defined as powerfully as anyone else what that means.", "From the lean and intense early days, in those low-cost dusters which still play on morning television, Wayne has had a presence which got through the lenses and shutters and onto the film undiminished.\"", "John Ford said of him: \"He's not something out of a book, governed by acting rules.", "He portrays John Wayne, a rugged American guy.", "He's not one of those method actors, like they send out here from drama schools in New York.", "He's real, perfectly natural.\"", "Lee Strasberg observed that Wayne was similar to fellow actors Spencer Tracy and Gary Cooper, who \"try not to act but be themselves\".Wayne thought of himself as a reactor rather than an actor, and felt that the difference between good and bad acting was in acting and reacting.", "He explained this difference: \"In a bad picture, you see them acting all over the place.", "In a good picture, they react in a logical way to a situation they're in, so the audience can identify with the actors.\"", "When asked about his approach to acting, Wayne commented: \"I read dramatic lines undramatically and react to situations normally.", "This is not as simple as it sounds.", "I've spent a major portion of my life trying to do it well and I am not past learning it yet.\"", "Much like many actors of his generation, Wayne disliked method acting, and once said of them: \"Let those actors who picked their noses get all the dialogue, just give me the close-up of reaction.", "\"Howard Hawks, who directed him in five films, felt that after losing one of his lungs, Wayne became a much better actor.", "Hawks explained: \"Because of the lung Wayne lost, he reads his lines differently.", "He pauses in the strangest places simply because he hasn't got the breath he used to have.", "This device is terribly effective, because you keep your eyes on him and wait for him to finish, because you don't know what's coming next.\"", "Raoul Walsh noted: \"Wayne underacts, and it's mighty effective, not because he tries to underact–it's a hard thing to do if you try–but because he can't overact.", "\"Despite his popularity at the box office, Wayne was often criticized for playing the same type of character during most of his career.", "In a 1969 interview with Roger Ebert, Wayne remarked: \"Of course, they give me that John Wayne stuff so much, claim I always play the same role.", "Seems like nobody remembers how different the fellows were in ''The Quiet Man'' or ''Iwo Jima,'' or ''Yellow Ribbon,'' where I was 35 playing a man of 65.To stay a star, you have to bring along some of your own personality.", "Thousands of good actors can carry a scene, but a star has to carry the scene and still, without intruding, allow some of his character into it.", "\"Gene Hackman said that Wayne \"was one of the best actors ever.", "You must admire how really good he was as an actor, in command of the scene and with such great charisma.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "===Awards, celebrations, and landmarks===Irene Dunne, Wayne, Rosalind Russell and James Stewart at ''How the West Was Won'' premiere, 1962Wayne's enduring status as an iconic American was formally recognized by the U.S. government in the form of the two highest civilian decorations.", "On his 72nd birthday on May 26, 1979, Wayne was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.", "Hollywood figures and American leaders from across the political spectrum, including Maureen O'Hara, Elizabeth Taylor, Frank Sinatra, Mike Frankovich, Katharine Hepburn, General and Mrs. Omar Bradley, Gregory Peck, Robert Stack, James Arness, and Kirk Douglas, testified to Congress in support of the award.", "Robert Aldrich, president of the Directors Guild of America, made a particularly notable statement:Wayne was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom on June 9, 1980, by President Jimmy Carter.", "He had attended Carter's inaugural ball in 1977 \"as a member of the loyal opposition\", as he described it.", "In 1998, he was awarded the Naval Heritage Award by the US Navy Memorial Foundation for his support of the Navy and military during his film career.", "In 1999, the American Film Institute named Wayne 13th among the Greatest Male Screen Legends of classic Hollywood cinema.In the essay \"John Wayne: A Love Song\", Joan Didion recalls the first time she saw Wayne in a movie: \"it was there, that summer of 1943 while the hot wind blew outside, that I first saw John Wayne.", "Saw the walk, heard the voice.", "Heard him tell the girl in a picture called ''War of the Wildcats'' that he would build her a house, 'at the bend in the river where the cottonwoods grow.'", "As it happened I did not grow up to be kind of woman who is the heroine in a Western, and although the men I have known have had many virtues and have taken me to live in many places I have come to love, they have never been John Wayne, and they have never taken me to that bend in the river where the cottonwoods grow.", "Deep in that part of my heart where the artificial rain forever falls, that is still the line I want to hear...", "When John Wayne rode through my childhood, and perhaps through yours, he determined forever the shapes of certain of our dreams.", "It did not seem possible that such a man could fall ill, could carry within him that most inexplicable and ungovernable of diseases.", "\"Various public locations are named in honor of Wayne, including the John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California, where a bronze equestrian statue of him stands at the entrance; the John Wayne Marina for which Wayne bequeathed the land, near Sequim, Washington; John Wayne Elementary School (P.S.", "380) in Brooklyn, New York, which boasts a mosaic mural commission by New York artist Knox Martin entitled \"John Wayne and the American Frontier\"; and over named the \"John Wayne Pioneer Trail\" in Washington's Iron Horse State Park.", "A larger-than-life-sized bronze statue of Wayne atop a horse was erected at the corner of La Cienega Boulevard and Wilshire Boulevard in Beverly Hills, California, at the former offices of the Great Western Savings and Loan Corporation, for which Wayne had made a number of commercials.", "In the city of Maricopa, Arizona, part of Arizona State Route 347 is named John Wayne Parkway, which runs through the center of town.In 2006, friends of Wayne and his former Arizona business partner, Louis Johnson, inaugurated the \"Louie and the Duke Classics\" events benefiting the John Wayne Cancer Foundation and the American Cancer Society.", "The weekend-long event each fall in Casa Grande, Arizona, includes a golf tournament, an auction of John Wayne memorabilia, and a team roping competition.Several celebrations took place on May 26, 2007, the centennial of Wayne's birth.", "A celebration at the John Wayne birthplace in Winterset, Iowa, included chuck-wagon suppers, concerts by Michael Martin Murphey and Riders in the Sky, a Wild West Revue in the style of Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, and a Cowboy Symposium with Wayne's costars, producers, and costumers.", "Wayne's films ran continuously at the local theater.", "Ground was broken for the new John Wayne Birthplace Museum and Learning Center at a ceremony consisting of over 30 of Wayne's family members, including Melinda Wayne Muñoz, Aissa, Ethan, and Marisa Wayne.", "Later that year, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Wayne into the California Hall of Fame, located at the California Museum in Sacramento.In 2016, Republican assemblyman Matthew Harper proposed marking May 26 as \"John Wayne Day\" in California.", "This resolution was struck down by a vote of 35 to 20, due to Wayne's views on race and his support of controversial organizations such as the John Birch Society and the House Un-American Activities Committee.===American icon===With Lucille Ball in ''I Love Lucy'', 1955Wayne rose beyond the typical recognition for a famous actor to that of an enduring icon who symbolized and communicated American values and ideals.", "Using the power of communication through silent films and radio, Wayne was instrumental in creating a national culture from disparate areas of the US, and made the creation of a national hero possible.", "By the middle of his career, Wayne had developed a larger-than-life image, and as his career progressed, he selected roles that would not compromise his off-screen image.", "Wayne embodied the icon of strong American masculinity and rugged individualism in both his films and his life.", "At a party in 1957, Wayne confronted actor Kirk Douglas about the latter's decision to play the role of Vincent van Gogh in the film ''Lust for Life'', saying: \"Christ, Kirk, how can you play a part like that?", "There's so goddamn few of us left.", "We got to play strong, tough characters.", "Not these weak queers.\"", "However, actor Marlon Brando was notably critical of Wayne's public persona and of the cultural insensitivity of Wayne's characters, arguing on ''The Dick Cavett Show'' that, \"We Americans like to see ourselves as perhaps John Wayne sees us.", "That we are a country that stands for freedom, for rightness, for justice,\" before adding that \"it just simply doesn't apply.", "\"Wayne's rise to being the quintessential movie war hero began to take shape four years after World War II, when ''Sands of Iwo Jima'' (1949) was released.", "His footprints at Grauman's Chinese theater in Hollywood were laid in concrete that contained sand from Iwo Jima.", "His status grew so large and legendary that when Japanese Emperor Hirohito visited the United States in 1975, he asked to meet John Wayne, the symbolic representation of his country's former enemy.", "Likewise when Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev visited the United States in 1959, he made two requests: to visit Disneyland and meet Wayne.Wayne in ''The Big Trail'' (1930)In the ''Motion Picture Herald'' Top Ten Money-Making Western Stars poll, Wayne was listed in 1936 and 1939.He appeared in the similar ''Box Office'' poll in 1939 and 1940.While these two polls are really an indication only of the popularity of series stars, Wayne also appeared in the Top Ten Money Makers Poll of all films from 1949 to 1957 and 1958 to 1974, taking first place in 1950, 1951, 1954, and 1971.With a total of 25 years on the list, Wayne has more appearances than any other star, surpassing Clint Eastwood (21) who is in second place.Wayne is the only actor to appear in every edition of the annual Harris Poll of Most Popular Film Actors, and the only actor to appear on the list after his death.", "Wayne was in the top 10 in this poll for 19 consecutive years, starting in 1994, 15 years after his death.Mylène Demongeot declared in a 2015 filmed interview: \"Gary Cooper was sublime, there I have to say, now he, was part of the stars, Gary Cooper, Cary Grant, John Wayne, those great Americans who I've met really were unbelievable guys, there aren't any like them anymore.", "\"===John Wayne Cancer Foundation===The John Wayne Cancer Foundation was founded in 1985 in honor of John Wayne, after his family granted the use of his name (and limited funding) for the continued fight against cancer.", "The foundation's mission is to \"bring courage, strength, and grit to the fight against cancer\".", "The foundation provides funds for innovative programs that improve cancer patient care, including research, education, awareness, and support.===Dispute with Duke University===Newport Beach, California-based John Wayne Enterprises, a business operated by Wayne's heirs, sells products, including Kentucky straight Bourbon, bearing the \"Duke\" brand and using Wayne's picture.", "When the company tried to trademark the image appearing on one of the bottles, Duke University in Durham, North Carolina, filed a notice of opposition.", "According to court documents, Duke has tried three times since 2005 to stop the company from trademarking the name.", "The company sought a declaration permitting registration of their trademark.", "The company's complaint filed in federal court said the university did \"not own the word 'Duke' in all contexts for all purposes.\"", "The university's official position was not to object provided Wayne's image appeared with the name.", "On September 30, 2014, Orange County, California federal judge David Carter dismissed the company's suit, deciding the plaintiffs had chosen the wrong jurisdiction." ], [ "Filmography", "Wayne portrait from 1952Screenshot from ''Rio Bravo'' (1959)Wayne portraying Lt.", "Colonel Benjamin H. Vandervoort in ''The Longest Day'' (1962)Between 1926 and 1977, Wayne appeared in over 170 films.", "According to Quigley Polling, John Wayne was named the top money maker (as of 2005)." ], [ "Missed roles", "* Wayne turned down the lead role in the 1952 film ''High Noon'' because he felt the film's story was an allegory against blacklisting, which he actively supported.", "In a 1971 interview, Wayne said he considered ''High Noon'' \"the most un-American thing I've ever seen in my whole life\", and that he would \"never regret having helped run screenwriter Carl Foreman who was later blacklisted out of the country\".", "* An urban legend has it that in 1955, Wayne turned down the role of Matt Dillon in the long-running television series ''Gunsmoke'' and recommended James Arness, instead.", "While he did suggest Arness for the part and introduced him in a prologue to the first episode, no film star of Wayne's stature would have considered a television role at the time.", "* Terry Southern's biographer Lee Hill wrote that the role of Major T. J.", "\"King\" Kong in ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' (1964) was originally written with Wayne in mind, and that Stanley Kubrick offered him the part after Peter Sellers injured his ankle during filming; he immediately turned it down.", "While Sellers went on to play three other roles in the film, Slim Pickens played Kong.", "* In 1966, Wayne accepted the role of Major Reisman in ''The Dirty Dozen'' (1967), and asked Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer for some script changes, but eventually withdrew from the project to make ''The Green Berets''.", "He was replaced by Lee Marvin.", "* Though Wayne actively campaigned for the title role in ''Dirty Harry'' (1971), Warner Bros. decided that at 63 he was too old, and cast the 41-year-old Clint Eastwood.", "* In the early '70s, several years before the film was made, Wayne was offered the lead role in Michael Cimino's ''Heaven's Gate'' (1980), then under the title ''The Johnson County War''.", "Ironically, Wayne would later present the Best Picture prize to Cimino at the 1979 Oscars for ''The Deer Hunter'' (1978).", "* Director Peter Bogdanovich and screenwriter Larry McMurtry pitched a film in 1971 called ''The Streets of Laredo'' that would co-star Wayne along with James Stewart and Henry Fonda.", "They conceived it as a Western that would bring the final curtain down on Hollywood Westerns.", "Stewart and Fonda both agreed to appear in it, but after long consideration, Wayne turned it down, citing his feeling that his character was more underdeveloped and uninteresting than those of his co-stars, which was largely based on John Ford's recommendation after perusing the script.", "The project was shelved for some 20 years, until McMurtry rewrote and expanded the original screenplay co-written with Bogdanovich to make the novel and subsequent TV miniseries ''Lonesome Dove'', with Tommy Lee Jones in Wayne's role and Robert Duvall playing the part originally written for Stewart in the extremely popular miniseries.", "* Mel Brooks offered Wayne the role of the Waco Kid (eventually played by Gene Wilder) in ''Blazing Saddles'' (1974).", "After reading the script, Wayne declined, fearing the dialogue was \"too dirty\" for his family-friendly image, but told Brooks that he would be \"first in line\" to see the movie.", "* Steven Spielberg offered both Wayne and Charlton Heston the role of Major General Joseph Stilwell in the film ''1941'' with Wayne also considered for a cameo in it.", "After reading the script, Wayne decided not to participate due to ill health, but also urged Spielberg not to pursue the project.", "Both Wayne and Heston felt the film was unpatriotic.", "Spielberg recalled, \"Wayne was really curious and so I sent him the script.", "He called me the next day and said he felt it was a very un-American movie, and I shouldn't waste my time making it.", "He said, 'You know, that was an important war, and you're making fun of a war that cost thousands of lives at Pearl Harbor.", "Don't joke about World War II'.\"" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "===Academy Awards=== Year WorkCategory Result1949''Sands of Iwo Jima'' Best Actor1960''The Alamo'' Best Picture1969''True Grit'' Best Actor===Golden Globe Awards=== Year WorkCategory Result1953 Henrietta Award (World Film Favorite – Male)1966 Cecil B. DeMille Award1970''True Grit'' Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama===Grammy Awards=== Year WorkCategory Result1972''America, Why I Love Her'' Best Spoken Word Album===Brass Balls Award===In 1973, ''The Harvard Lampoon'', a satirical paper run by Harvard University students, invited Wayne to receive The Brass Balls Award, created in his \"honor\", after calling him \"the biggest fraud in history\".", "Wayne accepted the invitation as a chance to promote the recently released film ''McQ'', and a Fort Devens Army convoy offered to drive him into Harvard Square on an armored personnel carrier.", "The ceremony was held on January 15, 1974, at the Harvard Square Theater and the award was officially presented in honor of Wayne's \"outstanding machismo and penchant for punching people\".", "Although the convoy was met with protests by members of the American Indian Movement and others, some of whom threw snowballs, Wayne received a standing ovation from the audience when he walked onto the stage.", "An internal investigation was launched into the Army's involvement in the day.===Additional awards and honors===* 1970, Received the DeMolay Legion of Honor* 1970, Received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement* 1973, Awarded the Gold Medal from the National Football Foundation* 1974, Inducted into the Hall of Great Western Performers in the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum* 1978, Received the Omar Bradley Spirit of Independence Award * 1979, Received the Congressional Gold Medal* 1980, Awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor, by President Jimmy Carter* 1986, Inducted into the DeMolay Hall of Fame" ], [ "See also", "* Hall of Great Western Performers* List of film director and actor collaborations* List of famous amateur chess players* List of Freemasons* National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum* Red Scare* John Wayne filmography" ], [ "References", "'''Footnotes''''''Citations'''===Sources===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Calder, Jenni (1979), ''John Wayne - Man and Myth of the West'', in Bold, Christine (ed.", "), ''Cencrastus'' No.", "1, Autumn 1979, pp.", "13 – 16 * * * * * Didion, Joan (1968).", "\"John Wayne: A Love Song\".", "In ''Slouching Towards Bethlehem''.", "New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.", "* * * Jensen, Richard (2012).", "''When the Legend Became Fact – The True Life of John Wayne''.", "Nashville: Raymond Street Publishers, 2012.", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * John Wayne Cancer Foundation* John Wayne Cancer Institute* FBI file on John Wayne* Birthplace of John Wayne official website* * * * \"On the Set of The Alamo\": Behind-the-scenes footage from the production of the film, from the Texas Archive of the Moving Image* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Johnny Haynes" ], [ "Introduction", "Fulham in 1958 with Johnny Haynes second from right in the front row'''John Norman Haynes''' (17 October 1934 – 18 October 2005) was an English association footballer who played as an inside forward.", "He made 56 appearances for his country including 22 as captain.", "He was selected for three World Cup finals squads playing in the latter two of those.", "Nicknamed \"the Maestro\", his attacking play was noted for two-footed passing ability, vision and deftness of touch.", "Haynes is widely regarded as Fulham's greatest ever player, remaining loyal there for twenty years despite coming no nearer to a major trophy win than two FA Cup semi-final appearances.", "Immediately following the abolition of the £20 maximum wage in 1961, he became the first player to be paid £100 a week.", "He also had a spell on loan with Toronto City in 1961 and ended his playing days at Durban City, winning there the only trophy he won in his football career." ], [ "Playing career", "The son of a post office engineer, Haynes was born in Kentish Town and supported Arsenal as a boy.", "He signed for Fulham as a 15-year-old amateur in 1950 when Fulham were in a three-season spell in the First Division.", "He was loaned to then non-League Wimbledon.", "He made his senior debut aged 18 in the 1952 Boxing Day visit of Southampton to Fulham, then in their first season back in the Second Division.Haynes made his debut for England in October 1954, scoring a goal in a 2–0 victory over Northern Ireland in Belfast.", "He first captained England in 1960 and played for them in two World Cups.He was one of many signatories of a letter to ''The Times'' on 17 July 1958 opposing \"the policy of apartheid\" in international sport and defending \"the principle of racial equality which is embodied in the Declaration of the Olympic Games\".Haynes played in his first of two FA Cup semi-finals in 1958.Fulham were eliminated in a replay by the remnants of Manchester United's Busby Babes team that had been devastated by the Munich air disaster the month before.", "United were the first top-division team Fulham played in that cup run.", "Fulham were promoted to the top division after finishing runners-up behind Sheffield Wednesday in 1959.In the 1959–60 season, Fulham finished 10th in the First Division, which was their highest league position until finishing 9th in the 2003–04 Premier League season.", "Following the abolition of the £20 maximum wage in 1961, he became Britain's first footballer to earn £100 per week.", "He played in a second FA Cup semi-final in 1962, losing in a replay to Burnley.", "In 1961, during the English off-season, he played abroad in the Eastern Canada Professional Soccer League with Toronto City.In August 1962 on Blackpool promenade, the sports car in which he was returning late to his hotel was blown by a gust of wind into the path of another vehicle.", "Haynes suffered broken bones in both feet and a badly injured knee.", "He recounted that the police officer who attended the incident reassured him by saying \"Don't worry son, you've only broken your legs\".", "He missed almost the entire season and, when he returned to the Fulham side, was not quite the same player.", "Prior to the accident, he had captained England 22 times, and, being only 27, was expected to lead them in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, but he was never again selected for the national team.Fulham were relegated in 1968.Haynes then had a single spell in football management, taking charge of Fulham for eighteen days in November that year after the dismissal of Bobby Robson as player-manager, but Haynes never had any ambition to go into coaching.", "That season, Fulham endured a second successive relegation.", "His last appearance for Fulham's first team was on 17 January 1970 in a Third Division home match against Stockport County.", "In total, he made 657 appearances for Fulham and scored 157 goals.In 1970, Haynes announced his retirement, aged 35, and joined Durban City, playing one season and winning South Africa's 1970–71 National Football League.", "This was his only winner's medal in senior football.", "During the 1972–73 season, Haynes made three league appearances for non-League club Wealdstone." ], [ "Post-playing career", "On retiring from playing in 1970 he was already an active bookmaker.", "He sold his chain of bookmakers to The Tote in 1976.In 1985 he moved to Edinburgh, the city of his partner Avril.", "Haynes first met Avril in the 1960s when she travelled down to London to buy stock for boutiques she ran in Edinburgh.", "On moving to Edinburgh he ran a laundry business with Avril, played golf and watched local club, Heart of Midlothian.", "In 2004 he and Avril married in a private ceremony at Dalkeith registry office." ], [ "Death", "On 17 October 2005, his 71st birthday, Haynes was driving his car, with Avril as passenger, on Edinburgh's Dalry Road when he suffered a brain haemorrhage, instantaneously effectively rendering him brain-dead.", "The vehicle veered across the road and crashed into a van.", "After being kept on a ventilator for some 30 hours, the ventilator was turned off on the evening of 18 October 2005.The funeral at Mortonhall Crematorium was attended by ex-players Bobby Charlton, George Cohen, Sven-Göran Eriksson, Dave Mackay, Alan Mullery, Jimmy Murray and Bobby Robson, and also George Foulkes.", "Avril was unable to attend due to injuries from the car accident.", "Haynes was survived by Avril and his stepchildren Mark and Sara." ], [ "Tributes", "Statue of Haynes outside Craven CottageIn 2002 Haynes became an inaugural inductee into the English Football Hall of Fame in recognition of his football talents and impact on the English game.On the day of Haynes' death, Alan Mullery, another ex-Fulham and England player, made the following tribute:\"He was the only reason I went to Fulham as a young boy of 15 leaving school.", "He was my hero, the captain of England and Fulham.", "The word great rolls off the tongue quite easily these days but he really was.", "He was the best passer of a ball I have ever seen - I don't know anyone who could pass a ball as accurately.", "Anyone who saw him will know what a great player he was.", "\"Shortly after his death, the Stevenage Road Stand at Craven Cottage was renamed The Johnny Haynes Stand.", "George Cohen, a World Cup winner for England in 1966 and a Fulham teammate of Johnny Haynes, stated:\"I have a hundred individual memories of the beauty of John's play.", "One stands out for the sheer perfection of his skill.", "It was a charity match which, but for that one second, has faded completely from my memory.", "The ball came to him at speed on a wet, slippery surface but with the slightest of adjustments, one that was almost imperceptible, he played it inside a full-back and into the path of an on-running winger.", "I looked at our coach Dave Sexton on the bench and he caught my glance and shook his head as if to say 'fantastic'.", "Haynes could give you goose bumps on a wet night in a match that didn't matter.", "\"Bobby Moore, England captain from 1964 to 1973, said of him: \"Once you get used to watching that perfection you realised the rest of the secret.", "John was always available, always hungry for the ball, always wanting to play.", "I loved watching the player.", "Later I learnt to love the man.\"", "Pelé said he had \"never seen a better passer of the ball\" than Haynes.The Fulham Supporters Trust stated: \"His dedication, skill, professionalism, grace and charm - both in his playing days and in retirement - serve as a poignant reminder to many of today's footballers about what true greatness really means.\"", "On 28 July 2008, Fulham announced that fundraising had commenced, with the co-operation of a fan's group, to produce a lasting tribute to Haynes.", "The Johnny Haynes Statue was unveiled outside the stadium before the 0–0 draw v Sunderland on Saturday 18 October 2008." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueFA CupLeague CupEuropeTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsFulham1952–53Second Division181953–54411954–55371955–56401956–57331957–58381958–59341959–60First Division311960–61391961–62381962–6381963–64401964–65391965–66331966–67361967–68341968–69Second Division281969–70Third Division27Career total594147===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsEngland1954111955201956741957631958104195971196073196182196280Total5618" ], [ "Honours", "'''Durban City'''* National Football League: 1970–71'''Individual'''* Ballon d'Or Bronze Award: 1961* Football League 100 Legends: 1998* Member of English Football Hall of Fame: 2002" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Brown, Geoff and Hogsbjerg, Christian.", "''Apartheid is not a Game: Remembering the Stop the Seventy Tour campaign.''", "London: Redwords, 2020.." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Haynes' Post War English & Scottish Football League A - Z Player's Transfer Database profile's statistics site* * * Pathe newsreel footage of Johnny Haynes hattrick for England against Russia* Brian Glanville: Silent fans pay tribute to their midfield maestro (subscription required)* Memories of Craven Cottage" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Sayles" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Thomas Sayles''' (born September 28, 1950) is an American independent film director, screenwriter, editor, actor, and novelist.", "He is known for writing and directing the films ''The Brother from Another Planet'' (1984), ''Matewan'' (1987), ''Eight Men Out'' (1988), ''Passion Fish'' (1992), ''The Secret of Roan Inish'' (1994), ''Lone Star'' (1996), and ''Men with Guns'' (1997).For ''Eight Men Out'', Sayles was nominated for the USC Scripter Award.", "He has twice been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay, for ''Passion Fish'' and ''Lone Star''.", "At the 56th Golden Globe Awards, ''Men with Guns'' was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film.", "His directorial debut, ''Return of the Secaucus 7'' (1980), as well as ''Matewan'', were added to the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress in 1997 and 2023, respectively." ], [ "Early life", "Sayles was born on September 28, 1950, in Schenectady, New York, the son of Mary (''née'' Rausch), a teacher, and Donald John Sayles, a school administrator.", "Both of Sayles's parents were Catholic and of half-Irish descent.", "Sayles has referred to himself as a \"Catholic atheist\".", "He attended Williams College with frequent collaborators Gordon Clapp and David Strathairn, as well as his longtime partner, Maggie Renzi.", "Sayles earned a B.A.", "in psychology in 1972." ], [ "Career", "After college, Sayles moved to Boston where he worked a variety of blue-collar jobs while writing short stories for ''The Atlantic''.", "These writings culminated in his first novel, ''The Pride of the Bimbos'', published in 1975.Like Martin Scorsese and Francis Ford Coppola, Sayles began his film career working with Roger Corman.", "In 1979, Sayles used $30,000 he earned writing scripts for Corman to fund his first film, ''Return of the Secaucus 7''.", "To make the film on a limited budget, he set the film in a large house so that he did not have to travel to or get permits for different locations, set the story over a three-day weekend to limit costume changes, and wrote about people his age so he could cast his friends in it.", "The film received near-unanimous critical acclaim at the time and has held its reputation.", "In November 1997, the National Film Preservation Board announced that ''Return of the Secaucus 7'' would be one of the 25 films selected that year for preservation in the National Film Registry at the Library of Congress.In 1983, after the films ''Baby It's You'' (starring Rosanna Arquette) and ''Lianna'' (a story in which a married woman becomes discontented with her marriage and falls in love with another woman), Sayles received a MacArthur Fellowship.", "He put the money into the science fiction feature ''The Brother from Another Planet'', a film about a three-toed humanoid who escapes bondage on another world and crash-lands in New York harbour; because he is Africanoid in appearance, he finds himself at home among the people of Harlem, being pursued by European-looking alien enslavers men in black.Sayles at the Miami Book Fair International, 2011In 1989, Sayles created and wrote the pilot episode for the short-lived television show ''Shannon's Deal'' about a down-and-out Philadelphia lawyer played by Jamey Sheridan.", "Sayles received a 1990 Edgar Award for his teleplay for the pilot.", "The show ran for 16 episodes before being cancelled in 1991.Sayles has funded most of his films by writing genre scripts, such as ''Piranha'', ''Alligator'', ''The Howling'', and ''The Challenge'' Having collaborated with Joe Dante on ''Piranha'' and ''The Howling'', Sayles acted in Dante's movie, ''Matinee''.", "Sayles gets the rest of his funding by working as a script doctor; he did rewrites for ''Apollo 13'' and ''Mimic''.A genre script, called ''Night Skies'', inspired what would eventually become the film ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial''.", "That film's director, Steven Spielberg, later commissioned Sayles to write a script (unused) for the fourth ''Jurassic Park'' film.He has written and directed his own films, including ''Lone Star'', ''Passion Fish'', ''Eight Men Out'', ''The Secret of Roan Inish,'' and ''Matewan''.", "He serves on the advisory board for the Austin Film Society.Maggie Renzi has been John Sayles's long-time companion (and collaborator), but they have not married.", "Renzi has produced most of his films since ''Lianna''.", "They met as students at Williams College.Sayles works with a regular repertory of actors, most notably Chris Cooper, David Strathairn, and Gordon Clapp, each of whom has appeared in at least four of his films.In early 2003, Sayles signed the Not In Our Name \"Statement of Conscience\" (along with Noam Chomsky, Steve Earle, Brian Eno, Jesse Jackson, Viggo Mortensen, Bonnie Raitt, Oliver Stone, Marisa Tomei, Susan Sarandon and others) which opposed the invasion of Iraq.In February 2009, Sayles was reported to be writing an HBO series based on the early life of Anthony Kiedis of the Red Hot Chili Peppers.", "The drama, tentatively titled ''Scar Tissue'', centers on Kiedis's early years living in West Hollywood with his father.", "At that time, Kiedis's father, known as Spider, sold drugs (according to legend, his clients included The Who and Led Zeppelin) and mingled with rock stars on the Sunset Strip, all while aspiring to get into show business.In February 2010, Sayles began shooting his 17th feature film, the historical war drama ''Amigo'', in the Philippines.", "The film is a fictional account of events during the Philippine–American War, with a cast that includes Joel Torre, Chris Cooper, and Garret Dillahunt.His novel ''A Moment in the Sun'', set during the same period as ''Amigo'', in the Philippines, Cuba, and the U.S., was released in 2011 by McSweeney's.", "It includes an account of the Wilmington Insurrection of 1898 in North Carolina, the only coup d'état in United States history in which a duly elected government was overthrown." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "*1983 MacArthur Fellowship *1990 Edgar Award, for teleplay for pilot of ''Shannon's Deal''*In June 2014, Sayles donated his non-film archive to the University of Michigan.", "It will be accessible at the Harlan Hatcher Graduate Library.", "Sayles's film archive is held by the UCLA Film and Television Archive." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Director Writer 1978 ''Piranha'' 1979 ''The Lady in Red'' 1980 ''Return of the Secaucus 7'' ''Battle Beyond the Stars'' ''Alligator'' 1981 ''The Howling'' 1982 ''The Challenge'' 1983 ''Lianna'' ''Baby It's You'' ''Enormous Changes at the Last Minute'' 1984 ''The Brother from Another Planet'' 1986 ''The Clan of the Cave Bear'' 1987 ''Wild Thing'' ''Matewan'' 1988 ''Eight Men Out'' 1989 ''Breaking In'' 1991 ''City of Hope'' 1992 ''Passion Fish'' 1994 ''The Secret of Roan Inish'' ''Men of War'' 1995 ''Apollo 13'' 1996 ''Lone Star'' 1997 ''Men with Guns'' 1999 ''Limbo'' 2002 ''Sunshine State'' 2003 ''Casa de los Babys'' 2004 ''Silver City'' 2007 ''Honeydripper'' 2008 ''The Spiderwick Chronicles'' 2010 ''Amigo'' 2013 ''Go for Sisters'' 2018 ''The Devil's Highway'' ===Acting roles=== Year Title Role 1980 ''Return of the Secaucus 7'' Howie 1983 ''Lianna'' Jerry 1984 ''The Brother from Another Planet'' Man in Black #2 1986 ''Something Wild'' Motorcycle Cop 1987 ''Matewan'' Hardshell Preacher 1988 ''Eight Men Out'' Ring Lardner 1991 ''City of Hope'' Carl 1993 ''Matinee'' Bob 1996 ''Gridlock'd'' 2009 ''In the Electric Mist'' Michael Goldman 2012 ''The Normals'' Dr. Marx===Television===* ''A Perfect Match'' (1980)* ''Unnatural Causes'' (1986)* ''Shannon's Deal'' (1989) (Creator)* ''The Alienist'' (2018)" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Novels===*''Pride of the Bimbos'' (1975) (novel)*''Union Dues'' (1977) (novel)*''Los Gusanos'' (1991) (novel)*''A Moment in the Sun'' (2011) (novel)*''Yellow Earth'' (2020) (novel)*''Jamie McGillivray'' (2023) (novel)===Collections and non-fiction===*''The Anarchists' Convention'' (1979) (short story collection)*''Thinking in Pictures: The Making of the Movie \"Matewan\"'' (1987) (non-fiction)*''Dillinger in Hollywood'' (2004) (short story collection)" ], [ "Music videos", "*Bruce Springsteen – \"Born in the U.S.A.\"*Bruce Springsteen – \"I'm on Fire\"*Bruce Springsteen – \"Glory Days\"" ], [ "Awards/nominations", "===Films===Awards for ''Honeydripper'':*Outstanding Independent or Foreign Film (Win) – 2008 NAACP Image Award*Outstanding Writing in a Motion Picture (Theatrical or Television) (Nominated) – John Sayles – 2008 NAACP Image Awards*Top 10 Independent Films of 2007 – National Board of Review of Motion Pictures*Best Screenplay (Win) – John Sayles – 2007 San Sebastián International Film Festival (Tied with Gracia Querejeta and David Planell for Siete mesas de billar francés (2007))Award for ''Silver City'':*Golden Seashell Award for Best Film (Nominated) – John Sayles – 2004 San Sebastián International Film FestivalAwards for ''Sunshine State'':*Golden Orange Award (Win) – John Sayles – 2002 Florida Film Critics Circle Awards*Special Mention For Excellence In Filmmaking (Win) – 2002 National Board of ReviewAwards for ''Limbo'':*Best Director Golden Space Needle Award (Win) – John Sayles −1999 Seattle International Film Festival*Outstanding Indies (Win) – 1999 National Board of ReviewAwards for ''Men with Guns/Hombres armados'':*Best Foreign Independent Film (Nominated) – 1998 British Independent Film Awards*Best Foreign Film (Nominated) – 1999 Golden Globes*Peace Award (Nominated) – 1998 Political Film Society*FIPRESCI Prize (Win) – John Sayles – 1997 San Sebastián International Film Festival*OCIC Award (Win) – John Sayles – 1997 San Sebastián International Film Festival*Solidarity Award (Win) – John Sayles – 1997 San Sebastián International Film Festival*Golden Seashell Award for Best Film (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1997 San Sebastián International Film FestivalAwards for ''Lone Star'':*Best Original Screenplay (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1997 Academy Awards*Best Original Screenplay (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1997 BAFTA Awards*Best Screenplay, Motion Picture (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1997 Golden Globes*Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1997 Writers Guild of America Award*Best Picture (Nominated) – 1997 Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards*Best Motion Picture Original Screenplay (Win) – John Sayles – 1997 Golden Satellite Awards*Best Motion Picture – Drama (Nominated) – Maggie Renzi & R. Paul Miller – 1997 Golden Satellite Awards*Best Screenplay (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1997 Independent Spirit Awards*Best Film (Win) – Lone Star – 1996 Lone Star Film & Television Awards*Best Director (Win) – John Sayles – 1996 Lone Star Film & Television Awards*Best Screenplay (Win) – John Sayles – 1996 Lone Star Film & Television Awards*Special Achievement Award for Outstanding Feature Film (Win) – 1996 NCLR Bravo Awards*Best Director (Win) – John Sayles – 1997 Southeastern Film Critics Association AwardsAwards for ''The Secret of Roan Inish'':*Best Genre Video Release (Nominated) – 1996 Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films*International Critics Award (Win) – John Sayles – 1996 Gérardmer Film Festival*Best Director (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1996 Independent Spirit Awards*Best Screenplay (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1996 Independent Spirit AwardsAwards for ''Passion Fish'':*Best Original Screenplay (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1993 Academy Awards*Golden Spur Award (Win) – John Sayles – 1993 Flanders International Film Festival*Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1993 Writers Guild of AmericaAwards for ''City of Hope'':*Critics Award (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1991 Deauville American Film Festival*Special Award, Democracy Award (Win) – 1992 Political Film Society*Tokyo Grand Prix Award (Win) – John Sayles – 1991 Tokyo International Film FestivalAwards for ''Matewan'':*Critics Award (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1987 Deauville American Film Festival*Best Director (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1988 Independent Spirit Awards*Best Screenplay (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1988 Independent Spirit Award*Human Rights Award (Win) – 1988 Political Film SocietyAwards for ''The Brother from Another Planet'':*Best Screenplay Caixa de Catalunya Award (Win) – John Sayles – 1984 Catalan International Film Festival, Sitges, Spain*Grand Jury Prize – Dramatic (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1985 USA Film Festival (later became the Sundance Film Festival)Awards for ''Return of the Secaucus 7'':*Best Independent Film (Win) – 1981 Boston Society of Film Critics Awards*Best Screenplay (Win) – John Sayles – 1980 Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards*National Film Registry – 1997 Library of Congress, National Film Preservation Board*Best Comedy Written Directly for the Screen (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1981 Writers Guild of America*Best Screenplay (Nominated) – John Sayles – 1980 New York Film Critics Circle*Second Place – 1981 US Film Festival (later became the Sundance Film Festival)===Other recognition===Sayles's first published story, \"I-80 Nebraska\", won an O. Henry Award; his novel, ''Union Dues'', was nominated for a National Book Award as well as the National Book Critics Circle Award.In 1983, Sayles received the John D. MacArthur Award, given to 20 Americans in diverse fields each year for their innovative work.", "He has also been the recipient of the Eugene V. Debs Award, the John Steinbeck Award and the John Cassavetes Award.", "He was honored with the Ian McLellan Hunter Award for Lifetime Achievement by the Writers Guild of America (1999)." ], [ "Recurring collaborators", "Actors who have regularly worked with Sayles include Maggie Renzi, David Strathairn, Joe Morton, Chris Cooper, Mary McDonnell, Vincent Spano, Kevin Tighe, Josh Mostel, Tom Wright, Gordon Clapp and Angela Bassett.", "Jace Alexander Eliot Asinof Angela Bassett Jesse Borrego Leo Burmester Gordon Clapp Bill Cobbs Chris Cooper Liane Alexandra Curtis Vondie Curtis-Hall Richard Edson Miguel Ferrer Kathryn Grody Lisa Gay Hamilton Daryl Hannah Clifton James Kris Kristofferson Perry Lang Susan Lynch Vanessa Martinez Mary McDonnell Sam McMurray Joe Morton Josh Mostel Bill Raymond Maggie Renzi John Sayles Vincent Spano Mary Steenburgen Fisher Stevens David Strathairn Kevin Tighe Ralph Waite Tom Wright" ], [ "See also", "*''Night Skies'' – for a more complete history of how the proposed ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind'' sequel became the ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial'' story" ], [ "Further reading", "*Diane Carson and Heidi Kenaga, eds., ''Sayles Talk: New Perspectives on Independent Filmmaker John Sayles'', Wayne State University Press, 2006*John Sayles, ''Thinking in Pictures: The Making of the Movie Matewan'', Da Capo Press, 2003" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database* Interview April 2007 by Cathy Pryor in the London Independent* ''The Rumpus'' interview* ''Return of the Independent: Sayles on Sayles'' (5-part interview) from siffblog.com* ''Cinema of Bread and Roses: An Interview with Maggie Renzi and John Sayles '', ''Filmmaker,'' December 18, 2023" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "January 12" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 475 – Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople, and his general, Basiliscus gains control of the empire.", "*1528 – Gustav I of Sweden is crowned King of Sweden, having already reigned since his election in June 1523.", "*1554 – Bayinnaung, who would go on to assemble the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia, is crowned King of Burma.===1601–1900===*1616 – The city of Belém, Brazil is founded on the Amazon River delta by Portuguese captain Francisco Caldeira Castelo Branco.", "*1792 – Federalist Thomas Pinckney appointed first U.S. minister to Britain.", "*1808 – John Rennie's scheme to defend St Mary's Church, Reculver, founded in 669, from coastal erosion is abandoned in favour of demolition, despite the church being an exemplar of Anglo-Saxon architecture and sculpture.", "* 1808 – The organizational meeting leading to the creation of the Wernerian Natural History Society, a former Scottish learned society, is held in Edinburgh.", "*1848 – The Palermo rising takes place in Sicily against the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.", "*1866 – The Royal Aeronautical Society is formed in London.", "*1872 – Yohannes IV is crowned Emperor of Ethiopia in Axum, the first imperial coronation in that city in over 200 years.", "*1895 – The National Trust is founded in the United Kingdom.===1901–present===*1911 – The University of the Philippines College of Law is formally established; three future Philippine presidents are among the first enrollees.", "*1915 – The United States House of Representatives rejects a proposal to require states to give women the right to vote.", "*1916 – Both Oswald Boelcke and Max Immelmann, for achieving eight aerial victories each over Allied aircraft, receive the German Empire's highest military award, the Pour le Mérite as the first German aviators to earn it.", "*1918 – The Minnie Pit Disaster coal mining accident occurs in Halmer End, Staffordshire, in which 155 men and boys die.", "*1932 – Hattie Caraway becomes the first woman elected to the United States Senate.", "*1942 – World War II: United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt creates the National War Labor Board.", "*1945 – World War II: The Red Army begins the Vistula–Oder Offensive.", "*1955 – A Martin 2-0-2 and Douglas DC-3 collide over Boone County, Kentucky, killing 15 people.", "*1962 – Vietnam War: Operation Chopper, the first American combat mission in the war, takes place.", "*1964 – Rebels in Zanzibar begin a revolt known as the Zanzibar Revolution and proclaim a republic.", "*1966 – Lyndon B. Johnson states that the United States should stay in South Vietnam until Communist aggression there is ended.", "*1967 – Dr. James Bedford becomes the first person to be cryonically preserved with intent of future resuscitation.", "*1969 – The New York Jets of the American Football League defeat the Baltimore Colts of the National Football League to win Super Bowl III in what is considered to be one of the greatest upsets in sports history.", "*1970 – Biafra capitulates, ending the Nigerian Civil War.", "*1971 – The Harrisburg Seven: Rev.", "Philip Berrigan and five other activists are indicted on charges of conspiring to kidnap Henry Kissinger and of plotting to blow up the heating tunnels of federal buildings in Washington, D.C.*1976 – The United Nations Security Council votes 11–1 to allow the Palestine Liberation Organization to participate in a Security Council debate (without voting rights).", "*1986 – Space Shuttle program: Congressman and future NASA Administrator Bill Nelson lifts off from Kennedy Space Center aboard ''Columbia'' on mission STS-61-C as a payload specialist.", "*1990 – A seven-day pogrom breaks out against the Armenian civilian population of Baku, Azerbaijan, during which Armenians were beaten, tortured, murdered, and expelled from the city.", "*1991 – Persian Gulf War: An act of the U.S. Congress authorizes the use of American military force to drive Iraq out of Kuwait.", "*1997 – Space Shuttle program: ''Atlantis'' launches from the Kennedy Space Center on mission STS-81 to the Russian space station ''Mir'', carrying astronaut Jerry M. Linenger for a four-month stay on board the station, replacing astronaut John E.", "Blaha.", "*1998 – Nineteen European nations agree to forbid human cloning.", "*2001 – Downtown Disney opens to the public as part of the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California.", "*2004 – The world's largest ocean liner, , makes its maiden voyage.", "*2005 – Deep Impact launches from Cape Canaveral on a Delta II rocket.", "*2006 – A stampede during the Stoning of the Devil ritual on the last day at the Hajj in Mina, Saudi Arabia, kills at least 362 Muslim pilgrims.", "*2007 – Comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught), one of the brightest comets ever observed is at its zenith visible during the day.", "*2010 – An earthquake in Haiti occurs, killing between 220,000 and 300,000 people and destroying much of the capital Port-au-Prince.", "*2012 – Violent protests occur in Bucharest, Romania, as two-day-old demonstrations continue against President Traian Băsescu's economic austerity measures.", "Clashes are reported in numerous Romanian cities between protesters and law enforcement officers.", "*2015 – Government raids kill 143 Boko Haram fighters in Kolofata, Cameroon.", "*2016 – Ten people are killed and 15 wounded in a bombing near the Blue Mosque in Istanbul.", "*2020 – Taal Volcano in the Philippines erupts and kills 39 people." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1483 – Henry III of Nassau-Breda (d. 1538)*1562 – Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1630)*1576 – Petrus Scriverius, Dutch historian and scholar (d. 1660)*1577 – Jan Baptist van Helmont, Flemish chemist and physician (d. 1644)*1588 – John Winthrop, English lawyer and politician, 2nd Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (d. 1649)*1591 – Jusepe de Ribera, Spanish painter (d. 1652)*1597 – François Duquesnoy, Flemish sculptor and educator (d. 1643)*1598 – Jijabai Shahaji Bhosale, mother of Indian king Shivaji (d. 1674)===1601–1900===*1628 – Charles Perrault, French author and academic (d. 1703)*1673 – Rosalba Carriera, Italian painter (d. 1757)*1694 – Godscall Paleologue, possibly last member of the Palaiologos dynasty (d.", "?", "???", ")*1711 – Gaetano Latilla, Italian composer (d. 1788)*1715 – Jacques Duphly, French organist and composer (d. 1789)*1716 – Antonio de Ulloa, Spanish general and politician, 1st Spanish Governor of Louisiana (d. 1795)*1721 – Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Prussian field marshal (d. 1792)*1723 – Samuel Langdon, American minister, theologian, and academic (d. 1797)*1724 – Frances Brooke, English author and playwright (d. 1789)*1729 – Edmund Burke, Irish philosopher, academic, and politician (d. 1797)*1746 – Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Swiss philosopher and educator (d. 1827)*1751 – Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies (d. 1825)*1772 – Mikhail Speransky, Russian academic and politician (d. 1839)*1786 – Sir Robert Inglis, 2nd Baronet, English politician (d. 1855)*1792 – Johan August Arfwedson, Swedish chemist and academic (d. 1841)*1797 – Gideon Brecher, Austrian physician and author (d. 1873)*1799 – Priscilla Susan Bury, British botanist (d. 1872)*1822 – Étienne Lenoir, Belgian engineer, designed the internal combustion engine (d. 1900)*1837 – Adolf Jensen, German pianist and composer (d. 1879)*1849 – Jean Béraud, Russian-French painter and academic (d. 1935)*1853 – Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, Italian mathematician (d. 1925)*1856 – John Singer Sargent, American painter and academic (d. 1925)*1863 – Swami Vivekananda, Indian monk and philosopher (d. 1902)*1869 – Bhagwan Das, Indian philosopher, academic, and politician (d. 1958)*1873 – Spyridon Louis, Greek runner (d. 1940)*1874 – Laura Adams Armer, American author and photographer (d. 1963)*1876 – Fevzi Çakmak, Turkish field marshal and politician, Prime Minister of the Turkish Provisional Government (d. 1950)* 1876 – Jack London, American novelist and journalist (d. 1916)* 1876 – Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, Italian composer and educator (d. 1948)*1877 – Frank J. Corr, American lawyer and politician, 45th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1934)*1878 – Ferenc Molnár, Hungarian-American author and playwright (d. 1952)*1879 – Ray Harroun, American race car driver and engineer (d. 1968)* 1879 – Anton Uesson, Estonian engineer and politician, 17th Mayor of Tallinn (d. 1942)*1882 – Milton Sills, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1930)*1884 – Texas Guinan, American entertainer and bootlegger (d. 1933)* 1885 – Thomas Ashe, Irish Republican died while on Hunger Strike (d. 1917)*1889 – Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad, Indian-Pakistani spiritual leader (d. 1965)*1890 – Johannes Vares, Estonian poet, physician, and politician (d. 1946)*1892 – Mikhail Gurevich, Russian engineer and businessman, co-founded the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau (d. 1976)*1893 – Hermann Göring, German commander, pilot, and politician, Minister President of Prussia (d. 1946)* 1893 – Alfred Rosenberg, Estonian-German architect and politician, Reich Minister for the Occupied Eastern Territories (d. 1946)*1894 – Georges Carpentier, French boxer and actor (d. 1975)*1895 – Leo Aryeh Mayer, Polish-Israeli scholar and academic (d. 1959)*1896 – Uberto De Morpurgo, Italian tennis player (d. 1961)* 1896 – David Wechsler, Romanian-American psychologist and author (d. 1981)*1899 – Pierre Bernac, French opera singer and educator (d. 1979)* 1899 – Paul Hermann Müller, Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)===1901–present===*1901 – Karl Künstler, German SS officer (d. 1945)*1903 – Igor Kurchatov, Russian physicist and academic (d. 1960)* 1903 – Andrew J. Transue, American politician and attorney (''Morissette v. United States'') (d. 1995)*1904 – Mississippi Fred McDowell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1972)*1905 – Nihal Atsız, Turkish author, poet, and philosopher (d. 1975)* 1905 – James Bennett Griffin, American archaeologist and academic (d. 1997)* 1905 – Tex Ritter, American actor and singer (d. 1974)*1906 – Emmanuel Levinas, Lithuanian-French historian, philosopher, and academic (d. 1995)*1907 – Sergei Korolev, Russian colonel and engineer (d. 1966)*1908 – Jean Delannoy, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2008)* 1908 – Clement Hurd, American illustrator (d. 1988)*1910 – Patsy Kelly, American actress and comedian (d. 1981)* 1910 – Luise Rainer, German-English actress (d. 2014)*1912 – Richard Kuremaa, Estonian footballer (d. 1991)*1914 – Mieko Kamiya, Japanese psychiatrist and psychologist (d. 1979)*1915 – Paul Jarrico, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1997)* 1915 – Joseph-Aurèle Plourde, Canadian archbishop and academic (d. 2013)*1916 – Ruth R. Benerito, American chemist and inventor (d. 2013)* 1916 – P. W. Botha, South African politician, 8th Prime Minister of South Africa (d. 2006)* 1916 – Mary Wilson, Baroness Wilson of Rievaulx, British poet and Spouse of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2018)*1917 – Walter Hendl, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2007)* 1917 – Jimmy Skinner, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2007)*1920 – James Farmer, American activist and politician, co-founded Congress of Racial Equality (d. 1999)* 1920 – Jerzy Zubrzycki, Polish-Australian sociologist and academic (d. 2009)*1922 – Tadeusz Żychiewicz, Polish journalist and historian (d. 1994)*1923 – Ira Hayes, American marine who raised the U.S. flag on Iwo Jima (d. 1955)*1924 – Olivier Gendebien, Belgian racing driver and businessman (d. 1998)*1925 – Bill Burrud, American television host, producer, and actor (d. 1990)*1926 – Morton Feldman, American composer and academic (d. 1987)* 1926 – Ray Price, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)*1928 – Ruth Brown, American R&B singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2006) *1929 – Jaakko Hintikka, Finnish philosopher and logician (d. 2015)* 1929 – Alasdair MacIntyre, Scottish-American philosopher and academic*1930 – Tim Horton, Canadian ice hockey player and businessman, founded Tim Hortons (d. 1974)* 1930 – Jennifer Johnston, Irish author and playwright* 1930 – Glenn Yarbrough, American singer and actor (d. 2016)*1932 – Des O'Connor, English entertainer, singer and TV presenter (d. 2020)*1933 – Pavlos Matesis, Greek author and playwright (d. 2013)*1934 – Alan Sharp, Scottish-American author and screenwriter (d. 2013)* 1934 – Mick Sullivan, English rugby player and coach (d. 2016)*1935 – Teresa del Conde, Mexican historian and critic (d. 2017)* 1935 – Kreskin, American mentalist*1936 – Jennifer Hilton, Baroness Hilton of Eggardon, English police officer and politician* 1936 – Raimonds Pauls, Latvian pianist and composer* 1936 – Brajanath Ratha, Indian poet and activist (d. 2014)* 1936 – Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Home Affairs (d. 2016)*1937 – Shirley Eaton, English actress*1938 – Qazi Hussain Ahmad, Pakistani scholar and politician (d. 2013)*1940 – Bob Hewitt, Australian-South African tennis player* 1940 – Ronald Shannon Jackson, American drummer and composer (d. 2013)* 1940 – Dick Motz, New Zealand cricketer (d. 2007)*1941 – Long John Baldry, English-Canadian singer-songwriter and voice actor (d. 2005)* 1941 – Fiona Caldicott, English psychiatrist and psychotherapist (d. 2021)* 1941 – Chet Jastremski, American swimmer and physician (d. 2014)*1942 – Bernardine Dohrn, American domestic terrorist, political activist and academic*1944 – Hans Henning Atrott, German author and theorist (d. 2018)* 1944 – Joe Frazier, American boxer (d. 2011)* 1944 – Cynthia Robinson, American R&B trumpet player and singer (d. 2015)*1945 – Maggie Bell, Scottish singer-songwriter*1946 – Hazel Cosgrove, Lady Cosgrove, Scottish lawyer and judge* 1946 – George Duke, American keyboard player, composer, and educator (d. 2013)*1947 – Richard Carwardine, English historian and academic* 1947 – Tom Dempsey, American football player and educator (d. 2020)* 1947 – Sally Hamwee, Baroness Hamwee, English politician*1948 – Kenny Allen, English footballer* 1948 – Anthony Andrews, English actor and producer* 1948 – Gordon Campbell, Canadian educator and politician, 34th Premier of British Columbia* 1948 – Brendan Foster, English runner and sportscaster* 1948 – William Nicholson, English author and screenwriter*1949 – Kentarō Haneda, Japanese pianist and composer (d. 2007)* 1949 – Ottmar Hitzfeld, German footballer and manager* 1949 – Hamadi Jebali, Tunisian engineer, journalist, and politician, 19th Prime Minister of Tunisia* 1949 – Haruki Murakami, Japanese novelist, short-story writer, and essayist*1950 – Randy Jones, American baseball player* 1950 – Sheila Jackson Lee, American lawyer, judge, and politician* 1950 – Göran Lindblad, Swedish dentist and politician* 1950 – Bob McEwen, American businessman and politician* 1950 – Dorrit Moussaieff, Israeli-Icelandic jewelry designer and businesswoman, 5th First Lady of Iceland*1951 – Kirstie Alley, American actress and producer (d. 2022)* 1951 – Chris Bell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1978)* 1951 – Rush Limbaugh, American talk show host and author (d. 2021)* 1951 – Drew Pearson, American football player and sportscaster*1952 – Ramón Fagoaga, Salvadoran footballer* 1952 – Walter Mosley, American novelist* 1952 – Phil Perry, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1952 – Campy Russell, American basketball player* 1952 – Ricky Van Shelton, American country singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1952 – John Walker, New Zealand runner and politician*1953 – Mary Harron, Canadian director and screenwriter*1954 – Howard Stern, American radio host, actor, and author*1955 – Tom Ardolino, American rock drummer (d. 2012)* 1955 – Arif Yunusov, Azerbaijani author, historian, and human rights activist.", "*1956 – Nikolai Noskov, Russian rock singer and singer-songwriter*1957 – John Lasseter, American animator, director, and producer* 1957 – Jeremy Sams, English director, playwright, and composer*1958 – Christiane Amanpour, English-Iranian journalist* 1958 – Curt Fraser, American-Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1959 – B. Brian Blair, American wrestler and politician* 1959 – Per Gessle, Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer*1960 – Oliver Platt, Canadian-American actor* 1960 – Dominique Wilkins, French-American basketball player*1961 – Simon Russell Beale, Malaysia-born English actor and historian*1962 – Joe Quesada, American author and illustrator* 1962 – Richie Richardson, Antiguan cricketer* 1962 – Luna Vachon, American-Canadian wrestler and manager (d. 2010)*1963 – François Girard, Canadian director and screenwriter* 1963 – Nando Reis, Brazilian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer*1964 – Jeff Bezos, American computer scientist and businessman*1965 – Nikolai Borschevsky, Russian ice hockey player* 1965 – Rob Zombie, American singer-songwriter, producer, actor, and director*1966 – Olivier Martinez, French actor* 1966 – Craig Parry, Australian golfer*1967 – Vendela Kirsebom, Norwegian-Swedish model and actress*1968 – Farrah Forke, American actress (d. 2022)* 1968 – Rachael Harris, American actress and comedian* 1968 – Junichi Masuda, Japanese director, producer, and composer* 1968 – Heather Mills, English businesswoman, activist and model* 1968 – Mauro Silva, Brazilian footballer*1969 – David Mitchell, English novelist* 1969 – Margaret Nagle, American screenwriter and producer*1970 – Zack de la Rocha, American singer-songwriter* 1970 – Raekwon, American rapper*1971 – Arman Alizad, Iranian-Finnish tailor and television presenter* 1971 – Scott Burrell, American basketball player and coach* 1971 – Peter Madsen, Danish engineer, entrepreneur, and convicted murderer*1972 – Priyanka Gandhi, Indian politician* 1972 – Zabryna Guevara, American actress* 1972 – Espen Knutsen, Norwegian ice hockey player and coach* 1972 – Paul Wilson, Australian cricketer and umpire* 1972 – Toto Wolff, Austrian investor*1973 – Brian Culbertson, American pianist and producer* 1973 – Hande Yener, Turkish singer-songwriter, producer, and actress*1974 – Melanie C, English singer-songwriter and actress * 1974 – Tor Arne Hetland, Norwegian skier*1975 – Jason Freese, American saxophonist, songwriter, and producer* 1975 – Jocelyn Thibault, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1977 – Yoandy Garlobo, Cuban baseball player (d. 2023)*1978 – Luis Ayala, Mexican baseball player* 1978 – Jeremy Camp, American singer-songwriter and musician* 1978 – Maurizio Zaffiri, Italian rugby player*1979 – Lee Bo-young, South Korean actress and model* 1979 – Marián Hossa, Slovak ice hockey player* 1979 – Grzegorz Rasiak, Polish footballer* 1979 – David Zabriskie, American cyclist*1980 – Amerie, American singer-songwriter, producer, and writer* 1980 – Bobby Crosby, American baseball player*1981 – Niklas Kronwall, Swedish ice hockey player* 1981 – Angus Macdonald, New Zealand rugby player* 1981 – João Paulo, Brazilian footballer* 1981 – Luis Ernesto Pérez, Mexican footballer and manager*1982 – Paul-Henri Mathieu, French tennis player* 1982 – Chris Ray, American baseball player* 1982 – Hans Van Alphen, Belgian decathlete* 1982 – Dean Whitehead, English footballer* 1982 – Dontrelle Willis, American baseball player*1984 – Jonathan Zydko, French footballer*1985 – Cynthia Addai-Robinson, English-American actress* 1985 – Artem Milevskyi, Ukrainian footballer* 1985 – Issa Rae, American actress, writer, director, producer and web series creator* 1985 – Borja Valero, Spanish footballer*1986 – Kehoma Brenner, German rugby player* 1986 – Miguel Ángel Nieto, Spanish footballer* 1986 – Dani Osvaldo, Italian-Argentinian footballer *1987 – Iván Nova, Dominican baseball player* 1987 – Naya Rivera, American actress and singer (d. 2020)* 1987 – Salvatore Sirigu, Italian footballer*1988 – Claude Giroux, Canadian ice hockey player* 1988 – Hyun-soo Kim, South Korean baseball player*1989 – Thiemo-Jérôme Kialka, German footballer* 1989 – Axel Witsel, Belgian footballer*1991 – Pixie Lott, English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress* 1991 – Raquel Rodriguez, American wrestler* 1991 – Matt Srama, Australian rugby league player* 1991 – Alex Wood, American baseball player* 1992 – Ishak Belfodil, Algerian footballer* 1992 – Samuele Longo, Italian footballer*1993 – Jamel Artis, American basketball player* 1993 – D.O., South Korean singer* 1993 – Zayn Malik, English singer* 1993 – Simone Pecorini, Italian footballer*1994 – Emre Can, German footballer*1995 – Allisha Gray, American basketball player* 1995 – Mike McGlinchey, American football player*1996 – Ella Henderson, English singer and songwriter*1997 – Darius Slayton, American football player*1998 – Juan Foyth, Argentinian footballer*1999 – Xavier Tillman, American basketball player* 1999 – Tyler Roberts, Welsh footballer*2000 – Sven Botman, Dutch footballer*2001 – Sam LaPorta, American football player*2002 – Eva Lys, German tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 690 – Benedict Biscop, English scholar and saint, founded the Monkwearmouth–Jarrow Abbey (b.", "628)* 914 – Ahmad Samani, Samanid emir * 947 – Sang Weihan, Chinese chief of staff (b.", "898)*1140 – Louis I, Landgrave of Thuringia*1167 – Aelred of Rievaulx, English monk and saint (b.", "1110)*1320 – John Dalderby, bishop of Lincoln*1322 – Marie of Brabant, Queen of France (b.", "1254)*1405 – Eleanor Maltravers, English noblewoman (b.", "1345)*1519 – Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1459)===1601–1900===*1665 – Pierre de Fermat, French mathematician and lawyer (b.", "1601)*1674 – Giacomo Carissimi, Italian priest and composer (b.", "1605)*1700 – Marguerite Bourgeoys, French-Canadian nun and saint, founded the Congregation of Notre Dame of Montreal (b.", "1620)*1720 – William Ashhurst, English banker and politician, Lord Mayor of London (b.", "1647)*1732 – John Horsley, English-Scottish historian and author (b.", "1685)*1735 – John Eccles, English composer (b.", "1668)*1759 – Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange (b.", "1709)*1765 – Johann Melchior Molter, German violinist and composer (b.", "1696)*1777 – Hugh Mercer, Scottish-American general and physician (b.", "1726)*1778 – François Bigot, French politician (b.", "1703)*1781 – Richard Challoner, English bishop (b.", "1691)*1829 – Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel, German philosopher, poet, and critic (b.", "1772)*1833 – Marie-Antoine Carême, French chef (b.", "1784)*1834 – William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1759)*1856 – Ľudovít Štúr, Slovak philologist and politician (b.", "1815)*1861 – Václav Hanka, Czech philologist and author (b.", "1791)*1892 – James Caulfeild, 3rd Earl of Charlemont, Irish politician, Lord Lieutenant of Tyrone (b.", "1820)* 1892 – William Reeves, Irish bishop and historian (b.", "1815)*1899 – Hiram Walker, American businessman, founded Canadian Club (b.", "1816)===1901–present===*1909 – Hermann Minkowski, Lithuanian-German mathematician and academic (b.", "1864)*1911 – Andreas Papagiannakopoulos, Greek journalist, judge, and politician (b.", "1845)*1916 – Georgios Theotokis, Greek lawyer and politician, 80th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1844)*1921 – Gervase Elwes, English tenor and actor (b.", "1866)*1926 – Austin Chapman, Australian businessman and politician, 4th Australian Minister for Defence (b.", "1864)*1934 – Paul Kochanski, Polish violinist and composer (b.", "1887)*1938 – Oscar Florianus Bluemner, German-American painter and illustrator (b.", "1867)*1940 – Ralph Hitz, Austrian-American hotelier (b.", "1891)*1940 – Edward Smith, English lieutenant, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1898)*1943 – Jan Campert, Dutch journalist and critic (b.", "1902)*1944 – Lance C. Wade, American commander and pilot (b.", "1915)*1958 – Charles Hatfield, American meteorologist (b.", "1875)*1960 – Nevil Shute, English engineer and author (b.", "1899)*1962 – Ariadna Tyrkova-Williams, Russian journalist and activist (b.", "1869)*1965 – Lorraine Hansberry, American author, playwright, and director (b.", "1936)*1967 – Burhan Asaf Belge, Turkish diplomat (b.", "1887)*1971 – John Tovey, 1st Baron Tovey, English admiral (b.", "1885)*1973 – Roy Franklin Nichols, American historian and academic (b.", "1896)*1974 – Princess Patricia of Connaught (b.", "1886)*1976 – Agatha Christie, English crime novelist, short story writer, and playwright (b.", "1890)*1977 – Henri-Georges Clouzot, French director and screenwriter (b.", "1907)*1983 – Nikolai Podgorny, Ukrainian engineer and politician (b.", "1903)*1988 – Connie Mulder, South African politician (b.", "1925)* 1988 – Piero Taruffi, Italian racing driver and motorcycle racer (b.", "1906)*1990 – Laurence J. Peter, Canadian-American author and educator (b.", "1919)*1991 – Robert Jackson, Australian public servant and diplomat (b.", "1911)*1992 – Kumar Gandharva, a Hindustani classical singer (b.", "1924)*1994 – Gustav Naan, Estonian physicist and philosopher (b.", "1919)*1996 – Joachim Nitsche, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1926)*1997 – Jean-Edern Hallier, French author (b.", "1936)* 1997 – Charles Brenton Huggins, Canadian-American physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1901)*1998 – Roger Clark, English racing driver (b.", "1939)*1999 – Doug Wickenheiser, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b.", "1961)*2000 – Marc Davis, American animator and screenwriter (b.", "1913)* 2000 – Bobby Phills, American basketball player (b.", "1969)*2001 – Luiz Bonfá, Brazilian guitarist and composer (b.", "1922)* 2001 – William Redington Hewlett, American engineer and businessman, co-founded Hewlett-Packard (b.", "1913)*2002 – Cyrus Vance, American lawyer and politician, 57th U.S. Secretary of State (b.", "1917)*2003 – Dean Amadon, American ornithologist and author (b.", "1912)* 2003 – Kinji Fukasaku, Japanese actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1930)* 2003 – Leopoldo Galtieri, Argentine general and politician, 44th President of Argentina (b.", "1926)* 2003 – Maurice Gibb, Manx-Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1949)* 2003 – Alan Nunn May, English physicist and spy (b.", "1911)*2004 – Olga Ladyzhenskaya, Russian mathematician and academic (b.", "1921)*2005 – Amrish Puri, Indian actor (b.", "1932)*2006 – Pablita Velarde, Santa Clara Pueblo Native American painter (b.", "1918)*2007 – Alice Coltrane, American pianist and composer (b.", "1937)* 2007 – James Killen, Australian soldier, lawyer, and politician, 38th Australian Minister for Defence (b.", "1925)*2008 – Max Beck, American intersex advocate (b.", "1966)*2009 – Claude Berri, French actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1934)*2010 – Daniel Bensaïd, French philosopher and author (b.", "1946)* 2010 – Hasib Sabbagh, Palestinian businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Consolidated Contractors Company (b.", "1920)*2012 – Bjørn G. Andersen, Norwegian geologist and academic (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Glenda Dickerson, American director, choreographer, and educator (b.", "1945)* 2012 – Bill Janklow, American lawyer and politician, 27th Governor of South Dakota (b.", "1939)* 2012 – Charles H. Price II, American businessman and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (b.", "1931)* 2012 – Jim Stanley, American football player and coach (b.", "1935)*2013 – Precious Bryant, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1942)* 2013 – Flor María Chalbaud, First Lady of Venezuela (b.", "1921)* 2013 – Eugene Patterson, American journalist and activist (b.", "1923)*2014 – Alexandra Bastedo, English actress (b.", "1946)* 2014 – Connie Binsfeld, American educator and politician, 58th Lieutenant Governor of Michigan (b.", "1924)* 2014 – George Dement, American soldier, businessman, and politician (b.", "1922)*2015 – Trevor Colbourn, American historian and academic (b.", "1927)* 2015 – Robert Gover, American journalist and author (b.", "1929)* 2015 – Carl Long, American baseball player (b.", "1935)* 2015 – Elena Obraztsova, Russian soprano and actress (b.", "1939)* 2015 – Inge Vermeulen, Brazilian-Dutch field hockey player (b.", "1985)*2017 – William Peter Blatty, American writer and filmmaker (b.", "1928)* 2017 – Graham Taylor, English football player and manager (b.", "1944)*2018 – Keith Jackson, American sports commentator and journalist (b.", "1928)*2020 – Sir Roger Scruton, English philosopher and writer (b.", "1944)*2022 – Ronnie Spector, American singer (b.", "1943)*2023 – Lisa Marie Presley, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1968)* 2023 – Sharad Yadav, Indian politician, 30th Minister of Civil Aviation, 29th Labour Minister (b.", "1947)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Aelred of Rievaulx** Benedict Biscop** Bernard of Corleone** Marguerite Bourgeoys** Tatiana** January 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Memorial Day (Turkmenistan)* National Youth Day (India)* Prosecutor General's Day (Russia)* Zanzibar Revolution Day (Tanzania)* Yennayer (Algeria)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 12" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Digweed" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Thomas John Digweed''' (born 1 January 1967) is a British DJ and record producer.", "''DJ Magazine'' voted him the World No.", "1 DJ in 2001.As well as achieving success as a solo act, he has collaborated with Sasha as Sasha & John Digweed, and with Nick Muir as Bedrock." ], [ "Biography", "Digweed began DJing at the age of 15, and made a name for himself in his home town of Hastings, where he put on successful club nights, the most famous of which were his successful raves on Hastings Pier, where the likes of Carl Cox and The Prodigy performed.", "His breakthrough came in 1993, when he sent a mixtape demo to Geoff Oakes, founder of the Renaissance nightclub in Mansfield, who played it to fellow DJ Alexander Coe (aka Sasha).", "The two DJs struck up a long-term friendship and working relationship, despite Sasha twice failing to turn up for gigs that Digweed had booked him for in Hastings.In partnership with Sasha, Digweed is known for promoting progressive house and notable for producing the first commercial compilation for a nightclub, when they released their 1994 compilation of mixes from Renaissance entitled ''Renaissance: The Mix Collection''.", "Until then, mixtapes from clubs had only been circulated by DJs on an amateur basis.", "The Renaissance CD was the first time that a compilation CD had been planned strategically for marketing, from artwork to promotion.", "The two DJs famously followed this up with their ''Northern Exposure'' compilations and those on ''Global Underground''.Digweed then started the record label Bedrock Records to further promote the music that he was playing at the time.", "He and his friend Nick Muir went on to produce under the Bedrock alias, getting their big break when their first track \"For What You Dream Of\" was used in the film Trainspotting.", "The Bedrock duo also produced the soundtrack for the MTV adult cartoon superhero drama series, ''Spider-Man: The New Animated Series'' in 2003.In his sets, Digweed is noted for adopting tracks with new and different styles.Between 2000 and 2005, Digweed promoted his \"Bedrock\" sound with monthly club nights for club members and newcomers to the electronic music scene.", "He played on Thursday nights at Heaven in London, and on Friday nights in a smaller club night at The Beach in Brighton.", "These nights featured numerous guest DJs, including Danny Howells, Phil Thompson, Hernan Cattaneo and Chris Fortier.", "As Digweed's international schedule increased, these events drew to a close, although occasional reunions have been held at Heaven since.", "He celebrated ten years of his Bedrock club night on 10 October 2008 at Matter in London, with a near on ten-hour set.Digweed has enjoyed popularity throughout North America as well as Europe.", "He and Sasha established a monthly residency at the now defunct New York club Twilo, which proved a key location for the American electronic music scene.", "The residency began in 1997 with a lukewarm reception, but grew into one of the most popular club nights in New York City by the end of its run in 2001.Sasha and Digweed played at Twilo on the last Friday of every month, playing sets that lasted between eight and twelve hours.", "In early 2001, Sasha suffered an ear injury and was unable to play for their last four dates before Twilo was closed by the New York City authorities.", "Digweed continued to play the time-slot by himself until 6 May 2001, when Twilo was raided by the NYPD and subsequently forced to close down.Digweed has a cameo of himself playing music in Greg Harrison's 2000 movie ''Groove'', which tells the story of an all-night rave in San Francisco.In early 2002, Digweed along with Sasha and Jimmy Van M undertook a six-week countrywide tour of the United States called Delta Heavy.", "The tour was promoted by Clear Channel and attendance reached 85,000.It took place in a variety of venues but was completely self-reliant from a technical point of view; sound, lights, and visual setups were brought along to every gig of the tour.", "Also in 2002, Digweed curated and compiled the soundtrack to the film ''Stark Raving Mad''.From September 2000 to January 2011, Digweed hosted a weekly two-hour radio show on Kiss 100 in the UK, in which he played the first hour of music and a guest DJ played the second hour.", "Beginning in September 2006, his show was available on all three Kiss radio stations.", "By that time, the show's name had become Transitions, which was also the name of a four-volume series of mix albums by Digweed that was released every six months during 2006–2008.In January 2011, Transitions aired for the last time on Kiss 100, but the show continues to be broadcast online.", "On December 27, 2019, Transitions aired its 800th episode.2008 saw Digweed and Sasha reuniting for a Spring Club Tour that once again featured performances all over North America.", "In 2011, Digweed's music was featured in the film movie adaptation of Irvine Welsh's best-selling novel''Irvine Welsh's Ecstasy''.He featured among the top ten artists from 1998 to 2008 and was voted DJ Mag's number 1 DJ in 2001.In 2010, he was voted number 29 in DJ Mag's annual Top 100 DJs vote.", "In 2013, Digweed was ranked the number 17 best DJ in the world in Resident Advisor's top 100 DJ charts; he currently is number 43 as of June 2016.John is the brother of 28 times World Clay Shooting Champion George Digweed, MBE." ], [ "Discography", "===Compilation albums===* 1994: ''Journeys by DJ Volume 4: Silky Mix'' (Music Unites)* 1994: Sasha & John Digweed – ''Renaissance: The Mix Collection'' (Renaissance)* 1995: ''Renaissance: The Mix Collection Part 2'' (Renaissance)* 1996: Sasha & John Digweed – ''Northern Exposure'' (Ministry of Sound)* 1997: Sasha & John Digweed – ''Northern Exposure 2'' (Ministry of Sound)* 1997: ''The Winning Ticket'' (Jackpot)* 1998: ''Global Underground 006: Sydney'' (Boxed)* 1999: ''Bedrock'' (INCredible)* 1999: Sasha & John Digweed – ''Northern Exposure: Expeditions'' (INCredible)* 1999: ''Global Underground 014: Hong Kong'' (Boxed)* 2000: Sasha & John Digweed – ''Communicate'' (INCredible) (''Billboard'' 200 #149)* 2001: ''Global Underground 019: Los Angeles'' (Boxed)* 2002: ''MMII'' (Bedrock Records) (Billboard Top Electronic Albums #7)* 2003: '' Stark Raving Mad (soundtrack)|Stark Raving Mad '' (Thrive Records) (Billboard Electronic #9)* 2004: '' Layered Sounds '' (Bedrock Records)* 2005: ''fabric 20'' (fabric) (Billboard Electronic #13)* 2005: ''Choice – A Collection of Classics'' (Azuli Records)* 2005: ''Layered Sounds 2'' (Bedrock Records)* 2006: ''Transitions'' (Renaissance) (Billboard Electronic #16)* 2007: ''Transitions Vol.", "2'' (Renaissance)* 2007: '' Transitions Vol.", "3 '' (Renaissance)* 2008: '' Transitions Vol.", "4 '' (Renaissance)* 2008: '' Bedrock 10: Past Present Future '' (Bedrock Records)* 2009: '' Bedrock Eleven '' (Bedrock Records)* 2010: ''Structures'' (Bedrock Records)* 2010: '' Bedrock Twelve '' (Bedrock Records)* 2011: '' Structures Two '' (Bedrock Records)* 2012: ''Live in Cordoba'' (Bedrock Records)* 2012: ''Bedrock 14'' (Bedrock Records)* 2012: ''Live in London'' (Bedrock Records)* 2013: ''Live in Slovenia'' (Bedrock Records)* 2013: John Digweed & Nick Muir – Versus (Bedrock Records)* 2013: ''Live in Argentina'' (Bedrock Records)* 2014: ''Live in Miami'' (Bedrock Records)* 2014: ''Live in Toronto'' (Bedrock Records)* 2015: ''Live in South Beach'' (Bedrock Records)* 2016: ''Live in'' ''Montreal'' (Bedrock Records)* 2016: ''Live in'' ''Montreal - Finale'' (Bedrock Records)* 2016: ''Bedrock 18 - Signals'' (Bedrock Records)* 2017: ''Live in'' ''Brooklyn'' (Bedrock Records)* 2018: ''Bedrock XX'' (Bedrock Records)* 2018: ''Live in'' ''Tokyo'' (Bedrock Records)* 2020: ''Quattro'' (Bedrock Records)* 2021: ''Quattro II'' (Bedrock Records)===Singles===* 1993: Bedrock – \"For What You Dream Of\" (Stress Records) (UK #25)* 1997: Bedrock – \"Set in Stone\" / \"Forbidden Zone\" (Stress Records) (UK #71)* 1999: Bedrock – \"Heaven Scent\" (Bedrock Records) (UK #35)* 2000: Bedrock – \"Voices\" (Bedrock Records) (UK #44)* 2001: Bedrock – \"Beautiful Strange\" (Bedrock Records)* 2002: Bedrock – \"Emerald\" (Bedrock Records)* 2003: Bedrock – \"Forge\" (Bedrock Breaks)* 2005: Bedrock – \"Santiago\" (Bedrock Records)* 2006: Bedrock – \"Warung Beach\" (Bedrock Records)* 2007: John Digweed – \"Gridlock\" (Renaissance)* 2009: John Digweed & Nick Muir – \"Tangent\" (Bedrock Records)* 2010: John Digweed & Nick Muir – \"Satellite / Meteor\" (Bedrock Records)* 2010: John Digweed & Nick Muir – \"Satellite / Meteor (Remixes)\" (Bedrock Records)===DJ Magazine Top 100 rankings===* 1997: No.", "12 (First year that DJ Mag poll was changed to a readership vote)* 1998: No.", "7 (Up 5)* 1999: No.", "6 (Up 1)* 2000: No.", "3 (Up 3)* 2001: No.", "1 (Up 2)* 2002: No.", "3 (Down 2)* 2003: No.", "5 (Down 2)* 2004: No.", "8 (Down 3)* 2005: No.", "6 (Up 2)* 2006: No.", "8 (Down 2)* 2007: No.", "3 (Up 5)* 2008: No.", "9 (Down 6)* 2009: No.", "17 (Down 8)* 2010: No.", "29 (Down 12)* 2011: No.", "55 (Down 26)* 2012: No.", "98 (Down 43)* Since 2013: Not on List===DVD===* ''Sasha & John Digweed present Delta Heavy'' (System Recordings)* ''A Tale of Two Cities, Live in Argentina 2013'' (Bedrock Records & Ourmaninthefield)* ''A Tale of Two UK Cities, 2015'' (Bedrock Records & Ourmaninthefield)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official site * Bedrock Records* * Transitions – official tracklistings * Transitions – official Mixcloud tracklistings* Interview John Digweed – Actualites Electroniques* Interview John Digweed – Actualites Electroniques* 10 years of Bedrock interview by Laptoprockers* Digweed the Bigwig Who Lives Forever in the Future Interview with John Digweed by Popspoken" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "James Spader" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Todd Spader''' (born February 7, 1960) is an American actor.", "He is known for often portraying eccentric and morally ambiguous characters.", "He started his career in critically acclaimed independent films before transitioning into television for which he received numerous awards and acclaim including three Primetime Emmy Awards as well as nominations for three Golden Globe Awards, and ten Screen Actors Guild Awards.Spader started his career acting in youth-oriented films such as ''Tuff Turf'' (1985), ''Pretty in Pink'' (1986), and ''Mannequin'' (1987).", "His breakthrough role came with the Steven Soderbergh drama ''Sex, Lies, and Videotape'' (1989) for which he received the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor.", "He then starred in films such as ''White Palace'' (1990), ''True Colors'' (1991), ''Stargate'' (1994), ''2 Days in the Valley'' (1996), and ''Secretary'' (2002).", "Spader took supporting roles in ''Bob Roberts'' (1992), ''Wolf'' (1994), ''Lincoln'' (2012), and ''The Homesman'' (2014).", "He also voiced the role of Ultron in ''Avengers: Age of Ultron'' (2015).His television roles include those of attorney Alan Shore in the last season of ''The Practice'' (2003–2004) and its spin-off ''Boston Legal'' (2004–2008), a role which earned him three Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.", "He is also known for his role as Robert California in the sitcom ''The Office'' (2011–2012).", "Most recently, he starred as Raymond \"Red\" Reddington in the NBC crime series ''The Blacklist'' (2013–2023)." ], [ "Early life and education", "Spader was born on February 7, 1960, in Boston and is the youngest of three children.", "His parents, Jean (née Fraser) and Stoddard (\"Todd\") Greenwood Spader, were both teachers.", "He has two older sisters, Libby Spader and Annie Spader.", "According to Spader, he had a very progressive and liberal upbringing.", "\"I was always around dominant and influential women, and that left a great impression\".", "Spader is a sixth-generation descendant of Connecticut politician Seth P. Beers; co-founder of American School for the Deaf Laurent Clerc is his 3rd great-grandfather.During his early education, he attended many private schools, including The Pike School in Andover where his mother taught art, and the Brooks School in North Andover where his father was a teacher.", "He later transferred to Phillips Academy, befriended former President John F. Kennedy's son John F. Kennedy Jr., dropped out at the age of seventeen, and moved to New York City to pursue his acting career.", "While studying to become a full-time actor, Spader undertook jobs including bartending, teaching yoga, driving a meat truck, loading railroad cars, and being a stable boy." ], [ "Acting career", "Spader features in ''The Blacklist'' as Raymond ReddingtonSpader's first major film role was in the film ''Endless Love'' (1981), and his first starring role was in ''Tuff Turf'' (1985).", "He rose to stardom in 1986, when he played the rich, arrogant playboy Steff in ''Pretty in Pink''.", "He co-starred in ''Mannequin'' (1987) and the film adaptation of ''Less than Zero'' (1987), in which he played a drug dealer named Rip.", "Supporting roles in films such as ''Baby Boom'' (1987) and ''Wall Street'' (1987) followed until his breakthrough in ''Sex, Lies, and Videotape'' (1989), in which he played a sexual voyeur who complicates the lives of three Baton Rouge, Louisiana residents.", "For this performance he received the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival.Spader's roles in the early 1990s included a young, affluent widower opposite Susan Sarandon in the romantic drama ''White Palace'' (1990), a yuppie who meets the mysterious Rob Lowe in the Noir drama ''Bad Influence'' (1990), John Cusack's best friend in the drama ''True Colors'' (1991), and a poker-playing drifter in ''The Music of Chance'' (1993).", "In 1994 he starred as Egyptologist Daniel Jackson in the sci-fi film ''Stargate''.", "In 1996 he played car accident fetishist James Ballard in the controversial Canadian film ''Crash'' and assassin Lee Woods in ''2 Days in the Valley''.", "In 1997 Spader guest starred in the ''Seinfeld'' episode \"The Apology\", as an angry recovering alcoholic who refuses to apologize to George for making fun of him.", "In 2000 he played a drug-addicted detective tracking a serial killer in ''The Watcher''.", "In 2002 he starred as a sadomasochistic boss in ''Secretary''.From 2004 to 2008 Spader starred as Alan Shore in the series ''Boston Legal'', in which he reprised his role from the television series ''The Practice'' (2002).", "Longtime writer-producer David E. Kelley said there was resistance when he first tried to cast Spader in the role, \"I was told that no one would ever welcome James Spader into their living room\".", "During a TV Game Changers interview Kelley noted, \"People will watch him (Spader) in the movies, but they will never let him in their own home.", "\"He won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 2004 for his portrayal on ''The Practice'' and won it again in 2005 and 2007 for ''Boston Legal''.", "With the 2005 win, he became one of only a few actors to win an Emmy Award while playing the same character in two series.", "Even rarer, he won a second consecutive Emmy while playing the same character in two series.", "He also won the Satellite Award for Best Actor in a Series, Comedy or Musical for ''Boston Legal'' in 2006.In October 2006, Spader narrated \"China Revealed\", the first episode of Discovery Channel's documentary series ''Discovery Atlas''.", "He also did voice-over in several television commercials for Acura.", "He starred in ''Race'', a play written and directed by David Mamet, which opened on December 6, 2009, at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on Broadway.", "The show closed on August 21, 2010, after 297 performances.", "In March 2011, he was named to star in the film ''By Virtue Fall'', written and to be directed by Sheldon Turner.", ", the movie was in pre-production.Spader guest starred as Robert California in \"Search Committee\", the season 7 finale of ''The Office''.", "On June 27, 2011, it was announced that he would join the cast on a permanent basis.", "He planned to stay only through the eighth season.", "While the original plan was just to do the guest appearance, executive producer Paul Lieberstein said: \"those two scenes became a season\".Spader starred in the television series, ''The Blacklist'', which premiered on NBC September 23, 2013 and which had its series finale on July 13, 2023, a total of ten seasons.", "He portrayed Raymond \"Red\" Reddington, one of the FBI's most wanted fugitives.", "He also played villainous robot Ultron in ''Avengers: Age of Ultron'' (2015)." ], [ "Personal life", "Spader met his first wife, decorator Victoria Kheel, while working in a yoga studio after he moved to New York City in the 1980s.", "They married in 1987 and had two sons.", "Spader filed for divorce from Kheel in 2004.He began dating his former ''Alien Hunter'' (2003) co-star, Leslie Stefanson, in 2002.They have one son together.In an interview with ''Rolling Stone'' in 2014, Spader revealed he has obsessive–compulsive disorder." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film ===YearTitle RoleNotes 1978 ''Team Mates'' Jimmy First Role 1981 ''Endless Love'' Keith Butterfield Credited as Jimmy Spader 1983 ‘’Cocaine: One Man's Seduction‘’ Buddy Gant Credited as James Spader 1983 ''A Killer in the Family'' Donny Tyson Credited as James Spader 1985 ''Starcrossed'' Joey Callaghan 1985 ''Tuff Turf'' Morgan Hiller 1985 ''The New Kids'' Eddie \"Dutra\" Dutra 1986 ''Pretty in Pink'' Steff 1987 ''Mannequin'' Richards 1987 ''Baby Boom'' Ken Arrenberg 1987 ''Less than Zero'' Rip 1987 ''Wall Street'' Roger Barnes 1988 ''Greasy Lake'' Digby Short Film 1988 ''Jack's Back'' John / Rick Westford 1989 ''Sex, Lies, and Videotape'' Graham Dalton 1989 ''The Rachel Papers'' Deforest 1990 ''Bad Influence'' Michael Boll 1990 ''White Palace'' Max Baron 1991 ''True Colors'' Tim Gerrity 1992 ''Storyville'' Cray Fowler 1992 ''Bob Roberts'' Chuck Marlin 1993 ''The Music of Chance'' Jack Pozzi 1993 ''Dream Lover'' Ray Reardon 1994 ''Wolf'' Stewart Swinton 1994 ''Stargate'' Dr. Daniel Jackson 1996 ''Crash'' James Ballard 1996 ''2 Days in the Valley'' Lee Woods 1997 ''Keys to Tulsa'' Ronnie Stover 1997 ''Driftwood'' The Man 1997 ''Critical Care'' Dr. Werner Ernst 1998 ''Curtain Call'' Stevenson Lowe 2000 ''Supernova'' Nick Vanzant 2000 ''The Watcher'' Joel Campbell 2000 ''Slow Burn'' Marcus 2001 ''Speaking of Sex'' Dr. Roger Klink 2002 ''Secretary'' E. Edward Grey 2002 ''The Stickup'' John Parker 2003 ''I Witness'' Douglas Draper 2003 ''Alien Hunter'' Julian Rome 2004 ''Shadow of Fear'' William Ashbury 2009 ''Shorts'' Mr. Black 2012 ''Lincoln'' William N. Bilbo 2014 ''The Homesman'' Aloysius Duffy 2015 ''Avengers: Age of Ultron'' Ultron Voice,Motion capture=== Television === Year Title Role Notes 1983 ''Diner'' Fenwick Television short 1983 ''The Family Tree'' Jake Nichols 6 episodes 1983 ''Cocaine: One Man's Seduction'' Buddy Gant Television film 1983 ''A Killer in the Family'' Donny Tison Television film 1984 ''Family Secrets'' Lowell Everall Television film 1985 ''Starcrossed'' Joey Callaghan Television film 1994 ''Frasier'' Steven (voice) Episode: \"Slow Tango in South Seattle\" 1997 ''Seinfeld'' Jason \"Stanky\" Hanky Episode: \"The Apology\" 2003 ''The Pentagon Papers'' Daniel Ellsberg Television film 2003–2004 ''The Practice'' Alan Shore 22 episodes 2004–2008 ''Boston Legal'' Alan Shore 101 episodes 2006 ''Discovery Atlas'' Narrator (voice) Episode: \"China Revealed\" 2011–2012 ''The Office'' Robert California 25 episodes 2013–2023 ''The Blacklist'' Raymond \"Red\" Reddington 218 episodes; also executive producer" ], [ "Awards and nominations" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph''' is a masculine given name.", "'''Joseph''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Religion", "* Joseph (Genesis), an important figure in the Bible's Book of Genesis** Joseph in Islam, an important figure in Islam mentioned in the Qur'an * Saint Joseph, a figure in the gospels who was married to Mary, Jesus' mother, and was Jesus' legal father* Joseph (Book of Mormon), a priest and a younger brother of the Prophets Nephi and Jacob* Joseph (Dean of Armagh), Dean of Armagh in 1257* Joseph of Panephysis, Egyptian Christian monk who lived around the 4th and 5th centuries* Joseph (Nestorian patriarch), Patriarch of the Church of the East from 552 to 567" ], [ "Places", "=== United States ===* Joseph, Idaho, a ghost town* Joseph, Oregon, a city* Joseph, Utah, a town* Joseph Canyon, in Oregon and Washington* Joseph City, Arizona, an unincorporated community* Joseph Peak, Yellowstone National Park, Montana" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''Joseph'' (opera), by the French composer Étienne Méhul* ''Joseph'' (1995 film), a German/Italian/American television movie from 1995, which tells the story of Joseph in the Hebrew Bible* ''Prophet Joseph'' (TV series), an Iranian TV series* ''Joseph'' (2018 film), a 2018 Indian Malayalam-language film* ''Joseph: King of Dreams'', a 2000 direct-to-video animated musical film* Joseph (comics), a Marvel Comics character who was briefly a member of the X-Men* Joseph, a member of the Saint Shields in the animated series ''Beyblade: V-Force''* Joseph (band), a vocal trio from Oregon* ''Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat'', a 1968 musical by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber* Joseph Joestar, a fictional character from ''JoJo's Bizarre Adventure''* Joseph Korso, a fictional character from the 2000 animated film ''Titan A.E.''" ], [ "Other uses", "* Joseph (surname)* Joseph, a given name form Joseph in Hebrew Bible*Joseph (fashion brand), a retailer founded by Joseph Ettedgui* Joseph, the formal name of Big Joe, a church bell*Joseph (art model), art model in France" ], [ "See also", "* * * Joseph Joseph, an English houseware manufacturer founded in 2003* Joseph & Joseph, an architectural firm founded in 1908 in Louisville, Kentucky* Saint Joseph (disambiguation)* Patriarch Joseph (disambiguation)* ''YosepH'', a 2003 album by Luke Vibert* Joesef, a Scottish singer" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jacob" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Jacob''' (; ; ; ), later given the name '''Israel''', is regarded as a patriarch of the Israelites and is an important figure in Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Samaritanism, Christianity, and Islam.", "Jacob first appears in the Book of Genesis, originating from the Hebrew tradition in the Torah.", "Described as the son of Isaac and Rebecca, and the grandson of Abraham, Sarah, and Bethuel, Jacob is presented as the second-born among Isaac's children.", "His fraternal twin brother is the elder, named Esau, according to the biblical account.", "Jacob is said to have bought Esau's birthright and, with his mother's help, deceived his aging father to bless him instead of Esau.", "Later in the narrative, following a severe drought in his homeland of Canaan, Jacob and his descendants, with the help of his son Joseph (who had become a confidant of the pharaoh), moved to Egypt where Jacob died at the age of 147.He is supposed to have been buried in the Cave of Machpelah.Jacob had twelve sons through four women: his wives (and cousins), Leah and Rachel, and his concubines, Bilhah and Zilpah.", "His sons were, in order of their birth: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph, and Benjamin, all of whom became the heads of their own family groups, later known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel.", "He also had a daughter named Dinah.", "According to Genesis, Jacob displayed favoritism among his wives and children, preferring Rachel and her sons, Joseph and Benjamin, causing tension within the family—culminating in Joseph's older brothers selling him into slavery.Scholars have taken a mixed view as to Jacob's historicity, with archaeology so far producing no evidence for his existence.Jacob's Dream statue and display on the campus of Abilene Christian University" ], [ "Etymology", "According to the folk etymology found in Genesis 25:26, the name is derived from \"heel\", as Jacob was born grasping the heel of his twin brother Esau.", "The historical origin of the name is uncertain, although similar names have been recorded.", "is recorded as a place name in a list by Thutmose III (15th century BC), and later as the ''nomen'' of a Hyksos pharaoh.", "The hieroglyphs are ambiguous, and can be read as \"Yaqub-Har\", \"Yaqubaal\", or \"Yaqub El\".", "The same name is recorded earlier still, in , in cuneiform inscriptions (spelled ''ya-ah-qu-ub-el'', ''ya-qu-ub-el'').", "The suggestion that the personal name may be shortened from this compound name, which would translate to \"may El protect\", originates with Bright (1960).", "Previously, scholars had tended to find the more straightforward meaning of Yaqub-El, \"Jacob is god.", "\"The name ''Israel'' given to Jacob following the episode of his wrestling with the angel (Genesis 32:22–32) is etymologized as composition of ''el'' \"god\" and the root ''śarah'' \"to rule, contend, have power, prevail over\":  (KJV: \"a prince hast thou power with God\"); alternatively, the ''el'' can be read as the subject, for a translation of \"El rules/contends/struggles\".The Septuagint renders the name ''Iákobos'' (), whence Latin , English ''Jacob''." ], [ "Genesis narrative", "Michelangelo Buonarroti, Sistine Chapel, Vatican CityThe biblical account of the life of Jacob is found in the Book of Genesis, chapters 25–50.===Birth===Jacob and his twin brother, Esau, were born to Isaac and Rebecca after 20 years of marriage, when Isaac was 60 years of age.", "Rebecca was uncomfortable during her pregnancy and went to inquire of God why she was suffering.", "She received the prophecy that twins were fighting in her womb and would continue to fight all their lives, even after they became two separate nations.", "The prophecy also said that \"the one people shall be stronger than the other people; and the elder shall serve the younger\" (Genesis 25:25 KJV).When the time came for Rebecca to give birth, the firstborn, Esau, came out covered with red hair, as if he were wearing a hairy garment, and his heel was grasped by the hand of Jacob, the secondborn.", "According to Genesis 25, Isaac and Rebecca named the first son Esau ().", "The second son they named Jacob (Hebrew: יעקב, Ya'aqob or Ya'aqov, meaning \"heel-catcher\", \"supplanter\", \"leg-puller\", \"he who follows upon the heels of one\", from , ''aqab'' or ''aqav'', \"seize by the heel\", \"circumvent\", \"restrain\", a wordplay upon , ''iqqebah'' or ''iqqbah'', \"heel\").The boys displayed very different natures as they matured: \"... and Esau was a cunning hunter, a man of the field; but Jacob was a simple man, dwelling in tents\".", "Moreover, the attitudes of their parents toward them also differed: \"And Isaac loved Esau, because he did eat of his venison: but Rebecca loved Jacob.", "\"Jacob offering a bowl of stew to Esau for his birthright, 18th-century painting by Zacarias Gonzalez Velazquez===Acquiring birthright===Genesis 25:29–34 tells the account of Esau selling his birthright to Jacob.", "This passage tells that Esau, returning famished from the fields, begged Jacob to give him some of the stew that Jacob had just made.", "(Esau referred to the dish as \"that same red pottage\", giving rise to his nickname, ('''Edom'', meaning \"Red\").)", "Jacob offered to give Esau a bowl of stew in exchange for his birthright, to which Esau agreed.===Blessing of Isaac===As Isaac aged, he became blind and was uncertain when he would die, so he decided to bestow Esau's birthright upon him.", "He requested that Esau go out to the fields with his weapons (quiver and bow) to kill some venison.", "Isaac then requested that Esau make \"savory meat\" for him out of the venison, according to the way he enjoyed it the most, so that he could eat it and bless Esau.Rebecca overheard this conversation.", "It is suggested that she realized prophetically that Isaac's blessings would go to Jacob, since she was told before the twins' birth that the older son would serve the younger.", "Rebecca blessed Jacob and she quickly ordered Jacob to bring her two kid goats from their flock so that he could take Esau's place in serving Isaac and receiving his blessing.", "Jacob protested that his father would recognize their deception since Esau was hairy and he himself was smooth-skinned.", "He feared his father would curse him as soon as he felt him, but Rebecca offered to take the curse herself, then insisted that Jacob obey her.", "Jacob did as his mother instructed and, when he returned with the kids, Rebecca made the savory meat that Isaac loved.", "Before she sent Jacob to his father, she dressed him in Esau's garments and laid goatskins on his arms and neck to simulate hairy skin.An elderly Isaac blessing Jacob, oil on canvas by Govert Flinck, 1638Disguised as Esau, Jacob entered Isaac's room.", "Surprised that Esau was back so soon, Isaac asked how it could be that the hunt went so quickly.", "Jacob responded, \"Because the LORD your God brought it to me.\"", "Rashi says Isaac's suspicions were aroused even more, because Esau never used the personal name of God.", "Isaac demanded that Jacob come close so he could feel him, but the goatskins felt just like Esau's hairy skin.", "Confused, Isaac exclaimed, \"The voice is Jacob's voice, but the hands are the hands of Esau!\"", "Still trying to get at the truth, Isaac asked him directly, \"Art thou my very son Esau?\"", "and Jacob answered simply, \"I am.\"", "Isaac proceeded to eat the food and to drink the wine that Jacob gave him, and then told him to come close and kiss him.", "As Jacob kissed his father, Isaac smelled the clothes which belonged to Esau and finally accepted that the person in front of him was Esau.", "Isaac then blessed Jacob with the blessing that was meant for Esau.", "Genesis 27:28–29 states Isaac's blessing: \"Therefore God give thee of the dew of heavens, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine: Let people serve thee: be lord over thy brethren, and let thy mother's sons bow down to thee: cursed be every one that curseth thee, and blessed be he that blesseth thee.", "\"Jacob had scarcely left the room when Esau returned from the hunt to prepare his game and receive the blessing.", "The realization that he had been deceived shocked Isaac, yet he acknowledged that Jacob had received the blessings by adding, \"Indeed, he will be or remain blessed!\"", "(27:33).Esau was heartbroken by the deception and begged for his own blessing.", "Having made Jacob a ruler over his brothers, Isaac could only promise, \"By your sword you shall live, but your brother you shall serve; yet it shall be that when you are aggrieved, you may cast off his yoke from upon your neck\" (27:39–40).Although Esau sold Jacob his own birthright, which was his blessing, for \"red pottage,\" Esau still hated Jacob for receiving his blessing that their father Isaac unknowingly had given to him.", "He vowed to kill Jacob as soon as Isaac died.", "When Rebecca heard about his murderous intentions, she ordered Jacob to travel to her brother Laban's house in Haran, until Esau's anger subsided.", "She convinced Isaac to send Jacob away by telling him that she despaired of his marrying a local girl from the idol-worshipping families of Canaan (as Esau had done).", "After Isaac sent Jacob away to find a wife, Esau realized his own Canaanite wives were evil in his father's eyes and so he took a daughter of Isaac's half-brother, Ishmael, as another wife.===Jacob's ladder===''Jacob's Dream'' by William Blake (, British Museum, London)Near Luz en route to Haran, Jacob experienced a vision of a ladder, or staircase, reaching into heaven with angels going up and down it, subsequently referred to in popular culture as \"Jacob's ladder.\"", "He heard the voice of God, who repeated many of the blessings upon him, coming from the top of the ladder.According to Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer, the ladder signified the exiles that the Jewish people would suffer before the coming of the Jewish Messiah: the angels that represented the exiles of Babylonia, Persia, and Greece each climbed up a certain number of steps, paralleling the years of the exile, before they \"fell down\"; but the angel representing the last exile, that of Edom, kept climbing higher and higher into the clouds.", "Jacob feared that his descendants would never be free of Esau's domination, but God assured him that at the End of Days, Edom too would come falling down.In the morning, Jacob awakened and continued on his way to Haran, after naming the place where he had spent the night \"Bethel\", \"God's house.", "\"===Marriages===''Rachel and Jacob'' by William DyceArriving in Haran, Jacob saw a well where shepherds were gathering their flocks to water them and met Laban's younger daughter, Rachel, Jacob's first cousin; she was working as a shepherdess.", "Jacob was 77 years old, and he loved Rachel immediately.", "After spending a month with his relatives he asked for her hand in marriage in return for working seven years for Laban the Aramean.", "Laban agreed to the arrangement.", "These seven years seemed to Jacob \"but a few days, for the love he had for her.\"", "When they were complete and he was 84 years old he asked for his wife, but Laban deceived him by switching Rachel for her older sister, Leah, as the veiled bride.", "In the morning, when the truth became known, Laban justified his action, saying that in his country it was unheard of to give a younger daughter before the older.", "However, he agreed to give Rachel in marriage as well if Jacob would work another seven years.", "After the week of wedding celebrations with Leah, Jacob married Rachel, and he continued to work for Laban for another seven years.Jacob, having been celibate until the age of 84, fathered twelve children in the next seven years.", "He loved Rachel more than Leah, and Leah felt hated.", "God opened Leah's womb and she gave birth to four sons rapidly: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah.", "Rachel, however, remained barren.", "Following the example of Sarah, who gave her handmaid to Abraham after years of infertility, Rachel gave her handmaid Bilhah to Jacob so that Rachel could raise children through her.", "Bilhah gave birth to Dan and Naphtali.", "Seeing that she had left off childbearing temporarily, Leah then gave her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob so that Leah could raise more children through her.", "Zilpah gave birth to Gad and Asher.", "Afterwards, Leah became fertile again and gave birth to Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah, Jacob's first and only daughter.", "God remembered Rachel, who gave birth to Joseph and Benjamin.After Joseph was born, Jacob decided to return home to his parents.", "Laban the Aramean was reluctant to release him, as God had blessed his flock on account of Jacob.", "Laban asked what he could pay Jacob.", "Jacob suggested that all the spotted, speckled, and brown goats and sheep of Laban's flock, at any given moment, would be his wages.", "Jacob placed rods of poplar, hazel, and chestnut, all of which he peeled \"white streaks upon them,\" within the flocks' watering holes or troughs, associating the stripes of the rods with the growth of stripes on the livestock.", "Despite this practicing of magic, later on Jacob says to his wives that it was God who made the livestock give birth to the convenient offspring, in order to turn the tide against the deceptive Laban.", "As time passed, Laban's sons noticed that Jacob was taking the better part of their flocks, and so Laban's friendly attitude towards Jacob began to change.", "The angel of the Lord, in a dream back during the breeding season, told Jacob \"Now lift your eyes and see that all the he goats mounting the animals are ringed, speckled, and striped, for I have seen all that Laban is doing to you\", that he is the God whom Jacob met at Bethel, and that Jacob should leave and go back to the land where he was born, which he and his wives and children did without informing Laban.", "Before they left, Rachel stole the ''teraphim,'' considered to be household idols, from Laban's house.Laban pursued Jacob for seven days.", "The night before he caught up to him, God appeared to Laban in a dream and warned him not to say anything good or bad to Jacob.", "When the two met, Laban said to Jacob, \"What have you done, that you have tricked me and driven away my daughters like captives of the sword?\"", "He also asked for his stolen ''teraphim'' back.", "Knowing nothing about Rachel's theft, Jacob told Laban that whoever stole them should die and stood aside to let him search.", "When Laban reached Rachel's tent, she hid the ''teraphim'' by sitting on them and stating she could not get up because she was menstruating.", "Jacob and Laban then parted from each other with a pact to preserve the peace between them near Gilead.", "Laban returned to his home and Jacob continued on his way.===Journey back to Canaan===''Jacob Wrestling with the Angel'' by Eugène DelacroixAs Jacob neared the land of Canaan as he passed Mahanaim, he sent messengers ahead to his brother Esau.", "They returned with the news that Esau was coming to meet Jacob with an army of 400 men.", "With great apprehension, Jacob prepared for the worst.", "He engaged in earnest prayer to God, then sent on before him a tribute of flocks and herds to Esau, \"A present to my lord Esau from thy servant Jacob.", "\"Jacob then transported his family and flocks across the ford Jabbok by night, then recrossed back to send over his possessions, being left alone in communion with God.", "There, a mysterious being appeared (\"man,\" Genesis 32:24, 28; or \"God,\" Genesis 32:28, 30, Hosea 12:3, 5; or \"angel,\" Hosea 12:4), and the two wrestled until daybreak.", "When the being saw that he did not overpower Jacob, he touched Jacob on the sinew of his thigh (the ''gid hanasheh'', גיד הנשה), and, as a result, Jacob developed a limp (Genesis 32:31).", "Because of this, \"to this day the people of Israel do not eat the sinew of the thigh that is on the hip socket\" This incident is the source of the mitzvah of porging.Jacob then demanded a blessing, and the being declared in Genesis 32:28 that, from then on, Jacob would be called יִשְׂרָאֵל, Israel (''Yisra'el'', meaning \"one that struggled with the divine angel\" (Josephus), \"one who has prevailed with God\" (Rashi), \"a man seeing God\" (Whiston), \"he will rule as God\" (Strong), or \"a prince with God\" (Morris), from , \"prevail,\" \"have power as a prince\").", "While he is still called Jacob in later texts, his name Israel makes some consider him the eponymous ancestor of the Israelites.Jacob asked the being's name, but he refused to answer.", "Afterwards, Jacob named the place Penuel (''Penuw'el'', ''Peniy'el'', meaning \"face of God\"), saying: \"I have seen God face to face and lived.", "\"Because the terminology is ambiguous (\"el\" in ''Yisra'el'') and inconsistent, and because this being refused to reveal his name, there are varying views as to whether he was a man, an angel, or God.", "Josephus uses only the terms \"angel\", \"divine angel,\" and \"angel of God,\" describing the struggle as no small victory.", "According to Rashi, the being was the guardian angel of Esau himself, sent to destroy Jacob before he could return to the land of Canaan.", "Trachtenberg theorized that the being refused to identify itself for fear that, if its secret name was known, it would be conjurable by incantations.", "Literal Christian interpreters like Henry M. Morris say that the stranger was \"God Himself and, therefore, Christ in His preincarnate state\", citing Jacob's own evaluation and the name he assumed thereafter, \"one who fights victoriously with God\", and adding that God had appeared in the human form of the Angel of the Lord to eat a meal with Abraham in Genesis 18.Geller wrote that, \"in the context of the wrestling bout, the name implies that Jacob won this supremacy, linked to that of God's, by a kind of theomachy.", "\"In the morning, Jacob assembled his four wives and 11 sons, placing the maidservants and their children in front, Leah and her children next, and Rachel and Joseph in the rear.", "Some commentators cite this placement as proof that Jacob continued to favor Joseph over Leah's children, as presumably the rear position would have been safer from a frontal assault by Esau, which Jacob feared.", "Jacob himself took the foremost position.", "Esau's spirit of revenge, however, was apparently appeased by Jacob's bounteous gifts of camels, goats and flocks.", "Their reunion was an emotional one.", "''Esau and Jacob reconcile'' (1844) by Francesco HayezEsau offered to accompany them on their way back to Israel, but Jacob protested that his children were still young and tender (born six to 13 years prior in the narrative); Jacob suggested eventually catching up with Esau at Mount Seir.", "According to the Sages, this was a prophetic reference to the End of Days, when Jacob's descendants will come to Mount Seir, the home of Edom, to deliver judgment against Esau's descendants for persecuting them throughout the millennia.", "Jacob actually diverted himself to Succoth and was not recorded as rejoining Esau until, at Machpelah, the two bury their father Isaac, who lived to be 180, and was 60 years older than they were.Jacob then arrived in Shechem, where he bought a parcel of land, now identified as Joseph's Tomb.", "In Shechem, Jacob's daughter Dinah was kidnapped and raped by the ruler's son, who desired to marry the girl.", "Dinah's brothers, Simeon and Levi, agreed in Jacob's name to permit the marriage as long as all the men of Shechem first circumcised themselves, ostensibly to unite the children of Jacob in Abraham's covenant of familial harmony.", "On the third day after the circumcisions, when all the men of Shechem were still in pain, Simeon and Levi put them all to death by the sword and rescued their sister Dinah, and their brothers plundered the property, women, and children.", "Jacob condemned this act, saying: \"You have brought trouble on me by making me a stench to the Canaanites and Perizzites, the people living in this land.\"", "He later rebuked his two sons for their anger in his deathbed blessing (Genesis 49:5–7).Jacob returned to Bethel, where he had another vision of blessing.", "Although the death of Rebecca, Jacob's mother, is not explicitly recorded in the Bible, Deborah, Rebecca's nurse, died and was buried at Bethel, at a place that Jacob calls ''Allon Bachuth'' (אלון בכות), \"Oak of Weepings\" (Genesis 35:8).", "According to the Midrash, the plural form of the word \"weeping\" indicates the double sorrow that Rebecca also died at this time.", "''The death of Rachel after the birth of Benjamin'' (c. 1847) by Gustav Ferdinand MetzJacob then made a further move while Rachel was pregnant; near Bethlehem, Rachel went into labor and died as she gave birth to her second son, Benjamin (Jacob's twelfth son).", "Jacob buried her and erected a monument over her grave.", "Rachel's Tomb, just outside Bethlehem, remains a popular site for pilgrimages and prayers to this day.", "Jacob then settled in Migdal Eder, where his firstborn, Reuben, slept with Rachel's servant Bilhah; Jacob's response was not given at the time, but he did condemn Reuben for it later, in his deathbed blessing.", "Jacob was finally reunited with his father Isaac in Mamre (outside Hebron).When Isaac died at the age of 180, Jacob and Esau buried him in the Cave of the Patriarchs, which Abraham had purchased as a family burial plot.", "At this point in the biblical narrative, two genealogies of Esau's family appear under the headings \"the generations of Esau\".", "A conservative interpretation is that, at Isaac's burial, Jacob obtained the records of Esau, who had been married 80 years prior, and incorporated them into his own family records, and that Moses augmented and published them.===In Hebron===The house of Jacob dwelt in Hebron, in the land of Canaan.", "His flocks were often fed in the pastures of Shechem as well as Dothan.", "Of all the children in his household, he loved Rachel's firstborn son, Joseph, the most.", "Thus Joseph's half brothers were jealous of him and they ridiculed him often.", "Joseph even told his father about all of his half brothers' misdeeds.", "When Joseph was 17 years old, Jacob made a long coat or tunic of many colors for him.", "Seeing this, the half brothers began to hate Joseph.", "Then Joseph began to have dreams that implied that his family would bow down to him.", "When he told his brothers about such dreams, it drove them to conspire against him.", "When Jacob heard of these dreams, he rebuked his son for proposing the idea that the house of Jacob would even bow down to Joseph.", "Yet, he contemplated his son's words about these dreams.", "''Joseph's Coat Brought to Jacob''by Giovanni Andrea de Ferrari, c. 1640Sometime afterward, the sons of Jacob by Leah, Bilhah and Zilpah, were feeding his flocks in Shechem.", "Jacob wanted to know how things were doing, so he asked Joseph to go down there and return with a report.", "This was the last time he would ever see his son in Hebron.", "Later that day, the report that Jacob ended up receiving came from Joseph's brothers who brought before him a coat laden with blood.", "Jacob identified the coat as the one he made for Joseph.", "At that moment he cried \"It is my son's tunic.", "A wild beast has devoured him.", "Without doubt Joseph is torn to pieces.\"", "He rent his clothes and put sackcloth around his waist mourning for days.", "No one from the house of Jacob could comfort him during this time of bereavement.The truth was that Joseph's older brothers had turned on him, apprehended him and ultimately sold him into slavery on a caravan headed for Egypt.===Seven-year famine===Twenty years later, throughout the Middle East a severe famine occurred like none other that lasted seven years.", "It crippled nations.", "The word was that the only kingdom prospering was Egypt.", "In the second year of this great famine, when Israel (Jacob) was about 130 years old, he told his 10 sons of Leah, Bilhah and Zilpah, to go to Egypt and buy grain.", "Israel's youngest son Benjamin, born from Rachel, stayed behind by his father's order to keep him safe.Nine of the sons returned to their father Israel from Egypt, stockpiled with grain on their donkeys.", "They relayed to their father all that had happened in Egypt.", "They spoke of being accused as spies and that their brother Simeon had been taken prisoner.", "When Reuben, the eldest, mentioned that they needed to bring Benjamin to Egypt to prove their word as honest men, their father became furious with them.", "He couldn't understand how they were put in a position to tell the Egyptians all about their family.", "When the sons of Israel opened their sacks, they saw their money that they used to pay for the grain.", "It was still in their possession, and so they all became afraid.", "Israel then became angry with the loss of Joseph, Simeon, and now possibly Benjamin.It turned out that Joseph, who identified his brothers in Egypt, was able to secretly return the money that they used to pay for the grain, back to them.", "When the house of Israel consumed all the grain that they brought from Egypt, Israel told his sons to go back and buy more.", "This time, Judah spoke to his father in order to persuade him about having Benjamin accompany them, so as to prevent Egyptian retribution.", "In hopes of retrieving Simeon and ensuring Benjamin's return, Israel told them to bring the best fruits of their land, including: balm, honey, spices, myrrh, pistachio nuts and almonds.", "Israel also mentioned that the money that was returned to their money sacks was probably a mistake or an oversight on their part.", "So, he told them to bring that money back and use double that amount to pay for the new grain.", "Lastly, he let Benjamin go with them and said \"may God Almighty give you mercy...", "If I am bereaved, I am bereaved!", "\"===In Egypt===House of Israel welcomed by Pharaoh, watercolor by James Tissot (c. 1900)Joseph with his father Jacob and brothers in Egypt (''Zubdat-al Tawarikh'')When the sons of Israel (Jacob) returned to Hebron from their second trip, they came back with 20 additional donkeys carrying all kinds of goods and supplies as well as Egyptian transport wagons.", "When their father came out to meet them, his sons told him that Joseph was still alive, that he was the governor over all of Egypt and that he wanted the house of Israel to move to Egypt.", "Israel's heart \"stood still\" and just couldn't believe what he was hearing.", "Looking upon the wagons he declared \"Joseph my son is still alive.", "I will go and see him before I die.", "\"Israel and his entire house of 70, gathered up with all their livestock and began their journey to Egypt.", "En route, Israel stopped at Beersheba for the night to make a sacrificial offering to his God, Yahweh.", "Apparently he had some reservations about leaving the land of his forefathers, but God reassured him not to fear that he would rise again.", "God also assured that he would be with him, he would prosper, and he would also see his son Joseph who would lay him to rest.", "Continuing their journey to Egypt, when they approached in proximity, Israel sent his son Judah ahead to find out where the caravans were to stop.", "They were directed to disembark at Goshen.", "It was here, after 22 years, that Jacob saw his son Joseph once again.", "They embraced each other and wept together for quite a while.", "Israel then said, \"Now let me die, since I have seen your face, because you are still alive.", "\"The time had come for Joseph's family to personally meet the Pharaoh of Egypt.", "After Joseph prepared his family for the meeting, the brothers came before the Pharaoh first, formally requesting to pasture in Egyptian lands.", "The Pharaoh honored their stay and even made the notion that if there were any competent men in their house, then they may elect a chief herdsman to oversee Egyptian livestock.", "Finally, Joseph's father was brought out to meet the Pharaoh.", "Because the Pharaoh had such a high regard for Joseph, practically making him his equal, it was an honor to meet his father.", "Thus, Israel was able to bless the Pharaoh.", "The two chatted for a bit, the Pharaoh even inquiring of Israel's age which happened to be 130 years old at that time.", "After the meeting, the families were directed to pasture in the land of Ramses where they lived in the province of Goshen.", "The house of Israel acquired many possessions and multiplied exceedingly during the course of 17 years, even through the worst of the seven-year famine.=== Final days ===Jacob blessing Ephraim and ManassehJacob's funeral processionIsrael (Jacob) was 147 years old when he called to his favorite son Joseph and pleaded that he not be buried in Egypt.", "Rather, he requested to be carried to the land of Canaan to be buried with his forefathers.", "Joseph swore to do as his father asked of him.", "Not too long afterward, Israel had fallen ill, losing much of his vision.", "When Joseph came to visit his father, he brought with him his two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh.", "Israel declared that they would be heirs to the inheritance of the house of Israel, as if they were his own children, just as Reuben and Simeon were.", "Then Israel laid his right hand on the younger Ephraim's head and his left hand on the eldest Manasseh's head and blessed Joseph.", "However, Joseph was displeased that his father's right hand was not on the head of his firstborn, so he switched his father's hands.", "But Israel refused saying, \"but truly his younger brother shall be greater than he.\"", "A declaration he made, just as Israel himself was to his firstborn brother Esau.", "Then Israel called all of his sons in and prophesied their blessings or curses to all twelve of them in order of their ages.Afterward, Israel died and the family, including the Egyptians, mourned him 70 days.", "Israel was embalmed for 40 days and a great ceremonial journey to Canaan was prepared by Joseph.", "He led the servants of Pharaoh, and the elders of the houses Israel and Egypt beyond the Jordan River to Atad where they observed seven days of mourning.", "Their lamentation was so great that it caught the attention of surrounding Canaanites who remarked \"This is a deep mourning of the Egyptians.\"", "This spot was then named Abel Mizraim.", "Then they buried him in the cave of Machpelah, the property of Abraham when he bought it from the Hittite Ephron.===Children of Jacob===Jacob, through his two wives and his two concubines had 12 biological sons; Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali,Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph and Benjamin.", "The scene of Jacob mourning Joseph makes mention of him having a number of daughters, but no details are provided.", "Only one daughter, Dinah, is known by name.", "In addition, Jacob also adopted the two sons of Joseph, Manasseh and Ephraim.The offspring of Jacob's sons became the tribes of Israel following the Exodus, when the Israelites conquered and settled in the Land of Israel." ], [ "Religious perspectives", "===Judaism===There are two opinions in the Midrash as to how old Rebecca was at the time of her marriage and, consequently, at the twins' birth.", "According to the traditional counting cited by Rashi, Isaac was 37 years old at the time of the Binding of Isaac, and news of Rebecca's birth reached Abraham immediately after that event.", "In that case, since Isaac was 60 when Jacob and Esau were born and they had been married for 20 years, then Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebecca (Gen. 25:20), making Rebecca three years old at the time of her marriage, and 23 years old at the birth of Jacob and Esau.", "According to the second opinion, Rebecca was 14 years old at the time of their marriage, and 34 years old at the birth of Jacob and Esau.", "In either case, Isaac and Rebecca were married for 20 years before Jacob and Esau were born.", "The Midrash says that during Rebecca's pregnancy whenever she would pass a house of Torah study, Jacob would struggle to come out; whenever she would pass a house of idolatry, Esau would agitate to come out.Rashi explained that Isaac, when blessing Jacob instead of Esau, smelled the heavenly scent of Gan Eden (Paradise) when Jacob entered his room and, in contrast, perceived Gehenna opening beneath Esau when the latter entered the room, showing him that he had been deceived all along by Esau's show of piety.According to the Talmud, Jacob did not flee directly to Haran (as would seem from the Biblical text), but rather studied for 14 years at the study house of Shem and Eber before continuing towards Haran.When Laban planned to deceive Jacob into marrying Leah instead of Rachel, the Midrash recounts that both Jacob and Rachel suspected that Laban would pull such a trick; Laban was known as the \"Aramean\" (deceiver), and changed Jacob's wages ten times during his employ (Genesis 31:7).", "The couple therefore devised a series of signs by which Jacob could identify the veiled bride on his wedding night.", "But when Rachel saw her sister being taken out to the wedding canopy, her heart went out to her for the public shame Leah would suffer if she were exposed.", "Rachel therefore gave Leah the signs so that Jacob would not realize the switch.Jacob had still another reason for grieving the loss of Joseph.", "God had promised to him: \"If none of your sons dies during your lifetime, you may look upon it as a token that you will not be put in (Hell of) Gehenna after your death.\"", "Thinking Joseph to be dead, Jacob had his own destiny to lament because he considered that he was doomed to that Hell.Jewish apocalyptic literature of the Hellenistic period includes many ancient texts with narratives about Jacob, many times with details different from Genesis.", "The more important are the Book of Jubilees and the Book of Biblical Antiquities.", "Jacob is also the protagonist of the Testament of Jacob, of the Ladder of Jacob and of the Prayer of Joseph, which interpret the experience of this Patriarch in the context of merkabah mysticism.===Christianity===The Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite see Jacob's dream as a prophecy of the incarnation of the Logos, whereby Jacob's ladder is understood as a symbol of the Theotokos (Virgin Mary), who, according to Eastern Orthodox theology, united heaven and earth in her womb.", "The biblical account of this vision is one of the standard Old Testament readings at Vespers on Great Feasts of the Theotokos.The Eastern and Western Churches consider Jacob as a saint along with other biblical patriarchs.", "Along with other patriarchs his feast day is celebrated in the Byzantine rite on the Second Sunday before the Advent (December 11–17), under the title ''the Sunday of the Forefathers''.===Islam===Cenotaph of Jacob, Cave of the PatriarchsTwo further references to Isra'il (Arabic: '''إِسْرَآئِیل''' ''ˈisraāˈiyl''; Classical/ Quranic Arabic: '''إِسْرَآءِیْل''' ''ˈisraāãˈiyl'') are believed to be mention of Jacob.", "The Arabic form Ya'qūb () may be direct from the Hebrew or indirect through Syriac.He is recognized in Islam as a prophet who received inspiration from God.", "He is acknowledged as a patriarch of Islam.", "Muslims believe that he preached the same monotheistic faith as his forefathers ʾIbrāhīm, ʾIsḥāq and Ismā'īl.", "Jacob is mentioned 16 times in the Quran.", "In the majority of these references, Jacob is mentioned alongside fellow prophets and patriarchs as an ancient and pious prophet.", "According to the Quran, Jacob remained in the company of the elect throughout his life.", "(38:47) The Quran specifically mentions that Jacob was guided (6:84) and inspired (4:163) and was chosen to enforce the awareness of the Hereafter.", "(38:46) Jacob is described as a good-doer (21:72) and the Quran further makes it clear that God inspired Jacob to contribute towards purification and hold the contact prayer.", "(21:73) Jacob is further described as being resourceful and a possessor of great vision (38:45) and is further spoken of as being granted a \"tongue voice of truthfulness to be heard.\"", "(19:50)Of the life of Jacob, the Quran narrates two especially important events.", "The first is the role he plays in the story of his son Joseph.", "The Quran narrates the story of Joseph in detail, and Jacob, being Joseph's father, is mentioned thrice and is referenced another 25 times.", "In the narrative, Jacob does not trust some of his older sons (12: 11, 18, 23) because they do not respect him.", "(12: 8, 16–17) Jacob's prophetic nature is evident from his foreknowledge of Joseph's future greatness (12:6), his foreboding and response to the supposed death of Joseph (12: 13, 18) and in his response to the sons' plight in Egypt.", "(12: 83, 86–87, 96) Islamic literature fleshes out the narrative of Jacob, and mentions that his wives included Rachel.", "Jacob is later mentioned in the Quran in the context of the promise bestowed to Zechariah, regarding the birth of John the Baptist.", "(19:6) Jacob's second mention is in the Quran's second chapter.", "As Jacob lay on his deathbed, he asked his 12 sons to testify their faith to him before he departed from this world to the next.", "(2:132) Each son testified in front of Jacob that they would promise to remain Muslim (in submission to God) until the day of their death; that is they would surrender their wholeselves to God alone and would worship only Him.In contrast to the Judeo-Christian view of Jacob, one main difference is that the story of Jacob's blessing, in which he deceives Isaac, is not accepted in Islam.", "The Quran makes it clear that Jacob was blessed by God as a prophet and, therefore, Muslims believe that his father, being a prophet as well, also knew of his son's greatness.", "Jacob is also cited in the ''Hadith'' as an example of one who was patient and trusting in God in the face of suffering.====Nation of Islam====According to the teachings of the Nation of Islam (NOI), the original inhabitants of the world were black (referred to as the \"Asiatic Blackman\"), while the white race are \"devils\" who were created 6,000 years ago on what is today the Greek island of Patmos by the biblical and quranic Jacob, whom the group refers to as the \"bigheaded scientist\" Yakub.", "Though rejected by the vast majority of American Muslims, several NOI breakaway sects, including the Five-Percent Nation subscribe to this narrative.", "In contrast to both the Bible and Qu’ran, NOI theology teaches that Yakub was born in Mecca." ], [ "Historicity", "Although archaeologist and biblical scholar William F. Albright maintained (c. 1961) that the narratives of Abraham and Jacob could be dated to about the 19th century BCE;, John J. Bimson wrote in 1980: \"Since then ... there has been a strong reaction against the use of archaeological evidence in support of the biblical traditions, and Albright's comment could not be repeated with any truth today.\"", "Nahum M. Sarna (1978) noted that an inability to date the narratives of the patriarchs does not necessarily invalidate their historicity, a view supported by Bimson, who admitted that \"Our knowledge of the centuries around 2000 BCE is very small, and our ignorance very great.", "\"Gerhard von Rad, in his ''Old Testament Theology'' (1962) postulated that the patriarchal narratives describe actual events subsequently interpreted by the community through its own experience.Other scholars, such as Thomas L. Thompson, view the narratives as late literary compositions (6th and 5th centuries BCE) that have ideological and theological purposes but are unreliable for historical reconstruction of the pre-settlement period of the Israelites.", "In ''The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives'' (1974), Thompson suggested that the narratives arose in a response to some emergent situation, expressed as an imaginative picture of the past to embody hope.In ''The Ascent of Man'' (1973), Jacob Bronowski pointed out similarities between Jacob and Bakhtyar, who lends his name to Iran's Bakhtiari people.", "Both were herdsmen who had two wives, and are regarded as the ancestral patriarch of their nomadic people.Archaeologist William G. Dever wrote in 2001: \"After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob 'historical figures.", "'\"Excavations in the Timna Valley produced what may be the earliest camel bones found in Israel or even outside the Arabian Peninsula, dating to around 930 BCE.", "This is seen by some as evidence that the stories of Abraham, Jacob, and Joseph (said to have taken place a thousand years earlier) were written no earlier than the 10th century BCE.Israel Finkelstein proposed the Jacob-Esau narratives could have originated from 8th century BCE Kingdom of Israel because the conflict with Edom fits well not only in a Judahite context but also in 8th century BCE Israelite context.", "Other scholars have suggested that the story could fit also in a 2nd millennium BCE context.", "Finkelstein suggests there is an archaeological evidence that 8th century Israel interacted with Edom: the graffiti of Kuntillet Ajrud that mention both a \"YHWH of Samaria\" (center of Israel) and a \"YHWH of Teman\" (center of Edom).", "He proposed the Jacob-Laban narrative might stem from the 8th century BCE as Haran was then the western capital of the Assyrian empire.", "He also proposed that the earliest layer of Jacob cycle or the oldest Jacob tradition, which is the story of him and his uncle Laban establishing the border between them, might be a pre-monarchic tradition and could be originated from Gilead." ], [ "See also", "*Jacob sheep" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *Buechner, Frederick (1993), ''The Son of Laughter'', New York: HarperSanFrancisco" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jehoshaphat" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jehoshaphat''' (; alternatively spelled '''Jehosaphat''', '''Josaphat''', or '''Yehoshafat'''; ; ; ), according to the Hebrew Bible, was the son of Asa, and the fourth king of the Kingdom of Judah, in succession to his father.", "His children included Jehoram, who succeeded him as king.", "His mother was Azubah.", "Historically, his name has sometimes been connected with the Valley of Josaphat." ], [ "Reign", "Statues of Kings Jehoshaphat and Hezekiah at El Escorial, Spain2 Chronicles chapters 17 to 21 are devoted to the reign of Jehoshaphat.", "First Kings treats him more briefly: 1 Kings 15:24 mentions him as successor to Asa, and 1 Kings 22:1–50 summarizes the events of his life.", "The Jerusalem Bible states that \"the Chronicler sees Asa as a type of the peaceful, Jehoshaphat of the strong king\".", "According to these passages, Jehoshaphat ascended the throne at the age of thirty-five and reigned for twenty-five years.", "He \"walked in the ways\" of his father or ancestor, King David.", "He spent the first years of his reign fortifying his kingdom against the Kingdom of Israel.", "His zeal in suppressing the idolatrous worship of the \"high places\" is commended in 2 Chronicles 17:6.In the third year of his reign, Jehoshaphat sent out priests and Levites over the land to instruct the people in the Law, an activity which was commanded for a Sabbatical year in Deuteronomy 31:10–13 (taking place in Jerusalem).", "Later reforms in Judah instituted by Jehoshaphat appear to have included further religious reforms, appointment of judges throughout the cities of Judah and a form of \"court of appeal\" in Jerusalem.", "Ecclesiastical and secular jurisdictions, according to 2 Chronicles 19:11, were by royal command kept distinct.The author of the Books of Chronicles generally praises his reign, stating that the kingdom enjoyed a great measure of peace and prosperity, the blessing of God resting on the people \"in their basket and their store\"." ], [ "Alliances", "Jehoshaphat also pursued alliances with the kingdom of Israel in the North.", "Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram married Athaliah, daughter of king Ahab of Israel.", "In the eighteenth year of his reign Jehosaphat visited Ahab in Samaria, and nearly lost his life accompanying his ally to the siege of Ramoth-Gilead.", "While Jehoshaphat safely returned from this battle, he was reproached by the prophet Jehu, son of Hanani, about this alliance.", "We are told that Jehoshaphat repented, and returned to his former course of opposition to all idolatry, and promoting the worship of God and in the government of his people.Later it appears that Jehoshaphat entered into an alliance with Ahaziah of Israel, for the purpose of carrying on maritime commerce with Ophir.", "He subsequently joined Jehoram of Israel in a war against the Moabites, who were under tribute to Israel.", "The Moabites were subdued, but seeing Mesha's act of offering his own son (and singular heir) as a propitiatory human sacrifice on the walls of Kir of Moab filled Israel with horror, and they withdrew and returned to their own land." ], [ "Victory over Moabite alliance", "Jehoshaphat and the people mourning - the prophecy of JahazielAdad of Syria as illustrated by Jean Fouquet (1470s) for Josephus' ''Antiquities of the Jews''According to ''Chronicles'', the Moabites formed a great and powerful confederacy with the surrounding nations, and marched against Jehoshaphat.", "The allied forces were encamped at Ein Gedi.", "The king and his people were filled with alarm.", "The king prayed in the court of the Temple, \"O our God, will you not judge them?", "For we have no power to face this vast army that is attacking us.", "We do not know what to do; but our eyes are upon you.\"", "The voice of Jahaziel the Levite was heard announcing that the next day all this great host would be overthrown.", "So it was, for they quarreled among themselves, and slew one another, leaving to the people of Judah only to gather the rich spoils of the slain.", "Soon after this victory Jehoshaphat died after a reign of twenty-five years at the age of sixty.", "According to some sources (such as the eleventh-century Jewish commentator Rashi), he actually died two years later, but gave up his throne earlier for unknown reasons.", "As with his father Asa, a bonfire was lit in his honor.He also had the ambition to emulate Solomon's maritime ventures to Ophir, and built a large vessel for Tarshish.", "But when this boat was wrecked at Ezion-Geber he relinquished the project.In I Kings xxii.", "43 the piety of Jehoshaphat is briefly dwelt on.", "Chronicles, in keeping with its tendency, elaborates this trait of the king's character.", "According to its report, Jehoshaphat organized a missionary movement by sending out his officers, the priests, and the Levites to instruct the people throughout the land in the Law of YHWH, the king himself delivering sermons.Underlying this ascription to the king of the purpose to carry out the Priestly Code, is the historical fact that Jehoshaphat took heed to organize the administration of justice on a solid foundation, and was an honest worshiper of YHWH.", "In connection with this the statement that Jehoshaphat expelled the \"Ḳedeshim\" (R. V. \"Sodomites\") from the land (1 Kings 22:46) is characteristic; while 2 Chron.", "19:3 credits him with having cut down the Asherot.", "The report that he took away the \"high places\" (and the Asherim) conflicts with 1 Kings 22:44 (A. V. v. 43) and 2 Chron.", "20:33.The account of Jehoshaphat's tremendous army (1,160,000 men) and the rich tribute received from (among others) the Philistines and the Arabs is not historical.", "It is in harmony with the theory worked out in Chronicles that pious monarchs have always been the mightiest and most prosperous." ], [ "Rabbinic literature", "The question that puzzled Heinrich Ewald and others, \"Where was the brazen serpent till the time of Hezekiah?\"", "occupied the Talmudists also.", "They answered it in a very simple way: Asa and Joshaphat, when clearing away the idols, purposely left the brazen serpent behind, in order that Hezekiah might also be able to do a praiseworthy deed in breaking it." ], [ "Chronological notes", "William F. Albright estimated the reign of Jehoshaphat to 873–849 BCE.", "Edwin R. Thiele held that he became coregent with his father Asa in Asa's 39th year, 872/871 BCE, the year Asa was infected with a severe disease in his feet, and then became sole regent when Asa died of the disease in 870/869 BCE, his own death occurring in 848/847 BCE.", "So Jehoshaphat's dates are taken as one year earlier: co-regency beginning in 873/871, sole reign commencing in 871/870, and death in 849/848 BCE.The calendars for reckoning the years of kings in Judah and Israel were offset by six months, that of Judah starting in Tishri (in the fall) and that of Israel in Nisan (in the spring).", "Cross-synchronizations between the two kingdoms therefore often allow narrowing of the beginning and/or ending dates of a king to within a six-month range.", "For Jehoshaphat, the Scriptural data allow the narrowing of the beginning of his sole reign to some time between Tishri 1 of 871 BCE and the day before Nisan 1 of 870 BCE.", "For calculation purposes, this should be taken as the Judean year beginning in Tishri of 871/870 BCE.", "His death occurred at some time between Nisan 1 of 848 BCE and Tishri 1 of that same year." ], [ "In popular culture", "Michelangelo's ''Asa-Jehoshaphat-Joram''.", "The man on the left is generally considered to be Jehoshaphat.The king's name in the oath ''jumping Jehosaphat'' was likely popularized by the name's utility as a euphemism for Jesus.", "The phrase, spelled \"Jumpin' Geehosofat\", is first recorded in the 1865–1866 novel ''The Headless Horseman'' by the Irish-American novelist Thomas Mayne Reid.", "The novel also uses \"Geehosofat\", standing alone, as an exclamation.", "The longer version \"By the shaking, jumping ghost of Jehosaphat\" is seen in the 1865 novel ''Paul Peabody'' by the English journalist Percy Bolingbroke St John.Another theory is that the reference is to Joel 3:11–12, where the prophet Joel says, speaking of the judgment of the dead, \"Assemble yourselves, and come, all ye heathen, and gather yourselves together round about: thither cause thy mighty ones to come down, O LORD.", "Let the heathen be wakened, and come up to the valley of Jehoshaphat: for there will I sit to judge all the heathen round about.", "\"In the 1956 Warner Brothers Merrie Melodies theatrical cartoon short, ''Yankee Dood It,'' based on the fairy tale of The Elves and the Shoemaker, Jehosephat figures prominently as an invocation to turn elves into mice.", "On the TV series ''Car 54, Where Are You?", "'', the character Francis Muldoon cited his partner's frequent use of the phrase \"Jumpin' Jehosephat!\"", "as a source of annoyance in the episode entitled \"Change Your Partners\".", "The televised ''Batman'' live-action program of the 1960s also featured Robin, played by Burt Ward, uttering the phrase as an emphatic exclamation, and it was also incorporated into the talking alarm clock alarms voiced again by Burt Ward in 1974 in the \"talking Batman & Robin alarm clock\" made by Janex.'Jehoshaphat!'", "was the standard curse-word used by Elijah Baley, protagonist of the first three science-fiction novels of Isaac Asimov's ''Robot'' series.Another reference comes in Keno Don Rosa's ''The Invader of Fort Duckburg'', a Scrooge McDuck ''Life and Times'' story.", "Theodore \"Teddy\" Roosevelt exclaims 'Great Jumping Jehoshaphat' when confronted with Scrooge McDuck's illegal occupation of the fictitious Fort Duckburg, also in Disney's 1963 animated film ''The Sword in the Stone'', Merlin uses \"Jehoshaphat\" to express alarm and annoyance.", "Furthermore, in Disney's 1977 animated film ''The Rescuers'', Bernard exclaims \"Jehoshaphat!\"", "during the bayou chase scene.Rapper MF Doom used the phrase \"Jumpin' Jehosephat!\"", "in his song \"I Hear Voices\", featured on the 2001 re-release of his 1999 debut album ''Operation: Doomsday''." ], [ "References", "'''Attribution:'''*" ], [ "External links", "* Genealogy of the House of David- Jehoshaphat, King of Judah" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jehu" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jehu''' (, meaning \"Yahu is He\"; ''Ya'úa'' ''ia-ú-a''; ) was the tenth king of the northern Kingdom of Israel since Jeroboam I, noted for exterminating the house of Ahab.", "He was the son of Jehoshaphat, grandson of Nimshi, and possibly great-grandson of Omri, although the latter notion is not supported by the biblical text.", "His reign lasted 28 years.William F. Albright has dated Jehu's reign to 842–815 BCE, while E. R. Thiele offers the dates 841–814 BCE.", "The principal source for the events of his reign comes from 2 Kings." ], [ "Biblical narrative", "Jehu, depicted in Guillaume Rouillé's ''Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum''=== Proclamation as king ===The reign of Jehu's predecessor, Jehoram, was marked by the Battle of Ramoth-Gilead against the army of the Arameans.", "Jehoram was wounded and returned to Jezreel to recover.", "He was attended by Ahaziah, king of Judah, who was also his nephew, son of his sister Athaliah.", "Meanwhile, according to the writer of the Books of Kings, the prophet Elisha ordered one of his students to go to Ramoth-Gilead and separate Jehu, a military commander at the time, from his companions.", "There, he was to anoint Jehu as king in an inner chamber and explain to him that he was to act as an agent of divine judgment against the house of Ahab.", "The student followed these instructions, and upon completion he ran away.", "Jehu initially dismissed the student as a \"madman\", but nonetheless told his companions about his anointing.", "His companions later enthusiastically blew their trumpets and proclaimed him their king.=== Jezreel and the deaths of Jehoram and Jezebel ===Queen Jezebel Being Punished by Jehu.", "Andrea Celesti (1637–1712).With a chosen band, Jehu planned his conspiracy against King Jehoram and secretly entered Jezreel.", "Jehoram tried to flee, but Jehu shot an arrow that pierced his heart.", "Jehu later threw his body on Naboth's vineyard, to avenge Naboth, whom Jehoram's father and mother had murdered.", "King Ahaziah fled after seeing Jehoram's death but Jehu wounded him.", "Ahaziah fled to Megiddo, where he died.Jehu proceeded to enter the premises of the palace at Jezreel.", "Jezebel watched him with contempt from the palace window and mockingly compared him to King Zimri.", "Jehu later commanded Jezebel's eunuchs to throw her out of the palace window.", "They obeyed his commands and Jezebel was instantly killed.", "Jehu trampled over her body, and when he decided later to arrange a proper burial due to her royal descent, only her skull, hands and feet remained.", "The rest of her body had been eaten by dogs.Now master of Jezreel, Jehu wrote to command the chief men in Samaria to hunt down and kill all the royal princes.", "They did so, and the next day they piled the 70 heads in two heaps outside the city gate, as Jehu commanded.", "Ahab's entire family was slain.", "Shortly afterward, Jehu encountered the 42 \"brothers of Ahaziah\" (since the brothers of Ahaziah had been taken away and probably killed by the Philistines, these must have been relatives of Ahaziah in a broader sense, like nephews and cousins) at \"Beth-eked of the shepherds\".", "They told Jehu they were visiting the royal family.", "Jehu killed them all at \"the pit of Beth-eked\".After Jehu's slaughter of the Omrides, he met Jehonadab the Rechabite and convinced him that he was pro-Yahwist.", "Jehonadab quickly allied with him, and they entered the capital together.", "In control of Samaria, he invited the worshippers of Baal to a ceremony, then trapped and killed them.", "He then destroyed their idols and temple, and turned the temple into a latrine.=== Reign ===Other than Jehu's bloody seizure of power and tolerance for the golden calves at Dan and Bethel, which was criticized as a \"heretical\" interpretation of Yahwism, little else is known of his reign.", "He was hard pressed by Hazael, king of the Arameans, who defeated his armies \"throughout all of the territories of Israel\" beyond the Jordan River, in the lands of Gilead, Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh.This suggests that Jehu offered tribute to Shalmaneser III, as depicted on his Black Obelisk, in order to gain a powerful ally against the Arameans.", "''Bit-Khumri'' was used by Tiglath-Pileser III for the non-Omride kings Pekah (733) & Hoshea (732), hence House/Land/Kingdom of Omri could apply to later Israelite kings not necessarily descended from Omri.", "According to others, this description should be taken very literally, as in this period Assyrians were very closely following the events in this area, with control slipping in later years.The destruction of the house of Ahab is commended by the author of 2 Kings as a form of divine punishment.", "Yahweh rewards Jehu for being a willing executor of divine judgment by allowing four generations of kings to sit on the throne of Israel.", "Jehu and his descendants Jehoahaz, Jehoash, Jeroboam II, and Zachariah ruled Israel for 102 years.", "Nonetheless, according to the Book of Hosea, God punished the House of Jehu through the hands of the Assyrians for Jehu's massacre at Jezreel, and some Biblical commentators reasoned that this was because Jehu's motives may not have been entirely pure in his massacre." ], [ "Archaeological evidences", "=== Black Obelisk ===Part of the gift-bearing delegation of King Jehu, Black Obelisk, 841–840 BCE.Aside from the Hebrew Scriptures, Jehu appears in Assyrian documents, notably in the Black Obelisk, where he is depicted as kissing the ground in front of Shalmaneser III and presenting a gift (''maddattu ša Ia-ú-a...kaspu mâdu'' \"tribute of Jehu...much silver\").", "In the Assyrian documents, he is simply called \"son of Omri\" (, possibly expressing his having been the ruler of \"the House of Omri\", a later Assyrian designation for the Kingdom of Israel).", "This tribute is dated 841 BCE.", "It is the earliest preserved depiction of an Israelite.According to the Obelisk, Jehu severed his alliances with Phoenicia and Judah, and became subject to Assyria.Black Obelisk, Jehu's delegation to Shalmaneser III=== Tel Dan Stele ===The author of the Tel Dan Stele (9th century BCE, found in 1993 and 1994) claimed to have slain both Ahaziah of Judah and Jehoram of Israel (whom Ahaziah was visiting).", "Some contend the author of this monument is Hazael of the Arameans, although 2 Kings 9 specifically says that Jehu killed Ahaziah and Jehoram after being anointed King of Israel by a young prophet sent by the Prophet Elisha.David Miano suggested that the author may have been Jehu in his presentation \"Who Wrote the Tel Dan Inscription?\"", "at a 2021 conference of the Save Ancient Studies Alliance." ], [ "In popular culture", "Jehu is portrayed by George Nader in the film Sins of Jezebel (1953).Drive Like Jehu was an American post-hardcore band from San Diego active from 1990 to 1995.The band's name was derived from 2 Kings 9:20: \"And the watchman told, saying, He came even unto them, and cometh not again: and the driving is like the driving of Jehu the son of Nimshi; for he driveth furiously\".", "\"Jehu's Rebellion\" is the eighth chapter in ''Manga Messengers'' (2011)'','' the penultimate installment in the six-volume Manga Bible (2006–19)." ], [ "See also", "*List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources" ], [ "Sources and notes" ], [ "External links", "* Jehu Jewish Encyclopedia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joshua" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joshua''' (), also known as '''Yehoshua''' ( ''Yəhōšuaʿ'', Tiberian: ''Yŏhōšuaʿ,'' lit.", "'Yahweh is salvation') or '''Josue''', functioned as Moses' assistant in the books of Exodus and Numbers, and later succeeded Moses as leader of the Israelite tribes in the Book of Joshua of the Hebrew Bible.", "His name was '''Hoshea''' ( ''Hōšēaʿ'', lit.", "'Save') the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, but Moses called him \"Yehoshua\" (translated as \"Joshua\" in English), the name by which he is commonly known in English.", "According to the Bible, he was born in Egypt prior to the Exodus.The Hebrew Bible identifies Joshua as one of the twelve spies of Israel sent by Moses to explore the land of Canaan.", "In and after the death of Moses, he led the Israelite tribes in the conquest of Canaan, and allocated lands to the tribes.", "According to biblical chronology, Joshua lived some time in the Bronze Age.", "According to Joshua died at the age of 110.Joshua holds a position of respect among Muslims, who also see him as the leader of the faithful following the death of Moses.", "In Islam, it is also believed that Yusha bin Nun (Joshua) was the \"attendant\" of Moses mentioned in the Quran before Moses meets Khidr.", "Joshua plays a role in Islamic literature, with significant narration in the hadith." ], [ "Name", "The English name \"Joshua\" is a rendering of the Hebrew ''Yehoshua'', and is mostly interpreted as \"Yahweh is salvation\"; although others have also alternatively interpreted it as \"Yahweh is lordly\".", "The theophoric name appears to be constructed from a combination of the Tetragrammaton with the Hebrew noun יְשׁוּעָה (Modern: ''yəšūʿa'', Tiberian: ''yăšūʿā''), meaning \"salvation\"; derived from the Hebrew root ישׁע (''y-š-ʿ''), meaning \"to save/help/deliver\".", "Other theophoric names sharing a similar meaning can also be found throughout the Hebrew Bible, such as that of the son of David אֱלִישׁוּעַ (''ʾĔlīšūaʿ''), whose name means \"My El (God) is salvation\".", "\"Jesus\" is the English derivative of the Greek transliteration of \"Yehoshua\" via Latin.", "In the Septuagint, all instances of the word \"Yehoshua\" are rendered as \"\" (Iēsoūs), the closest Greek pronunciation of the .", "Thus, in modern Greek, Joshua is called \"Jesus son of Naue\" (, ''toũ Nauḗ'') to differentiate him from Jesus.", "This is also true in some Slavic languages following the Eastern Orthodox tradition (e.g.", "\"\", ''Iisús Navín'', in Bulgarian, Serbian and Russian, but not Czech)." ], [ "Biblical narrative", "===The Exodus===''Moses Blesses Joshua Before the High Priest'' (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot)Joshua was a major figure in the events of the Exodus.", "He was charged by Moses with selecting and commanding a militia group for their first battle after exiting Egypt, against the Amalekites in Rephidim, in which they were victorious.He later accompanied Moses when he ascended biblical Mount Sinai to commune with God, visualize God's plan for the Israelite tabernacle and receive the Ten Commandments.", "Joshua was with Moses when he descended from the mountain, heard the Israelites' celebrations around the Golden Calf, and broke the tablets bearing the words of the commandments.", "Similarly, in the narrative which refers to Moses being able to speak with God in his tent of meeting outside the camp, Joshua is seen as custodian of the tent ('tabernacle of meeting') when Moses returned to the Israelite encampment.", "However, when Moses returned to the mountain to re-create the tablets recording the Ten Commandments, Joshua was not present, as the biblical text states \"no man shall come up with you\".Later, Joshua was identified as one of the twelve spies sent by Moses to explore and report on the land of Canaan, and only he and Caleb gave an encouraging report, a reward for which would be that only these two of their entire generation would enter the promised land.According to Joshua 1:1, God appointed Joshua to succeed Moses as leader of the Israelites along with giving him a blessing of invincibility during his lifetime.", "The first part of the book of Joshua covers the period when he led the conquest of Canaan.===Conquest of Canaan===John MartinAt the Jordan River, the waters parted, as they had for Moses at the Red Sea.", "The first battle after the crossing of the Jordan was the Battle of Jericho.", "Joshua led the destruction of Jericho, then moved on to Ai, a small neighboring city to the west.", "However, they were defeated with thirty-six Israelite deaths.", "The defeat was attributed to Achan taking an \"accursed thing\" from Jericho; and was followed by Achan and his family and animals being stoned to death to restore God's favor.", "Joshua then went to defeat Ai.The Israelites faced an alliance of five Amorite kings from Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon.", "At Gibeon, Joshua asked the to cause the sun and moon to stand still, so that he could finish the battle in daylight.", "According to the text, the sun stopped in the middle of the sky and delayed going down about a full day.", "This event is most notable because \"There has been no day like it before or since, when the heeded the voice of a man, for the Lord fought for Israel.\"", "The also fought for the Israelites in this battle, for he hurled huge hailstones from the sky which killed more Canaanites than those which the Israelites slaughtered.", "From there on, Joshua was able to lead the Israelites to several victories, securing much of the land of Canaan.", "He presided over the Israelite gatherings at Gilgal and Shiloh which allocated land to the tribes of Israel (Joshua 14:1–5 and 18:1–10), and the Israelites rewarded him with the Ephraimite city of Timnath-heres or Timnath-serah, where he settled (Joshua 19:50).According to the Talmud, Joshua in his book enumerated only those towns on the frontier.===Death===Joshua's Tomb in Kifl Haris near Nablus, West Bank, on Joshua's ''yartzeit'' 2007Joshua's Tomb in JordanWhen he was \"old and well advanced in years\", Joshua convened the elders and chiefs of the Israelites and exhorted them to have no fellowship with the native population, because it could lead them to be unfaithful to God.", "At a general assembly of the clans at Shechem, he took leave of the people, admonishing them to be loyal to their God, who had been so mightily manifested in the midst of them.", "As a witness of their promise to serve God, Joshua set up a great stone under an oak by the sanctuary of God.", "Soon afterward he died, at the age of 110, and was buried at Timnath-heres, in the hill country of Ephraim, north of Mount Gaash." ], [ "Historicity", "===Current mainstream opinion===The prevailing scholarly view is that the Book of Joshua is not a factual account of historical events.", "The apparent setting of Joshua is the 13th century BCE which was a time of widespread city-destruction, but with a few exceptions (Hazor, Lachish) the destroyed cities are not the ones the Bible associates with Joshua, and the ones it does associate with him show little or no sign of even being occupied at the time.", "Given its lack of historicity, Carolyn Pressler in her commentary for the ''Westminster Bible Companion'' series suggests that readers of Joshua should give priority to its theological message (\"what passages teach about God\") and be aware of what these would have meant to audiences in the seventh and sixth centuries BCE.", "Richard Nelson explained that the needs of the centralised monarchy favoured a single story of origins, combining old traditions of an exodus from Egypt, belief in a national god as \"divine warrior,\" and explanations for ruined cities, social stratification and ethnic groups, and contemporary tribes.It has been argued that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value.", "The archaeological evidence shows that Jericho and Ai were not occupied in the Near Eastern Late Bronze Age, although recent excavations at Jericho have questioned this.", "The story of the conquest perhaps represents the nationalist propaganda of the eighth century BCE kings of Judah and their claims to the territory of the Kingdom of Israel, incorporated into an early form of Joshua written late in the reign of king Josiah (reigned 640–609 BCE).", "The book was probably revised and completed after the fall of Jerusalem to the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE, and possibly after the return from the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE.===M.", "Noth (1930s)===In the 1930s Martin Noth made a sweeping criticism of the usefulness of the Book of Joshua for history.", "Noth was a student of Albrecht Alt, who emphasized form criticism and the importance of etiology.", "Alt and Noth posited a peaceful movement of the Israelites into various areas of Canaan, ''contra'' the Biblical account.===W.F.", "Albright (1930s)===William Foxwell Albright questioned the \"tenacity\" of etiologies, which were key to Noth's analysis of the campaigns in Joshua.", "Archaeological evidence in the 1930s showed that the city of Ai, an early target for conquest in the putative Joshua account, had existed and been destroyed, but in the 22nd century BCE.", "Some alternate sites for Ai have been proposed which would partially resolve the discrepancy in dates, but these sites have not been widely accepted.===K.", "Kenyon (1951)===In 1951 Kathleen Kenyon showed that City IV at Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) was destroyed at the end of the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2100–1550 BCE), not during the Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BCE).", "Kenyon argued that the early Israelite campaign could not be historically corroborated, but rather explained as an etiology of the location and a representation of the Israelite settlement.===G.E.", "Wright (1955)===In 1955, G. Ernest Wright discussed the correlation of archaeological data to the early Israelite campaigns, which he divided into three phases per the Book of Joshua.", "He pointed to two sets of archaeological findings that \"seem to suggest that the biblical account is in general correct regarding the nature of the late thirteenth and twelfth-eleventh centuries in the country\" (i.e., \"a period of tremendous violence\").", "He gives particular weight to what were then recent digs at Hazor by Yigael Yadin." ], [ "Religious views", "Carolingian miniature, c. 840===In Judaism=======In rabbinical literature====The Israelites led by Joshua crossing the Jordan River with the Ark, Old Sacristy, Milan Italy, 15th c.Robert Hecquet, Israelites led by Joshua Crossing the Jordan RiverIn rabbinic literature Joshua is regarded as a faithful, humble, deserving, wise man.", "Biblical verses illustrative of these qualities and of their reward are applied to him.", "\"He that waits on his master shall be honored\" is construed as a reference to Joshua, as is also the first part of the same verse, \"Whoso keeps the fig-tree shall eat the fruit thereof\".", "That \"honor shall uphold the humble in spirit\" is proved by Joshua's victory over Amalek.", "Not the sons of Moses—as Moses himself had expected—but Joshua was appointed as Moses' successor.", "Moses was shown how Joshua reproved that Othniel.", "\"God would speak to Moses face to face, like someone would speak to his friend.", "Then he would return to the camp.", "But his attendant, Joshua the son of Nun, a young man, would not leave the tent.", "Joshua never moved from the tent\".", "Didn't Joshua leave the tent to eat, sleep or attend to his needs?", "This praise shows that Joshua had complete faith in Moses, the Tzaddik.", "One who has this faith is cognizant of the tzaddik in everything he does; he remains steadfastly with the tzaddik whatever he does.According to rabbinic tradition, Joshua, when dividing the Land of Canaan among the twelve tribes of Israel, planted sea squill () to mark off the butts and bounds of tribal properties.Moreover, Joshua, on dividing the land of Canaan amongst the tribes of Israel, made the tribes agree to ten conditions, the most important of which being the common use of the forests as pasture for cattle, and the common right of fishing in the Sea of Tiberias.", "Natural springs were to be used for drinking and laundry by all tribes, although the tribe to which the water course fell had the first rights.", "Prickly burnet (''Sarcopoterium spinosum'') and the camelthorn (''Alhagi maurorum'') could be freely collected as firewood by any member of any tribe, in any tribal territory.====In prayer====According to Jewish religious tradition, upon making Aliyah by crossing the Jordan River to enter the Land of Israel, Joshua composed the Aleinu prayer thanking God.", "This idea was first cited in the Kol Bo of the late 14th Century.", "Several medieval commentators noticed that Joshua's shorter birth name, Hosea, appears in the first few verses of Aleinu in reverse acrostic: ע – עלינו, ש – שלא שם, ו – ואנחנו כורעים, ה – הוא אלוקינו.", "The Teshuvot HaGeonim, a Geonic responsum, discussed that Joshua composed the Aleinu because although the Israelites had made Aliyah to the Promised Land, they were surrounded by other peoples, and he wanted the Jews to draw a clear distinction between themselves, who knew and accepted the sovereignty of God, and those nations of the world which did not.", "In the modern era, religious Jews still pray the Aliyah inspired Aleinu three times daily, including on the High Holidays.", "The Aleinu prayer begins:===In Christianity===Most modern Bibles translate to identify Jesus as a better Joshua, as Joshua led Israel into the rest of Canaan, but Jesus leads the people of God into \"God's rest\".", "Among the early Church Fathers, Joshua is considered a type of Jesus Christ.The story of Joshua and the Canaanite kings is also alluded to in the 2 Meqabyan, a book considered canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.===In Islam=======Quranic references====Joshua (, ''Yūšaʿ ibn Nūn'' , is not mentioned by name in the Quran, but his name appears in other Islamic literature.", "In the Quranic account of the conquest of Canaan, Joshua and Caleb are referenced, but not named, as two \"Allah-fearing men\", on whom Allah \"had bestowed His grace\".Joshua is also referred to in the journey Musa (Moses) took with him to find Khidr.", "The authentic narration collected by Bukhari reports that a man approached Moses after he gave a talk and asked him, “Who is the most knowledgeable person on earth?” Moses responded, “That would be me!” So Allah revealed to Moses that he should not have said this and there was in fact someone who was more knowledgeable than him.", "Moses was commanded to travel to meet this man, named Al-Khaḍir, at the junction of the two seas.", "Islamic scholars have argued this could be the northern part of the Sinai Peninsula between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, the southern part of Sinai where the Rea Sea splits into the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba, or the Bosporus in Istanbul which is a strait between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara.====Hadith, exegesis, traditions====Joshua was regarded by some classical scholars as the prophetic successor to Moses () Al-Tabari relates in his ''History of the Prophets and Kings'' that Joshua was one of the twelve spies, and Muslim scholars believe that the two believing spies referred to in the Quran are Joshua and Caleb.", "Joshua was exceptional among the Israelites for being one of the few faithful followers of Allah.Significant events from Joshua's Muslim narratives include the crossing of the Jordan river and the conquest of ''Bait al-Maqdis''.The traditional Muslim commentary ''al-Jalalayn'' says, \"Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Ahmad b. Hanbal reported in his Musnad, the following hadīth, 'The sun was never detained for any human, except for Joshua during those days in which he marched towards the Holy House of Jerusalem'.", "\"Muslim literature includes traditions of Joshua not found in the Hebrew Bible.", "Joshua is credited with being present at Moses's death and literature records that Moses's garments were with Joshua at the time of his departure.", "In Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, Joshua is mentioned as Yusha' bin Nun and is the attendant to Moses during his meeting with Khidr." ], [ "In art and literature", "The Ten Commandments'', 1956In the literary tradition of medieval Europe, Joshua is known as one of the Nine Worthies.", "In ''The Divine Comedy'' Joshua's spirit appears to Dante in the Heaven of Mars, where he is grouped with the other \"warriors of the faith.", "\"Baroque composer Georg Frideric Handel composed the oratorio ''Joshua'' in 1747.Composer Franz Waxman composed an oratorio ''Joshua'' in 1959.Marc-Antoine Charpentier composed ''Josue'' (H.404 and H.404 a), an oratorio for soloists, double chorus, double orchestra and continuo, in 1680." ], [ "Nomenclature in biology", "According to legend, Mormon pioneers in the United States first referred to the ''yucca brevifolia'' agave plant as the Joshua tree because its branches reminded them of Joshua stretching his arms upward in supplication, guiding the travelers westward.Joshua is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of snake, Joshua's blind snake (''Trilepida joshuai''), the holotype of which was collected at Jericó, Antioquia, Colombia." ], [ "Jewish holidays", "Israeli poster celebrating Yom HaAliyah (Aliyah Day) from the Yosef Matisyahu Collection===Religious holiday===The annual commemoration of Joshua's yahrtzeit (the anniversary of his death) is marked on the 26th of Nisan on the Hebrew calendar.", "Thousands make the pilgrimage to the Tomb of Joshua at Kifl Haris near Nablus, West Bank, on the preceding night.===Israeli Zionist holiday===Yom HaAliyah (Aliyah Day; ) is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of the Hebrew month of Nisan, as per the opening clause of the Yom HaAliyah Law, as a Zionist celebration of \"Jewish immigration to the Land of Israel as the basis for the existence of the State of Israel\", and secondarily \"to mark the date of entry into the Land of Israel\", i.e.", "to commemorate Joshua having led the Israelites across the Jordan River into the Land of Israel while carrying the Ark of the Covenant." ], [ "Tomb of Joshua", "===Samaritan and Jewish traditions===According to a Samaritan tradition, noted in 1877, the tombs of Joshua and Caleb were in Kifl Haris.According to , the tomb of Joshua is in Timnath-heres, and Jewish tradition also places the tombs of Joshua's father, Nun, an his companion, Caleb, at that site, which is identified by Orthodox Jews with Kifl Haris.", "Thousands make the pilgrimage to the tombs on the annual commemoration of Joshua's death, 26th of Nisan on the Hebrew calendar.===Islamic sites===The Bosporus from Joshua's Hill (Giant's Grave) with a broken column, by Joseph Schranz (1803–1864/6), courtesy of the Ömer M Koç CollectionJoshua is believed by some Muslims to be buried on Joshua's Hill in the Beykoz district of Istanbul.", "Alternative traditional sites for his tomb are situated in Israel (the Shia shrine at Al-Nabi Yusha'), Jordan (An-Nabi Yusha' bin Noon, a Sunni shrine near the city of Al-Salt), Iran (Historical cemetery of Takht e Foolad in Esfahan) and Iraq (the Nabi Yusha' shrine of Baghdad).", "A local tradition combining three versions of three different Yushas, including biblical Joshua, places the tomb inside a cave in the Tripoli Mountains, overlooking the coastal town of el-Minyieh near Tripoli, Lebanon." ], [ "See also", "* Joshua Roll" ], [ "References", "=== Explanatory notes ======Citations====== General and cited sources ===* * * * * * * * Brettler, Marc Zvi, '' How to read the Bible '' (Jewish Publication Society, 2005).", "* * Coogan, Michael D. (ed), '' The Oxford History of the Biblical World '' (Oxford University Press, 1998)* * * * Day, John, ''Yahweh and the gods and goddesses of Canaan'' (Sheffield Academic Press, 2002)* * Dever, William, '' What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? ''", "(Eerdmans, 2001)* Dever, William, '' Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? ''", "(Eerdmans, 2003, 2006)* * Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihay; Schmidt, Brian B., '' The Quest for the Historical Israel '' (Society of Biblical Literature, 2007)* * Graham, M.P, and McKenzie, Steven L., '' The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues '' (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998)* * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Book of Joshua, Douay Rheims Bible Version with annotations By Bishop Challoner* ''Smith’s Bible Dictionary''* ''Easton's Bible Dictionary & Int.", "Standard Bible Encyclopedia''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jeremiah (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jeremiah''' (c. 655–586 BCE) is one of the major prophets of the Hebrew Bible.", "'''Jeremiah''' or '''Jeremias''' may also refer to:* ''Book of Jeremiah'', in Judeo-Christian scripture, including links to individual chapters" ], [ "People", "* Jeremiah (given name)* Jeremiah (surname)* Jeremiah (I), a first-generation Amora sage of the Land of Israel* Jeremiah (II), a third-generation Amora sage of the Land of Israel* Jeremiah (III), a fourth-generation Amora sage of the Land of Israel* Jeremiah (Bulgarian priest), a 10th-century priest" ], [ "Places", "* Jeremiah, Kentucky" ], [ "Titled works", "* ''Jeremiah'' (film), a 1998 Biblical film* ''Jeremiah'' (play) (1919), by Stefan Zweig* ''Jeremiah'' (comics), Belgian series since 1979* ''Jeremiah'' (TV series) (2002–2004), in U.S., loosely based on the comic series* Symphony No.", "1 (Bernstein), composed in 1942 by Leonard Bernstein* \"Jeremiah\", a song by Sara Groves from the 2004 album ''The Other Side of Something''" ], [ "See also", "* Geremia* Jeremiad, a prolonged lament or prophecy of doom* Jeremías (born 1973), British-Venezuelan singer* Jeremih (born 1987), an American singer, songwriter, rapper and record producer* Old Jeremiah, antique British naval gun* * Jerry (given name)* Jeremy (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jeroboam" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jeroboam I''' (; Hebrew: ''Yārŏḇʿām''; ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the first king of the northern Kingdom of Israel following a revolt of the ten tribes against Rehoboam that put an end to the United Monarchy.William F. Albright has dated his reign from 922 to 901 BC, while Edwin R. Thiele offers the dates 931 to 910 BC." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Yārŏḇ‘ām'' is commonly held to have been derived from ''rīḇ'' and ''ʿam'' , signifying \"the people contend\" or \"he pleads the people's cause\".", "It is alternatively translated to mean \"his people are many\" or \"he increases the people\" (from ''rbb'', meaning \"to increase\"), or even \"he that opposes the people\".", "In the Septuagint he is called ''Hieroboam'' (Ἱεροβοάμ)." ], [ "Biblical background", "Jeroboam was the son of Nebat, a member of the Tribe of Ephraim of Zereda.", "His mother, named Zeruah (צרוע \"leprous\") was a widow.", "He had at least two sons, Abijah and Nadab; Nadab succeeded Jeroboam on the throne.King Solomon made the young Jeroboam a superintendent over his tribesmen in the building of the fortress Millo in Jerusalem and of other public works, and he naturally became conversant with the widespread discontent caused by the extravagances which marked the reign of Solomon.Influenced by the words of the prophet Ahijah, he began to form conspiracies with the view of becoming king of the ten northern tribes; but these were discovered, and he fled to Egypt, where he remained under the protection of Pharaoh Shishak until the death of Solomon.", "After this event, he returned and participated in a delegation sent to ask the new king Rehoboam to reduce taxes.", "After Rehoboam rejected their petition, ten of the tribes withdrew their allegiance to the house of David and proclaimed Jeroboam their king, forming the northern kingdom of Israel (Samaria).", "Initially, only the tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained to form the rump kingdom of Judah, loyal to Rehoboam.===Temples===Jeroboam sacrificing to his idol, oil on canvas by Claes Corneliszoon Moeyaert, 1641Jeroboam rebuilt and fortified Shechem as the capital of the northern kingdom, and fearing that pilgrimages to the temple in Jerusalem prescribed by the Law might provide an occasion for his people to go back to their old allegiance, he built two state temples with golden calves, one in Bethel and the other in Dan.", "Although the Biblical text criticises Jeroboam for his cultic activities in 1 Kings, calf worship was not new in Israelite ritual, but a reintroduction of an earlier ritual.", "Bethel and Dan were already established cultic sites.", "According to Rabbinic literature, Gehazi possessed a magnet by which he lifted up the idol made by Jeroboam, so that it was seen between heaven and earth; he had \"Yhwh\" engraved on it, and in consequence the idol (a calf) pronounced the first two words of the Decalogue (ib.", ").According to 1 Kings, while Jeroboam was engaged in offering incense at Bethel, a \"man of God\" warned him that \"a son named Josiah will be born to the house of David\", who would destroy the altar (referring to King Josiah of Judah who would rule approximately three hundred years later).", "When Jeroboam attempted to have the prophet arrested for his bold words of defiance, the king's hand was \"dried up\", and the altar before which he stood was rent asunder.", "At the entreaty of the man of God, his hand was restored to him again, but the miracle made no abiding impression on him.", "Jeroboam offered hospitality to the man of God but this was declined, not out of contempt but in obedience to the command of God.", "The prophecy is fulfilled in 2 Kings.=== Identity of related figures ===Gerard Hoet, ''Ahijah's prophecy to Jeroboam'', 1728.Josephus and Jerome identify the \"man of God\" who warned Jeroboam as the seer named Iddo.The wife of Jeroboam is a character in the Hebrew Bible.", "Though unnamed in the Masoretic text, she appears in the Septuagint as an Egyptian princess called Ano::''And Sousakim gave to Jeroboam Ano the eldest sister of Thekemina his wife, to him as wife; she was great among the king's daughters...'' In 1 Kings, Jeroboam's son Abijah falls ill, and Jeroboam sends his wife to the prophet Ahijah.", "Ahijah's message, however, is that Abijah will die, which he does.", "According to ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'', the good that Abijah did for which he would be laid in the grave (\"Rabbinical Literature: The passage, I Kings, xiv.", "13, in which there is a reference to \"some good thing found in him toward the Lord God of Israel\") is interpreted (M. Ḳ.", "28b) as an allusion to Abijah's courageous and pious act in removing the sentinels placed by his father on the frontier between Israel and Judah to prevent pilgrimages to Jerusalem.", "Some assert that Abijah himself undertook a pilgrimage.\"" ], [ "War with Judah", "According to the Hebrew Bible, Jeroboam was in \"constant war with the house of Judah\".", "While the southern kingdom made no serious effort militarily to regain power over the north, there was a long-lasting boundary dispute, fighting over which lasted during the reigns of several kings on both sides before being finally settled.In the eighteenth year of Jeroboam's reign, Abijah (also known as Abijam), Rehoboam's son, became king of Judah.", "During his short reign of three years, Abijah went to considerable lengths to bring the Kingdom of Israel back under his control.", "He waged a major battle against Jeroboam in the mountains of Ephraim.", "According to the Book of Chronicles Abijah had a force of 400,000 and Jeroboam 800,000.The Biblical sources mention that Abijah addressed the armies of Israel, urging them to submit and to let the Kingdom of Israel be whole again, but his plea fell on deaf ears.", "Abijah then rallied his own troops with a phrase which has since become famous: \"God is with us as our leader\".", "The biblical account states that his elite warriors fended off a pincer movement to rout Jeroboam's troops, killing 500,000 of them.Jeroboam was crippled by this severe defeat to Abijah and posed little threat to the Kingdom of Judah for the rest of his reign.", "He also lost the towns of Bethel, Jeshanah, and Ephron, with their surrounding villages.", "Bethel was an important centre for Jeroboam's Golden Calf cult (which used non-Levites as priests), located on Israel's southern border, which had been allocated to the Tribe of Benjamin by Joshua, as was Ephron, which is believed to be the Ophrah that was allocated to the Tribe of Benjamin by Joshua.Jeroboam died soon after Abijam." ], [ "Commentary on sources", "Jeroboam setting up two golden calves, Bible Historiale, 1372The account of Jeroboam's life, like that of all his successors, ends with the formula \"And the rest of the acts of Jeroboam, how he warred, and how he reigned, behold, they are written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel\".", "\"The Chronicles of the Kings of Israel\", likely compiled by or derived from these kings' own scribes, is likely the source for the basic facts of Jeroboam's life and reign, though the compiler(s) of the extant Book of Kings clearly made selective use of it and added hostile commentaries.", "His family was eventually wiped out.The prophecies of doom concerning the fall of both the House of Jeroboam and the northern kingdom as a whole (\"For the Lord shall smite Israel..., and he shall root up Israel out of this good land, which he gave to their fathers, and shall scatter them beyond the river\", might have been composed retroactively, after the events described had already come to pass.", "Alternatively, the prophecy could have been a logical deduction.", "Judah had just been conquered and turned into a vassal of Egypt, while Israel stood between the Egyptian and Mesopotamian empires.It is likely that the story of the golden calf in the wilderness was composed as a polemic against Jeroboam's cultic restoration by claiming that its origins were inconsistent with worship of YHWH.Thomas Römer has argued that Jeroboam I may not have existed and that Deuteronomistic redactors transferred data from the reign of Jeroboam II to Jeroboam I, although Lester L. Grabbe finds this theory unlikely." ], [ "In popular culture", "Jeroboam is portrayed by Nickolas Grace in ''Solomon & Sheba'' (1995) and by Richard Dillane in ''Solomon'' (1997).", "Both of these are television films." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===***," ], [ "External links", "* Jeroboam at the Jewish Encyclopedia" ] ]
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[ [ "John the Baptist" ], [ "Introduction", " '''John the Baptist''' ( – ) was a Judaean preacher active in the area of the Jordan River in the early 1st century AD.", "He is also known as '''Saint John the Forerunner''' in Eastern Orthodoxy, '''John the Immerser''' in some Baptist Christian traditions, '''Saint John''' by certain Catholic churches, and '''Prophet Yahya''' in Islam.", "He is sometimes alternatively referred to as '''John the Baptiser'''.John is mentioned by the Roman Jewish historian Josephus and he is revered as a major religious figure in Christianity, Islam, the Baháʼí faith, the Druze faith, and Mandaeism, the latter in which he is considered to be the final and most vital prophet.", "He is considered to be a prophet of God by all of the aforementioned faiths, and is honoured as a saint in many Christian denominations.", "According to the New Testament, John anticipated a messianic figure greater than himself, and the Gospels portray John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus.", "Accord to the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus himself identifies John as \"Elijah who is to come\", which is a direct reference to the Book of Malachi (Malachi 4:5), that has been confirmed by the angel who announced John's birth to his father, Zechariah.", "According to the Gospel of Luke, John and Jesus were relatives.Some scholars maintain that John belonged to the Essenes, a semi-ascetic Jewish sect who expected a messiah and practiced ritual baptism.", "John used baptism as the central symbol or sacrament of his pre-messianic movement.", "Most biblical scholars agree that John baptized Jesus, and several New Testament accounts report that some of Jesus's early followers had previously been followers of John.", "According to the New Testament, John was sentenced to death and subsequently beheaded by Herod Antipas around AD 30 after John rebuked him for divorcing his wife Phasaelis and then unlawfully wedding Herodias, the wife of his brother Herod Philip I. Josephus also mentions John in the ''Antiquities of the Jews'' and states that he was executed by order of Herod Antipas in the fortress at Machaerus.", "''The Preaching of St. John the Baptist'' by upright=1.8Followers of John existed well into the 2nd century AD, and some proclaimed him to be the Messiah awaited by Jews.", "In modern times, the followers of John the Baptist are the Mandaeans, an ancient ethnoreligious group who believe that he is their greatest and final prophet.", "In the Roman martyrology, apart from Jesus and the Virgin Mary, John is the only saint whose birth and death are both commemorated." ], [ "Gospel narratives", "Salome is given the severed head of John the Baptist, Onorio Marinari, 1670sJohn the Baptist is mentioned in all four canonical Gospels and the non-canonical Gospel of the Nazarenes.", "The Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew and Luke) describe John baptising Jesus; in the Gospel of John this is inferred by many to be found in John 1:32.===In Mark===The Gospel of Mark introduces John as a fulfillment of a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah (in fact, a conflation of texts from Isaiah, Malachi and Exodus) about a messenger being sent ahead, and a voice crying out in the wilderness.", "John is described as wearing clothes of camel's hair, and living on locusts and wild honey.", "John proclaims baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sin, and says another will come after him who will not baptize with water, but with the Holy Spirit.", "''Beheading of St John the Baptist'' by Massimo Stanzione, 1635Jesus comes to John, and is baptized by him in the river Jordan.", "The account describes how, as he emerges from the water, Jesus sees the heavens open and the Holy Spirit descends on him \"like a dove\", and he hears a voice from heaven that says, \"You are my Son, the Beloved; with you I am well pleased\".Later in the gospel there is an account of John's death.", "It is introduced by an incident where the Tetrarch Herod Antipas, hearing stories about Jesus, imagines that this is John the Baptist raised from the dead.", "It then explains that John had rebuked Herod for marrying Herodias, the ex-wife of his brother (named here as Philip).", "Herodias demands his execution, but Herod, who \"liked to listen\" to John, is reluctant to do so because he fears him, knowing he is a \"righteous and holy man\".The account then describes how Herodias's unnamed daughter dances before Herod, who is pleased and offers her anything she asks for in return.", "When the girl asks her mother what she should request, she is told to demand the head of John the Baptist.", "Reluctantly, Herod orders the beheading of John, and his head is delivered to her, at her request, on a plate.", "John's disciples take the body away and bury it in a tomb.The Gospel refers to Antipas as \"King\" and the ex-husband of Herodias is named as Philip, but he is known to have been called Herod.", "Although the wording clearly implies the girl was the daughter of Herodias, many texts describe her as \"Herod's daughter, Herodias\".", "Since these texts are early and significant and the reading is 'difficult', many scholars see this as the original version, altered in later versions and in Matthew and Luke.", "Josephus says that Herodias had a daughter by the name of Salome.Scholars have speculated about the origins of the story.", "Since it shows signs of having been composed in Aramaic, which Mark apparently did not speak, he is likely to have got it from a Palestinian source.", "There are a variety of opinions about how much actual historical material it contains, especially given the alleged factual errors.", "Many scholars have seen the story of John arrested, executed, and buried in a tomb as a conscious foreshadowing of the fate of Jesus.===In Matthew===''St.", "John the Baptist Preaching'', , by Mattia PretiThe Gospel of Matthew account begins with the same modified quotation from Isaiah, moving the Malachi and Exodus material to later in the text, where it is quoted by Jesus.", "The description of John is possibly taken directly from Mark (\"clothing of camel's hair with a leather belt around his waist, and his food was locusts and wild honey\"), along with the proclamation that one was coming who would baptize with the Holy Spirit \"and fire\".", "The book of Matthew next has Jesus coming to John to be baptized, but John objects because he is not worthy because Jesus is the one that brings the baptism in the Spirit.Unlike Mark, Matthew describes John as critical of Pharisees and Sadducees and as preaching \"the kingdom of heaven is at hand\" and a \"coming judgment\".Matthew shortens the account of the beheading of John, and adds two elements: that Herod Antipas wants John dead, and that the death is reported to Jesus by his disciples.", "Matthew's approach is to shift the focus away from Herod and onto John as a prototype of Jesus.", "Where Mark has Herod killing John reluctantly and at Herodias' insistence, Matthew describes him as wanting John dead.===In Luke and Acts===''The Baptism of Jesus Christ'', by Piero della Francesca, The Gospel of Luke adds an account of John's infancy, introducing him as the miraculous son of Zechariah, an old priest, and his wife Elizabeth, who was past menopause and therefore unable to have children.", "According to this account, the birth of John was foretold by the angel Gabriel to Zechariah while he was performing his functions as a priest in the temple of Jerusalem.", "Since he is described as a priest of the course of Abijah and Elizabeth as one of the daughters of Aaron, this would make John a descendant of Aaron on both his father's and mother's side.", "On the basis of this account, the Catholic as well as the Anglican and Lutheran liturgical calendars placed the feast of the Nativity of John the Baptist on 24 June, six months before Christmas.Elizabeth is described as a \"relative\" of Mary the mother of Jesus, in Luke 1:36.There is no mention of a family relationship between John and Jesus in the other Gospels, and Raymond E. Brown has described it as \"of dubious historicity\".", "Géza Vermes has called it \"artificial and undoubtedly Luke's creation\".", "The many similarities between the Gospel of Luke story of the birth of John and the Old Testament account of the birth of Samuel suggest that Luke's account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus are modeled on that of Samuel.====Post-nativity====Unique to the Gospel of Luke, John the Baptist explicitly teaches charity, baptizes tax-collectors, and advises soldiers.The text briefly mentions that John is imprisoned and later beheaded by Herod, but the Gospel of Luke lacks the story of a step-daughter dancing for Herod and requesting John's head.The Book of Acts portrays some disciples of John becoming followers of Jesus, a development not reported by the gospels except for the early case of Andrew, Simon Peter's brother.===In the Gospel of John===The fourth gospel describes John the Baptist as \"a man sent from God\" who \"was not the light\", but \"came as a witness, to bear witness to the light, so that through him everyone might believe\".", "John confirms that he is not the Christ nor Elijah nor 'the prophet' when asked by Jewish priests and Pharisees; instead, he described himself as the \"voice of one crying in the wilderness\".Upon literary analysis, it is clear that John is the \"testifier and confessor ''par excellence''\", particularly when compared to figures like Nicodemus.Matthias Grünewald, detail of the ''Isenheim Altarpiece''|uprightJesus's baptism is implied but not depicted.", "Unlike the other gospels, it is John himself who testifies to seeing \"the Spirit come down from heaven like a dove and rest on him\".", "John explicitly announces that Jesus is the one \"who baptizes with the Holy Spirit\" and John even professes a \"belief that he is the Son of God\" and \"the Lamb of God\".The Gospel of John reports that Jesus' disciples were baptizing and that a debate broke out between some of the disciples of John and another Jew about purification.", "In this debate John argued that Jesus \"must become greater,\" while he (John) \"must become less.", "\"The Gospel of John then points out that Jesus' disciples were baptizing more people than John.", "Later, the Gospel relates that Jesus regarded John as \"a burning and shining lamp, and you were willing to rejoice for a while in his light\".===Comparative analysis===All four Gospels start Jesus' ministry in association with the appearance of John the Baptist.", "Simon J. Joseph has argued that the Gospel demotes the historical John by depicting him only as a prophetic forerunner to Jesus whereas his ministry actually complemented Jesus'.====The prophecy of Isaiah====Although the Gospel of Mark implies that the arrival of John the Baptist is the fulfilment of a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah, the words quoted (\"I will send my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way – a voice of one calling in the wilderness, 'Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him.'\")", "are actually a composite of texts from Isaiah, Malachi and the Book of Exodus.", "(Matthew and Luke drop the first part of the reference.", ")====Baptism of Jesus====Limestone relief of John the Baptist from Zakynthos, Byzantine and Christian Museum, Greece.The gospels differ on the details of the Baptism.", "In Mark and Luke, Jesus himself sees the heavens open and hears a voice address him personally, saying, \"You are my dearly loved son; you bring me great joy\".", "They do not clarify whether others saw and heard these things.", "Although other incidents where the \"voice came out of heaven\" are recorded in which, for the sake of the crowds, it was heard audibly, John did say in his witness that he did see the spirit coming down \"out of heaven\" (John 12:28–30, John 1:32).In Matthew, the voice from heaven does not address Jesus personally, saying instead \"This is my beloved son, in whom I am well pleased.", "\"In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist himself sees the spirit descend as a dove, testifying about the experience as evidence of Jesus's status.====John's knowledge of Jesus====John's knowledge of Jesus varies across gospels.", "In the Gospel of Mark, John preaches of a coming leader, but shows no signs of recognizing that Jesus is this leader.", "In Matthew, however, John immediately recognizes Jesus and John questions his own worthiness to baptize Jesus.", "In both Matthew and Luke, John later dispatches disciples to question Jesus about his status, asking \"Are you he who is to come, or shall we look for another?\"", "In Luke, John is a familial relative of Jesus whose birth was foretold by Gabriel.", "In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist himself sees the spirit descend like a dove and he explicitly preaches that Jesus is the Son of God.====John and Elijah====The Gospels vary in their depiction of John's relationship to Elijah.", "Matthew and Mark describe John's attire in a way reminiscent of the description of Elijah in 2 Kings 1:8, who also wore a garment of hair and a leather belt.", "In Matthew, Jesus explicitly teaches that John is \"Elijah who was to come\" (Matthew 11:14 – see also Matthew 17:11–13); many Christian theologians have taken this to mean that John was Elijah's successor.", "In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist explicitly denies being Elijah.", "In the annunciation narrative in Luke, an angel appears to Zechariah, John's father, and tells him that John \"will turn many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God,\" and that he will go forth \"in the spirit and power of Elijah.\"" ], [ "In Josephus's ''Antiquities of the Jews''", "An account of John the Baptist is found in all extant manuscripts of the ''Antiquities of the Jews'' (book 18, chapter 5, 2) by Flavius Josephus (37–100):According to this passage, the execution of John was blamed for the defeat Herod suffered.", "Some have claimed that this passage indicates that John died near the time of the destruction of Herod's army in AD 36.However, in a different passage, Josephus states that the end of Herod's marriage with Aretas's daughter (after which John was killed) was only the beginning of hostilities between Herod and Aretas, which later escalated into the battle.Biblical scholar John Dominic Crossan differentiates between Josephus's account of John and Jesus, saying, \"John had a monopoly, but Jesus had a franchise.\"", "To get baptized, Crossan writes, a person went only to John; to stop the movement one only needed to stop John (therefore his movement ended with his death).", "Jesus invited all to come and see how he and his companions had already accepted the government of God, entered it and were living it.", "Such a communal praxis was not just for himself, but could survive without him, unlike John's movement." ], [ "Relics", "Nabi Yahya Mosque, traditionally held as the burial site of John the Baptist, in Sebastia, near NablusMatthew 14:12 records that \"his disciples came and took away John's body and buried it.\"", "Theologian Joseph Benson refers to a belief that they managed to do so because \"it seems that the body had been thrown over the prison walls, without burial, probably by order of Herodias.", "\"Monastery of Saint John in the Wilderness=== The fate of his head ===What became of the head of John the Baptist is difficult to determine.", "Ancient historians Josephus, Nicephorus and Symeon Metaphrastes assumed that Herodias had it buried in the fortress of Machaerus.An Eastern Orthodox tradition holds that, after buried, the head was discovered by John's followers and was taken to the Mount of Olives, where it was twice buried and discovered, the latter events giving rise to the Orthodox feast of the First and Second Finding of the Head of St. John the Baptist.", "Other writers say that it was interred in Herod's palace at Jerusalem; there it was found during the reign of Constantine, and thence secretly taken to Emesa (modern Homs, in Syria), where it was concealed, the place remaining unknown for years, until it was manifested by revelation in 452, an event celebrated in the Orthodox Church as the Third Finding.Shrine of John the Baptist in the Umayyad Mosque, which purportedly houses John the Baptist's headTwo Catholic churches and one mosque claim to have the head of John the Baptist: the Umayyad Mosque, in Damascus (Syria); the church of San Silvestro in Capite, in Rome; and Amiens Cathedral, in France (the French king would have had it brought from the Holy Land after the Fourth Crusade).", "A fourth claim is made by the Residenz Museum in Munich, Germany, which keeps a reliquary containing what the Wittelsbach rulers of Bavaria believed to be the head of Saint John.===Right hand relics===According to the Christian Arab Ibn Butlan, the church of Cassian in Antioch held the right arm of John the Baptist until it was smuggled to Chalcedon and later to Constantinople.", "An Orthodox Christian monastery in Cetinje, Montenegro, and the Catholic Cathedral of Siena, in Italy, both claim to have John the Baptist's right arm and hand, with which he baptised Jesus.", "According to the Catholic account, in 1464 Pope Pius II donated what was identified as the right arm and hand of John the Baptist to the Siena Cathedral.", "The donation charter identifies the relic as \"the arm of blessed John the Baptist.", "And this is the very arm that baptized the Lord.\"", "The relic is displayed on the high altar of the Siena Cathedral annually in June.Topkapi Palace, in Istanbul, claims to have John's right hand index finger.A Kolkata Armenian kisses the hand of St John the Baptist at Chinsurah.===Various relics and traditions======= Left hand – St. John the Baptist Church of Chinsurah (India) ====The saint's left hand is allegedly preserved in the Armenian Apostolic Church of St. John at Chinsurah, West Bengal, in India, where each year on \"Chinsurah Day\" in January it blesses the Armenian Christians of Calcutta.====Decapitation cloth====The decapitation cloth of Saint John, the cloth which covered his head after his execution, is said to be kept at the Aachen Cathedral, in Germany.====Historic Armenia====Saint Karapet Monastery, where Armenian tradition holds that his remains were laid to rest by Gregory the IlluminatorAccording to Armenian tradition, the remains of John the Baptist would in some point have been transferred by Gregory the Illuminator to the Saint Karapet Armenian Monastery.====Bulgaria====In 2010, bones were discovered in the ruins of a Bulgarian church in the St. John the Forerunner Monastery (4th–17th centuries) on the Black Sea island of Sveti Ivan (Saint John) and two years later, after DNA and radio carbon testing proved the bones belonged to a Middle Eastern man who lived in the 1st century AD, scientists said that the remains could conceivably have belonged to John the Baptist.", "The remains, found in a reliquarium, are presently kept in the Sts.", "Cyril and Methodius Cathedral in Sozopol.====Egypt====Coptic monastery in Lower Egypt.", "The bones of Saint John the Baptist were said to have been found here.The Coptic Orthodox Church also claim to hold the relics of Saint John the Baptist.", "A crypt and relics said to be John's and mentioned in 11th- and 16th-century manuscripts, were discovered in 1969 during restoration of the Church of St. Macarius at the Monastery of Saint Macarius the Great in Scetes, Egypt.====Nagorno-Karabakh====Additional relics are claimed to reside in Gandzasar Monastery's Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, in Nagorno-Karabakh.==== Purported left finger bone ====The bone of one of John the Baptist's left fingers is said to be at the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, Missouri.", "It is held in a Gothic-style monstrance made of gilded silver that dates back to 14th century Lower Saxony.====Halifax, England====Another obscure claim relates to the town of Halifax in West Yorkshire, United Kingdom, where, as patron saint of the town, the Baptist's head appears on the official coat-of-arms.", "One legend (among others) bases the etymology of the town's place-name on \"halig\" (holy) and \"fax\" (hair), claiming that a relic of the head, or face, of John the Baptist once existed in the town." ], [ "Religious views", "===Christianity===The Gospels describe John the Baptist as having had a specific role ordained by God as forerunner or precursor of Jesus, who was the foretold Messiah.", "The New Testament Gospels speak of this role.", "In Luke 1:17 the role of John is referred to as being \"to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the just; to make ready a people prepared for the Lord.\"", "In Luke 1:76 as \"thou shalt go before the face of the Lord to prepare his ways\" and in Luke 1:77 as being \"To give knowledge of salvation unto his people by the remission of their sins.", "\"There are several passages within the Old Testament which are interpreted by Christians as being prophetic of John the Baptist in this role.", "These include a passage in the Book of Malachi that refers to a prophet who would \"prepare the way of the Lord\":Also at the end of the next chapter in Malachi 4:5–6 it says,The Jews of Jesus' day expected Elijah to come before the Messiah; indeed, some present day Jews continue to await Elijah's coming as well, as in the Cup of Elijah the Prophet in the Passover Seder.", "This is why the disciples ask Jesus in Matthew 17:10, \"Why then say the scribes that Elias must first come?\"", "The disciples are then told by Jesus that Elijah came in the person of John the Baptist,These passages are applied to John in the Synoptic Gospels.", "But where Matthew specifically identifies John the Baptist as Elijah's spiritual successor, the gospels of Mark and Luke are silent on the matter.", "The Gospel of John states that John the Baptist denied that he was Elijah.====Influence on Paul====Many scholars believe there was contact between the early church in the Apostolic Age and what is called the \"Qumran-Essene community\".", "The Dead Sea Scrolls were found at Qumran, which the majority of historians and archaeologists identify as an Essene settlement.", "John the Baptist is thought to have been either an Essene or \"associated\" with the community at Khirbet Qumran.", "According to the Book of Acts, Paul met some \"disciples of John\" in Ephesus.====Catholic Church====''The Birth of John the Baptist'', a fresco in the Tornabuoni Chapel in FlorenceThe Catholic Church commemorates Saint John the Baptist on two feast days:* 24 June – Nativity of Saint John the Baptist* 29 August – Beheading of Saint John the BaptistAccording to Frederick Holweck, at the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary to his mother Elizabeth, as recounted in Luke 1:39–57, John, sensing the presence of his Jesus, upon the arrival of Mary, leaped in the womb of his mother; he was then cleansed from original sin and filled with the grace of God.", "In her ''Treatise of Prayer'', Saint Catherine of Siena includes a brief altercation with the Devil regarding her fight due to the Devil attempting to lure her with vanity and flattery.", "Speaking in the first person, Catherine responds to the Devil with the following words:====Eastern Christianity==== Serbo-Byzantine fresco from Gračanica Monastery, Kosovo, The Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodox faithful believe that John was the last of the Old Testament prophets, thus serving as a bridge between that period of revelation and the New Covenant.", "They also teach that, following his death, John descended into Hades and there once more preached that Jesus the Messiah was coming, so he was the Forerunner of Christ in death as he had been in life.", "Eastern Catholic and Orthodox churches will often have an icon of Saint John the Baptist in a place of honor on the iconostasis, and he is frequently mentioned during the Divine Services.", "Every Tuesday throughout the year is dedicated to his memory.The Eastern Orthodox Church remembers Saint John the Forerunner on six separate feast days, listed here in order in which they occur during the church year (which begins on 1 September):* 23 September – * 12 October – Translation from Malta to Gatchina: of a Particle of the Life Giving Cross, the Filersk Icon of the Mother of God, and the relic of the * 7 January – .", "This is his main feast day, immediately after Theophany on 6 January (7 January also commemorates the transfer of the relic of the right hand of John the Baptist from Antioch to Constantinople in 956)* 24 February – * 25 May – * 24 June – Nativity of Saint John the Forerunner* 29 August – The Beheading of Saint John the Forerunner, a day of strict fast and abstinence from meat and dairy products and foods containing meat or dairy productsIn addition to the above, 5 September is the commemoration of Zacharias and Elizabeth, Saint John's parents.The Russian Orthodox Church observes 12 October as the Transfer of the Right Hand of the Forerunner from Malta to Gatchina (1799).====Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that modern revelation confirms the biblical account of John and also makes known additional events in his ministry.", "According to this belief, John was \"ordained by the angel of God\" when he was eight days old \"to overthrow the kingdom of the Jews\" and to prepare a people for the Lord.", "Latter-day Saints also believe that \"he was baptized while yet in his childhood.", "\"Joseph Smith said: \"Let us come into New Testament times – so many are ever praising the Lord and His apostles.", "We will commence with John the Baptist.", "When Herod's edict went forth to destroy the young children, John was about six months older than Jesus, and came under this hellish edict, and Zecharias caused his mother to take him into the mountains, where he was raised on locusts and wild honey.", "When his father refused to disclose his hiding place, and being the officiating high priest at the Temple that year, was slain by Herod's order, between the porch and the altar, as Jesus said.", "\"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints teaches that John the Baptist appeared on the banks of the Susquehanna River near Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania, as a resurrected being to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery on 15 May 1829, and ordained them to the Aaronic priesthood.", "According to the Church's dispensational view of religious history, John's ministry has operated in three dispensations: he was the last of the prophets under the law of Moses; he was the first of the New Testament prophets; and he was sent to restore the Aaronic priesthood in our day (the dispensation of the fulness of times).", "Latter-day Saints believe John's ministry was foretold by two prophets whose teachings are included in the Book of Mormon: Lehi and his son Nephi.====Unification Church====The Unification Church teaches that God intended John to help Jesus during his public ministry in Judea.", "In particular, John should have done everything in his power to persuade the Jewish people that Jesus was the Messiah.", "He was to become Jesus' main disciple and John's disciples were to become Jesus' disciples.", "Unfortunately, John did not follow Jesus and continued his own way of baptizing people.", "Moreover, John also denied that he was Elijah when queried by several Jewish leaders, contradicting Jesus who stated John is Elijah who was to come.", "Many Jews therefore could not accept Jesus as the Messiah because John denied being Elijah, as the prophet's appearance was a prerequisite for the Messiah's arrival as stated in Malachi 4:5.According to the Unification Church, \"John the Baptist was in the position of representing Elijah's physical body, making himself identical with Elijah from the standpoint of their mission.", "\"According to Matthew 11:11, Jesus stated \"there has not risen one greater than John the Baptist.\"", "However, in referring to John's blocking the way of the Jews' understanding of him as the Messiah, Jesus said \"yet he who is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he.\"", "John's failure to follow Jesus became the chief obstacle to the fulfillment of Jesus' mission.====Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism====Among the early Judeo-Christian Gnostics the Ebionites held that John, along with Jesus and James the Just – all of whom they revered – were vegetarians.", "Epiphanius of Salamis records that this group had amended their Gospel of Matthew – known today as the Gospel of the Ebionites – to change where John eats \"locusts\" to read \"honey cakes\" or \"manna\".=== Mandaeism ===John the Baptist, or Yuhana Maṣbana ( ) is considered the greatest prophet of the Mandaeans.", "Mandaeans also refer to him as (John, son of Zechariah).", "He plays a large part in their religious texts such as the Ginza Rabba and the Mandaean Book of John.", "Mandaeans believe that they descend directly from John's original disciples but they do not believe that their religion began with John, tracing their beliefs back to their first prophet Adam.", "According to Mandaeism, John was a great teacher, a Nasoraean and renewer of the faith.", "John is a messenger of Light () and Truth () who possessed the power of healing and full Gnosis ().", "Mandaean texts make it abundantly clear that early Mandaeans were extremely loyal to John and viewed him as a prophetic reformer of the ancient Mandaean/Israelite tradition.", "Scholars such as Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower, Jorunn J. Buckley, and believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John's original disciples.", "Mandaeans believe that John was married, with his wife named Anhar, and had children.Enišbai (Elizabeth) is mentioned as the mother of John the Baptist in chapters 18, 21, and 32 of the Mandaean Book of John.===Islam===John the Baptist is known as Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyā () in Islam and is honoured as a prophet.", "He is believed by Muslims to have been a witness to the word of God, and a prophet who would herald the coming of Jesus.", "His father Zechariah was also an Islamic prophet.", "Islamic tradition maintains that John met Muhammad on the night of the Mi'raj, along with Jesus in the second heaven.", "John's story was also told to the Abyssinian king during the Muslim refugees' Migration to Abyssinia.", "According to the Quran, John was one on whom God sent peace on the day that he was born and the day that he died.====Quranic mentions====The Quran claims that John the Baptist was the first to receive this name () but since the name Yoḥanan occurs many times before John the Baptist, this verse is referring either to Islamic scholar consensus that \"Yaḥyā\" is not the same name as \"Yoḥanan\" or to the Biblical account of the miraculous naming of John, which accounted that he was almost named \"Zacharias\" (Greek: ) after his father's name, as no one in the lineage of his father Zacharias (also known as Zechariah) had been named \"John\" (\"Yohanan\"/\"Yoannes\") before him.In the Quran, God frequently mentions Zechariah's continuous praying for the birth of a son.", "Zechariah's wife, mentioned in the New Testament as Elizabeth, was barren and therefore the birth of a child seemed impossible.", "As a gift from God, Zechariah (or Zakariya) was given a son by the name of \"Yaḥya\" or \"John\", a name specially chosen for this child alone.", "In accordance with Zechariah's prayer, God made John and Jesus, who according to exegesis was born six months later, renew the message of God, which had been corrupted and lost by the Israelites.", "As the Quran says:John was exhorted to hold fast to the Scripture and was given wisdom by God while still a child.", "He was pure and devout, and walked well in the presence of God.", "He was dutiful towards his parents and he was not arrogant or rebellious.", "John's reading and understanding of the scriptures, when only a child, surpassed even that of the greatest scholars of the time.", "Muslim exegesis narrates that Jesus sent John out with twelve disciples, who preached the message before Jesus called his own disciples.", "The Quran says:John was a classical prophet, who was exalted high by God for his bold denouncing of all things sinful.", "Furthermore, the Quran speaks of John's gentle piety and love and his humble attitude towards life, for which he was granted the Purity of Life:John is also honored highly in Sufism as well as Islamic mysticism, primarily because of the Quran's description of John's chastity and kindness.", "Sufis have frequently applied commentaries on the passages on John in the Quran, primarily concerning the God-given gift of \"Wisdom\" which he acquired in youth as well as his parallels with Jesus.", "Although several phrases used to describe John and Jesus are virtually identical in the Quran, the manner in which they are expressed is different.===Druze view===Druze tradition honors several \"mentors\" and \"prophets\", and John the Baptist is honored as a prophet.", "Druze venerate John the Baptist and he is considered a central figure in Druzism.", "Druze, like some Christians, believe that Elijah (al-Khidr) came back as John the Baptist, since they believe in reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul.===Baháʼí view===The Baháʼí Faith considers John to have been a prophet of God who like all other prophets was sent to instill the knowledge of God, promote unity among the people of the world, and to show people the correct way to live.", "There are numerous quotations in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, mentioning John the Baptist.", "He is regarded by Baháʼís as a lesser Prophet.", "Bahá'u'lláh claimed that his forerunner, the Báb, was the spiritual return of John the Baptist.", "In his letter to Pope Pius IX, Bahá'u'lláh wrote:John is believed to have had the specific role of foretelling and preparing the way for Jesus.", "In condemning those who had 'turned aside' from him, Bahá'u'lláh compared them to the followers of John the Baptist, who, he said, \"protested against Him Who was the Spirit (Jesus) saying: 'The dispensation of John hath not yet ended; wherefore hast thou come?'\"", "Bahá'u'lláh believed that the Báb played the same role as John in preparing the people for his own coming.", "As such, Bahá'u'lláh refers to the Báb as 'My Forerunner', the Forerunner being a title that Christians reserve for John the Baptist.", "However, Baháʼís consider the Báb to be a greater Prophet (Manifestation of God) and thus possessed of a far greater station than John the Baptist." ], [ "Scholarship", "John the Baptist setting off into the desert, by Giovanni di Paolo, 1454Scholars studying John the Baptist's relationship with Jesus of Nazareth have commented on the differences in their respective approaches.James F. McGrath writes \"In the first half of the 20th century, the Mandaeans received significant attention from New Testament scholars who thought that their high view of John the Baptist might mean they were the descendants of his disciples.", "Many historians think that Jesus of Nazareth was a disciple of John the Baptist before breaking away to form his own movement, and I am inclined to agree.\"L.", "Michael White says John the Baptist should be thought of \"...primarily as one who was calling for a return to an intensely Jewish piety ... to follow the way of the Lord ... to make oneself pure... to be right with God ... And it seems to be that he calls for baptism as a sign of rededication or repurification of life in a typically Jewish way before God.", "\"John Dominic Crossan sees John the Baptist as an apocalyptic eschatologist, whose message was that \"God, very soon, imminently, any moment, is going to descend to eradicate the evil of this world in a sort of an apocalyptic consummation...\" When Jesus says John is the greatest person ever born on earth, but the least in the Kingdom of God is greater than John, it means Jesus is changing his vision of God and the Kingdom of God from what he has taken from John.", "For Crossan, Jesus is an ethical eschatologist that sees \"...the demand that God is making on us, not us on God so much as God on us, to do something about the evil in the world.", "\"Michael H. Crosby, O.F.M.Cap.", "states there was \"no biblical evidence indicating that John the Baptist ever became a disciple of Jesus.\"", "He believes that John's concept of what a messiah should be was in contrast to how Jesus presented himself, and kept him from becoming a disciple of Jesus.", "Crosby states, \"an unbiased reading leaves us with the figure of John the Baptist as a reformist Jew who also may have wanted desperately to become a believer but was unable to become convinced of Jesus' messiahship...\" Crosby considers John's effectiveness as a \"precursor\" in encouraging others to follow Jesus as very minimal, since the scriptures record only two of his own followers having become Jesus' disciples.Professor Candida Moss noted that John and Jesus become \"de facto competitors in the ancient religious marketplace.\"", "Even after baptizing Jesus, John did not follow Jesus but maintained a separate ministry.", "After John's death, Jesus' followers had to differentiate him from the executed prophet, \"countering the prevalent idea that Jesus was actually John raised from the dead.\"", "Moss also references the incident in Matthew 16 where disciples indicated some people believed Jesus was John the Baptist.Pastor Robert L. Deffinbaugh views John's sending two of his disciples to ask Jesus if he were the Messiah or whether another should be sought as the Baptist's issuing a public challenge since the message was presented to Jesus while he was with a gathered crowd.", "Deffinbaugh suggests that John might have been looking for inauguration of the kingdom of God in a more dramatic way than what Jesus was presenting, as John had previously warned that the \"Messiah would come with fire.\"", "Jesus answered by indicating his miracle works and teachings which themselves gave evidence of his identity: \"The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy are cured, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is preached to the poor\".Harold W. Attridge agrees with Crossan that John was an apocalyptic preacher.", "Attridge says most contemporary scholars would see the idea of John as the \"forerunner\" of Jesus as a construct developed by the early church to help explain the relationship between the two.", "\"For the early church it would have been something of an embarrassment to say that Jesus, who was in their minds superior to John the Baptist, had been baptized by him, and thereby proclaimed some sort of subordination to him, some sort of disciple relationship to him...\"Barbara Thiering questions the dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls and suggests that the Teacher of Righteousness (leader of the Essenes) preached coming fiery judgment, said \"the axe is laid to the roots of the tree\", called people \"vipers\", practiced baptism and lived in the wilderness of Judea.", "Due to these reasons, she believes there is a strong possibility that the Teacher of Righteousness was John the Baptist." ], [ "In art", "Eastern Orthodox icon ''John the Baptist – the Angel of the Desert'' (Stroganov School, 1620s) Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow===Early Christian art===The earliest depictions of St John are found in the ''Baptism of Christ'', one of the earliest scenes from the ''Life of Christ'' to be frequently depicted in Early Christian art, and John's tall, thin, even gaunt, and bearded figure is already established by the 5th century.", "Only he and Jesus are consistently shown with long hair from Early Christian times, when the apostles generally have trim classical cuts; in fact John is more consistently depicted in this way than Jesus.===Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox art===In Byzantine and later Eastern Orthodox art, John the Baptist and the Holy Virgin Mary often flank Jesus on either side.", "The composition of the ''Deesis'' came to be included in every Eastern Orthodox church, as remains the case to this day.", "Here John and the Theotokos (Mary the \"God-bearer\") flank a Christ Pantocrator and intercede for humanity.In Orthodox icons, he often has angel's wings, since Mark 1:2 describes him as a messenger.===Western art===After the earliest images showing the Baptism of the Lord follow ones with St John shown as an ascetic wearing camel hair, with a staff and scroll inscribed (in Western art) , or bearing a book or dish with a lamb on it.The Baptist is very often shown on altarpieces designed for churches dedicated to him, where the donor was named for him or where there was some other patronage connection.", "John the Baptist is the patron saint of Florence and has often been depicted in the art of that city, and also frequently appears in baptistries, which are very often dedicated to him.", "Major works depicting St John the Baptist can be found in the Florence Baptistery, including the mosaics on the vault, the bronze doors by Andrea Pisano, and the great silver altar now in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo.John the Baptist (right) with the Christ Child, in ''The Holy Children with a Shell'' by Bartolomé Esteban MurilloA number of narrative scenes from his life were often shown on the predella of altarpieces dedicated to John, and other settings, notably in the frescoes by Giotto for the Peruzzi Chapel in the church of Santa Croce, the large series in grisaille fresco in the Chiostro dello Scalzo, which was Andrea del Sarto's largest work, and the frescoed ''Life'' by Domenico Ghirlandaio in the Tornabuoni Chapel, all in Florence.", "There is another important fresco cycle by Filippo Lippi in Prato Cathedral.", "These include the typical scenes: the Annunciation to Zechariah; John's birth; his naming by his father; the Visitation; John's departure for the desert; his preaching in the desert; the Baptism of Christ; John before Herod; the dance of Herod's stepdaughter, Salome; his beheading; and the daughter of Herodias Salome carrying his head on a platter.His birth, which unlike the Nativity of Jesus allowed a relatively wealthy domestic interior to be shown, became increasingly popular as a subject in the late Middle Ages, with depictions by Jan van Eyck in the Turin-Milan Hours and Ghirlandaio in the Tornabuoni Chapel being among the best known.", "His execution, a church feast-day, was often shown, and by the 15th century scenes such as the dance of Salome became popular; sometimes, as in an engraving by Israhel van Meckenem, the interest of the artist is clearly in showing the life of Herod's court, given contemporary dress, as much as the martyrdom of the saint.", "The execution was usually by a swordsman, with John kneeling in prayer, Salome often standing by with an empty platter, and Herod and Herodias at table in a cut-through view of a building in the background.Head of St John the Baptist on a Plate, Southern Netherlands, , oakSalome bearing John's head on a platter equally became a subject for the Power of Women group: a Northern Renaissance fashion for images of glamorous but dangerous women (Delilah, Judith and others).", "It was often painted by Lucas Cranach the Elder and engraved by the Little Masters.", "When the head is brought to the table by Salome, Herod may be shown as startled, if not disgusted, but Herodias is usually not.", "These images remained popular into the Baroque, with Carlo Dolci painting at least three versions.", "John preaching, in a landscape setting, was a popular subject in Dutch art from Pieter Brueghel the Elder and his successors.", "The isolated motif of the severed head, often on its platter, was a frequent image, often in sculpture, from the late Middle Ages onwards, known as (Latin for \"John on a plate\").As a child (of varying age), he is sometimes shown from the 15th century in family scenes from the life of Christ such as the Holy Family, the Presentation of Christ, the Marriage of the Virgin and the Holy Kinship.", "In the Baptism of Christ his presence was obligatory.", "Leonardo da Vinci's two versions of the ''Virgin of the Rocks'' were influential in establishing a Renaissance fashion for variations on the Madonna and Child which included John.", "Raphael in particular painted many compositions of the subject, such as the ''Alba Madonna'', , the ''Garvagh Madonna'', the , and the , which are among his best-known works.John was also often shown by himself as an adolescent or adult, usually already wearing his distinctive dress and carrying a long thin wooden cross – another theme influenced by Leonardo, whose equivocal composition, with the camel-skin dress, was developed by Raphael, Titian and Guido Reni among many others.", "Often he is accompanied by a lamb, especially in the many Early Netherlandish paintings which needed this attribute as he wore normal clothes, or a red robe over a not very clearly indicated camel skin.", "Caravaggio painted an especially large number of works depicting John, from at least five largely nude youths attributed to him, to three late works on his death – the great ''Execution'' in Malta, and two sombre Salomes with his head, one in Madrid, and one in London.St John (right) in ''Christ in the House of His Parents'' by John Everett Millais, 1849–50Amiens Cathedral, which holds one of the alleged heads of the Baptist, has a biographical sequence in polychrome relief, dating from the 16th century.", "This includes the execution and the disposal of the saint's remains, which according to legend were burnt in the reign of Julian the Apostate (4th century) to prevent pilgrimages.A remarkable Pre-Raphaelite portrayal is ''Christ in the House of His Parents'' by John Everett Millais.", "Here the Baptist is shown as a child, wearing a loin covering of animal skins, hurrying into Joseph's carpenter shop with a bowl of water to join Mary, Joseph, and Mary's mother Anne in soothing the injured hand of Jesus.", "Artistic interest enjoyed a considerable revival at the end of the 19th century with Symbolist painters such as Gustave Moreau and Puvis de Chavannes (National Gallery, London).", "Oscar Wilde's play ''Salome'' was illustrated by Aubrey Beardsley, giving rise to some of his most memorable images.Leonardo da Vinci - St John the Baptist - WGA12723.jpg|St.", "John the Baptist (), Leonardo da VinciAllori C San Giovanni.jpg|''John the Baptist in the desert'' (1577–1621), Cristofano AlloriFondazione Querini Stampalia - San Giovanni Battista (1674-81) - Michele Fabris.jpg|''John the Baptist'' (17th century), Michele FabrisPuvis de Chavannes, Pierre-Cécile - The Beheading of St John the Baptist - c. 1869.jpg|''The Beheading of St John the Baptist'', , Puvis de Chavannes===In poetry===The Italian Renaissance poet Lucrezia Tornabuoni chose John the Baptist as one of the biblical figures on which she wrote poetry.He is also referenced in \"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock\" by T.S.", "Eliot in stanza 12.===In music===* Guido D'Arezzo (991/992 – after 1033) an Italian Benedictine monk founded the standard music stave based on a hymn to Saint John the Baptist.", "The hymn that begins with Ut Queant Laxis uses the first syllable for each line – Ut (later changed to Do), Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si.", "The teaching is also known as the solmization syllable.", "* ''This Is the Record of John'', by English Tudor composer Orlando Gibbons is a well-known part-setting of the Gospel of John for solo voice, choir and organ or viol accompaniment.", "* The reformer Martin Luther wrote a hymn based on biblical accounts about the Baptist, \"\" (1541), based for a cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach for the feast day on 24 June, (1724).", "* (St. John the Baptist) is a 1676 oratorio by Alessandro Stradella.", "* The well-known Advent hymn ''On Jordan's Bank the Baptist's cry'' was written by Charles Coffin.", "* John the Baptist (Jokanaan), Baritone, is a character in the opera Salome by Richard Strauss, premiered 1905 in Dresden.", "The text is from Oscar Wilde's French play, translated into German by Hedwig Lachmann.", "* In popular music, Bob Dylan dedicates four lines to John the Baptist in \"Tombstone Blues\", the second track of his 1965 album ''Highway 61 Revisited''.", "He sings: \"John the Baptist after torturing a thief/Looks up at his hero the Commander-in-Chief/Saying, \"Tell me great hero, but please make it brief/Is there a hole for me to get sick in?\".", "* The song \"John the Baptist (Holy John)\" by Al Kooper on his 1971 album ''New York City (You're a Woman)'' is about John the Baptist.", "In the same year the song was also recorded by Blood, Sweat & Tears for their album ''Blood, Sweat & Tears 4''.", "* The 1972 album ''Dreaming with Alice'' by Mark Fry features several verses spread throughout the album retelling the story of the beheading of John the Baptist.", "* In his song \"Everyman Needs a Companion\", the closing track to his album ''Fear Fun'', Father John Misty sings about the friendship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth: \"John the Baptist took Jesus Christ/Down to the river on a Friday night/They talked about Mary like a couple of boys/With nothing to lose/Too scared to try.", "\"* John the Baptist is referenced in the music of American heavy metal band Om in their 2009 song \"Meditation Is the Practice of Death\".", "As well as this, John the Baptist is depicted on the cover art of Om's 2012 album, ''Advaitic Songs''.===In film and television===John the Baptist has appeared in a number of screen adaptations of the life of Jesus.", "Actors who have played John include James D. Ainsley in ''From the Manger to the Cross'' (1912), Nigel De Brulier in ''Salome'' (1923), Alan Badel in ''Salome'' (1953), Robert Ryan in ''King of Kings'' (1961), Mario Socrate in ''The Gospel According to St. Matthew'' (1964), Charlton Heston in ''The Greatest Story Ever Told'' (1965), David Haskell in ''Godspell'' (1973), Michael York in ''Jesus of Nazareth'' (1977), Eli Cohen in ''Jesus'' (1979), Andre Gregory in ''The Last Temptation of Christ'' (1988), Christopher Routh in ''Mary, Mother of Jesus'' (1999), David O'Hara in ''Jesus'' (1999), Scott Handy in ''The Gospel of John'' (2003), Aidan McArdle in ''Judas'' (2004), Daniel Percival in ''Son of God'' (2014), Abhin Galeya in ''Killing Jesus'' (2015), and David Amito in \"The Chosen\" (2019-2022).", "''Snapaka Yohannan'' (''John the Baptist''), a 1963 Indian Malayalam-language film depicts life of St. John the Baptist and his death at the hands of Salome, Herod Antipas and Herodias." ], [ "Commemoration", "===Denominational festivals===Christian festivals associated with Saint John the Baptist and Forerunner are celebrated at various days by different denominations and are dedicated to his conception, birth, and death, as well as in correlation to the baptism of Jesus.", "The Eastern Church has feast days for the finding of his head (first, second, and third finding), as well as for his parents, Elizabeth and Zechariah.", "In the Russian Orthodox Church there is a feast day of the Transfer of the Right Hand of the Forerunner from Malta to Gatchina.===Association with summer solstice===The Feast of Saint John closely coincides with the June solstice, also referred to as Midsummer in the Northern Hemisphere.", "The Christian holy day is fixed at 24 June; but in most countries festivities are mostly held the night before, on Saint John's Eve.", "\"In England, 'Saint John's Tide' is combined with a midsummer celebration.", "Instead of the date of the summer solstice, they chose June 24.This may be because of the Baptist's own words, 'He must increase, but I must decrease' (John 3:30).", "John was, of course, referring to Jesus.", "John's day comes at the time when the sun is beginning to decrease...\"===Patron saint and local festivals=======Middle East====Catholic church at his traditional birthplace in Ein KeremSaint John the Baptist's beheading is said to have taken place in Machaerus, in central Jordan.====Europe====Wooden statue.", "Pietro Paolo Azzopardi, 1845, Xewkija.In Spain, Saint John was venerated during the feast of the Alhansara in Granada, and also in GaztelugatxeIn the United Kingdom, Saint John is the patron of Penzance, Cornwall.", "In Scotland, he is the patron saint of Perth, which used to be known as St. John's Toun of Perth.", "The main church in the city is still the medieval Kirk of St. John the Baptist and the city's professional football club is called St Johnstone F.C.Also, on the night of 23 June on to the 24th, Saint John is celebrated as the patron saint of Porto, the second largest city in Portugal.", "An article from June 2004 in ''The Guardian'' remarked that \"Porto's is one of Europe's liveliest street festivals, yet it is relatively unknown outside the country\".As patron saint of the original Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John, he is the patron of the Knights Hospitaller of Jerusalem, Malta, Florence, Cesena, Turin and Genoa, Italy; as well as of Malta as a whole and of Xewkija and Gozo in Malta, which remember him with a great feast on the Sunday nearest to 24 June.====Americas====Saint John the Baptist is the patron saint of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and its capital city, San Juan.", "In 1521, the island was given its formal name, , following the custom of christening a town with its formal name and the name which Christopher Columbus had originally given the island.", "The names and were eventually used in reference to both city and island, leading to a reversal in terminology by most inhabitants largely due to a cartographic error.", "By 1746, the city's name () had become that of the entire island, while the name for the island () had become that of the city.", "The official motto of Puerto Rico also references the saint: .He is also a patron saint of French Canada and Newfoundland.", "The Canadian cities of St. John's, Newfoundland (1497), Saint John, New Brunswick (1604), and Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec (1665), were all named in his honor.", "His feast day of 24 June is celebrated officially in Quebec as the and was previously celebrated in Newfoundland as Discovery Day.He is also patron of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston, which covers the whole of South Carolina in the United States.====Southeast Asia====Calamba, Laguna, Calumpit, Bulacan, Balayan and Lian in Batangas, Sipocot and San Fernando, Camarines Sur, Daet, Camarines Norte San Juan, Metro Manila, Tabuelan, Cebu, and Jimenez, Misamis Occidental and the oldest in Taytay Rizal are among several places in the Philippines that venerate John as the town or city patron.", "A common practise of many Filipino fiestas in his honour is bathing and the dousing of people in memory of John's iconic act.", "The custom is similar in form to Songkran and Holi, and serves as a playful respite from the intense tropical heat.", "While famed for the Black Nazarene it enshrines, Quiapo Church in Manila is actually dedicated to Saint John.===Orders and societies===The Baptistines are the name given to a number of religious orders dedicated to the memory of John the Baptist.John the Baptist is the name-giving patron of the Knights Hospitaller, or Knights of Saint John.Along with John the Evangelist, John the Baptist is claimed as a patron saint by the fraternal society of Freemasons." ], [ "See also", "* Basilica of St. John the Baptist, Berlin* Biblical and Quranic narratives* Chronology of Jesus* Historical background of the New Testament* Legends and the Quran* List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources* Lyon Cathedral* Messengers from John the Baptist* John the Baptist, patron saint archive* St. John the Baptist Cathedral (disambiguation)* Saint John the Baptist Church (disambiguation)* St. John Baptist Church (disambiguation)* Statue of John the Baptist, Charles Bridge* Christians of Saint John" ], [ "Further reading", "* Mandaean Book of John, A complete open-access translation, published in 2020, edited by Charles G. Häberl and James F. McGrath***" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources =======Books on John the Baptist====* Brooks Hansen (2009) ''John the Baptizer: A Novel''.", "New York: W. W. Norton.", "* Murphy, Catherine M. (2003) ''John the Baptist: Prophet of Purity for a New Age''.", "Collegeville: Liturgical Press.", "* Taylor, Joan E. (1997) ''The Immerser: John the Baptist within Second Temple Judaism''.", "Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.", "* W. Barnes Tatum (1994) ''John the Baptist and Jesus: A Report of the Jesus Seminar'', Sonoma, California: Polebridge Press, 1994, * Webb, Robert L. (1991) ''John the Baptizer and Prophet: a Socio-Historical Study''.", "Wipf and Stock Publishers.", "(first published Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991)====Iconography====*Hall, James, ''Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art'', 1996 (2nd edn.", "), John Murray, ====Islamic view====* * J.C.L Gibson, ''John the Baptist in Muslim writings'', in ''MW'', xlv (1955), 334–345====Passages in the Quran====* Appraisals for Yahya: 6:85, 19:7, 19:12, 19:13, 19:14, 19:15* Yahya's prophecy: 3:39, 6:85, 19:12" ], [ "External links", "* ''Jewish Encyclopedia:'' John the Baptist* Prophet John (Yahya) * Mandaean Book of John translation project* Saint John the Baptist at the Christian Iconography website* Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend chapters on The Decollation of John the Baptist and The Nativity of Saint John Baptist" ] ]
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[ [ "John Brunner (author)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Kilian Houston Brunner''' (24 September 1934 – 25 August 1995) was a British author of science fiction novels and stories.", "His 1968 novel ''Stand on Zanzibar'', about an overpopulated world, won the 1969 Hugo Award for best science fiction novel and the BSFA award the same year.", "''The Jagged Orbit'' won the BSFA award in 1970." ], [ "Life", "Brunner was born in 1934 in Preston Crowmarsh, near Wallingford in Oxfordshire, and went to school at St Andrew's Prep School, Pangbourne.", "He did his upper studies at Cheltenham College.", "He wrote his first novel, ''Galactic Storm'', at 17, and published it under the pen-name Gill Hunt.", "He did not start writing full-time until 1958, some years after his military service.He served as an officer in the Royal Air Force from 1953 to 1955.He married Marjorie Rosamond Sauer on 12 July 1958.Brunner had an uneasy relationship with British new wave writers, who often considered him too American in his settings and themes.", "He attempted to shift to a more mainstream readership in the early 1980s, without success.", "Before his death, most of his books had fallen out of print.", "Brunner accused publishers of a conspiracy against him, although he was known to be difficult to deal with (his wife, Marjorie Brunner, had handled his publishing relations before she died).Brunner's health began to decline in the 1980s and worsened with the death of his wife in 1986.He remarried, to Li Yi Tan, on 27 September 1991.He died of a heart attack in Glasgow on 25 August 1995, while attending the World Science Fiction Convention there." ], [ "Literary works", "At first writing conventional space opera, Brunner later began to experiment with the novel form.", "His 1968 novel ''Stand on Zanzibar'' exploits the fragmented organizational style that American writer John Dos Passos created for his ''USA trilogy'', but updates it in terms of the theory of media popularised by Canadian academic Marshall McLuhan, a major cultural figure of the period.", "''The Jagged Orbit'' (1969) is set in a United States dominated by weapons proliferation and interracial violence.", "Its 100 numbered chapters vary in length from a single syllable to several pages.", "''The Sheep Look Up'' (1972) depicts ecological catastrophe in America.Brunner is credited with coining the term \"worm\" (in computing) and predicting the emergence of computer viruses in his 1975 novel ''The Shockwave Rider'', in which he used the term to describe software which reproduces itself across a computer network.", "Brunner's work has also been credited for prefiguring modern developments such as genetic engineering, same-sex marriage, online encyclopedias, the legalization of cannabis, and the development of Viagra.These four novels ''Stand on Zanzibar'' (1968), ''The Jagged Orbit'' (1969), ''The Sheep Look Up'' (1972) and ''The Shockwave Rider'' (1975), have been called the \"Club of Rome Quartet\", named after the Club of Rome, whose 1972 report ''The Limits to Growth'' warned of the dire effects of overpopulation.Brunner's pen names include K. H. Brunner (Kilian Houston Brunner), Gill Hunt, John Loxmith, Trevor Staines, Ellis Quick, Henry Crosstrees Jr., and Keith Woodcott.In addition to his fiction, Brunner wrote poetry and published many unpaid articles in a variety of venues, particularly fanzines.", "He also published 13 letters to the ''New Scientist'' and an article about the educational relevance of science fiction in ''Physics Education''.", "Brunner was an active member of the organisation Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and wrote the words to \"The H-Bomb's Thunder\", which was sung on the Aldermaston Marches.", "He was a linguist, translator, and Guest of Honour at the first European Science Fiction Convention ''Eurocon-1'' in Trieste in 1972." ], [ "Film and TV", "Brunner wrote the screenplay for the science fiction film ''The Terrornauts'' (1967) by Amicus Productions.Two of his short stories, \"Some Lapse of Time\" and \"The Last Lonely Man\", were adapted as TV plays in the BBC science fiction series ''Out of the Unknown'', in series 1 (1965) and series 3 (1969), respectively." ], [ "Works", "Brunner's short novel \"The Wanton of Argus\" was originally published in ''Two Complete Science-Adventure Books'' in 1953, before appearing in book form as ''The Space-Time Juggler''Brunner's novelette \"Rendezvous With Destiny\" was cover-featured on the March 1958 issue of ''Fantastic Universe''===Science fiction and fantasy novels===* ''Galactic Storm'' (1951) (as Gill Hunt)* ''Threshold of Eternity'', Ace D-335 (1959)* ''The 100th Millennium'', Ace D-362 (1959); based on \"Earth Is But a Star\", revised as ''Catch a Falling Star'', Ace G-761 (1968)* ''Echo in the Skull'', Ace D-385 (1959); revised as ''Give Warning to the World'', DAW 112 (1974) * ''The World Swappers'', Ace D-391 (1959)* ''The Brink'', Gollancz (1959)* ''Slavers of Space'', Ace D-421 (1960); revised as ''Into the Slave Nebula'', Lancer (1968)* ''The Skynappers'', Ace D-457 (1960)* ''The Atlantic Abomination'', Ace D-465 (1960)* ''Sanctuary in the Sky'', Ace D-471 (1960)* ''I Speak for Earth'', Ace D-497 (1961) (as Keith Woodcott)* ''Meeting at Infinity'', Ace D-507 (1961)* ''Secret Agent of Terra'', Ace F-133 (1962); revised as ''The Avengers of Carrig'', Dell (1969).", "Book 1 of the \"Zarathustra Refugee Planets\" series.", "* ''The Super Barbarians'', Ace D-547 (1962)* ''The Ladder in the Sky'', Ace F-141 (1962) (as Keith Woodcott)* ''The Dreaming Earth'', Pyramid F-829 (1963); revision of 1961 serial \"Put Down This Earth\"* ''The Psionic Menace'', Ace F-199 (1963) (as Keith Woodcott)* ''Listen!", "The Stars!", "'', Ace F-215 (1963); revised as ''The Stardroppers'', DAW 23 (1972)* ''The Astronauts Must Not Land'', Ace F-227 (1963); revised in 1973 as ''More Things in Heaven'', Dell (1973)* ''The Space-Time Juggler'', Ace F-227 (1963); also published as ''The Wanton of Argus''* ''Castaways' World'', Ace F-242 (1963); revised as ''Polymath'', DAW UQ1089 (1974).", "Book 2 of the \"Zarathustra Refugee Planets\" series.", "* ''The Rites of Ohe'', Ace F-242 (1963)* ''To Conquer Chaos'', Ace F-277 (1964), DAW 422 (1981)* ''Endless Shadow'', Ace F-299 (1964); revised as ''Manshape'', DAW 498, (1982)* ''The Whole Man'', Ballantine (1964); also published as ''Telepathist'', Faber and Faber (1965)* ''The Martian Sphinx'', Ace F-320 (1965) (as Keith Woodcott)* ''Enigma from Tantalus'', Ace M-115 (1965)* ''The Repairmen of Cyclops'', Ace M-115 (1965).", "Book 3 of the \"Zarathustra Refugee Planets\" series.", "* ''The Altar on Asconel'', Ace M-123 (1965) (serialised as \"The Altar at Asconel\")* ''The Day of the Star Cities'', Ace F-361 (1965); revised as ''Age of Miracles'', Ace (1973), Sidgwick & Jackson (1973)* ''The Long Result'', Faber & Faber (1965), Ballantine U2329 (1966), Penguin 2804 (1968)* ''The Squares of the City'', Ballantine (1965), Penguin 2686 (1969)* ''A Planet of Your Own'', Ace G-592 (1966)* ''The Productions of Time'', Signet (1967), Penguin 3141 (1970), DAW 261 (1977)* ''Born Under Mars'', Ace G-664 (1967)* ''Quicksand'', Doubleday (1967), Bantam S4212 (1969), DAW 1245 (1976)* ''Bedlam Planet'', Ace G-709 (1968), Del Rey (1982)* ''Stand on Zanzibar'', Doubleday (1968), Ballantine 01713 (1969), Arrow (1971), Millennium (1999), Orb (2011)* ''The Evil That Men Do'', Belmont (1969)* ''Double, Double'', Ballantine 72019 (1969)* ''The Jagged Orbit'', Ace Special (1969), Sidgwick & Jackson (1970), DAW 570 (1984), Gollancz (2000)* ''Timescoop'', Dell 8916 (1969), Sidgwick & Jackson (2972), DAW 599 (1984)* ''The Gaudy Shadows'', Constable (1970), Beagle (9171)* ''The Wrong End of Time'', Doubleday (1971), DAW 61 (1973)* '''', Ace (1972), New English Library (1974), Del Rey (1982)* ''The Sheep Look Up'', Harper & Row (1972), Ballantine (1973), Quartet (1977)* ''The Stone That Never Came Down'', Doubleday (1973), DAW 133 (1984), New English Library (1976)* ''Total Eclipse'', Doubleday (1974), DAW 162 (1975), Orbit (1976)* ''Web of Everywhere'', Bantam (1974), New English Library (1977).", "Also published as ''The Webs of Everywhere'', Del Rey (1983)* ''The Shockwave Rider'', Harper & Row (1975), Ballantine (1976), Orbit (1977)* ''The Infinitive of Go'', Del Rey (1980), Magnum (1981)* ''Players at the Game of People'', Del Rey (1980)* ''The Crucible of Time'', Del Rey (1983), Arrow (1984)* ''The Tides of Time'', Del Rey (1984), Penguin (1986)* ''The Shift Key'', Methuen (1987)* ''Children of the Thunder'', Del Rey (1989), Orbit (1990)* ''A Maze of Stars'', Del Rey (1991)* ''Muddle Earth'', Del Rey (1993)===Spy===Max Curfew Series* ''A Plague on Both Your Causes'', Hodder & Stoughton (1969).", "Also published as ''Backlash'', Pyramid T-2107 (1969)* ''Good Men Do Nothing'', Hodder & Stoughton (1971), Pyramid T2443 (1971)* ''Honky in the Woodpile'', Constable (1971)===Collections===* ''No Future in It'', Gollancz (1962).", "Doubleday (1964), Panther (1965), Curtis (1969)* ''Times Without Number'', Ace F-161 (1962); revised and expanded Ace (1969)* ''Now Then!", "'', Mayflower-Dell (1965).", "Also published as ''Now Then'', Avon (1968)* ''No Other Gods But Me'', Compact F317 (1966)* ''Out of My Mind'', Ballantine (1967); abridged variant, NEL (1968)* ''Not Before Time'', NEL (1968)* ''The Traveler in Black'', Ace Special (1971); revised and expanded by one story as ''The Compleat Traveller in Black'', Bluejay (1986)* ''From This Day Forward'', Doubleday (1972), DAW 72 (1973)* ''Entry to Elsewhen'', DAW 26 (1972)* ''Time-Jump'', Dell (1973)* ''The Book of John Brunner'', DAW 177 (1976)* ''Interstellar Empire'', DAW 208 (1976); a collection of a novella and two \"Ace Double\" halves: ''The Altar on Asconel'', \"The Man from the Big Dark\" and ''The Space-Time Juggler'' (under the title of ''The Wanton of Argus'')* ''Foreign Constellations'', Everest House (1980)* ''The Best of John Brunner'', Del Rey (1988)* ''Victims of the Nova'', Arrow (1989).", "Complete Zarathustra Refugee Planets series.", "Omnibus of ''Polymath'', ''Secret Agent of Terra'' and ''The Repairmen of Cyclops''* ''The Man Who Was Secrett and Other Stories'', Ramble House (2013)===Poetry===* ''Life in an Explosive Forming Press'' (1970)* ''Trip: A Sequence of Poems Through the USA'' (1971)* ''A Hastily Thrown Together Bit of Zork'' (1974)* ''Tomorrow May Be Even Worse'' (1978)* ''A New Settlement of Old Scores'' (1983)===Nongenre===* ''The Crutch of Memory'', Barrie & Rockliff (1964).", "Conventional novel set in Greece.", "* ''Wear the Butchers' Medal'' Pocket (1965).", "Mystery set in Europe featuring neo-Nazis.", "* ''Black Is the Color'', Pyramid (1969, republished in 2015).", "Horror fiction about the \"swinging London\" underground in the 1960s.", "* ''The Devil's Work'', W. W. Norton & Company (1970).", "Centres on a modern-day Hellfire Club.", "* ''The Great Steamboat Race'', Ballantine (1983).", "Historical fiction based on an actual event.", "* ''The Days of March'', Kerosina (1988).", "Novel about the early days of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.===Pornography===* ''The Incestuous Lovers'' (1969) (as Henry Crosstrees, Jr.).", "Original title ''Malcolm and Sarah''* ''Ball in the Family'' (1973) (as Ellis Quick)===Translations===* ''The Overlords of War'' (1973).", "Translated from the French.", "Original title ''Les Seigneurs de la Guerre'' by Gérard Klein" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The John Brunner Archive at the University of Liverpool* * Bibliography on SciFan* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Jack Butler Yeats" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jack Butler Yeats RHA''' (29 August 1871 – 28 March 1957) was an Irish artist and Olympic medalist.", "W. B. Yeats was his brother.Butler's early style was that of an illustrator; he only began to work regularly in oils in 1906.His early pictures are simple lyrical depictions of landscapes and figures, predominantly from the west of Ireland—especially of his boyhood home of Sligo.", "Yeats's work contains elements of Romanticism.", "He later would adopt the style of Expressionism." ], [ "Biography", "Yeats was born in London, England.", "He was the youngest son of Irish portraitist John Butler Yeats and the brother of W. B. Yeats, who received the 1923 Nobel Prize in Literature.", "He grew up in Sligo with his maternal grandparents, before returning to his parents' home in London in 1887.Yeats attended the Chiswick School of Art with his sisters Elizabeth and Susan, learning \"Freehand drawing in all its branches, practical Geometry and perspective, pottery and tile painting, design for decorative purposes – as in Wall-papers, Furniture, Metalwork, Stained Glass\".Early in his career, Yeats worked as an illustrator for magazines like the ''Boy's Own Paper'' and ''Judy'', drew comic strips, including the Sherlock Holmes parody \"Chubb-Lock Homes\" for ''Comic Cuts'', and wrote articles for ''Punch'' under the pseudonym \"W. Bird\".", "In 1894 he married Mary Cottenham, also a native of England and two years his senior, and resided in Wicklow according to the Census of Ireland, 1911.From around 1920, he developed into an intensely Expressionist artist, moving from illustration to Symbolism.", "He was sympathetic to the Irish Republican cause, but not politically active.", "However, he believed that 'a painter must be part of the land and of the life he paints', and his own artistic development, as a Modernist and Expressionist, helped articulate a modern Dublin of the 20th century, partly by depicting specifically Irish subjects, but also by doing so in the light of universal themes such as the loneliness of the individual, and the universality of the plight of man.", "Samuel Beckett wrote that \"Yeats is with the great of our time... because he brings light, as only the great dare to bring light, to the issueless predicament of existence.\"", "The Marxist art critic and author John Berger also paid tribute to Yeats from a very different perspective, praising the artist as a \"great painter\" with a \"sense of the future, an awareness of the possibility of a world other than the one we know\".His favourite subjects included the Irish landscape, horses, circus and travelling players.", "His early paintings and drawings are distinguished by an energetic simplicity of line and colour, his later paintings by an extremely vigorous and experimental treatment of often thickly applied paint.", "He frequently abandoned the brush altogether, applying paint in a variety of different ways, and was deeply interested in the expressive power of colour.", "Despite his position as the most important Irish artist of the 20th century (and the first to sell for over £1m), he took no pupils and allowed no one to watch him work, so he remains a unique figure.", "The artist closest to him in style is his friend, the Austrian painter, Oskar Kokoschka.In 1943 he accepted Victor Waddington as his sole dealer and business manager.", "Waddington played a crucial role in his career and reputation.Besides painting, Yeats had a significant interest in theatre and in literature.", "He was a close friend of Samuel Beckett.", "He designed sets for the Abbey Theatre, and three of his own plays were also produced there.", "His literary works include ''The Careless Flower'', ''The Amaranthers'' (much admired by Beckett), ''Ah Well, A Romance in Perpetuity'', ''And To You Also'', and ''The Charmed Life''.", "Yeats's paintings usually bear poetic and evocative titles.", "He was elected a member of the Royal Hibernian Academy in 1916.He died in Dublin in 1957, and was buried in Mount Jerome Cemetery.Yeats holds the distinction of being Ireland's first medalist at the Olympic Games in the wake of creation of the Irish Free State.", "At the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris, Yeats' painting ''The Liffey Swim'' won a silver medal in the arts and culture segment of the Games.", "In the competition records the painting is simply entitled ''Swimming''." ], [ "Works", "In November 2010, one of Yeats's works, ''A Horseman Enters a Town at Night'', painted in 1948 and previously owned by novelist Graham Greene, sold for nearly £350,000 at a Christie's auction in London.", "A smaller work, ''Man in a Room Thinking'', painted in 1947, sold for £66,000 at the same auction.", "His painting ''Sleep Sound'' (1955) was bought by David Bowie in 1993 for £45,500 and sold at auction in 2016 for £233,000.In 1999 the painting, ''The Wild Ones'', had sold at Sotheby's in London for over £1.2m.", "Whyte's Auctioneers hold the world record sale price for a Yeats painting, ''Reverie'' (1931), which sold for €1,400,000 in November 2019.The Model, Home of The Niland Collection, in Sligo cares for one of the best and most extensive collections of Jack B. Yeats work in existence.", "It presents regular curated exhibitions of his work, notably, The Outside in 2011, Enter the Clowns - The Circus as Metaphor, 2013; The Music has Come, 2014; Painted Universe, 2018; Salt Water Ballads, 2021.===Hosting museums===* The Model, Sligo* The Hunt Museum, Limerick* National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin* Crawford Art Gallery, Cork* National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa* Walters Art Museum, Baltimore** The Swinford Funeral at the Walters Art Museum* The Municipal Art Collection, Waterford* Ulster Museum, Belfast* The Snite Museum of Art, University of Notre Dame** Driftwood in a Cave at the Snite Museum of Art" ], [ "See also", "*Art competitions at the 1924 Summer Olympics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Samuel Beckett.", "1991.", "''Jack B. Yeats: The Late Paintings'' (Whitechapel Art Gallery)* John Booth.", "1993.", "''Jack B. Yeats: A Vision of Ireland'' (House of Lochar)* John W. Purser.", "1991.", "''The Literary Universe of Jack B. Yeats'' (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers)* Hilary Pyle.", "1987.", "''Jack B. Yeats in the National Gallery of Ireland'' (National Gallery of Ireland)* Hilary Pyle.", "1989.", "''Jack B. Yeats: A Biography'' (Carlton Books)* T.G.", "Rosenthal.", "1993.", "''The Art of Jack B. Yeats'' (Carlton Books)* Jack B. Yeats.", "1992.", "''Selected Writings of Jack B. Yeats'' (Carlton Books)* Declan J Foley (2009), ed.", "with an introduction by Bruce Stewart,''The Only Art of Jack B. Yeats Letters and essays'' (Lilliput Press Dublin)." ], [ "External links", "* * Jack B. Yeats at The Model, Sligo* Cuala Press Broadside Collection, illustrated by Jack B. Yeats is located at the Special Collections/Digital Library in Falvey Memorial Library at Villanova University.", "* The Only Art: Letters of JBY* The Fourth John Butler Yeats Seminar, at the Swift Theatre, Trinity College, Dublin 10–12 September 2010 details * Jack Butler Yeats' Illustrations from Punch in HeidICON* * * * * Yeats Society Sligo * Irish Record Price for Yeats*" ] ]
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[ [ "Joseph Yoakum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph Elmer Yoakum''' (c. February 22, 1891 – December 25, 1972) was an American self-taught painter.", "He was of African-American and possibly of Native American–descent, and was known for his landscape paintings in the outsider art-style.", "He was age 76 when he started to record his memories in the form of imaginary landscapes and produced over 2,000 drawings during the last decade of his life." ], [ "Early life", "Joseph Elmer Yoakum's biographical information is difficult to verify but he also claimed to be of African, French, and Cherokee descent.", "New York Times critic Will Heinrich called his biography \"tricky...It’s poorly documented, and the artist himself was not a reliable narrator.\"", "His birthdates have also been given as 1886, 1888, and 1891, and his Veteran's Administration record says he was born in Springfield, Missouri.", "A 9 year old Joe Yoakum does show up in the 1900 U.S. census in Greene County, Missouri, listed as Black with his father's birthplace being listed as Indian Territory.", "His father John Yoakum is listed in the 1880 census as Black with his birthplace listed as Cherokee Nation.Yoakum was born in Ash Grove, Missouri, but told a story of being born in Arizona, in 1888, as a Navajo Indian on the Window Rock Navajo reservation.", "Taking pride in his exaggerated Native heritage, Yoakum would pronounce \"Navajo\" as \"Na-va-JOE\" (as in \"Joseph\").", "He spent his early childhood on a Missouri farm.", "Yoakum left home when he was nine years old to join the Great Wallace Circus.", "As a bill poster, he also traveled across the U.S. with Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show and the Ringling Brothers, among the five different circuses.", "He later traveled to Europe as a stowaway.In 1908, he returned to Missouri and started a family with his girlfriend Myrtle Julian, with whom he had his first son in 1909; the couple married in 1910.Around 1916, he worked in a coal mine, Hale Coal and Mining to support his family.", "Yoakum was drafted into the United States Army in 1918 and worked in the 805th Pioneer Infantry repairing roads and railroads.", "After the war, he traveled around the United States, working odd jobs, but never returned to his family.", "He later remarried and moved to Chicago.", "In 1946, Yoakum was committed to a psychiatric hospital there.", "He soon left and by the early 1950s he was drawing on a regular basis." ], [ "Artistic work", "260x260pxYoakum was again living and painting in Chicago by 1962.Tom Brand, owner of Galaxy Press on the south side of Chicago, in 1968 had some printing to deliver to a coffee shop called \"The Whole\".", "While there he noticed the colored pencil drawings of Yoakum and was immediately taken by them.", "Brand had an account with the Ed Sherbyn Gallery on the north side of Chicago, and he persuaded Sherbyn to exhibit Yoakum's works and even printed his own poster for this show.", "Norman Mark of ''The Chicago Daily News'' wrote an article about Yoakum called \"My drawings are a spiritual unfoldment\"; this article was printed on the back of the poster.", "Brand informed his artist friends (including Whitney Halstead) about Yoakum and encouraged them to visit \"The Whole\" coffee shop.", "Halstead, an artist and instructor at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, became the greatest promoter of Yoakum's work during his lifetime.", "He believed that his story was \"more invention than reality... in part myth, Yoakum's life as he would have wished to have lived it.", "\"In 1967, Yoakum was discovered by the mainstream art community through John Hopgood, an instructor at the Chicago State College, who saw Yoakum's work hanging in his studio window and purchased twenty-two pictures.", "A group of students including Roger Brown, Gladys Nilsson, Jim Nutt, and Barbara Rossi, and teachers at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, including Ray Yoshida and Whitney Halstead, took an interest in promoting his work.", "In 1972, just one month before his death, Yoakum was given a one-man show at the Whitney Museum in New York City.He started drawing familiar places, such as ''Green Valley Ashville Kentucky'', as a method to capture his memories.", "However, he shifted towards imaginary landscapes in places he had never visited, like ''Mt Cloubelle of West India'' or ''Mt Mowbullan in Dividing Range near Brisbane Australia''.", "Drawing outlines with ballpoint pen, rarely making corrections, he colored his drawings within the lines using watercolors and pastels.", "He became known for his organic forms, always using two lines to designate land masses.During the final four months of his life Yoakum's work was marked by a use of pure abstraction, as in his illustration ''Flooding of Sock River through Ash Grove Mo Missouri on July 4, 1914 in that waters drove many persons from Homes I were with the Groupe their homes for safety''.", "That painting was one of his autobiographical works.In 2018–19 Yoakum's work was included in the exhibition ''Outliers and American Vanguard Art'' at the National Gallery of Art, High Museum of Art, and Los Angeles County Museum of Art.", "In 2021, the Museum of Modern Art presented more than 100 of his works in an exhibition called ''Joseph E. Yoakum: What I Saw.''", "It was organized by the Art Institute of Chicago, the Museum of Modern Art, and the Menil Drawing Institute, which is part of the Menil Collection.", "His work is represented in the National Gallery of Art, among other institutions." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Atkins, Jacqueline M., \"Joseph E. Yoakum: Visionary Traveler\" ''The Clarion'', Winter 1989/1990* Carnegie Museum of Art" ] ]
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[ [ "Jefferson Davis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jefferson F. Davis''' (June 3, 1808December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as the first and only president of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865.He represented Mississippi in the United States Senate and the House of Representatives as a member of the Democratic Party before the American Civil War.", "He was the United States Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857.Davis, the youngest of ten children, was born in Fairview, Kentucky, but spent most of his childhood in Wilkinson County, Mississippi.", "His eldest brother Joseph Emory Davis secured the younger Davis's appointment to the United States Military Academy.", "Upon graduating, he served six years as a lieutenant in the United States Army.", "After leaving the army in 1835, Davis married Sarah Knox Taylor, daughter of general and future President Zachary Taylor.", "Sarah died from malaria three months after the wedding.", "Davis became a cotton planter, building Brierfield Plantation in Mississippi on his brother Joseph's land and eventually owning as many as 113 slaves.In 1845, Davis married Varina Howell.", "During the same year, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives, serving for one year.", "From 1846 to 1847, he fought in the Mexican–American War as the colonel of a volunteer regiment.", "He was appointed to the United States Senate in 1847, resigning to unsuccessfully run as governor of Mississippi.", "In 1853, President Franklin Pierce appointed him Secretary of War.", "After Pierce's administration ended in 1857, Davis returned to the Senate.", "He resigned in 1861 when Mississippi seceded from the United States.During the Civil War, Davis guided the Confederacy's policies and served as its commander in chief.", "When the Confederacy was defeated in 1865, Davis was captured, accused of treason, and imprisoned at Fort Monroe.", "He was released without trial after two years.", "Immediately after the war, Davis was often blamed for the Confederacy's defeat, but after his release from prison, he became a hero of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy.", "In the late 19th and the 20th centuries, his legacy as Confederate leader was celebrated in the South.", "In the twenty-first century, he is frequently criticized as a supporter of slavery and racism, and many of the memorials dedicated to him throughout the United States have been removed." ], [ "Early life", "===Birth and family background===Jefferson F. Davis was the youngest of ten children of Jane and Samuel Emory Davis.", "Samuel Davis's father, Evan, who had a Welsh background, came to the colony of Georgia from Philadelphia.", "Samuel served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, and received a land grant for his service near present-day Washington, Georgia.", "He married Jane Cook, a woman of Scots-Irish descent whom he had met in South Carolina during his military service, in 1783.Around 1793, Samuel and Jane moved to Kentucky.", "Jefferson was born on June 3, 1808, at the family homestead in Davisburg, a village Samuel had established that later became Fairview, Kentucky.", "He was named after then-President Thomas Jefferson.===Early education===In 1810, the Davis family moved to Bayou Teche, Louisiana.", "Less than a year later, they moved to a farm near Woodville, Mississippi, where Samuel cultivated cotton, acquired twelve slaves, and built a house that Jane called Rosemont.", "During the War of 1812, three of Davis's brothers served in the military.", "When Davis was around five, he received a rudimentary education at a small schoolhouse near Woodville.", "When he was about eight, his father sent him with Major Thomas Hinds and his relatives to attend Saint Thomas College, a Catholic preparatory school run by Dominicans near Springfield, Kentucky.", "In 1818, Davis returned to Mississippi, where he briefly studied at Jefferson College in Washington.", "He then attended the Wilkinson County Academy near Woodville for five years.", "In 1823, Davis attended Transylvania University in Lexington.", "While he was still in college in 1824, he learned that his father Samuel had died.", "Before his death, Samuel had fallen into debt and sold Rosemont and most of his slaves to his eldest son Joseph Emory Davis, who already owned a large estate in Davis Bend, Mississippi, about south of Vicksburg, Mississippi.", "Joseph, who was 23 years older than Davis, informally became his surrogate father.===West Point and early military career===His older brother Joseph got Davis appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1824, where he became friends with classmates Albert Sidney Johnston and Leonidas Polk.", "Davis frequently challenged the academy's discipline.", "In his first year, he was court-martialed for drinking at a nearby tavern.", "He was found guilty but was pardoned.", "The following year, he was placed under house arrest for his role in the Eggnog Riot during Christmas 1826 but was not dismissed.", "He graduated 23rd in a class of 33.Second Lieutenant Davis was assigned to the 1st Infantry Regiment.", "He was accompanied by his personal servant James Pemberton, an enslaved African American who he inherited from his father.", "In early 1829, he was stationed at Forts Crawford and Winnebago in Michigan Territory under the command of Colonel Zachary Taylor, who later became president of the United States.Throughout his life, Davis regularly suffered from ill health.", "During the northern winters, he had pneumonia, colds, and bronchitis.", "He went to Mississippi on furlough in March 1832, missing the outbreak of the Black Hawk War, and returned to duty just before the Battle of Bad Axe, which ended the war.", "When Black Hawk was captured, Davis escorted him for detention in St. Louis.", "Black Hawk stated that Davis treated him with kindness.After Davis's return to Fort Crawford in January 1833, he and Taylor's daughter, Sarah, became romantically involved.", "Davis asked Taylor if he could marry Sarah, but Taylor refused.", "In spring, Taylor had him assigned to the United States Regiment of Dragoons under Colonel Henry Dodge.", "He was promoted to first lieutenant and deployed at Fort Gibson in Arkansas Territory.", "In February 1835, Davis was court-martialed for insubordination.", "He was acquitted.", "He requested a furlough, and immediately after it ended, he tendered his resignation, which was effective on June 30." ], [ "Planting career and first marriage", "alt=man looking left, tree in lower background behind himDavis decided to become a cotton planter.", "He returned to Mississippi where his brother Joseph had developed Davis Bend into Hurricane Plantation, which eventually had of cultivated fields with over 300 slaves.", "Joseph loaned him funds to buy ten slaves and provided him with , though Joseph retained the title to the property.", "Davis named his section Brierfield Plantation.Davis continued his correspondence with Sarah, and they agreed to marry with Taylor giving his reluctant assent.", "They married at Beechland on June 17, 1835.In August, he and Sarah traveled to Locust Grove Plantation, his sister Anna Smith's home in West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana.", "Within days, both became severely ill with malaria.", "Sarah died at the age of 21 on September 15, 1835, after only three months of marriage.For several years after Sarah's death, Davis spent much of his time developing Brierfield.", "In 1836, he possessed 23 slaves; by 1840, he possessed 40; and by 1860, 113.He made his first slave, James Pemberton, Brierfield's effective overseer, a position he held until his death around 1850.Davis continued his intellectual development by reading about politics, law and economics at the large library Joseph maintained at Hurricane Plantation.", "As he and Joseph became concerned about national attempts to limit slavery in new territories, Davis became increasingly engaged in politics, benefiting from his brother's mentorship and political influence." ], [ "Early political career and second marriage", "alt=man on left with right hand on his hip; woman on right with both hands in her lapDavis became publicly involved in politics in 1840 when he attended a Democratic Party meeting in Vicksburg and served as a delegate to the party's state convention in Jackson; he served again in 1842.One week before the state election in November 1843, He was chosen to be the Democratic candidate for the Mississippi House of Representatives for Warren County when the original candidate withdrew his nomination, though Davis lost the election.In early 1844, Davis was chosen to serve as a delegate to the state convention again.", "On his way to Jackson, he met Varina Banks Howell, then 18 years old, when he delivered an invitation from Joseph for her to visit the Hurricane Plantation for the Christmas season.", "At the convention, Davis was selected as one of Mississippi's six presidential electors for the 1844 presidential election.Within a month of their meeting, 35-year-old Davis and Varina became engaged despite her parents' initial concerns about his age and politics.", "During the remainder of the year, Davis campaigned for the Democratic party, advocating for the nomination of John C. Calhoun.", "He preferred Calhoun because he championed Southern interests including the annexation of Texas, reduction of tariffs, and building naval defenses in southern ports.", "When the party chose James K. Polk for their presidential candidate, Davis campaigned for him.Davis and Varina married on February 26, 1845.They had six children: Samuel Emory, born in 1852, who died of an undiagnosed disease two years later; Margaret Howell, born in 1855, who married, raised a family and lived to be 54; Jefferson Davis Jr., born in 1857, who died of yellow fever at age 21; Joseph Evan, born 1859, who died from an accidental fall at age five; William Howell, born 1864, who died of diphtheria at age 10; and Varina Anne, born 1872, who remained single and lived to be 34.In July 1845, Davis became a candidate for the United States House of Representatives.", "He ran on a platform emphasizing a strict constructionist view of the constitution, states' rights, tariff reductions, and opposition to a national bank.", "He won the election and entered the 29th Congress.", "Davis opposed using federal monies for internal improvements, which he believed would undermine the autonomy of the states.", "He supported the American annexation of Oregon, but through peaceful compromise with Britain.", "On May 11, 1846, he voted for war with Mexico." ], [ "Mexican–American War", "Mississippi Rifles'' by Samuel Chamberlain ( 1860)|alt=Row of men on right with guns firing at men on horseback approaching on leftAt the beginning of the Mexican–American War, Mississippi raised a volunteer unit, the First Mississippi Regiment, for the U.S. Army.", "Davis expressed his interest in joining the regiment if he was elected its colonel, and in the second round of elections in June 1846 he was chosen.", "He did not give up his position as a U.S. Representative, but left a letter of resignation with his brother Joseph to submit when he thought it was appropriate.Davis was able to get his regiment armed with new percussion rifles instead of the smoothbore muskets used by other units.", "President Polk approved their purchase as a political favor in return for Davis marshalling enough votes to pass the Walker Tariff.", "Because of its association with the regiment, the weapon became known as the \"Mississippi rifle\", and the regiment became known as the \"Mississippi Rifles\".Davis's regiment was assigned to the army of his former father-in-law, Zachary Taylor, in northeastern Mexico.", "Davis distinguished himself at the Battle of Monterrey in September by leading a charge that took the fort of La Teneria.", "He then went on a two-month leave and returned to Mississippi, where he learned that Joseph had submitted Davis's resignation from the House of Representatives in October.", "Davis returned to Mexico and fought in the Battle of Buena Vista on February 22, 1847.He was wounded in the heel during the fighting, but his actions stopped an attack by the Mexican forces that threatened to collapse the American line.", "In May, Polk offered him a federal commission as a brigadier general.", "Davis declined the appointment, arguing he could not directly command militia units because the U.S. Constitution gives the power of appointing militia officers to the states, not the federal government.", "Instead, he accepted an appointment by Mississippi governor Albert G. Brown to fill a vacancy in the U.S. Senate left when Jesse Speight died." ], [ "Senator and Secretary of War", "===Senator===Daguerrotype of Representative Davis of the 29th U.S. Congress ( 1846)|alt=man looking forwardDavis took his seat in December 1847 and was made a regent of the Smithsonian Institution.", "The Mississippi legislature confirmed his appointment as senator in January 1848.He quickly established himself as an advocate of expanding slavery into the Western territories.", "He argued that because the territories were the common property of all the United States and lacked state sovereignty to ban slavery, slave owners had the equal right to settle them as any other citizens.", "Davis tried to amend the Oregon Bill to allow settlers to bring their slaves into Oregon Territory.", "He opposed ratifying the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican–American War, claiming that Nicholas Trist, who negotiated the treaty, had done so as a private citizen and not a government representative.", "Instead, he advocated negotiating a new treaty ceding additional land to the United States, and opposed the application of the Wilmot Proviso to the treaty, which would have banned slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico.During the 1848 presidential election, Davis chose not to campaign against Zachary Taylor, who was the Whig candidate.", "After the Senate session following Taylor's inauguration ended in March 1849, Davis returned to Brierfield.", "He was reelected by the state legislature for another six-year term in the Senate.", "Around this time, he was approached by the Venezuelan adventurer Narciso López to lead a filibuster expedition to liberate Cuba from Spain.", "He turned down the offer, saying it was inconsistent with his duty as a senator.When Calhoun died in the spring of 1850, Davis became the senatorial spokesperson for the South.", "The Congress debated Henry Clay's resolutions, which sought to address the sectional and territorial problems of the nation and became the basis for the Compromise of 1850.Davis was against the resolutions because he felt they would put the South at a political disadvantage.", "He opposed the admission of California as a free state without its first becoming a territory, asserting that a territorial government would give slaveowners the opportunity to colonize the region.", "He also tried to extend the Missouri Compromise Line to allow slavery to expand to the Pacific Ocean.", "He stated that not allowing slavery into the new territories denied the political equality of Southerners, and threatened to undermine the balance of power between Northern and Southern states in the Senate.In the autumn of 1851, Davis was nominated to run for governor of Mississippi against Henry Stuart Foote, who had favored the Compromise of 1850.He accepted the nomination and resigned from the Senate, but Foote won the election by a slim margin.", "Davis turned down a reappointment to his Senate seat by outgoing Governor James Whitfield, settling in Brierfield for the next fifteen months.", "He remained politically active, attending the Democratic convention in January 1852 and campaigning for Democratic candidates Franklin Pierce and William R. King during the presidential election of 1852.===Secretary of War===Colorized daguerreotype of United States Secretary of War Davis (1853)|alt=man looking forwardIn March 1853, President Franklin Pierce named Davis his Secretary of War.", "He championed a transcontinental railroad to the Pacific, arguing it was needed for national defense, and was entrusted with overseeing the Pacific Railroad Surveys to determine which of four possible routes was the best.", "He promoted the Gadsden Purchase of today's southern Arizona from Mexico, partly because he preferred a southern route for the new railroad.", "The Pierce administration agreed and the land was purchased in December 1853.He presented the surveys' findings in 1855, but they failed to clarify the best route and sectional problems prevented any choice being made.", "Davis also argued for the acquisition of Cuba from Spain, seeing it as an opportunity to add the island, a strategic military location and potential slave state.", "He suggested that the size of the regular army was too small and that its salaries were too meagre.", "Congress agreed and authorized four new regiments and increased its pay scale.", "He ended the manufacture of smoothbore muskets and shifted production to rifles, working to develop the tactics that accompany them.", "He oversaw the building of public works in Washington D.C., including the initial construction of the Washington Aqueduct.Davis assisted in the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 by allowing President Pierce to endorse it before it came up for a vote.", "This bill, which created Kansas and Nebraska territories, repealed the Missouri Compromise's limits on slavery and left the decision about a territory's slaveholding status to popular sovereignty, which allowed the territory's residents to decide.", "The passage of this bill led to the demise of the Whig party, which had tried to limit expansion of slavery in the territories.", "It also contributed to the rise of the Republican Party and the increase of civil violence in Kansas.The Democratic nomination for the 1856 presidential election went to James Buchanan.", "Knowing his term was over when the Pierce administration ended in 1857, Davis ran for the Senate once more and re-entered it on March 4, 1857.In the same month, the United States Supreme Court decided the Dred Scott case, which ruled that slavery could not be barred from any territory.===Return to Senate===Senator Davis of the 35th United States Congress by Julian Vannerson (1859)|alt= man with slight beard only on chin in profile looking rightThe Senate recessed in March and did not reconvene until November 1857.The session opened with a debate on the Lecompton Constitution submitted by a convention in Kansas Territory.", "If approved, it would have allowed Kansas to be admitted as a slave state.", "Davis supported it, but it was not accepted, in part because the leading Democrat in the North, Stephen Douglas, argued it did not represent the true will of the settlers in the territory.", "The controversy undermined the alliance between Northern and Southern Democrats.Davis's participation in the Senate was interrupted in early 1858 by a recurring case of iritis, which threatened the loss of his left eye.", "It left him bedridden for seven weeks.", "He spent the summer of 1858 in Portland, Maine recovering, and gave speeches in Maine, Boston, and New York, emphasizing the common heritage of all Americans and the importance of the constitution for defining the nation.", "His speeches angered some states' rights supporters in the South, requiring him to clarify his comments when he returned to Mississippi.", "Davis said that he appreciated the benefits of Union, but acknowledged that it could be dissolved if states' rights were violated or one section of the country imposed its will on another.", "Speaking to the Mississippi Legislature on November 16, 1858, Davis stated \"if an Abolitionist be chosen President of the United States...", "I should deem it your duty to provide for your safety outside of a Union with those who have already shown the will...to deprive you of your birthright and to reduce you to worse than the colonial dependence of your fathers.", "\"In February 1860, Davis presented a series of resolutions defining the relationship between the states under the constitution, including the assertion that Americans had a constitutional right to bring slaves into territories.", "These resolutions were seen as setting the agenda for the Democratic Party nomination, ensuring that Douglas's idea of popular sovereignty, known as the Freeport Doctrine, would be excluded from the party platform.", "The Democratic party split—Douglas was nominated by the North and Vice President John C. Breckinridge was nominated by the South—and the Republican Party nominee Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election.", "Davis counselled moderation after the election, but South Carolina adopted an ordinance of secession on December 20, 1860.Mississippi seceded on January 9, 1861, though Davis stayed in Washington until he received official notification on January 21.Calling it \"the saddest day of my life\", he delivered a farewell address, resigned from the Senate, and returned to Mississippi." ], [ "President of the Confederate States", "=== Inauguration ===Photograph of inauguration of Davis as provisional President of the Confederate States of America in front of the Alabama State Capitol in Montgomery by A.C. Whitmore (February 18, 1861)|alt=building with dome, clock and columns in background, crowd in midground, street and carriage in foregroundBefore his resignation, Davis had sent a telegraph to Mississippi Governor John J. Pettus informing him that he was available to serve the state.", "On January 27, 1861, Pettus appointed him a major general of Mississippi's army.", "On February 9, Davis was unanimously elected to the provisional presidency of the Confederacy by a constitutional convention in Montgomery, Alabama including delegates from the six states that had seceded: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Alabama.", "He was chosen because of his political prominence, his military reputation, and his moderate approach to secession, which Confederate leaders thought might persuade undecided Southerners to support their cause.", "He learned about his election the next day.", "Davis had been hoping for a military command, but he committed himself fully to his new role.", "Davis were inaugurated on February 18.Davis formed his cabinet by choosing a member from each of the states of the Confederacy, including Texas which had recently seceded: Robert Toombs of Georgia for Secretary of State, Christopher Memminger of South Carolina for Secretary of the Treasury, LeRoy Walker of Alabama for Secretary of War, John Reagan of Texas for Postmaster General, Judah P. Benjamin of Louisiana for Attorney General, and Stephen Mallory of Florida for Secretary of the Navy.", "Davis stood in for Mississippi.", "During his presidency, Davis's cabinet often changed; there were fourteen different appointees for the positions, including six secretaries of war.", "On November 6, 1861, Davis was elected president for a six-year term.", "He took office on February 22, 1862.===Civil War===Colored lithograph of the Bombardment of Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor by Currier and Ives ( 1861)|alt= rectangular fortress in middle of water burning with smoke coming out of itAs the Southern states seceded, state authorities took over most federal facilities without bloodshed.", "But four forts, including Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, had not surrendered.", "Davis preferred to avoid a crisis because the Confederacy needed time to organize its resources.", "To ensure that no attack on Fort Sumter was launched without his command, Davis had appointed Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard to command all Confederate troops in the vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina.", "Davis sent a commission to Washington to negotiate the evacuation of the forts, but President of the United States Lincoln refused to meet with it.When Lincoln informed Davis that he intended to reprovision Fort Sumter, Davis convened with the Confederate Congress on April 8 and gave orders to demand the immediate surrender of the fort or to reduce it.", "The commander of the fort, Major Robert Anderson, refused to surrender, and Beauregard began the attack on Fort Sumter early on April 12.After over thirty hours of bombardment, the fort surrendered.", "When Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion, four more states–Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas—joined the Confederacy.", "The American Civil War had begun.====1861====Colored lithograph of Davis and his generals by Goupil (1861)|alt=Eight men standing, Davis with cloak is in the middle, three on the extreme right sitting, one on the left sitting.", "In addition to being the constitutional commander-in-chief of the Confederacy, Davis was operational military leader as the military departments reported directly to him.", "Many people, including Generals Joseph E. Johnston and Major General Leonidas Polk, thought he would direct the fighting, but he left that to his generals.Major fighting in the East began when a Union army advanced into northern Virginia in July 1861.It was defeated at Manassas by two Confederate forces commanded by Beauregard and Joseph Johnston.", "After the battle, Davis had to manage disputes with the two generals, both of whom felt they did not get the recognition they deserved.In the West, Davis had to address a problem caused by another general.", "Kentucky, which was leaning toward the Confederacy, had declared its neutrality.", "In September 1861, Polk violated the state's neutrality by occupying Columbus, Kentucky.", "Secretary of War Walker ordered him to withdraw.", "Davis initially agreed with Walker, but changed his mind and allowed Polk to remain.", "The violation led Kentucky to request aid from the Union, effectively losing the state for the Confederacy.", "Walker resigned as secretary of war and was replaced by Judah P. Benjamin.", "Davis appointed General Albert Sidney Johnston, as commander of the Western Military Department that included much of Tennessee, Kentucky, western Mississippi, and Arkansas.====1862====In February 1862, the Confederate defenses in the West collapsed when Union forces captured Forts Henry, Donelson, and nearly half the troops in A. S. Johnston's department.", "Within weeks, Kentucky, Nashville and Memphis were lost, as well as control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers.", "The commanders responsible for the defeat were Brigadier Generals Gideon Pillow and John B. Floyd, political generals that Davis had been required to appoint.", "Davis gathered troops defending the Gulf Coast and concentrated them with A. S. Johnston's remaining forces.", "Davis favored using this concentration in an offensive.", "Johnston attacked the Union forces at Shiloh in southwestern Tennessee on April 6.The attack failed, and Johnston was killed.", "General Beauregard took command, falling back to Corinth, Mississippi, and then to Tupelo, Mississippi.", "When Beauregard then put himself on leave, Davis replaced him with General Braxton Bragg.President Davis of the Confederate States of America (1862)|alt=portrait of man without beard or mustache looking rightOn February 22, Davis was inaugurated as president.", "In his inaugural speech, he admitted that the South had suffered disasters, but called on the people of the Confederacy to renew their commitment.", "He replaced Secretary of War Benjamin, who had been scapegoated for the defeats, with George W. Randolph.", "Davis kept Benjamin in the cabinet, making him secretary of state to replace Hunter, who had stepped down.", "In March, Davis vetoed a bill to create a commander in chief for the army, but he selected General Robert E. Lee to be his military advisor.", "They formed a close relationship, and Davis relied on Lee for counsel until the end of the war.In March, Union troops in the East began an amphibious attack on the Virginia Peninsula, 75 miles from the Confederate capital of Richmond.", "Davis and Lee wanted Joseph Johnston, who commanded the Confederate army near Richmond, to make a stand at Yorktown.", "Instead, Johnston withdrew from the peninsula without informing Davis.", "Davis reminded Johnston that it was his duty to not let Richmond fall.", "On May 31, 1862, Johnston engaged the Union army less than ten miles from Richmond at the Battle of Seven Pines, where he was wounded.", "Davis put Lee in command.", "Lee began the Seven Days Battles less than a month later, pushing the Union forces back down the peninsula and eventually forcing them to withdraw from Virginia.", "Lee beat back another army moving into Virginia at the Battle of Second Manassas in August 1862.Knowing Davis desired an offensive into the North, Lee invaded Maryland, but retreated back to Virginia after a bloody stalemate at Antietam in September.", "In December, Lee stopped another invasion of Virginia at the Battle of Fredericksburg.In the West, Bragg shifted most of his available forces from Tupelo to Chattanooga in July 1862 for an offensive toward Kentucky.", "Davis approved, suggesting that an attack could win Kentucky for the Confederacy and regain Tennessee, but he did not create a unified command.", "He formed a new department independent of Bragg under Major General Edmund Kirby Smith at Knoxville, Tennessee.", "In August, both Bragg and Smith invaded Kentucky.", "Frankfort was briefly captured and a Confederate governor was inaugurated, but the attack collapsed, in part due to lack of coordination between the two generals.", "After a stalemate at the Battle of Perryville, Bragg and Smith retreated to Tennessee.", "In December, Bragg was defeated at the Battle of Stones River.In response to the defeat and the lack of coordination, Davis reorganized the command in the West in November, combining the armies in Tennessee and Vicksburg into a department under the overall command of Joseph Johnston.", "Davis expected Johnston to relieve Bragg of his command, but Johnston refused.", "During this time, Secretary of War Randolph resigned because he felt Davis refused to give him the autonomy to do his job; Davis replaced him with James Seddon.In the winter of 1862, Davis decided to join the Episcopal Church; in May 1863, he was confirmed at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Richmond.====1863====Colorized photograph of the alt= white rectangular buildingOn January 1, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation.", "Davis saw this as attempt to destroy the South by inciting its enslaved people to revolt, declaring the proclamation \"the most execrable measure recorded in the history of guilty man\".", "He requested a law that Union officers captured in Confederate states be delivered to state authorities and put on trial for inciting slave rebellion.", "In response, the Congress passed a law that Union officers of United States Colored Troops could be tried and executed, though none were during the war.", "The law also stated that captured black soldiers would be turned over to the states they were captured in to be dealt with as the state saw fit.In May, Lee broke up another invasion of Virginia at the Battle of Chancellorsville, and countered with an invasion into Pennsylvania.", "Davis approved, thinking that a victory in Union territory could gain recognition of Confederate independence, but Lee's army was defeated at the Battle of Gettysburg in July.", "After retreating to Virginia, Lee blocked any major Union offensives into the state.In April, Union forces resumed their attack on Vicksburg.", "Davis concentrated troops from across the south to counter the move, but Joseph Johnston did not stop the Union forces.", "Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton withdrew his army into Vicksburg, and after a siege, surrendered on July 4.The loss of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, Louisiana, led to Union control of the Mississippi.", "Davis relieved Johnston of his department command.", "During the summer, Bragg's army was maneuvered out of Chattanooga and fell back to Georgia.", "In September, Bragg defeated the Union army at the Battle of Chickamauga, driving it back to Chattanooga, which he put under siege.", "Davis visited Bragg to address leadership problems in his army.", "Davis acknowledged that Bragg did not have the confidence of his subordinates but kept him in command.", "In mid-November, the Union army counterattacked and Bragg's forces retreated to northern Georgia.", "Bragg resigned his command; Davis replaced him with Joseph Johnston but retained Bragg as an informal chief of staff.Davis had to address faltering civilian morale.", "In early spring, there were riots in Confederate cities as people began to suffer food shortages and price inflation.", "During one riot in Richmond, the mayor of Richmond called the militia when a mob protesting food shortages broke into shops.", "Davis went to the scene and addressed the protesters, reminding them of their patriotic duty and promising them that he would get food.", "He then ordered them to disperse or he would command the soldiers to open fire; they dispersed.", "In October, Davis went on a month-long journey to rally the Confederacy, giving public speeches across the south and meeting with civic and military leaders.====1864–1865====Colored lithograph of the fall of Richmond by Currier and Ives ( 1865)|alt=bridge in foreground going across river to city landscape that has flames reaching upwardsIn his address to the Second Confederate Congress on May 2, 1864, Davis outlined his strategy of achieving Confederate independence by exhausting the Union will to fight: If the South could show it could not be subjugated, the North would elect a president who would make peace.In early 1864, Davis encouraged Joseph Johnston to take action in Tennessee, but Johnston refused.", "In May, the Union armies advanced toward Johnston's army, which repeatedly retreated toward Atlanta, Georgia.", "In July, Davis replaced Johnston with General John B.", "Hood, who immediately engaged the Union forces in a series of battles around Atlanta.", "The battles did not stop the Union army and Hood abandoned the city on September 2.The victory raised Northern morale and assured Lincoln's reelection.", "The Union forces then marched to Savannah, Georgia, capturing it.", "In December, they advanced into South Carolina, forcing the Confederates to evacuate Charleston.", "In the meantime, Hood advanced north and was repulsed in a drive toward Nashville in December 1864.Union forces began a new advance into northern Virginia.", "Lee put up a strong defense and they were unable to directly advance on Richmond, but managed to cross the James River.", "In June 1864, Lee fought the Union armies to a standstill; both sides settled into trench warfare around Petersburg, which would continue for nine months.Davis signed a Congressional resolution in February making Lee general-in-chief.", "Seddon resigned as Secretary of War and was replaced by John C. Breckinridge.", "Davis sent envoys to Hampton Roads for peace talks, but Lincoln refused to consider any offer that included an independent Confederacy.", "Davis also sent Duncan F. Kenner, the chief Confederate diplomat, on a mission to Great Britain and France, offering to gradually emancipate the enslaved people of the South for political recognition.Major General Patrick Cleburne sent a proposal in early 1864 to Davis to enlist African Americans in the army.", "Davis initially suppressed it, but by the end of the year, he reconsidered and endorsed the idea.", "Congress passed an act supporting him.", "It left the principle of slavery intact by leaving it to the states and individual owners to decide which slaves could be used for military service, but Davis's administration accepted only African Americans who had been freed by their masters as a condition of their being enlisted.", "The act came too late to have an effect on the war.====End of the Confederacy and capture====John Barber and Henry Howe (1865)|alt=man with shawl on head wearing an overcoat that looks almost like a dress being stopped by two soldiers.The Union army broke through the Confederate trench lines at the end of March, forcing Lee to withdraw and abandon Richmond.", "Davis evacuated his family, which included Jim Limber, a free black orphan they briefly adopted, on March 29.On April 2, Davis and his cabinet escaped by rail to Danville, Virginia.", "He issued a proclamation on April 4, encouraging the people of the Confederacy to continue resistance, but Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse on April 9.The president and his cabinet headed to Greensboro, North Carolina.", "where they met with Joseph Johnston, Beauregard, and North Carolina Governor Zebulon Vance.", "Davis wanted to cross the Mississippi River and continue the war, but his generals stated that they did not have the forces.", "He gave Johnston authorization to negotiate the surrender of his army, but Davis headed south to carry on the fight.When Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, the Union government implicated Davis, and a bounty of $100,000 () was put on his head.", "On May 2, Davis met with Secretary of War Breckinridge and Bragg in Abbeville, Georgia, to see if they could pull together an army.", "They said they could not.", "On May 5, he met with his cabinet in Washington, Georgia, and officially dissolved the Confederate government.", "He moved on, hoping to join Kirby Smith's army across the Mississippi.", "On May 9, Union soldiers found Davis's encampment near Irwinville, Georgia.", "He tried to evade them, but was captured wearing a loose-sleeved cloak and covering his head with a black shawl, which gave rise to depictions of him in political cartoons fleeing in women's clothes.===Civil War policies=======National policy====Colorized print of Jefferson Davis and his first cabinet with General alt=Six men sitting around a table looking forward, one man, Robert E. Lee, is standing up pointing toward a mapDavis's central concern during the war was to achieve Confederate independence.", "After Virginia seceded, the provisional government of the Confederacy moved the capital to Richmond.", "The Confederate federal government had almost no institutional structures in place, lacking an army, navy, treasury, diplomatic missions, and bureaucracy.", "Davis had to work with the Confederate Congress quickly to create them.Though Davis supported states' rights, he believed the Confederate constitution empowered him with the right to centralize authority to prosecute the war.", "He worked with the Congress to bring military facilities in the South, which had been controlled by the states, under Confederate authority.", "Confederate governors wanted their states' militia available for local defense.", "Davis knew he needed to deploy military forces to defend the Confederacy as a whole and created a centralized army that could enlist volunteers directly.", "When soldiers in the volunteer army seemed unwilling to re-enlist in 1862, Davis instituted the first conscription in American history.", "He received authorization from Congress to suspend the writ of habeas corpus when needed.", "In 1864, he challenged property rights by recommending a direct 5% tax on land and slaves, and implemented the impressment of supplies and slave labor for the military effort.", "In 1865, Davis's commitment to independence led him to even compromise slavery when he advocated for allowing African Americans to earn their freedom by serving in the military.", "These policies made him unpopular with states' rights advocates and state governors, who saw him as creating the same kind of government they had seceded from.====Foreign policy====Colorized political cartoon by Stimson & Co, (1861).", "It shows England as John Bull kneeling on an enslaved African American before King Cotton.", "|alt=man in tophat with script coming out of pocket that says Manchester kneeling on an African American bowing before a bale of cotton depicted with a face and scepter and a crown on top of it.The main objective of Davis's foreign policy was to achieve foreign recognition, allowing the Confederacy to secure international loans, receive foreign aid to open trade, and provide the possibility of a military alliance.", "Davis was confident that most European nations' economic dependence on cotton from the South would quickly convince them to sign treaties with the Confederacy.", "Cotton had made up 61% of the value of all U.S. exports and the South filled most of the European cloth industry's need for cheap imported raw cotton.There was no consensus on how to use cotton to gain European support.", "Davis did not want an embargo on cotton, he wanted to make cotton available to European nations, but require them to acquire it by violating the blockade declared by the Union.", "The majority of Congress wanted an embargo to coerce Europe to help the South.", "Though there was no official policy, cotton was effectively embargoed.", "By 1862, the price of cotton in Europe had quadrupled and European imports of cotton from the United States were down 96%, but instead of joining with the Confederacy, European cotton manufacturers found new sources, such as India, Egypt and Brazil.", "By the end of the war, not a single foreign nation had recognized the Confederate States of America.====Financial policy====Confederate States treasury note issued between April and December 1862|alt=$50 confederate bill with man's profile, man looking rightDavis did not take executive action to create the needed financial structure for the Confederacy.", "He knew very little about public finance, largely deferring to Secretary of the Treasury Memminger.", "Memminger's knowledge of economics was limited, and he was ineffective at getting Congress to listen to his suggestions.", "Until 1863, Davis's reports on the financial state of the Confederacy to Congress tended to be unduly optimistic.Davis's failure to argue for needed financial reform allowed Congress to avoid unpopular economic measures, such as taxing planters' property—both land and slaves—that made up two-thirds of the South's wealth.", "At first the government thought it could raise money with a low export tax on cotton, but the blockade prevented this.", "In his opening address to the fourth session of Congress in December 1863, Davis demanded the Congress pass a direct tax on property despite the constitution.", "Congress complied, but the tax had too many loopholes and exceptions, and failed to produce the needed revenue.", "Throughout the existence of the Confederacy, taxes accounted for only one-fourteenth of the government's income; consequently, the government printed money to fund the war, thus destroying the value of the Confederate currency.", "By 1865, the government was relying on impressments to fill the gaps caused by lack of finances." ], [ "Imprisonment", "Sketch of Davis in Fort Monroe casemate by Alfred Waud (1865)On May 22, Davis was imprisoned in Fort Monroe, Virginia, under the watch of Major General Nelson A.", "Miles.", "Initially, he was confined to a casemate, forced to wear fetters on his ankles, required to have guards constantly in his room, forbidden contact with his family, and given only a Bible and his prayerbook to read.", "Over time, his treatment improved: due to public outcry, the fetters were removed after five days; within two months, the guard was removed from his room, he could walk outside for exercise, and he was allowed to read newspapers and other books.", "In October, he was moved to better quarters.", "In April 1866, Varina was permitted to regularly visit him.", "In September, Miles was replaced by Brevet Brigadier General Henry S. Burton, who permitted Davis to live with Varina in a four-room apartment.", "In December, Pope Pius IX sent a photograph of himself to Davis.President Andrew Johnson's cabinet was unsure what to do with Davis.", "They considered trying him by military court for war crimes—his alleged involvement in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln or the mistreatment of Union prisoners of war at Andersonville Prison— but could not find any reliable evidence directly linking Davis to either.", "In late summer 1865, Attorney General James Speed determined that it was best to try Davis for treason in a civil criminal trial.", "In June 1866, the House of Representatives passed a resolution by a vote of 105 to 19 to put Davis on trial for treason.", "Davis also desired a trial to vindicate his actions.", "His defense lawyer, Charles O'Conor wanted to argue that Davis did not commit treason because he was no longer a citizen of the United States when Mississippi left the United States.", "The trial was to be held in Richmond, which might be sympathetic to Davis, and an acquittal could be interpreted as validating the constitutionality of secession.Illustration of Jefferson Davis leaving the Richmond court house by ''alt=man facing forward surrounded by people on left, right and behind cheering and waving hats or handkerchiefsAfter two years of imprisonment, Davis was released at Richmond on May 13, 1867, on bail of $100,000 (~$ in ), which was posted by prominent citizens including Horace Greeley, Cornelius Vanderbilt and Gerrit Smith.", "Davis and Varina went to Montreal, Quebec, to join their children who had been sent there while he was in prison, and they moved to Lennoxville, Quebec.", "Davis remained under indictment until after Johnson's proclamation on Christmas 1868 granting amnesty and pardon to all participants in the rebellion.", "Davis's case never went to trial.", "In February 1869, Attorney General William Evarts informed the court that the federal government declared it was no longer prosecuting the charges against him." ], [ "Later years", "===Seeking a livelihood===Despite his financial situation after his prison release, Davis refused work that he perceived as diminishing his status as a former senator and president.", "He turned down a position as head of Randolph–Macon College in Virginia because he did not want to damage the school's reputation while he was under indictment.", "In the summer of 1869, he traveled to Britain and France, but found no business opportunities there.", "When the federal government dropped its case against him, Davis left his family in England and returned to the U.S. in October 1869 to become president of the Carolina Life Insurance Company in Tennessee.", "On his arrival to Tennessee, the University of the South offered him their top position, but he declined because the salary was insufficient.", "Davis was not able to retrieve his family from England until August 1870.alt=man sitting on bench in profile looking right holding top hatDavis received numerous invitations to speak during this time, but declined most.", "In 1870, he delivered a eulogy to Robert E. Lee at the Lee Monument Association in Richmond in which he avoided politics and emphasized Lee's character.", "Davis's 1873 speech to the Virginia Historical Society was more political; he stated that the South would not have surrendered had it known what to expect from Reconstruction, particularly the enfranchisement of African Americans.", "He became a life-time member of the Southern Historical Society, which was devoted to presenting the Lost Cause explanation of the Civil War.", "Initially, the society had scapegoated political leaders like Davis for losing the war, but eventually shifted the blame for defeat to the former Confederate general James Longstreet.", "Davis avoided public disputes regarding blame, but consistently maintained he had done nothing wrong and had always upheld the Constitution.The Panic of 1873 adversely affected the Carolina Life Company, and Davis resigned in August 1873 when the directors merged the company over his objections.", "He went to Europe again in 1874 to seek opportunities to earn money, but was still not able to find any.", "After returning to the United States in 1874, Davis continued to explore ways to make a living, including investments in railroads, mining, and manufacturing an ice-making machine.", "In 1876, the Agriculture and Mechanical College of Texas offered him the presidency, but he turned it down because Varina did not want to live in Texas.", "He worked for an English company, the Mississippi Valley Society, to promote trade and European immigration.", "When he and Varina went to Europe again in 1876, he determined the company was failing.", "He returned to the United States while Varina stayed in England.Davis sought to reclaim Brierfield as well.", "After the war, Davis Bend had been taken over by the Freedmen's Bureau, which employed former enslaved African Americans as laborers.", "After Davis's elder brother, Joseph, successfully applied for a pardon, he regained ownership of Davis Bend.", "Unable to maintain it, Joseph gave his former slave Ben Montgomery and his sons, Isaiah and William, a mortgage loan to buy the property.", "When Joseph died in 1870, he had made Davis one of his executors but did not deed any land to him in the will.", "Davis litigated to obtain Brierfield.", "A judge dismissed his suit in 1876.He appealed, and the Mississippi supreme court found in his favor in 1878.He foreclosed on the Montgomerys, who were in default on their mortgage; by December 1881, Brierfield was legally his, although he did not live there and it did not produce a reliable income.===Author===Beauvoir by Edward Wilson ()|alt=bearded man looking forward with shuttered window in backgroundIn January 1877, the author Sarah Dorsey invited him to live on her estate at Beauvoir, Mississippi, and to begin writing his memoirs.", "He agreed, but insisted on paying board.", "At the time, Davis and Varina lived separately.", "When Varina came back to the United States, she initially refused to come to Beauvoir because she did not like Davis's close relationship with Dorsey, who was serving as his amanuensis.", "In the summer of 1878, Varina relented, moving to Beauvoir and taking over the role of Davis's assistant.", "Dorsey died in July 1879, and left Beauvoir to Davis in her will, and he lived there for most of his remaining years.Davis's first book, ''The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government'', was published in 1881.The book was intended as a vindication of Davis's actions during the war and the righteousness of the Confederate cause, though he downplayed slavery's role as a cause of the war.", "James Redpath, editor of the ''North American Review'', encouraged him to write a series of articles for the magazine and to complete his final book ''A Short History of the Confederate States of America''.", "He also began dictating his memoirs, although they were never finished.In 1886, Henry W. Grady, an advocate for the New South, convinced Davis to lay the cornerstone for a monument to the Confederate dead in Montgomery, Alabama, and to attend the unveilings of statues memorializing Davis's friend Benjamin H. Hill in Savannah and the Revolutionary War hero Nathanael Greene in Atlanta.", "The tour was a triumph for Davis and got extensive newspaper coverage, which emphasized national unity and the South's role as a permanent part of the United States.", "At each stop along the way, large crowds came out to cheer Davis, solidifying his image as an icon of the South and the Confederacy.", "In October 1887, Davis held his last tour, traveling to the Georgia State Fair in Macon, Georgia, for a grand reunion with Confederate veterans." ], [ "Death", "Funeral procession of Jefferson Davis in alt=city street view from above, street seen diagonally from lower left to upper right, crowds of people line the street, horses, carriages and people march along itIn November 1889, Davis embarked on a steamboat in New Orleans in a cold rain, intending to visit his Brierfield plantation.", "He fell ill during the trip, but refused to send for a doctor.", "An employee telegrammed Varina, who came to get him.", "Davis was diagnosed with acute bronchitis complicated by malaria.", "When he returned to New Orleans, Davis's doctor Stanford E. Chaille pronounced him too ill to travel further.", "He was taken to the home of Charles Erasmus Fenner, the son-in-law of his friend J. M. Payne, where he died at 12:45a.m.", "on Friday, December 6, 1889, in the presence of several friends and holding Varina's hand.===Funeral and reburial===Davis's body lay in state at the New Orleans City Hall from December 7 to 11.Davis's funeral was one of the largest held in the South; over 200,000 mourners were estimated to have attended.", "The coffin was transported on a two-mile journey to the cemetery in a modified, four-wheeled caisson to emphasize his role as a military hero.", "Davis was buried according to the Episcopal rites and a brief eulogy was pronounced by Bishop John Nicholas Galleher.After Davis's funeral, various Southern states requested to be the final resting site for Davis's remains.", "Varina decided that Davis should be buried in Richmond, which she saw as the appropriate resting place for dead Confederate heroes.", "She chose Hollywood Cemetery.", "In May 1893, Davis's remains traveled from New Orleans to Richmond.", "Along the way, the train stopped at various cities, receiving military honors and visits from governors, and the coffin was allowed to lie in state in three state capitols: Montgomery, Alabama; Atlanta, Georgia; and Raleigh, North Carolina.", "When Davis was reburied, his children were reinterred on the site as Varina requested, and, when Varina died in 1906, she was buried beside him." ], [ "Political views on slavery", "Sketch of Davis's Brierfield Plantation by Alfred Waud (1866)|alt=house with columns in the front, two trees- one right, one left- in foreground, figures walking on porch of building and in foreground.During his years as a senator, Davis was an advocate for the Southern states' right to slavery.In an 1848 speech on the Oregon Bill, he argued for a strict constructionist understanding of the Constitution.", "He insisted that the states are sovereign, all powers of the federal government are granted by those states, the Constitution recognized the right of states to allow citizens to have slaves as property, and the federal government was obligated to defend encroachments upon this right.", "In his February 13–14, 1850 speech, Davis declared that slaveholders must be allowed to bring their slaves into federal territories.", "He stated that slavery does not need to be justified: it was sanctioned by religion and history.", "He claimed that African Americans were destined for bondage, and their enslavement was a civilizing blessing to them that brought economic and social good to everyone.Davis's speeches after secession acknowledged the relationship between the Confederacy and slavery.", "In his resignation speech to the Senate, delivered 12 days after his state seceded, he said Mississippi \"has heard proclaimed the theory that all men are created free and equal, and this made the basis of an attack upon her social institutions and the sacred Declaration of Independence has been invoked to maintain the position of the equality of the races.\"", "In his February 1861 inaugural speech as provisional president of the Confederacy, Davis asserted that the Confederate Constitution, which explicitly prevented Congress from passing any law affecting African American slavery and mandated its protection in all Confederate territories, was a return to the intent of the original founders.", "When he spoke to Congress in April on the ratification of the Constitution, he stated that the war was caused by Northerners whose desire to end slavery would destroy Southern property worth millions of dollars.\"", "In his 1863 address to the Confederate Congress, Davis denounced the Emancipation Proclamation as evidence of the North's long-standing intention to abolish slavery and doom African Americans, who he called an inferior race, to extermination." ], [ "Performance as commander in chief", "Drawing of Davis arriving at the field of alt=man in uniform with epaulettes on horseback, both in profile, horse headed right, man looking leftDavis came to the role of commander in chief confident in his military abilities.", "He had graduated from West Point Military Academy, served in the regular army, and commanded troops in combat.", "He actively oversaw the military policy of the Confederacy and worked long hours attending to paperwork related to the organization, finance, and logistics needed to maintain the Confederate armies.Some historians argue that Davis's personality contributed to the defeat of the Confederacy.", "His constant attention to minor military details has been used to illustrate an inability to delegate, which led him to lose focus on larger issues.", "He has been accused of being a poor judge of generals: appointing people—such as Bragg, Pemberton, and Hood—–who failed to meet expectations, overly trusting long-time friends, and retaining generals—like Joseph Johnston—long after they should have been removed.", "His need to be seen as always in the right has also been described as a problem.", "Historians have argued that the time spent vindicating himself took time away from pressing problems and accomplished little.", "His reactions to criticism made unnecessary enemies and created hostile relationships with the politicians and generals he depended on.", "It has been argued that his focus on military victory at all costs undermined the values the South was fighting for, such as states' rights and slavery, but provided no alternatives to replace them.Other historians have pointed out his strengths.", "Davis quickly mobilized the Confederacy despite the South's focus on states' rights, and he stayed focused on gaining independence.", "He was a skilled orator who attempted to share the vision of national unity.", "He shared his message through newspapers, public speeches, and trips where he would meet with the public.", "His policies sustained the Confederate armies through numerous campaigns, buoying Southern hopes for victory and undermining the North's will to continue the war.", "A few historians have argued that Davis may have been one of the best people available to serve as commander in chief.", "Though he was unable to win the war, he rose to the challenge of the presidency, pursuing a strategy that not only enabled the Confederacy to hold out as long as it did, but almost achieved its independence." ], [ "Legacy", "Jefferson Davis monument in New Orleans with \"SLAVE OWNER\" graffiti, May 2004.It was dismantled in 2017.Although Davis served the United States as a soldier and a war hero, a politician who sat in both houses of Congress, and a cabinet officer, his legacy is mainly defined by his role as president of the Confederacy.", "After the Civil War, journalist Edward A. Pollard, who first popularized the Lost Cause mythology, placed much of the blame for losing the war on Davis.", "Into the twentieth century, many biographers and historians have also emphasized Davis's responsibility for the Confederacy's failure to achieve independence.", "Since the second half of the twentieth century, this assumption has been questioned.", "Some scholars argued that he was a capable leader, while acknowledging his skills were insufficient to overcome the challenges the Confederacy faced and exploring how his limitations may have contributed to the war's outcome.Davis's standing among white Southerners was at a low point at the end of the Civil War, but it rebounded after his release from prison.", "After Reconstruction, he became a venerated figure of the white South, and he was often depicted as a martyr who suffered for his nation.", "His birthday was made a legal holiday in six Southern states.", "His popularity among white Southerners remained strong in the early twentieth century.", "Around 200,000 people attended the unveiling of the Jefferson Davis Memorial at Richmond, Virginia, in 1907.In 1961, a centennial celebration reenacted Davis's inauguration in Montgomery, Alabama, with fireworks and a cast of thousands in period costumes.", "In the early twenty-first century, there were at least 144 Confederate memorials commemorating him throughout the United States.On October 17, 1978, Davis's U.S. citizenship was posthumously restored after the Senate passed Joint Resolution 16.President Jimmy Carter described it as an act of reconciliation reuniting the people of the United States and expressing the need to establish the nation's founding principles for all.", "However, Davis's legacy continued to spark controversy into the twenty-first century.", "Memorials such as the Jefferson Davis Highway have been argued to legitimize the white supremacist, slaveholding ideology of the Confederacy, and a number of his memorials have been removed, including his statues at the University of Texas at Austin, New Orleans, Memphis, Tennessee, and the Kentucky State Capitol in Frankfort.", "After the murder of George Floyd in May 2020, Davis's statue on his Richmond monument—along with the statues of other figures who were considered racists—was toppled by protesters.", "As part of its initiative to dismantle Confederate monuments, the Richmond City Council funded the removal of the statue's pedestal, which was completed in February 2022, and ownership of its artifacts was given to the Black History Museum and Cultural Center of Virginia." ], [ "Writings", "alt=bearded man looking forward; book in right hand, left hand extended with palm up===Books===* * * * ===Articles===* * * * * \"Autobiography of Jefferson Davis\" 1889.in * ===Collections of letters, speeches, and papers===* Available online::* Vol I.", "(1824–1850), Vol.", "II (1850–1856), Vol.", "III (1856–1856), Vol.", "IV (1856–January, 1861), Vol.", "V (January, 1861 – August 1863), Vol.", "VI (August 1863 – May 1865), Vol.", "VII (May 1865–1877), Vol.", "VIII (1877–1881), Vol.", "IX (1881–1887), Vol.", "X (1887– 1891; ''includes letters to Varina about Davis'')* (14 Volumes):* A selection of documents from '' The Papers of Jefferson Davis'' is available online: :* Volume 1 is available online: *" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations===" ], [ "Bibliography", ";Books** * * ** * **** * * * * - Wikipedia article on the book: ''Jefferson Davis: The Man and His Hour''* ** ** * * * * **** ** * * ** * ** * * Review** * * * * ** *** * * ** ;Journal articles** ** ** ** * * ** * * * *;Online* ** * ** *** ** * *;Primary sources***** * *** * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Jefferson Davis at the Digital Library of Georgia* Jefferson Davis at ''Encyclopedia Virginia'' (encyclopediavirginia.org)* The Jefferson Davis Estate Papers at the Mississippi Department of Archives and History* Jefferson Davis Presidential Library and Museum* * Works by Jefferson Davis at Miami University* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jonathan Meades" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jonathan Turner Meades''' (born 21 January 1947) is an English writer and film-maker, primarily on the subjects of place, culture, architecture and food.", "His work spans journalism, fiction, essays, memoir and over fifty highly idiosyncratic television films, and has been described as \"brainy, scabrous, mischievous\", \"iconoclastic\", and possessed of \"a polymathic breadth of knowledge and truly caustic wit\".His latest book, an anthology of uncollected writing from 1988 to 2020 titled ''Pedro and Ricky Come Again'', was published by Unbound in March 2021 and is the sequel to ''Peter Knows What Dick Likes''.", "His most recent film, ''Franco Building with Jonathan Meades'', aired on BBC Four in August 2019 and is the fourth instalment in a series on the architectural legacy of 20th-century European dictators.He has described himself as a \"cardinal of atheism\" and is both an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society and a Patron of Humanists UK." ], [ "Early life and education", "Jonathan Meades was born in Salisbury, Wiltshire, the only child of John William Meades, a biscuit company sales rep, and Margery Agnes Meades (''née'' Hogg), a primary school teacher.", "The family lived in an \"unbelievably cramped\" terraced, thatched cottage in the East Harnham area of the city.", "Meades was educated until the age of 13 at the nearby Salisbury Cathedral School, within Salisbury Cathedral Close.He discovered a fascination for place and the built environment whilst accompanying his father on sales trips during school holidays; he would be left unattended and free to explore while the elder Meades conducted his business with the grocer.", "This later developed into a full-blown passion for architecture following a visit to Edwin Lutyens' Marsh Court on a school cricket trip at the age of 13.He also developed an early love of France on the frequent trips which his family took there, made possible by his Francophile mother's father, who worked for Southern Railway, the company which ran the Saint-Malo and Le Havre ferries.In 1960 he was sent as a boarder to King's College, Taunton, which he has described as \"a dim, backward, muscular Christian boot camp\".", "He later \"walked out\" of the school and was sent instead to a crammer in London, where he lodged with the painter Vivien White, daughter of Augustus John.After a year at the University of Bordeaux and unsure of what to do next, he decided to become an actor after a chance meeting with Charles Collingwood and trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) from 1966 to 1969.His contemporaries there included Robert Lindsay, David Bradley, Stephanie Beacham, Michael Kitchen and Richard Beckinsale.", "He later described it as a \"Sandhurst for chorus boys\" where students were \"martially drilled\", teaching them the value of discipline, craft and technique.Although he ultimately decided against joining the acting profession, the training which he received would prove essential in his later television career, as would his extra-curricular interest in French New Wave cinema, in particular the work of Jean-Pierre Melville and Alain Robbe-Grillet.", "His regular Sunday pastime of exploring the capital with his ''Pevsner Architectural Guide'' would also benefit him later.", "On leaving RADA, he was told by the Principal, Hugh Cruttwell, that he might as well abandon acting until he reached middle age, at which point he might become an interesting character actor.", "When the two met again decades later, after Meades had established himself on television, Cruttwell joked that he had not realised that the character would be called \"Jonathan Meades\"." ], [ "Writing", "===Journalism===Following a period as a freelance copywriter, Meades began writing for the now-defunct literary magazine ''Books & Bookmen'' in 1971, setting him on a career as a journalist and critic.", "In 1973 he reviewed a V&A exhibition on Victorian architecture for the magazine, igniting a passion for the style and prompting him to explore even more of London than he had to date.", "Using the unlimited travel afforded by Red Rover bus passes, he rode on random buses for exactly 20 minutes and then got off, no matter where he was.After leaving ''Books and Bookmen'' in 1975 he wrote for the sex education magazine ''Curious'' and joined the staff of ''Time Out'', then became ''The Observer'' TV critic in 1977.This led to the publication of his first book, ''This Is Their Life'', an A to Z of TV star biographies with an introduction by Mike Yarwood.", "He moved to ''Architects' Journal'' in 1979 and around this time worked on another book, ''The Illustrated Atlas of the World's Great Buildings'', with Philip Bagenal.In 1981 he became the editor of Richard Branson's short-lived listings magazine ''Event'', then from 1982 was the features editor of ''Tatler''.", "It was here that he first had the opportunity to write about food, filling in as restaurant critic after Julian Barnes resigned, using the pseudonym \"John Beaver\".", "He was also invited to contribute to the bi-monthly restaurant magazine ''À la Carte'' at around this time.", "In 1986 he was offered the job of restaurant critic at ''The Times'', replacing comedy writer Stan Hey.", "Meades was a great success in this position, taking the job more seriously than his predecessor.", "He won Best Food Journalist at the 1986, 1990, 1996 and 1999 Glenfiddich Awards.Despite his success, he often tired of the repetitive nature of the job and threatened to leave several times.", "The paper responded by increasing his salary.", "He finally quit in around 2000, having been pronounced morbidly obese by his doctor: he had put on around five pounds per year, or one ounce per meal, during his tenure.", "He then managed to lose a third of his body weight over the course of the following twelve months, using a strict diet of protein and citrus.", "He remained with ''The Times'' as a columnist until 2005.In the years since, he has done less journalism, but has contributed essays and reviews to numerous publications including the ''New Statesman'', ''The Independent'', ''The Guardian'', ''The Spectator'', ''The Daily Telegraph'', ''The Times Literary Supplement'', and many others.===Books and other writing===In 1982, ''Harpers & Queen'' published three short stories which Meades had written about \"rural lowlife\".", "These, along with four more, were collected in 1984 as ''Filthy English'', his first volume of fiction.", "Andrew Billen of the ''London Evening Standard'' later described them as \"bucolic horror stories\".", "A few more stories appeared in his first anthology of journalism and essays, 1989's ''Peter Knows What Dick Likes'', the title of which is a reference to the supposed superiority of male-on-male fellatio.He contributed to the screenplay of the 1992 French-Italian adventure film ''L'Atlantide'', directed by Bob Swaim, and also wrote three unproduced screenplays in the 1980s and the 1990s: ''Millie's Problem'' (1985), ''The Side I Dressed On'' (1987) and ''The Brute's Price'' (1996).His first novel, ''Pompey'', was published in 1993.A dark, epic family saga centred around the titular city of Portsmouth, it was widely praised and favourably compared to Sterne, Scarfe, Steadman, Nabokov and Joyce, amongst other \"great stylists\".", "On its 2013 reissue, Matthew Adams wrote in ''The Independent'', \"Where his first collection of stories, ''Filthy English'', achieved the distinction of covering in aggressively vivid prose the disciplines of murder, addiction, incest and bestial pornography, ''Pompey'' exhibits an even greater concentration of his aptitude for squalor ... by the end of the opening two pages, which must rank among the most startling affirmations of omniscience in 20th-century literature, the reader has met with an arresting injunction: 'After using this book please wash your hands.A second novel, ''The Fowler Family Business'', followed in 2002.A tale of suburban sexual deceit in the funeral trade, it was described by the ''London Evening Standard'' as \"hilarious and very black\".", "An anthology of his food journalism, ''Incest and Morris Dancing: A Gastronomic Revolution'', was published in the same year.In a 2010 interview with ''The Arts Desk'', he revealed that he was working on a third novel.An anthology of journalism, essays and TV scripts on the built environment, ''Museum Without Walls'', was published by the crowdfunded imprint Unbound in 2012.Meades' memoir of his childhood in the 1950s and early 1960s, ''An Encyclopaedia of Myself'', was published in May 2014.It was long-listed for that year's Samuel Johnson Prize and won Best Memoir in the Spear's Book Awards 2014.Roger Lewis of the ''Financial Times'' said of the work that \"If this book is thought of less as a memoir than as a symphonic poem about post-war England and Englishness – well, then it is a masterpiece.", "\"In 2015, the publisher and record label Test Centre released a spoken word vinyl album by Meades entitled ''Pedigree Mongrel'', consisting of readings from ''Pompey'', ''Museum Without Walls'', ''An Encyclopaedia of Myself'' and unpublished fiction, combined with soundscapes created by Mordant Music.", "The sleeve of the album featured photography by Meades, including an abstract self-portrait on the front cover.", "Also in 2015, Meades, along with Laura Noble, contributed essays to Robert Clayton's photographic collection ''Estate'', which documented life on the soon-to-be-demolished Lion Farm housing estate in Oldbury, West Midlands in 1990.A book of \"borrowed\" recipes, ''The Plagiarist in the Kitchen: A Lifetime's Culinary Thefts'', was published by Unbound in 2017.According to Meades, it is \"devoted to the idea that you shouldn't try and invent anything in the kitchen, just rely on what has already been done ...", "I hate the idea of experimental cookery, but I like the idea of experimental literature.", "\"''Isle of Rust'', a collaboration with the photographer Alex Boyd featuring text based on Meades' script for his 2009 film about Lewis and Harris, was published by Luath Press in 2019.An anthology of uncollected writing from 1988 to 2020 entitled ''Pedro and Ricky Come Again'', described as \"the best of three decades of Jonathan Meades\" and the sequel to ''Peter Knows What Dick Likes'', was published by Unbound in March 2021.", "(See full bibliography)" ], [ "Television", "Meades' first foray into television was in 1985: a short film on the art and architecture of Barcelona for the BBC Two arts magazine programme ''Saturday Review''.", "His first major project was the 1987 six-part Channel 4 architectural documentary series ''The Victorian House''.", "This contained many stylistic similarities to his other work, but the producer of the series, John Marshall, received the sole writing credit and it was not a happy experience for Meades.", "He would be credited as the sole author of all his subsequent work.His next series was ''Abroad in Britain'', broadcast on BBC Two in 1990.It featured five irreverent, \"slightly bonkers\" films which explored unusual and neglected aspects of the built environment: informal plotland dwellings along the Severn Valley, nautical culture around the Solent and architectural forms associated with utopianism, bohemians and the military.", "Each episode was introduced by Meades as being \"devoted to the proposition that the exotic begins at home\".", "The series was influenced by the work of architectural critic Ian Nairn and French New Wave film director Alain Robbe-Grillet, and it cemented Meades' uniquely incongruous on-screen persona: dark glasses, dark suits, inscrutable, didactic delivery and dense, mordant language peppered with gags and surreal interludes.", "Rachel Cooke of ''The Guardian'' later described his TV persona as \"pugnacious, sardonic and seemingly super-confident\", while noting the RADA training and that it was \"not the real Jonathan Meades, who is an altogether more diffident and shy character ... except when drunk\".", "The series spawned four sequels: ''Further Abroad'' (1994), ''Even Further Abroad'' (1997), ''Abroad Again in Britain'' (2005) and ''Abroad Again'' (2007), along with several other series and stand-alone films, the majority of which have been archived on the website ''MeadesShrine''.Preferring to be thought of as a performer rather than as a presenter, Meades has described his style as \"heavy entertainment\"; \"staged essays\" which seek to combine \"lecture hall\" and \"music hall\", Geoffrey Hill and Benny Hill.The 1998 film ''Heart By-Pass'' looked affectionately at Birmingham; particularly at how its architecture, transport system and ethnic mix have changed since the 1960s.", "It featured the music of many of the city's best-known 1960s and 1970s rock bands such as The Moody Blues, The Move, Traffic, Black Sabbath, and ELO.He made two films on the architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner.", "The first, in 1998, was the Worcestershire episode of the series ''Travels with Pevsner'', in which noted writers followed his guide books on particular counties.", "The second, in 2001, was a biography entitled ''Pevsner Revisited''.Meades made two other stand-alone films which aired earlier in 2001: ''Victoria Died in 1901 and is Still Alive Today'' examined the other-worldly legacy of Victorian architecture and culture one hundred years on, set to a soundtrack of late 1960s psychedelic rock by artists such as The Velvet Underground, The Kinks and Pink Floyd, while ''suRREAL FILM'' (or ''tvSSFBM EHKL'', the letters of the title moved forwards then backwards) sought to expound on surrealism in a manner befitting the subject, and reflected on, ''inter alia'', the fact that Meades had recently lost a considerable amount of weight.", "Both films featured the comic actor Christopher Biggins, notably as Queen Victoria herself, and were the first of Meades' films to be directed by Francis Hanly, who would go on to be his main collaborator, directing and shooting virtually all of his films from 2008 onwards.A three-part series on food culture, ''Meades Eats'', aired on BBC Four in 2003, again featuring Biggins and Hanly.", "The episodes dealt with fast food, the notion of a gastronomic revolution in the UK and with the ever-increasing influence of immigrant cuisines.The 2008 two-part BBC Four film ''Jonathan Meades: Magnetic North'' celebrated the culture of Northern Europe, examining why the North suffers in the British popular imagination in comparison with the South.", "Meades travelled from the slag heaps of northern France to Belgian cities, the red-light district of Hamburg, Gdańsk, the Baltic States and finally Helsinki, musing on the architecture, food and art of the places he visited.", "Writing in ''The Daily Telegraph'', James Walton praised the programme as \"Sparkling, thought-provoking, constantly challenging the accepted view, Meades seemed at times inspired, at others deranged.", "The only thing he never was, thank heaven, was obvious.", "\"A 9-DVD box set collecting all of his BBC work to date was planned for release in April 2008, but was reduced to a 3-disc anthology due to the expense of licensing the music used in the programmes.", "Much of the carefully chosen popular music used in the original edits was replaced by library music, and the more music-dependent films such as ''Surreal Film'', ''Victoria Died in 1901'' and ''Heart By-Pass'' were not included.In 2009, Meades toured Scotland in a three-part BBC Four series entitled ''Jonathan Meades: Off Kilter''.", "He visited Aberdeen, Lewis and Harris (the 'Isle of Rust') and the less-renowned footballing towns of south-west Fife, Clackmannanshire and Falkirk, guided by his foul-mouthed 'ScotNav'.In 2012, BBC Four screened ''Jonathan Meades on France'', a series in which he explored his \"second country\".", "The first episode, ''Fragments of an Arbitrary Encyclopaedia'', focused on the Lorraine region, using a miscellany of words beginning with the letter V. The second episode, ''A Biased Anthology of Parisian Peripheries'', focused on Frenchness and its major traits.", "The series concluded with ''Just a Few Debts France Owes to America''.The 2013 film ''The Joy of Essex'' examined that county's little-known history of utopian communities.A two-part series on Brutalist architecture, ''Bunkers, Brutalism and Bloodymindedness: Concrete Poetry'', aired in 2014.In a 2017 interview with ''The Guardian'', Meades quoted his director, Francis Hanly, on how their production budgets had declined over the years: \"We used to be a convoy, now we are a Smart car\".", "In a 2008 interview with ''The Independent'', he indicated that the blame for this lay mostly with former BBC Two controller Jane Root.", "''Jonathan Meades on Jargon'' aired on BBC Four in May 2018.The BBC Four website described it as a \"provocative television essay\" which \"dissects politics, the law, football commentary, business, the arts, tabloid-speak and management consultancy to show how jargon is used to cover up, confuse and generally keep us in the dark\".", "''The Guardian'' described it as \"blisteringly brutal, clever and hilarious\", while ''The Times'' also declared Meades to be \"on blistering form\".Over a period of 25 years, Meades has written and presented four films on the architectural legacy of 20th-century European dictators, the latest of which, ''Franco Building with Jonathan Meades'', looking at Franco's Spain, aired in August 2019.The previous instalments were ''Jerry Building'' (Nazi Germany, 1994), ''Joe Building'' (Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union, 2006) and ''Ben Building'' (Benito Mussolini's Italy, 2016).", "(See full filmography)" ], [ "Photography", "Meades entered the world of photography with the 2013 collection ''Pidgin Snaps''.", "Published by Unbound as a \"boxette\" of 100 postcards, it featured mostly abstract digital work.", "It was followed in April 2016 by an exhibition entitled \"Ape Forgets Medication: Treyfs and Artknacks\" at the Londonewcastle Project in Shoreditch, London.", "A second exhibition, \"After Medication: Random Treyfs and Artknacks\", was held in October 2017 at 108 Fine Art, Harrogate." ], [ "Personal life", "Meades has been married three times and has four daughters from his first two marriages.", "In 1980 he married Sally Brown, director of the British Theatre Association, and the couple had twins.", "His second wife was Frances Bentley, managing editor of ''Vogue'', whom he married in 1988.They had two daughters and divorced in 1997.In 2003 he married his girlfriend Colette Forder, a colleague from ''The Times''.", "In around 2007, the couple sold their penthouse flat on Tyers Gate, off Bermondsey Street, Southwark, where they had lived for 10 years, and moved to a converted mill near Bordeaux.", "Discovering that they found country life boring, they then moved to Marseille in around 2011, where they live in Le Corbusier's apartment block.During his time at RADA, he became friends with the painter Duggie Fields, whose flatmate was the former Pink Floyd singer, songwriter and guitarist Syd Barrett.", "He was also friendly with Aubrey \"Po\" Powell, co-founder of the graphic design company Hipgnosis, most famous for its Pink Floyd album covers.", "He has described himself as \"a hanger-on to the hangers-on\" around the band and has admitted to taking LSD three times, describing it as \"the only remotely interesting drug\".Meades was called \"the best amateur chef in the world\" by Marco Pierre White.", "He taught himself to cook as a young man using ''Mastering the Art of French Cooking'' (1961, 1970), by Simone Beck, Louisette Bertholle and Julia Child.He is a football fan and supports Southampton F.C.He has been a member of Soho's Groucho and Academy clubs.He won the first ever episode of the BBC's ''Celebrity Mastermind'', broadcast in December 2002.His specialist subject was English Architecture, 1850–2002.In the autumn of 2016, he was rushed to hospital and underwent five hours of cardiac surgery.", "Earlier in the year he had suffered from pleurisy and an embolism." ], [ "Bibliography", "*''This Is Their Life'' (1979, Salamander, ; biographies of TV personalities)*''The Illustrated Atlas of the World's Great Buildings'' (1980, Salamander, ; co-author with Philip Bagenal)*''Filthy English'' (1984, Jonathan Cape, ; collection of short fiction)*''English Extremists: The Architecture of Campbell Zogolovitch Wilkinson Gough'' (1988, Fourth Estate, ; co-author with Deyan Sudjic and Peter Cook)*''Peter Knows What Dick Likes'' (1989, Paladin, ; anthology of journalism, essays and short fiction)*''Pompey'' (1993, Vintage, ; novel)*''Incest and Morris Dancing: A Gastronomic Revolution'' (2002, Cassell, ; anthology of food journalism)*''The Fowler Family Business'' (2002, Fourth Estate, ; novel)*''Museum Without Walls'' (2012, Unbound, ; anthology of journalism, essays and TV scripts on the built environment)*''Pidgin Snaps: A Boxette of 100 Postcards'' (2013, Unbound, ; boxed collection of photographs)*''An Encyclopaedia of Myself'' (2014, Fourth Estate, ; childhood memoir)*''Estate'' (2015, Stay Free, ; collaboration with photographer Robert Clayton and writer Laura Noble on the Lion Farm housing estate, Oldbury, West Midlands)*''The Plagiarist in the Kitchen: A Lifetime's Culinary Thefts'' (2017, Unbound, ; collection of recipes)*''Isle of Rust'' (2019, Luath Press, ; collaboration with photographer Alex Boyd on Lewis and Harris)*''Pedro and Ricky Come Again: Selected Writing 1988–2020'' (2021, Unbound, ; anthology of uncollected journalism and essays)" ], [ "Filmography", "All films written and presented by Jonathan Meades, except ''The Victorian House'', written by John Marshall.", "*''Saturday Review'' (1985–1987, 30 mins, BBC Two)*#Segment on the art and architecture of Barcelona (Dir.", "unknown)*#Segment on the art and architecture of Amsterdam (Dir.", "unknown)*''The Victorian House'' (1987, 6 × 26 mins, Channel 4, Dir.", "Robert Carter)*#\"Where Do Houses Come From?", "\"*#\"How It Was Done\"*#\"Steps Beyond the Door\"*#\"The Home Within\"*#\"The Way It Is\"*#\"Time and Change\"*''Building Sights: Marsh Court'' (1988, 10 mins, BBC Two, Dir.", "Russell England)*''Abroad in Britain'' (1990, 5 × 30 mins, BBC Two)*#\"Severn Heaven\" (plotland shacks, Dir.", "Russell England)*#\"Right is Wrong\" (the Utopian avoidance of right angles, Dir.", "David Turnbull)*#\"House Ahoy!\"", "(the land and water of the Solent, Dir.", "Russell England)*#\"Bricks and Mortars\" (martial architecture, Dir.", "Paul Bryers)*#\"In Search of Bohemia\" (artists' architecture, Dir.", "Russell England)*''Further Abroad'' (1994, 5 × 30 mins, BBC Two)*#\"Get High!\"", "(the perilous attractions of vertigo, Dir.", "Russell England)*#\"Where the Other Half Lives\" (the architecture of beer, Dir.", "David Turnbull)*#\"Middlebrow-on-Tee\" (the landscape and society of golf, Dir.", "Russell England)*#\"The Truth About Porkies\" (pig farming, Dir.", "Russell England)*#\"Belgium\" (Dir.", "David Turnbull)*''Jerry Building: Unholy Relics of the Third Reich'' (1994, 37 mins, BBC Two, Dir.", "Russell England)*''One Foot in the Past: Vanbrugh in Dorset'' (1995, 30 mins, BBC Two, Dir.", "unknown)*''Without Walls: J'Accuse – Vegetarians'' (1995, 26 mins, Channel 4, Dir.", "Nick Bray)*''Even Further Abroad'' (1997, 5 × 30 mins, BBC Two)*#\"Remember the Future?\"", "(big tech of the 1960s, Dir.", "David Turnbull)*#\"Full Metal Carapace\" (the world of caravans, Dir.", "David Turnbull)*#\"The Absentee Landlord\" (postwar churches, Dir.", "Russell England)*#\"Nag, Nag, Nag\" (Newmarket, Dir.", "Mick Conefrey)*#\"Double Dutch\" (The Fens, Dir.", "David Turnbull)*''Heart By-Pass'' (Birmingham, 1998, 30 mins, BBC Two, Dir.", "David Turnbull)*''Travels with Pevsner: Worcestershire'' (1998, 50 mins, BBC Two, Dir.", "Lucy Jago)*''Victoria Died in 1901 and is Still Alive Today'' (2001, 65 mins, BBC Two, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*''tvSSFBM EHKL: suRREAL FILM'' (2001, 44 mins, BBC Knowledge, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*''Pevsner Revisited'' (2001, 44 mins, BBC Knowledge, Dir.", "Jamie Muir)*''Meades Eats'' (2003, 3 × 30 mins, BBC Four)*#\"Fast Food\" (Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*#\"The Alphabet Soup of the Gastronomic Revolution\" (Dir.", "Ben McPherson)*#\"Whose Food?\"", "(Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*''Abroad Again in Britain'' (2005, 5 × 60 mins, BBC Two)*#\"Edinburgh Castle\" (Dir.", "Eleanor Yule)*#\"Cragside House\" (Dir.", "Robert Payton)*#\"Salisbury Cathedral\" (Dir.", "Jonathan Barker)*#\"Brighton Pavilion\" (Dir.", "Tim Niel)*#\"Portsmouth Dockyard\" (Dir.", "Colin Murray)*''Joe Building: The Stalin Memorial Lecture'' (2006, 78 mins, BBC Four, Dir.", "unknown)*''Abroad Again'' (2007, 5 × 50 mins, BBC Two)*#\"Father to the Man\" (an architectural autobiography, Dir.", "Tim Niel)*#\"On the Brandwagon\" (urban regeneration, Dir.", "Colin Murray)*#\"The Case of the Missing Architect\" (Cuthbert Brodrick, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*#\"Heaven\" (garden cities and their legacy, Dir.", "Tim Niel)*#\"Stowe – Reading a Garden\" (Dir.", "Robert Payton)*''Jonathan Meades: Magnetic North'' (2008, 2 × 60 mins, BBC Four)*#Episode 1 (Nord-Pas-de-Calais to Rügen, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*#Episode 2: \"From Poland to Finland\" (Dir.", "Colin Murray)*''Jonathan Meades: Off Kilter'' (2009, 3 × 60 mins, BBC Four)*#\"Aberdeen\" (Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*#\"Isle of Rust\" (Lewis and Harris, Dir.", "Colin Murray)*#\"The Football Pools Towns\" (Fife, Clackmannanshire and Falkirk, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*''Jonathan Meades on France'' (2012, 3 × 60 mins, BBC Four)*#\"Fragments of an Arbitrary Encyclopaedia, All Beginning with the Letter V\" (Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*#\"A Biased Anthology of Parisian Peripheries\" (Dir.", "Tim Niel)*#\"Just a Few Debts France Owes to America\" (Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*''Jonathan Meades: The Joy of Essex'' (2013, 60 mins, BBC Four, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*''Bunkers, Brutalism and Bloodymindedness: Concrete Poetry'' (2014, 2 × 60 mins, BBC Four, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*#Part 1*#Part 2*''Ben Building: Mussolini, Monuments, Modernism and Marble'' (2016, 90 mins, BBC Four, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*''Jonathan Meades on Jargon'' (27 May 2018, 60 mins, BBC Four, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)*''Franco Building with Jonathan Meades'' (27 August 2019, 85 mins, BBC Four, Dir.", "Francis Hanly)" ], [ "Discography", "===DVD======Vinyl===" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* , the official website* ''MeadesShrine'', Jonathan Meades film archive* Jonathan Meades at the BBC* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joe Pass" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joe Pass''' (born '''Joseph Anthony Jacobi Passalacqua'''; January 13, 1929 – May 23, 1994) was an American jazz guitarist.", "Pass is well known for his work stemming from numerous collaborations with pianist Oscar Peterson and vocalist Ella Fitzgerald, and is often esteemed as one of the most notable jazz guitarists of the 20th century." ], [ "Early life", "Pass was born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, on January 13, 1929.His father, Mariano Passalacqua, was a steel mill worker who was born in Sicily.", "The family later moved to Johnstown, Pennsylvania.", "Pass became interested in the guitar after he saw Gene Autry in the Western film \"Ride, Tenderfoot, Ride.", "He got his first guitar when he was nine.", "He took guitar lessons every Sunday with a local teacher for 6-8 months and also practiced for many hours each day.Pass found work as a performer as early as age 14.He played with bands led by Tony Pastor and Charlie Barnet, honing his guitar skills while learning the ropes in the music industry.", "He began traveling with small jazz groups and moved from Pennsylvania to New York City.", "Within a few years, Pass developed an addiction to heroin.", "He moved to New Orleans for a year and played bebop at strip clubs.", "Pass revealed to Robert Palmer of ''Rolling Stone'' that he had suffered a \"nervous breakdown\" in New Orleans \"because he had access to every kind of drug there and was up for days ... he would come to New York a lot, then get strung out and leave.\"", "Pass spent much of the 1950s in and out of prison for drug-related convictions.", "In the same ''Rolling Stone interview'', Pass said, \"staying high was my first priority; playing was second; girls were third.", "But the first thing really took all my energy.\"", "He recovered after a two-and-a-half-year stay in the Synanon rehabilitation program.", "Pass largely put music on hiatus during his prison sentence." ], [ "Discovery and career", "Ella Fitzgerald and Joe Pass, 1974Pass recorded a series of albums during the 1960s for Pacific Jazz Records, including ''Catch Me,'' ''12-String Guitar,'' ''For Django,'' and ''Simplicity.''", "In 1963, he received ''DownBeat'' magazine's New Star Award.", "He also played on Pacific Jazz recordings by Gerald Wilson, Bud Shank, and Les McCann.", "He toured with George Shearing in 1965.During the 1960s, he did mostly TV and recording session work in Los Angeles.", "Norman Granz, the producer of Jazz at the Philharmonic and the founder of Verve Records, signed Pass to Pablo Records in December 1973.In 1974, Pass released his solo album ''Virtuoso'' on Pablo.", "Also in 1974, Pablo released the album ''The Trio'' with Pass, Oscar Peterson, and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen.", "He performed with them on many occasions throughout the 1970s and 1980s.", "At the Grammy Awards of 1975, ''The Trio'' won the Grammy Award for Best Jazz Performance by a Group.", "As part of the Pablo roster, Pass recorded with Benny Carter, Milt Jackson, Herb Ellis, Zoot Sims, Duke Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, Ella Fitzgerald, and Count Basie.Pass and Ella Fitzgerald recorded six albums together on Pablo toward the end of Fitzgerald's career: ''Take Love Easy'' (1973), ''Fitzgerald and Pass... Again'' (1976), ''Hamburg Duets - 1976'' (1976), ''Sophisticated Lady'' (1975, 1983), ''Speak Love'' (1983), and ''Easy Living'' (1986)." ], [ "Later life and death", "Pass was diagnosed with liver cancer in 1992.Although he was initially responsive to treatment and continued to play into 1993, his health eventually declined, forcing him to cancel his tour with Pepe Romero, Paco Peña, and Leo Kottke.", "Pass performed for the final time on May 7, 1994, with fellow guitarist John Pisano at a nightclub in Los Angeles.", "Pisano told ''Guitar Player'' that after the performance Pass said \"I can't play anymore\", an exchange that Pisano described as \"like a knife in my heart.\"", "Joe Pass died from liver cancer in Los Angeles sixteen days later at the age of 65.Prior to his death, he recorded an album of Hank Williams songs with country guitarist Roy Clark.Speaking about ''Nuages: Live at Yoshi's, Volume 2,'' Jim Ferguson wrote:The follow up to 1993's ''Joe Pass & Co. Live at Yoshi's,'' this release was colored by sad circumstances: both bassist Monty Budwig and Pass were stricken with fatal illnesses.", "Nevertheless, all concerned, including drummer Colin Bailey and second guitarist John Pisano, play up to their usual high levels...Issued posthumously, this material is hardly sub-standard.", "Bristling with energy throughout, it helps document the final stages in the career of a player who, arguably, was the greatest mainstream guitarist since Wes Montgomery." ], [ "Legacy", "Joe Pass in concert in 1974 playing his Gibson ES-175 guitar''New York'' magazine wrote about Pass, \"Joe Pass looks like somebody's uncle and plays guitar like nobody's business.", "He's called 'the world's greatest' and often compared to Paganini for his virtuosity.", "There is a certain purity to his sound that makes him stand out easily from other first-rate jazz guitarists.\"" ], [ "Discography" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Mel Bay Presents Joe Pass \"Off the Record.\"''", "Mel Bay, 1993.", "* ''Complete Joe Pass.''", "Mel Bay, 2003.", "* Miyakaku, Takao.", "''Joe Pass.''", "Tokyo: Seiunsha, 2000.", "(photograph collection)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Joe Pass Jazz Guitar Licks* Joe Pass Memorial Hall* ''Joe Pass Unedited'' article by Jim Ferguson* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jazz guitar" ], [ "Introduction", "Hollowbody electric guitars are quite common in jazz; the Gibson ES-175 is a classic example.", "It has been in production continuously since 1949 until 2019.", "'''Jazz guitar''' may refer to either a type of electric guitar or a guitar playing style in jazz, using electric amplification to increase the volume of acoustic guitars.In the early 1930s, jazz musicians sought to amplify their sound to be heard over loud big bands.", "When guitarists in big bands switched from acoustic to semi-acoustic guitar and began using amplifiers, it enabled them to play solos.", "Jazz guitar had an important influence on jazz in the beginning of the twentieth century.", "Although the earliest guitars used in jazz were acoustic and acoustic guitars are still sometimes used in jazz, most jazz guitarists since the 1940s have performed on an electrically amplified guitar or electric guitar.Traditionally, jazz electric guitarists use an archtop with a relatively broad hollow sound-box, violin-style f-holes, a \"floating bridge\", and a magnetic pickup.", "Solid body guitars, mass-produced since the early 1950s, are also used.Jazz guitar playing styles include ''comping'' with jazz chord voicings (and in some cases walking bass lines) and ''blowing'' (improvising) over jazz chord progressions with jazz-style phrasing and ornaments.", "Comping refers to playing chords underneath a song's melody or another musician's solo improvisations." ], [ "History", "===1900–mid-1930s===The stringed, chord-playing rhythm can be heard in groups which included military band-style instruments such as brass, saxes, clarinets, and drums, such as early jazz groups.", "As the acoustic guitar became a more popular instrument in the early 20th century, guitar-makers began building louder guitars which would be useful in a wider range of settings.The Gibson L5, an acoustic archtop guitar which was first produced in 1923, was an early “jazz”-style guitar which was used by early jazz guitarists such as Eddie Lang.", "By the 1930s, the guitar began to displace the banjo as the primary chordal rhythm instrument in jazz music, because the guitar could be used to voice chords of greater harmonic complexity, and it had a somewhat more muted tone that blended well with the upright bass, which, by this time, had almost completely replaced the tuba as the dominant bass instrument in jazz music.===Late 1930s-1960s===During the late 1930s and through the 1940s—the heyday of big band jazz and swing music—the guitar was an important rhythm section instrument.", "Some guitarists, such as Freddie Green of Count Basie's band, developed a guitar-specific style of accompaniment.", "Few of the big bands, however, featured amplified guitar solos, which were done instead in the small combo context.", "The most important jazz guitar soloists of this period included the Manouche virtuoso Django Reinhardt, Oscar Moore who was featured with Nat “King” Cole's trio, and Charlie Christian of Benny Goodman's band and sextet, who was a major influence despite his early death at 25.Duke Ellington's big band had a rhythm section that included a jazz guitarist, a double bass player, and a drummer (not visible).It was not until the large-scale emergence of small combo jazz in the post-WWII period that the guitar took off as a versatile instrument, which was used both in the rhythm section and as a featured melodic instrument and solo improviser.", "In the hands of George Barnes, Kenny Burrell, Herb Ellis, Barney Kessel, Jimmy Raney, and Tal Farlow, who had absorbed the language of bebop, the guitar began to be seen as a “serious” jazz instrument.", "Improved electric guitars such as Gibson's ES-175 (released in 1949), gave players a larger variety of tonal options.", "In the 1940s through the 1960s, players such as Wes Montgomery, Joe Pass, and Jim Hall laid the foundation of what is now known as \"jazz guitar\" playing.===1970s===John McLaughlin at a festival in Limburgerhof, Germany, 2008===1980s–2000s===By the early 1980s, the radical experiments of early 1970s-era fusion gave way to a more radio-friendly sounds of smooth jazz.", "Guitarist Pat Metheny mixed the sounds of rock, blues, country, and “world” music, while still maintaining a strong foundation in bebop and cool jazz, playing both a flat-top acoustic guitar and an electric guitar with a softer, more mellow tone which was sweetened with a shimmering effect known as “chorusing\".", "During the 1980s, a neo-traditional school of jazz sought to reconnect with the past.", "In keeping with such an aesthetic, young guitarists of this era sought a clean and round tone, and they often played traditional hollow-body arch-top guitars without electronic effects, frequently through vacuum tube amplifiers.As players such as Bobby Broom, Peter Bernstein, Howard Alden, Russell Malone, and Mark Whitfield revived the sounds of traditional jazz guitar, there was also a resurgence of archtop luthierie (guitar-making).", "By the early 1990s many small independent luthiers began making archtop guitars.", "In the 2000s, jazz guitar playing continues to change.", "Some guitarists incorporate a Latin jazz influence, acid jazz-style dance club music uses samples from Wes Montgomery, and guitarists such as Bill Frisell continue to defy categorization." ], [ "Types of guitars", "===Archtop guitars=== A hollow-bodied Epiphone guitar with violin-style \"F\" holes.", "While jazz can be played on any type of guitar, from an acoustic instrument to a solid-bodied electric guitar such as a Fender Stratocaster, the full-depth archtop guitar has become known as the prototypical \"jazz guitar.\"", "Archtop guitars are steel-string acoustic guitars with a big soundbox, arched top, violin-style f-holes, a \"floating bridge\" and magnetic or piezoelectric pickups.", "Early makers of jazz guitars included Gibson, Epiphone, D'Angelico and Stromberg.", "The electric guitar is plugged into a guitar amplifier to make it sound loud enough for performance.", "Guitar amplifiers have equalizer controls that allow the guitarist to change the tone of the instrument, by emphasizing or de-emphasizing certain frequency bands.", "The use of reverb effects, often included in guitar amplifiers, has long been part of the jazz guitar sound.", "Particularly since the 1970s jazz fusion era, some jazz guitarists have also used effects pedals such as overdrive pedals, chorus pedals and wah pedals.The earliest guitars used in jazz were acoustic, later superseded by a typical electric configuration of two humbucking pickups.", "In the 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest among jazz guitarists in acoustic archtop guitars with floating pickups.", "The original acoustic archtop guitars were designed to enhance volume: for that reason they were constructed for use with relatively heavy guitar strings.", "Even after electrification became the norm, jazz guitarists continued to fit strings of 0.012\" gauge or heavier for reasons of tone, and also prefer flatwound strings.", "The characteristic arched top can be made of a solid piece of wood that is carved into the arched shape, or a piece of laminated wood (essentially a type of plywood) that is pressed into shape.", "Spruce is often used for tops, and maple for backs.", "Archtop guitars can be mass-produced, such as the Ibanez Artcore series, or handmade by luthiers such as Robert Benedetto.===Other guitars===* The Selmer-Maccaferri guitar is strongly associated with Django Reinhardt and gypsy swing.", "* The resonator guitar was used (but not exclusively) by Oscar Aleman.", "* Nylon string guitars are associated with Latin jazz, for instance in the work of Charlie Byrd and Laurindo Almeida.", "* Flat-top steel-string guitars (particularly Ovation guitars) have been used in the \"acoustic shredding\" of John McLaughlin, Larry Coryell and Al Di Meola.", "* Solid-body electric guitars have been used in jazz-rock, for instance by Bill Frisell and Stanley Jordan.", "The Telecaster in particular has a jazz following, e.g.", "Ed Bickert and Ted Greene.", "* Synthesizer guitars in jazz-rock and avant-garde jazz, e.g.", "by Allan Holdsworth and Pat Metheny.", "* Seven string guitars by George van Eps, Lenny Breau, Bucky Pizzarelli and Howard Alden.", "* Eight-string guitars by Ralph Patt." ], [ "Musical elements", "===Rhythm===Jazz rhythm guitar often consists of very textural, odd-meter playing that includes generous use of exotic, difficult-to-fret chords.", "In 4/4 timing, it is common to play 2.5 beat intervals such as on the 2 and then the half beat or \"and\" after 4.Jazz guitarists may play chords \"ahead\" of the beat, by playing the chord a swung eighth note before the actual chord change.", "Chords are not generally played in a repetitive rhythmic fashion, like a rock rhythm guitarist would play.===Harmony===Jazz guitarists use their knowledge of harmony and jazz theory to create jazz chord \"voicings,\" which emphasize the 3rd and 7th notes of the chord.", "Some more sophisticated chord voicings also include the 9th, 11th, and 13th notes of the chord.", "In some modern jazz styles, dominant 7th chords in a tune may contain altered 9ths (either flattened by a semitone, which is called a \"flat 9th\", or sharpened by a semitone, which is called a \"sharp 9th\"); 11ths (sharpened by a semitone, which is called a \"sharp 11th\"); 13ths (typically flattened by a semitone, which is called a \"flat 13th\").Jazz guitarists need to learn about a range of different chords, including major 7th, major 6th, minor 7th, minor/major 7th, dominant 7th, diminished, half-diminished, and augmented chords.", "As well, they need to learn about chord transformations (e.g., altered chords, such as \"alt dominant chords\" described above), chord substitutions, and re-harmonization techniques.", "Some jazz guitarists use their knowledge of jazz scales and chords to provide a walking bass-style accompaniment.Jazz guitarists learn to perform these chords over the range of different chord progressions used in jazz, such as the ubiquitous ii-V-I progression, the jazz-style blues progression (which, in contrast to a blues-style 12 bar progression, may have two or more chord changes per bar) the minor jazz-style blues form, the I-vi-ii-V based \"rhythm changes\" progression, and the variety of modulation-rich chord progressions used in jazz ballads, and jazz standards.", "Guitarists may also learn to use the chord types, strumming styles, and effects pedals (e.g., chorus effect or fuzzbox) used in 1970s-era jazz-Latin, jazz-funk, and jazz-rock fusion music.===Melody===Jazz guitarists integrate the basic building blocks of scales and arpeggio patterns into balanced rhythmic and melodic phrases that make up a cohesive solo.", "Jazz guitarists often try to imbue their melodic phrasing with the sense of natural breathing and legato phrasing used by horn players such as saxophone players.", "As well, a jazz guitarists' solo improvisations have to have a rhythmic drive and \"timefeel\" that creates a sense of \"swing\" and \"groove.\"", "The most experienced jazz guitarists learn to play with different \"timefeels\" such as playing \"ahead of the beat\" or \"behind the beat,\" to create or release tension.Another aspect of the jazz guitar style is the use of stylistically appropriate ornaments, such as grace notes, slides, and muted notes.", "Each subgenre or era of jazz has different ornaments that are part of the style of that subgenre or era.", "Jazz guitarists usually learn the appropriate ornamenting styles by listening to prominent recordings from a given style or jazz era.", "Some jazz guitarists also borrow ornamentation techniques from other jazz instruments, such as Wes Montgomery's borrowing of playing melodies in parallel octaves, which is a jazz piano technique.", "Jazz guitarists also have to learn how to add in passing tones, use \"guide tones\" and chord tones from the chord progression to structure their improvisations.In the 1970s and 1980s, with jazz-rock fusion guitar playing, jazz guitarists incorporated rock guitar soloing approaches, such as riff-based soloing and usage of pentatonic and blues scale patterns.", "Some guitarists used Jimi Hendrix-influenced distortion and wah-wah effects to get a sustained, heavy tone, or even used rapid-fire guitar shredding techniques, such as tapping and tremolo bar bending.", "Guitarist Al Di Meola, who started his career with Return to Forever in 1974, was one of the first guitarists to perform in a \"shred\" style, a technique later used in rock and heavy metal playing.", "Di Meola used alternate-picking to perform very rapid sequences of notes in his solos.===Improvisation===When jazz guitar players improvise, they use the scales, modes, and arpeggios associated with the chords in a tune's chord progression.", "The approach to improvising has changed since the earliest eras of jazz guitar.", "During the Swing era, many soloists improvised \"by ear\" by embellishing the melody with ornaments and passing notes.", "However, during the bebop era, the rapid tempo and complicated chord progressions made it increasingly harder to play \"by ear.\"", "Along with other improvisers, such as saxes and piano players, bebop-era jazz guitarists began to improvise over the chord changes using scales (whole tone scale, chromatic scale, etc.)", "and arpeggios.", "Jazz guitar players tend to improvise around chord/scale relationships, rather than reworking the melody, possibly due to their familiarity with chords resulting from their comping role.", "A source of melodic ideas for improvisation is transcribing improvised solos from recordings.", "This provides jazz guitarists with a source of \"licks\", melodic phrases and ideas they incorporate either intact or in variations, and is an established way of learning from the previous generations of players." ], [ "Playing styles", "===Big band rhythm===In jazz big bands, popular during the 1930s and 1940s, the guitarist is considered an integral part of the rhythm section (guitar, drums and bass).", "They usually played a regular four strums to the bar, although an amount of harmonic improvisation is possible.", "Freddie Green, guitarist in the Count Basie orchestra, was a noted exponent of this style.", "The harmonies are often minimal; for instance, the root note is often omitted on the assumption that it will be supplied by the bassist.===Small group comping===When jazz guitarists play chords underneath a song's melody or another musician's solo improvisations, it is called \"comping\", short for \"accompanying\".", "The accompanying style in most jazz styles differs from the way chordal instruments accompany in many popular styles of music.", "In many popular styles of music, such as rock and pop, the rhythm guitarist usually performs the chords in rhythmic fashion which sets out the beat or groove of a tune.", "In contrast, in many modern jazz styles within smaller groups, the guitarist plays much more sparsely, intermingling periodic chords and delicate voicings into pauses in the melody or solo, and using periods of silence.", "Jazz guitarists commonly use a wide variety of inversions when comping, rather than only using standard voicings.===Chord-melody and unaccompanied soloing===In this style, the guitarist aims to render an entire song — harmony, melody and bass — in something like the way a classical guitarist or pianist can.", "Chord roots cannot be left to the bassist in this style.", "Chords themselves can be used sparsely or more densely, depending on both the individual player and his or her arrangement of a particular piece.", "In the sparse style, a full chord is often played only at the beginning of a melodic phrase.", "The denser chordal textures, in contrast, approach chord soloing (see below).", "A third approach is to maintain a steady, busy bass-line, like a New Orleans pianist.", "Here, no more than two or three notes are played at a time, and the full harmony is indicated by arpeggiation.", "Exponents of this style often come from a country, folk or ragtime background, such as Chet Atkins, although it is also sometimes employed by straight-ahead jazz practitioners, for instance Martin Taylor.", "Chord-melody is often played with a plectrum (see Tal Farlow, George Benson and others); whereas fingerstyle, as practised by Joe Pass, George van Eps, Ted Greene, Robert Conti, Lenny Breau or hybrid picking as practised by Ed Bickert, Laszlo Sirsom and others allows for a more complex, polyphonic approach to unaccompanied soloing.===\"Blowing\" or single-note soloing===Eddie Lang and Lonnie Johnson were two of the earliest practitioners of single note improvised solos.", "Both played with Louis Armstrong and other leading jazz and blues musicians of the 1920s and 1930s.", "In later years Charlie Christian and Django Reinhardt, the former on electric guitar and the latter playing forcefully on an acoustic guitar, are acknowledged as the first soloists to put jazz guitar improvisation on an equal footing with that of other instruments.", "Over the years, jazz guitarists have been able to solo in standard jazz idioms, such as bebop, cool jazz and so on, while in also absorbing influences from rock guitarists, such as the use of electronic effects.===Chord soloing===Jazz guitarists are not limited to single note improvisation.", "When working with accompaniment, chord solos are created by improvising chords (harmony) and melody simultaneously, usually in the upper register on strings 1,2,3 and 4.Wes Montgomery was noted for playing successive choruses in single notes, then octaves and finally a chord solo - this can be heard in his improvisation on the standard Lover Man (Oh, Where Can You Be?).", "When playing without accompaniment, jazz guitarists may create chord solos by playing bass, melody and chords, individually or simultaneously, on any or all strings - such as the work of Lenny Breau, Joe Pass, Martin Taylor and others.", "This technique can also be incorporated into unaccompanied soloing: for instance Django Reinhardt's ''\"improvisations\"'', as he called his solo pieces." ], [ "See also", "* List of jazz guitarists* Jazz guitarists* Swing (jazz performance style)* Jazz bass" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* The Guitar, in: Joachim-Ernst Berendt ''The Jazz Book'', Lawrence Hill & Company, New York*R., Ken (2012).", "''DOG EAR Tritone Substitution for Jazz Guitar'', Amazon Digital Services, Inc., ASIN: B008FRWNIW" ], [ "External links", "* Jaén, Fernando Alonso (date unknown).", "“The Archtop Jazz Guitar”* Wilson, Gerald (2005).", "Personal interview with the author." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "James Watt" ], [ "Introduction", "Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, by Francis Chantrey)'''James Watt''' (; 30 January 1736 (19 January 1736 OS) – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776, which was fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world.While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines.", "He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and reheating the cylinder.", "Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines.", "Eventually, he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water.Watt attempted to commercialise his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775.The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful and Watt became a wealthy man.", "In his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none was as significant as his steam engine work.As Watt developed the concept of horsepower, the SI unit of power, the watt, was named after him." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life and education ===James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, the eldest of the five surviving children of Agnes Muirhead (1703–1755) and James Watt (1698–1782).", "His mother came from a distinguished family, was well educated and said to be of forceful character, while his father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the Greenock's chief baillie in 1751.The Watt family's wealth came in part from Watt's father's trading in slaves and slave-produced goods.", "Watt's parents were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters, but despite his religious upbringing he later became a deist.", "Watt's grandfather, Thomas Watt (1642–1734), was a teacher of mathematics, surveying and navigation and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn.Initially, Watt was educated at home by his mother, later going on to attend Greenock Grammar School.", "There he exhibited an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin and Greek failed to interest him.Watt is said to have suffered prolonged bouts of ill-health as a child and from frequent headaches all his life.After leaving school, Watt worked in the workshops of his father's businesses, demonstrating considerable dexterity and skill in creating engineering models.", "After his father suffered unsuccessful business ventures, Watt left Greenock to seek employment in Glasgow as a mathematical instrument maker.John Partridge, after Sir William Beechey (1806)Bust of Watt in the Scottish National Portrait GalleryWhen he was 18, Watt's mother died and his father's health began to fail.", "Watt travelled to London and was able to obtain a period of training as an instrument maker for a year (1755–56), then returned to Scotland, settling in the major commercial city of Glasgow, intent on setting up his own instrument-making business.", "He was still very young and, having not had a full apprenticeship, did not have the usual connections via a former master to establish himself as a journeyman instrument maker.Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander MacFarlane to the University of Glasgow – instruments that required expert attention.", "Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated.", "These instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory.", "Subsequently, three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a small workshop within the university.", "It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed economist Adam Smith, became Watt's friends.At first, he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants.", "He made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things.It is sometimes falsely stated that he struggled to establish himself in Glasgow due to opposition from the Trades House, but this myth has been thoroughly debunked by the historian Harry Lumsden.", "The records from this period are lost, but it is known that he was able to work and trade completely normally as a skilled metal worker so the Incorporation of Hammermen must have been satisfied that he met their requirements for membership.", "It is also known that other people in the metal trades were pursued for working without being members of the Incorporation well into the 19th century, so the rules were definitely being enforced when Watt was trading freely throughout the city.In 1759, he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and toys.", "This partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to 16 workers.", "Craig died in 1765.One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, which lasted into the 20th century.In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret (Peggy) Miller, with whom he had 5 children, 2 of whom lived to adulthood: James Jr. (1769–1848) and Margaret (1767–1796).", "His wife died in childbirth in 1773.In 1777, he married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had 2 children: Gregory (1777–1804), who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet (1779–1794).", "Ann died in 1832.Between 1777 and 1790 he lived in Regent Place, Birmingham." ], [ "Scientific Studies and Inventions", "===Watt and the kettle===There is a popular story that Watt was inspired to invent the steam engine by seeing a kettle boiling, the steam forcing the lid to rise and thus showing Watt the power of steam.", "This story is told in many forms; in some Watt is a young lad, in others he is older, sometimes it's his mother's kettle, sometimes his aunt's.", "Watt did not actually ''invent'' the steam engine, as the story implies, but dramatically improved the efficiency of the existing Newcomen engine by adding a separate condenser.", "This is difficult to explain to someone not familiar with concepts of heat and thermal efficiency.", "It appears that the story was created, possibly by Watt's son James Watt Jr., and persists because it is easy for children to understand and remember.", "In this light, it can be seen as akin to the story of Isaac Newton and the falling apple and his discovery of gravity.Although it is often dismissed as a myth, the story of Watt and the kettle has a basis in fact.", "In trying to understand the thermodynamics of heat and steam, James Watt carried out many laboratory experiments and his diaries record that in conducting these, he used a kettle as a boiler to generate steam.===Early experiments with steam===James Eckford Lauder: ''James Watt and the Steam Engine: the Dawn of the Nineteenth Century'', 1855Original condenser by Watt (Science Museum)In 1759, Watt's friend, John Robison, called his attention to the use of steam as a source of motive power.", "The design of the Newcomen engine, in use for almost 50 years for pumping water from mines, had hardly changed from its first implementation.", "Watt began to experiment with steam, though he had never seen an operating steam engine.", "He tried constructing a model; it failed to work satisfactorily, but he continued his experiments and began to read everything he could about the subject.", "He came to realise the importance of latent heat—the thermal energy released or absorbed during a constant-temperature process—in understanding the engine, which, unknown to Watt, his friend Joseph Black had previously discovered years before.", "Understanding of the steam engine was in a very primitive state, for the science of thermodynamics would not be formalised for nearly another 100 years.In 1763, Watt was asked to repair a model Newcomen engine belonging to the university.", "Even after repair, the engine barely worked.", "After much experimentation, Watt demonstrated that about three-quarters of the thermal energy of the steam was being consumed in heating the engine cylinder on every cycle.", "This energy was wasted because, later in the cycle, cold water was injected into the cylinder to condense the steam to reduce its pressure.", "Thus, by repeatedly heating and cooling the cylinder, the engine wasted most of its thermal energy rather than converting it into mechanical energy.Watt's critical insight, arrived at in May 1765 as he crossed Glasgow Green park, was to cause the steam to condense in a separate chamber apart from the piston, and to maintain the temperature of the cylinder at the same temperature as the injected steam by surrounding it with a \"steam jacket\".", "Thus, very little energy was absorbed by the cylinder on each cycle, making more available to perform useful work.", "Watt had a working model later that same year.The ruin of Watt's cottage workshop at Kinneil HouseCylinder fragment of Watt's first operational engine at the Carron Works, FalkirkDespite a potentially workable design, there were still substantial difficulties in constructing a full-scale engine.", "This required more capital, some of which came from Black.", "More substantial backing came from John Roebuck, the founder of the celebrated Carron Iron Works near Falkirk, with whom he now formed a partnership.", "Roebuck lived at Kinneil House in Bo'ness, during which time Watt worked at perfecting his steam engine in a cottage adjacent to the house.", "The shell of the cottage, and a very large part of one of his projects, still exist to the rear.The principal difficulty was in machining the piston and cylinder.", "Iron workers of the day were more like blacksmiths than modern machinists, and were unable to produce the components with sufficient precision.", "Much capital was spent in pursuing a patent on Watt's invention.", "Strapped for resources, Watt was forced to take up employment—first as a surveyor, then as a civil engineer—for 8 years.Roebuck went bankrupt, and Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho Manufactory works near Birmingham, acquired his patent rights.", "An extension of the patent to 1800 was successfully obtained in 1775.Through Boulton, Watt finally had access to some of the best iron workers in the world.", "The difficulty of the manufacture of a large cylinder with a tightly fitting piston was solved by John Wilkinson, who had developed precision boring techniques for cannon making at Bersham, near Wrexham, North Wales.", "Watt and Boulton formed a hugely successful partnership, Boulton and Watt, which lasted for the next 25 years.===First engines===steam engine designed by Boulton and WattIn 1776, the first engines were installed and working in commercial enterprises.", "These first engines were used to power pumps and produced only reciprocating motion to move the pump rods at the bottom of the shaft.", "The design was commercially successful, and for the next five years, Watt was very busy installing more engines, mostly in Cornwall, for pumping water out of mines.These early engines were not manufactured by Boulton and Watt, but were made by others according to drawings made by Watt, who served in the role of consulting engineer.", "The erection of the engine and its shakedown was supervised by Watt, at first, and then by men in the firm's employ.", "These were large machines.", "The first, for example, had a cylinder with a diameter of 50 inches and an overall height of about 24 feet, and required the construction of a dedicated building to house it.", "Boulton and Watt charged an annual payment, equal to one-third of the value of the coal saved in comparison to a Newcomen engine performing the same work.The field of application for the invention was greatly widened when Boulton urged Watt to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston to produce rotational power for grinding, weaving and milling.", "Although a crank seemed the obvious solution to the conversion, Watt and Boulton were stymied by a patent for this, whose holder, James Pickard and his associates proposed to cross-license the external condenser.", "Watt adamantly opposed this and they circumvented the patent by their sun and planet gear in 1781.Over the next six years, he made other improvements and modifications to the steam engine.", "A double-acting engine, in which the steam acted alternately on both sides of the piston, was one.", "He described methods for working the steam \"expansively\" (i.e., using steam at pressures well above atmospheric).", "A compound engine, which connected two or more engines, was described.", "Two more patents were granted for these in 1781 and 1782.Numerous other improvements that made for easier manufacture and installation were continually implemented.", "One of these included the use of the steam indicator which produced an informative plot of the pressure in the cylinder against its volume, which he kept as a trade secret.", "Another important invention, one which Watt was most proud of, was the parallel motion linkage, which was essential in double-acting engines as it produced the straight line motion required for the cylinder rod and pump, from the connected rocking beam, whose end moves in a circular arc.", "This was patented in 1784.A throttle valve to control the power of the engine, and a centrifugal governor, patented in 1788, to keep it from \"running away\" were very important.", "These improvements taken together produced an engine which was up to five times as fuel efficient as the Newcomen engine.Because of the danger of exploding boilers, which were in a very primitive stage of development, and the ongoing issues with leaks, Watt restricted his use of high pressure steam – all of his engines used steam at near atmospheric pressure.===Patent trials===Freiberg in GermanyEdward Bull started constructing engines for Boulton and Watt in Cornwall in 1781.By 1792, he had started making engines of his own design, but which contained a separate condenser, and so infringed Watt's patents.", "Two brothers, Jabez Carter Hornblower and Jonathan Hornblower Jnr also started to build engines about the same time.", "Others began to modify Newcomen engines by adding a condenser, and the mine owners in Cornwall became convinced that Watt's patent could not be enforced.", "They started to withhold payments to Boulton and Watt, which by 1795 had fallen on hard times.", "Of the total £21,000 (equivalent to £ as of ) owed, only £2,500 had been received.", "Watt was forced to go to court to enforce his claims.He first sued Bull in 1793.The jury found for Watt, but the question of whether or not the original specification of the patent was valid was left to another trial.", "In the meantime, injunctions were issued against the infringers, forcing their payments of the royalties to be placed in escrow.", "The trial on determining the validity of the specifications which was held in the following year was inconclusive, but the injunctions remained in force and the infringers, except for Jonathan Hornblower, all began to settle their cases.", "Hornblower was soon brought to trial in 1799, and the verdict of the four was decisively in favour of Watt.", "Their friend John Wilkinson, who had solved the problem of boring an accurate cylinder, was a particularly grievous case.", "He had erected about 20 engines without Boulton's and Watts' knowledge.", "They finally agreed to settle the infringement in 1796.Boulton and Watt never collected all that was owed them, but the disputes were all settled directly between the parties or through arbitration.", "These trials were extremely costly in both money and time, but ultimately were successful for the firm.===Copying machine===Portable Copying Machine by James Watt & Co. Circa 1795Before 1780, there was no good method for making copies of letters or drawings.", "The only method sometimes used was a mechanical one using multiple linked pens.", "Watt at first experimented with improving this method, but soon gave up on this approach because it was so cumbersome.", "He instead decided to try to physically transfer ink from the front of the original to the back of another sheet, moistened with a solvent, and pressed to the original.", "The second sheet had to be thin, so that the ink could be seen through it when the copy was held up to the light, thus reproducing the original exactly.Watt started to develop the process in 1779, and made many experiments to formulate the ink, select the thin paper, to devise a method for wetting the special thin paper, and to make a press suitable for applying the correct pressure to effect the transfer.", "All of these required much experimentation, but he soon had enough success to patent the process a year later.", "Watt formed another partnership with Boulton (who provided financing) and James Keir (to manage the business) in a firm called James Watt and Co.", "The perfection of the invention required much more development work before it could be routinely used by others, but this was carried out over the next few years.", "Boulton and Watt gave up their shares to their sons in 1794.It became a commercial success and was widely used in offices even into the 20th century.===Chemical experiments===From an early age, Watt was very interested in chemistry.", "In late 1786, while in Paris, he witnessed an experiment by Claude Louis Berthollet in which he reacted hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide to produce chlorine.", "He had already found that an aqueous solution of chlorine could bleach textiles, and had published his findings, which aroused great interest among many potential rivals.", "When Watt returned to Britain, he began experiments along these lines with hopes of finding a commercially viable process.", "He discovered that a mixture of salt, manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid could produce chlorine, which Watt believed might be a cheaper method.", "He passed the chlorine into a weak solution of alkali, and obtained a turbid solution that appeared to have good bleaching properties.", "He soon communicated these results to James McGrigor, his father-in-law, who was a bleacher in Glasgow.", "Otherwise, he tried to keep his method a secret.With McGrigor and his wife Annie, he started to scale up the process, and in March 1788, McGrigor was able to bleach of cloth to his satisfaction.", "About this time, Berthollet discovered the salt and sulphuric acid process, and published it, so it became public knowledge.", "Many others began to experiment with improving the process, which still had many shortcomings, not the least of which was the problem of transporting the liquid product.", "Watt's rivals soon overtook him in developing the process, and he dropped out of the race.", "It was not until 1799, when Charles Tennant patented a process for producing solid bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) that it became a commercial success.By 1794, Watt had been chosen by Thomas Beddoes to manufacture apparatuses to produce, clean and store gases for use in the new Pneumatic Institution at Hotwells in Bristol.", "Watt continued to experiment with various gases, but by 1797, the medical uses for the \"factitious airs\" (artificial gases) had come to a dead end.Scientific apparatus designed by Boulton and Watt in preparation of the Pneumatic Institution in Bristol===Personality===Watt combined theoretical knowledge of science with the ability to apply it practically.", "Chemist Humphry Davy said of him, \"Those who consider James Watt only as a great practical mechanic form a very erroneous idea of his character; he was equally distinguished as a natural philosopher and a chemist, and his inventions demonstrate his profound knowledge of those sciences, and that peculiar characteristic of genius, the union of them for practical application\".He was greatly respected by other prominent men of the Industrial Revolution.", "He was an important member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, and was a much sought-after conversationalist and companion, always interested in expanding his horizons.", "His personal relationships with his friends and business partners were always congenial and long-lasting.According to Lord Liverpool (Prime Minister of the UK),A more excllent and amikable man in all the relations of life I believe never existed.Watt was a prolific correspondent.", "During his years in Cornwall, he wrote long letters to Boulton several times per week.", "He was averse to publishing his results in, for example, the ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'' however, and instead preferred to communicate his ideas in patents.", "He was an excellent draughtsman.Science Museum Library & Archives in Wroughton, near SwindonHe was a rather poor businessman, and especially hated bargaining and negotiating terms with those who sought to use the steam engine.", "In a letter to William Small in 1772, Watt confessed that \"he would rather face a loaded cannon than settle an account or make a bargain.\"", "Until he retired, he was always very concerned about his financial affairs, and was something of a worrier.", "His health was often poor and he suffered frequent nervous headaches and depression.", "When he retired in 1800, he became a rich enough man to pass the business on to his sons.===Soho Foundry===At first, the partnership made the drawings and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect them on the customers' property.", "They produced almost none of the parts themselves.", "Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper's Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory.", "Gradually, the partners began to actually manufacture more and more of the parts, and by 1795, they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho Manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal, to establish a new foundry for the manufacture of the engines.", "The Soho Foundry formally opened in 1796 at a time when Watt's sons, Gregory and James Jr. were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise.", "In 1800, the year of Watt's retirement, the firm made a total of 41 engines.===Later years===Heathfield\", Watt's house in Handsworth, by Allen Edward Everitt James Watt's workshopWatt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired.", "The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr..", "Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered.Watt continued to invent other things before and during his semi-retirement.", "Within his home in Handsworth, Staffordshire, Watt made use of a garret room as a workshop, and it was here that he worked on many of his inventions.", "Among other things, he invented and constructed machines for copying sculptures and medallions which worked very well, but which he never patented.", "One of the first sculptures he produced with the machine was a small head of his old professor friend Adam Smith.", "He maintained his interest in civil engineering and was a consultant on several significant projects.", "He proposed, for example, a method for constructing a flexible pipe to be used for pumping water under the River Clyde at Glasgow.He and his second wife travelled to France and Germany, and he purchased an estate in mid-Wales at Doldowlod House, one mile south of Llanwrthwl, which he much improved.In 1816, he took a trip on the paddle-steamer ''Comet'', a product of his inventions, to revisit his home town of Greenock.He died on 25 August 1819 at his home \"Heathfield Hall\" near Handsworth in Staffordshire (now part of Birmingham) at the age of 83.He was buried on 2 September in the graveyard of St Mary's Church, Handsworth.", "The church has since been extended and his grave is now inside the church." ], [ "Family", "On 16 July 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller (d. 1773).", "They had two children, Margaret (1767–1796) and James (1769–1848).", "In 1791, their daughter married James Miller.", "In September 1773, while Watt was working in the Scottish Highlands, he learned that his wife, who was pregnant with their third child, was seriously ill.", "He immediately returned home but found that she had died and their child was stillborn.In 1775, he married Ann MacGregor (d. 1832)." ], [ "Freemasonry", "He was Initiated into Scottish Freemasonry in The Glasgow Royal Arch Lodge, No.", "77, in 1763.The Lodge ceased to exist in 1810.A Masonic Lodge was named after him in his home town of Glasgow – Lodge James Watt, No.", "1215." ], [ "Murdoch's contributions", "William Murdoch joined Boulton and Watt in 1777.At first, he worked in the pattern shop in Soho, but soon he was erecting engines in Cornwall.", "He became an important part of the firm and made many contributions to its success including important inventions of his own.John Griffiths, who wrote a biography of him in 1992, has argued that Watt's discouragement of Murdoch's work with high-pressure steam on his steam road locomotive experiments delayed its development: Watt rightly believed that boilers of the time would be unsafe at higher pressures.Watt patented the application of the sun and planet gear to steam in 1781 and a steam locomotive in 1784, both of which have strong claims to have been invented by Murdoch.", "The patent was never contested by Murdoch, however, and Boulton and Watt's firm continued to use the sun and planet gear in their rotative engines, even long after the patent for the crank expired in 1794.Murdoch was made a partner of the firm in 1810, where he remained until his retirement 20 years later at the age of 76." ], [ "Legacy", "Watt beam engine at Loughborough UniversityAs one author states, James Watt's improvements to the steam engine \"converted it from a prime mover of marginal efficiency into the mechanical workhorse of the Industrial Revolution\"." ], [ "Honours", "Watt was much honoured in his own time.", "In 1784, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and was elected as a member of the Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy, of Rotterdam, the Netherlands, in 1787.In 1789, he was elected to the elite group, the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers.", "In 1806, he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Glasgow.", "The French Academy elected him a Corresponding Member and he was made a Foreign Associate in 1814.The watt is named after James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, and was adopted by the Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889 and by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 as the unit of power incorporated in the International System of Units (or \"SI\").On 29 May 2009, the Bank of England announced that Boulton and Watt would appear on a new £50 note.", "The design is the first to feature a dual portrait on a Bank of England note, and presents the two industrialists side by side with images of Watt's steam engine and Boulton's Soho Manufactory.", "Quotes attributed to each of the men are inscribed on the note: \"I sell here, sir, what all the world desires to have—POWER\" (Boulton) and \"I can think of nothing else but this machine\" (Watt).", "The inclusion of Watt is the second time that a Scot has featured on a Bank of England note (the first was Adam Smith on the 2007 issue £20 note).", "In September 2011, it was announced that the notes would enter circulation on 2 November.In 2011, he was one of seven inaugural inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame." ], [ "Memorials", "James Watt Memorial College in GreenockWatt was buried in the grounds of St. Mary's Church, Handsworth, in Birmingham.", "Later expansion of the church, over his grave, means that his tomb is now buried ''inside'' the church.The garret room workshop that Watt used in his retirement was left, locked and untouched, until 1853, when it was first viewed by his biographer J. P. Muirhead.", "Thereafter, it was occasionally visited, but left untouched, as a kind of shrine.", "A proposal to have it transferred to the Patent Office came to nothing.", "When the house was due to be demolished in 1924, the room and all its contents were presented to the Science Museum, where it was recreated in its entirety.", "It remained on display for visitors for many years, but was walled-off when the gallery it was housed in closed.", "The workshop remained intact, and preserved, and in March 2011 was put on public display as part of a new permanent Science Museum exhibition, \"James Watt and our world\".The approximate location of James Watt's birth in Greenock is commemorated by a statue.", "Other memorials in Greenock include street names and the Watt Memorial Library, which was begun in 1816 with Watt's donation of scientific books, and developed as part of the Watt Institution by his son (which ultimately became the James Watt College).", "Taken over by the local authority in 1974, the library now also houses the local history collection and archives of Inverclyde, and is dominated by a large seated statue in the vestibule.", "Watt is additionally commemorated by statuary in George Square, Glasgow and Princes Street, Edinburgh, as well as others in Birmingham, where he is also remembered by the Moonstones and a school is named in his honour.The James Watt College has expanded from its original location to include campuses in Kilwinning (North Ayrshire), Finnart Street and The Waterfront in Greenock, and the Sports campus in Largs.", "Heriot-Watt University near Edinburgh was at one time the School of Arts of Edinburgh, founded in 1821 as the world's first Mechanics Institute, but to commemorate George Heriot, the 16th-century financier to King James VI and I, and James Watt, after Royal Charter the name was changed to Heriot-Watt University.", "Dozens of university and college buildings (chiefly of science and technology) are named after him.", "Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, is now a museum, commemorating the work of both men.", "The University of Glasgow's Faculty of Engineering has its headquarters in the James Watt Building, which also houses the department of Mechanical Engineering and the department of Aerospace Engineering.", "The huge painting ''James Watt contemplating the steam engine'' by James Eckford Lauder is now owned by the National Gallery of Scotland.Chantrey's statue of James WattThere is a statue of James Watt in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester and City Square, Leeds.A colossal statue of Watt by Francis Legatt Chantrey was placed in Westminster Abbey, and later was moved to St. Paul's Cathedral.", "On the cenotaph, the inscription reads, in part, \"JAMES WATT ... ENLARGED THE RESOURCES OF HIS COUNTRY, INCREASED THE POWER OF MAN, AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE AMONG THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE AND THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE WORLD\".A bust of Watt is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling, Scotland.The French Navy submarine was named for Watt." ], [ "Patents", "Watt was the sole inventor listed on his six patents:* Patent 913: A method of lessening the consumption of steam in steam engines – the separate condenser.", "The specification was accepted on 5 January 1769; enrolled on 29 April 1769, and extended to June 1800 by an Act of Parliament in 1775.", "* Patent 1,244: A new method of copying letters.", "The specification was accepted on 14 February 1780 and enrolled on 31 May 1780.", "* Patent 1,306: New methods to produce a continued rotation motion – sun and planet.", "The specification was accepted on 25 October 1781 and enrolled on 23 February 1782.", "* Patent 1,321: New improvements upon steam engines – expansive and double acting.", "The specification was accepted on 14 March 1782 and enrolled on 4 July 1782.", "* Patent 1,432: New improvements upon steam engines – three bar motion and steam carriage.", "The specification was accepted on 28 April 1782 and enrolled on 25 August 1782.", "* Patent 1,485: Newly improved methods of constructing furnaces.", "The specification was accepted on 14 June 1785 and enrolled on 9 July 1785." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * Carnegie, Andrew, ''James Watt'' University Press of the Pacific (2001) (Reprinted from the 1913 ed.", "), .", "* * * Hills, Rev.", "Dr. Richard L., ''James Watt, Vol 1, His time in Scotland, 1736–1774'' (2002); Vol 2, ''The years of toil, 1775–1785''; Vol 3 ''Triumph through adversity 1785–1819.''", "Landmark Publishing Ltd, .", "* * * Marsden, Ben.", "''Watt's Perfect Engine'' Columbia University Press (New York, 2002), .", "* Marshall, Thomas H. (1925), ''James Watt'', Chapter 3: Mathematical Instrument Maker, from Steam Engine Library of University of Rochester Department of History.", "* Marshall, Thomas H. (1925) ''James Watt'', University of Rochester Department of History.", "* * * Roll, Erich (1930).", "''An Early Experiment in Industrial Organisation : being a History of the Firm of Boulton & Watt.''", "1775–1805.Longmans, Green and Co.* Smiles, Samuel, ''Lives of the Engineers'', (London, 1861–62, new edition, five volumes, 1905).", ";Related topics* *" ], [ "External links", "* James Watt by Andrew Carnegie (1905)* Librivox audiobook: James Watt by Andrew Carnegie (1905)* James Watt by Thomas H. Marshall (1925)* Archives of Soho at Birmingham Central Library.", "* BBC History: James Watt* Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame – James Watt* Revolutionary Players website* Cornwall Record Office Boulton and Watt letters* Significant Scots – James Watt*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Locke" ], [ "Introduction", "John Locke's portrait by Godfrey Kneller, National Portrait Gallery, London'''John Locke''' (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the \"father of liberalism\".", "Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, Locke is equally important to social contract theory.", "His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy.", "His writings influenced Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American Revolutionaries.", "His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.", "Internationally, Locke's political-legal principles continue to have a profound influence on the theory and practice of limited representative government and the protection of basic rights and freedoms under the rule of law.Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of ''identity'' and the ''self'', figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant.He postulated that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate, or ''tabula rasa''.", "Contrary to Cartesian philosophy based on pre-existing concepts, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception, a concept now known as ''empiricism''." ], [ "Early life", "Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about 12 miles from Bristol.", "He was baptised the same day, as both of his parents were Puritans.", "Locke's father, also named John, was an attorney who served as clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna and as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War.", "His mother was Agnes Keene.", "Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton.In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and John Sr.'s former commander.", "At the age of 16 he was at school just half a mile away from the execution of Charles I; however, the boys were not allowed to go and watch.", "After completing studies at Westminster, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford, in the autumn of 1652 at the age of 20.The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university.", "Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time.", "He found the works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university.", "Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member.Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in February 1656 and a master's degree in June 1658.He obtained a bachelor of medicine in February 1675, having studied the subject extensively during his time at Oxford and, in addition to Lower, worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis and Robert Hooke.", "In 1666, he met Anthony Ashley Cooper, Lord Ashley, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection.", "Ashley was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue." ], [ "Career", "=== Work ===Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667, moved into Ashley's home at Exeter House in London, to serve as his personal physician.", "In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham.", "Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking—an effect that would become evident in ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.", "''Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Ashley's liver infection became life-threatening.", "Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Ashley to undergo surgery (then life-threatening in itself) to remove the cyst.", "Ashley survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life.During this time, Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords Proprietors of Carolina, which helped to shape his ideas on international trade and economics.Ashley, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas.", "Locke became involved in politics when Ashley became Lord Chancellor in 1672 (Ashley being created 1st Earl of Shaftesbury in 1673).", "Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France as a tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks.", "He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a brief positive turn.", "Around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the ''Two Treatises of Government''.", "While it was once thought that Locke wrote the ''Treatises'' to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, recent scholarship has shown that the work was composed well before this date.", "The work is now viewed as a more general argument against absolute monarchy (particularly as espoused by Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes) and for individual consent as the basis of political legitimacy.", "Although Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history.=== The Netherlands ===Locke fled to the Netherlands in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot, although there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme.", "The philosopher and novelist Rebecca Newberger Goldstein argues that during his five years in Holland, Locke chose his friends \"from among the same freethinking members of dissenting Protestant groups as Spinoza's small group of loyal confidants.", "Baruch Spinoza had died in 1677.Locke almost certainly met men in Amsterdam who spoke of the ideas of that renegade Jew who... insisted on identifying himself through his religion of reason alone.\"", "While she says that \"Locke's strong empiricist tendencies\" would have \"disinclined him to read a grandly metaphysical work such as Spinoza's ''Ethics'', in other ways he was deeply receptive to Spinoza's ideas, most particularly to the rationalist's well thought out argument for political and religious tolerance and the necessity of the separation of church and state.\"", "In the Netherlands, Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time working on the ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' and composing the ''Letter on Toleration.", "''=== Return to England ===Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution.", "Locke accompanied Mary II back to England in 1689.The bulk of Locke's publishing took place upon his return from exile—his aforementioned ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', the ''Two Treatises of Government'' and ''A Letter Concerning Toleration'' all appearing in quick succession.Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at Otes, the Mashams' country house in Essex.", "Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs.", "During this period, he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton.=== Death ===He died on 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver, east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691.Locke never married nor had children.Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague of London, the Great Fire of London, and the Glorious Revolution.", "He did not see the Act of Union of 1707, but the thrones of England and Scotland were held in personal union throughout his lifetime.", "Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time." ], [ "Philosophy", "Portrait of John Locke by John Greenhill (died 1676)In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Locke's ''Two Treatises'' were rarely cited.", "Historian Julian Hoppit said of the book \"except among some Whigs, even as a contribution to the intense debate of the 1690s it made little impression and was generally ignored until 1703 (though in Oxford in 1695 it was reported to have made 'a great noise').\"", "John Kenyon, in his study of British political debate from 1689 to 1720, has remarked that Locke's theories were \"mentioned so rarely in the early stages of the Glorious Revolution, up to 1692, and even less thereafter, unless it was to heap abuse on them\" and that \"no one, including most Whigs, was ready for the idea of a notional or abstract contract of the kind adumbrated by Locke\".", "In contrast, Kenyon adds that Algernon Sidney's ''Discourses Concerning Government'' were \"certainly much more influential than Locke's ''Two Treatises.", "''\"In the 50 years after Queen Anne's death in 1714, the ''Two Treatises'' were reprinted only once (except in the collected works of Locke).", "However, with the rise of American resistance to British taxation, the ''Second Treatise of Government'' gained a new readership; it was frequently cited in the debates in both America and Britain.", "The first American printing occurred in 1773 in Boston.Locke exercised a profound influence on political philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism.", "Michael Zuckert has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State.", "He had a strong influence on Voltaire, who called him \"''le sage'' Locke\".", "His arguments concerning liberty and the social contract later influenced the written works of Thomas Jefferson.", "One passage from the ''Second Treatise'' is reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, the reference to a \"long train of abuses\".", "Concerning Locke, Thomas Jefferson wrote:Bacon, Locke and Newton… I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences.However, Locke's influence may have been even more profound in the realm of epistemology.", "Locke redefined subjectivity, or ''self'', leading intellectual historians such as Charles Taylor and Jerrold Seigel to argue that Locke's ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' (1689/90) marks the beginning of the modern Western conception of the ''self''.Locke's theory of association heavily influenced the subject matter of modern psychology.", "At the time, Locke's recognition of two types of ideas, ''simple'' and ''complex''and, more importantly, their interaction through associationinspired other philosophers, such as David Hume and George Berkeley, to revise and expand this theory and apply it to explain how humans gain knowledge in the physical world.Locke thought the state's borders and the functioning and enforcement of the existence of the state and its constitution were metaphysically tied to \"the natural rights of the individual\", and this inspired future liberal politicians and philosophers.===Religious tolerance===John Locke by Richard Westmacott, University College LondonWriting his ''Letters Concerning Toleration'' (1689–1692) in the aftermath of the European wars of religion, Locke formulated a classic reasoning for religious tolerance, in which three arguments are central:# earthly judges, the state in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the truth-claims of competing religious standpoints;# even if they could, enforcing a single 'true religion' would not have the desired effect, because belief cannot be compelled by violence;# coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity.With regard to his position on religious tolerance, Locke was influenced by Baptist theologians like John Smyth and Thomas Helwys, who had published tracts demanding freedom of conscience in the early 17th century.", "Baptist theologian Roger Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island in 1636, where he combined a democratic constitution with unlimited religious freedom.", "His tract, ''The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience'' (1644), which was widely read in the mother country, was a passionate plea for absolute religious freedom and the total separation of church and state.", "Freedom of conscience had had high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agenda, as Martin Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire at Worms in 1521, unless he would be proved false by the Bible.===Slavery and child labour===Locke's views on slavery were multifaceted and complex.", "Although he wrote against slavery in general, Locke was an investor and beneficiary of the slave-trading Royal Africa Company.", "In addition, while secretary to the Earl of Shaftesbury, Locke participated in drafting the ''Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina'', which established a quasi-feudal aristocracy and gave Carolinian planters absolute power over their enslaved chattel property; the constitutions pledged that \"every freeman of Carolina shall have absolute power and authority over his negro slaves\".", "Philosopher Martin Cohen notes that Locke, as secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations and a member of the Board of Trade, was \"one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude\".According to American historian James Farr, Locke never expressed any thoughts concerning his contradictory opinions regarding slavery, which Farr ascribes to his personal involvement in the slave trade.", "Locke's positions on slavery have been described as hypocritical, and laying the foundation for the Founding Fathers to hold similarly contradictory thoughts regarding freedom and slavery.Historian Holly Brewer has argued, however, that Locke's role in the Constitution of Carolina has been exaggerated and that he was merely paid to revise and make copies of a document that had already been partially written before he became involved; she compares Locke's role to a lawyer writing a will.", "She further says that Locke was paid in Royal African Company stock in lieu of money for his work as a secretary for a governmental sub-committee, and that he sold the stock after a few years.", "Brewer likewise argues that Locke actively worked to undermine slavery in Virginia while heading a Board of Trade created by William of Orange following the Glorious Revolution.", "He specifically attacked colonial policy granting land to slave owners and encouraged the baptism and Christian education of the children of enslaved Africans to undercut a major justification of slaverythat they were heathens who possessed no rights.", "In his ''Two Treatises of Government'', Locke provided a justification for slavery that could never actually be met, thus rendering all forms of slavery as it actually existed invalid.", "Moreover, as one may not submit to slavery, in Locke's view there is a moral injunction to attempt to throw off and escape it whenever it looms.Locke also supported child labour, which was an intrinsic part of all pre-industrial societies.", "In his \"Essay on the Poor Law\", he turns to the education of the poor; he laments that \"the children of labouring people are an ordinary burden to the parish, and are usually maintained in idleness, so that their labour also is generally lost to the public till they are 12 or 14 years old\".", "He suggests, therefore, that \"working schools\" be set up in each parish in England for poor children so that they will be \"from infancy three years old inured to work\".", "He goes on to outline the economics of these schools, arguing not only that they will be profitable for the parish, but also that they will instil a good work ethic in the children.===Government===Locke's political theory was founded upon that of social contract.", "Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance.", "Like Hobbes, however, Locke believed that human nature allows people to be selfish.", "This is apparent with the introduction of currency.", "In a natural state, all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his \"life, health, liberty, or possessions\".", "Most scholars trace the phrase \"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness\" in the American Declaration of Independence to Locke's theory of rights, although other origins have been suggested.Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society.", "However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day.", "Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances.", "These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.==== Accumulation of wealth ====According to Locke, unused property is wasteful and an offence against nature, but, with the introduction of \"durable\" goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for those which would last longer and thus not offend the natural law.", "In his view, the introduction of money marked the culmination of this process, making possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage.", "He also includes gold or silver as money because they may be \"hoarded up without injury to anyone\", as they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor.", "In his view, the introduction of money eliminates limits to accumulation.", "Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishing civil society or the law of land regulating property.", "Locke was aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation, but did not consider it his task.", "He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth; he does not identify which principles that government should apply to solve this problem.", "However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole.", "For example, the labour theory of value in the ''Two Treatises of Government'' stands side by side with the demand-and-supply theory of value developed in a letter he wrote titled ''Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''.", "Moreover, Locke anchors property in labour but, in the end, upholds unlimited accumulation of wealth." ], [ "Ideas", "=== Economics =======On price theory====Locke's general theory of value and price is a supply-and-demand theory, set out in a letter to a member of parliament in 1691, titled ''Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''.", "In it, he refers to supply as ''quantity'' and demand as ''rent'': \"The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyers and sellers\" and \"that which regulates the price…of goods is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent.", "\"The quantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory.", "His idea is based on \"money answers all things\" (Ecclesiastes) or \"rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough\" and \"varies very little\".", "Locke concludes that, as far as money is concerned, the demand for it is exclusively regulated by its quantity, regardless of whether the demand is unlimited or constant.", "He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply.", "For supply, he explains the value of goods as based on their scarcity and ability to be exchanged and consumed.", "He explains demand for goods as based on their ability to yield a flow of income.", "Locke develops an early theory of capitalisation, such as of land, which has value because \"by its constant production of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income\".", "He considers the demand for money as almost the same as demand for goods or land: it depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange.", "As a medium of exchange, he states, \"money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life\" and, for loanable funds, \"it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income…or interest\".====Monetary thoughts====Locke distinguishes two functions of money: as a ''counter'' to measure value, and as a ''pledge'' to lay claim to goods.", "He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to paper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions.", "Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it.Locke argues that a country should seek a favourable balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade.", "Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock.", "Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates.", "He considers the latter less significant and less volatile than commodity movements.", "As for a country's money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, he says it will cause the country's exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do.He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, labourers, and brokers).", "In each group he posits that the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period.", "He argues the brokers—the middlemen—whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of labourers and landholders, have a negative influence on both personal and the public economy to which they supposedly contribute.====Theory of value and property====Locke uses the concept of ''property'' in both broad and narrow terms: broadly, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more particularly, it refers to material goods.", "He argues that property is a natural right that is derived from labour.", "In Chapter V of his ''Second Treatise'', Locke argues that the individual ownership of goods and property is justified by the labour exerted to produce such goods\"at least where there is enough land, and as good, left in common for others\" (para.", "27)or to use property to produce goods beneficial to human society.Locke states in his ''Second Treatise'' that nature on its own provides little of value to society, implying that the labour expended in the creation of goods gives them their value.", "From this premise, understood as a ''labour theory of value'', Locke developed a ''labour theory of property'', whereby ownership of property is created by the application of labour.", "In addition, he believed that property precedes government and government cannot \"dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily\".", "Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his own social theory.=== The human mind =======The self====Locke defines ''the self'' as \"that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends\".", "He does not, however, wholly ignore \"substance\", writing that \"the body too goes to the making the man\".In his ''Essay'', Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind.", "Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an 'empty mind', a ''tabula rasa'', which is shaped by experience; sensations and reflections being the two sources of ''all'' of our ideas.", "He states in ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'':This source of ideas every man has wholly within himself; and though it be not sense, as having nothing to do with external objects, yet it is very like it, and might properly enough be called 'internal sense.", "'Locke's ''Some Thoughts Concerning Education'' is an outline on how to educate this mind.", "Drawing on thoughts expressed in letters written to Mary Clarke and her husband about their son, he expresses the belief that education makes the manor, more fundamentally, that the mind is an \"empty cabinet\":I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education.Locke also wrote that \"the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences\".", "He argues that the \"associations of ideas\" that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the ''self''; they are, put differently, what first mark the ''tabula rasa''.", "In his ''Essay'', in which both these concepts are introduced, Locke warns, for example, against letting \"a foolish maid\" convince a child that \"goblins and sprites\" are associated with the night, for \"darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other\".This theory came to be called ''associationism'', going on to strongly influence 18th-century thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations.", "It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his ''Observations on Man'' (1749).====Dream argument====Locke was critical of Descartes's version of the dream argument, with Locke making the counter-argument that people cannot have physical pain in dreams as they do in waking life.=== Religion =======Religious beliefs====Some scholars have seen Locke's political convictions as being based from his religious beliefs.", "Locke's religious trajectory began in Calvinist trinitarianism, but by the time of the ''Reflections'' (1695) Locke was advocating not just Socinian views on tolerance but also Socinian Christology.", "However Wainwright (1987) notes that in the posthumously published ''Paraphrase'' (1707) Locke's interpretation of one verse, Ephesians 1:10, is markedly different from that of Socinians like Biddle, and may indicate that near the end of his life Locke returned nearer to an Arian position, thereby accepting Christ's pre-existence.Locke was at times not sure about the subject of original sin, so he was accused of Socinianism, Arianism, or Deism.", "Locke argued that the idea that \"all ''Adam'''s Posterity are doomed to Eternal Infinite Punishment, for the Transgression of ''Adam''\" was \"little consistent with the Justice or Goodness of the Great and Infinite God\", leading Eric Nelson to associate him with Pelagian ideas.", "However, he did not deny the reality of evil.", "Man was capable of waging unjust wars and committing crimes.", "Criminals had to be punished, even with the death penalty.With regard to the Bible, Locke was very conservative.", "He retained the doctrine of the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.", "The miracles were proof of the divine nature of the biblical message.", "Locke was convinced that the entire content of the Bible was in agreement with human reason (''The Reasonableness of Christianity'', 1695).", "Although Locke was an advocate of tolerance, he urged the authorities not to tolerate atheism, because he thought the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos.", "That excluded all atheistic varieties of philosophy and all attempts to deduce ethics and natural law from purely secular premises.", "In Locke's opinion the cosmological argument was valid and proved God's existence.", "His political thought was based on Protestant Christian views.", "Additionally, Locke advocated a sense of piety out of gratitude to God for giving reason to men.==== Philosophy from religion ====Locke's concept of man started with the belief in creation.", "Like philosophers Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf, Locke equated natural law with the biblical revelation.", "Locke derived the fundamental concepts of his political theory from biblical texts, in particular from Genesis 1 and 2 (creation), the Decalogue, the Golden Rule, the teachings of Jesus, and the letters of Paul the Apostle.", "The Decalogue puts a person's life, reputation and property under God's protection.Locke's philosophy on freedom is also derived from the Bible.", "Locke derived from the Bible basic human equality (including equality of the sexes), the starting point of the theological doctrine of Imago Dei.", "To Locke, one of the consequences of the principle of equality was that all humans were created equally free and therefore governments needed the consent of the governed.", "Locke compared the English monarchy's rule over the British people to Adam's rule over Eve in Genesis, which was appointed by God.Following Locke's philosophy, the American Declaration of Independence founded human rights partially on the biblical belief in creation.", "Locke's doctrine that governments need the consent of the governed is also central to the Declaration of Independence." ], [ "Library", "=== Manuscripts, books and treatises ===Locke's signature in Bodleian Locke 13.12.Photo taken at the Bodleian Library, Oxford.Locke was an assiduous book collector and notetaker throughout his life.", "By his death in 1704, Locke had amassed a library of more than 3,000 books, a significant number in the seventeenth century.", "Unlike some of his contemporaries, Locke took care to catalogue and preserve his library, and his will made specific provisions for how his library was to be distributed after his death.", "Locke's will offered Lady Masham the choice of \"any four folios, eight quartos and twenty books of less volume, which she shall choose out of the books in my Library.\"", "Locke also gave six titles to his \"good friend\" Anthony Collins, but Locke bequeathed the majority of his collection to his cousin Peter King (later Lord King) and to Lady Masham's son, Francis Cudworth Masham.Francis Masham was promised one \"moiety\" (half) of Locke's library when he reached \"the age of one and twenty years.\"", "The other \"moiety\" of Locke's books, along with his manuscripts, passed to his cousin King.", "Over the next two centuries, the Masham portion of Locke's library was dispersed.", "The manuscripts and books left to King, however, remained with King's descendants (later the Earls of Lovelace), until most of the collection was bought by the Bodleian Library, Oxford in 1947.Another portion of the books Locke left to King was discovered by the collector and philanthropist Paul Mellon in 1951.Mellon supplemented this discovery with books from Locke's library which he bought privately, and in 1978, he transferred his collection to the Bodleian.", "The holdings in the Locke Room at the Bodleian have been a valuable resource for scholars interested in Locke, his philosophy, practices for information management, and the history of the book.Many of the books still contain Locke's signature, which he often made on the pastedowns of his books.", "Many also include Locke's marginalia.One of Locke's famous books on politics, Two Treatises of Government, written and published in his lifetimeThe printed books in Locke's library reflected his various intellectual interests as well as his movements at different stages of his life.", "Locke travelled extensively in France and the Netherlands during the 1670s and 1680s, and during this time he acquired many books from the continent.", "Only half of the books in Locke's library were printed in England, while close to 40% came from France and the Netherlands.", "These books cover a wide range of subjects.", "According to John Harrison and Peter Laslett, the largest genres in Locke's library were theology (23.8% of books), medicine (11.1%), politics and law (10.7%), and classical literature (10.1%).", "The Bodleian library currently holds more than 800 of the books from Locke's library.", "These include Locke's copies of works by several of the most influential figures of the seventeenth century, including* The Quaker William Penn: ''An address to Protestants of all perswasions'' (Bodleian Locke 7.69a)* The explorer Francis Drake: ''The world encompassed by Sir Francis Drake'' (Bodleian Locke 8.37c)* The scientist Robert Boyle: ''A discourse of things above reason'' (Bodleian Locke 7.272)* The bishop and historian Thomas Sprat: ''The history of the Royal-Society of London'' (Bodleian Locke 9.10a)In addition to books owned by Locke, the Bodleian also possesses more than 100 manuscripts related to Locke or written in his hand.", "Like the books in Locke's library, these manuscripts display a range of interests and provide different windows into Locke's activity and relationships.", "Several of the manuscripts include letters to and from acquaintances like Peter King (MS Locke b.", "6) and Nicolas Toinard (MS Locke c. 45).", "MS Locke f. 1–10 contain Locke's journals for most years between 1675 and 1704.Some of the most significant manuscripts include early drafts of Locke's writings, such as his ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' (MS Locke f. 26).", "The Bodleian also holds a copy of Robert Boyle's ''General History of the Air'' with corrections and notes Locke made while preparing Boyle's work for posthumous publication (MS Locke c. 37 ).", "Other manuscripts contain unpublished works.", "Among others, MS. Locke e. 18 includes some of Locke's thoughts on the Glorious Revolution, which Locke sent to his friend Edward Clarke but never published.One of the largest categories of manuscript at the Bodleian comprises Locke's notebooks and commonplace books.", "The scholar Richard Yeo calls Locke a \"Master Note-taker\" and explains that \"Locke's methodical note-taking pervaded most areas of his life.\"", "In an unpublished essay \"Of Study,\" Locke argued that a notebook should work like a \"chest-of-drawers\" for organizing information, which would be a \"great help to the memory and means to avoid confusion in our thoughts.\"", "Locke kept several notebooks and commonplace books, which he organized according to topic.", "MS Locke c. 43 includes Locke's notes on theology, while MS Locke f. 18–24 contain medical notes.", "Other notebooks, such as MS c. 43, incorporate several topics in the same notebook, but separated into sections.Page 1 of Locke's unfinished index in Bodleian Locke 13.12.Photo taken at the Bodleian Library, Oxford.These commonplace books were highly personal and were designed to be used by Locke himself rather than accessible to a wide audience.", "Locke's notes are often abbreviated and are full of codes which he used to reference material across notebooks.", "Another way Locke personalized his notebooks was by devising his own method of creating indexes using a grid system and Latin keywords.", "Instead of recording entire words, his indexes shortened words to their first letter and vowel.", "Thus, the word \"Epistle\" would be classified as \"Ei\".", "Locke published his method in French in 1686, and it was republished posthumously in English in 1706.Some of the books in Locke's library at the Bodleian are a combination of manuscript and print.", "Locke had some of his books interleaved, meaning that they were bound with blank sheets in-between the printed pages to enable annotations.", "Locke interleaved and annotated his five volumes of the New Testament in French, Greek, and Latin (Bodleian Locke 9.103-107).", "Locke did the same with his copy of Thomas Hyde's Bodleian Library catalogue (Bodleian Locke 16.17), which Locke used to create a catalogue of his own library." ], [ "Writing", "===List of major works===* 1689.", "''A Letter Concerning Toleration''.", "** 1690.", "''A Second Letter Concerning Toleration''** 1692.", "''A Third Letter for Toleration''* 1689/90.", "''Two Treatises of Government'' (published throughout the 18th century by London bookseller Andrew Millar by commission for Thomas Hollis)* 1689/90.", "''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding''* 1691.", "''Some Considerations on the consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''* 1693.", "''Some Thoughts Concerning Education''* 1695.", "''The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures''** 1695.", "''A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity''===Major posthumous manuscripts===* 1660.", "''First Tract of Government'' (or ''the English Tract'')* ''c.''1662.", "''Second Tract of Government'' (or ''the Latin Tract'')* 1664.", "''Questions Concerning the Law of Nature''.", "* 1667.", "''Essay Concerning Toleration''* 1706.", "''Of the Conduct of the Understanding''* 1707.", "''A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Ephesians''" ], [ "See also", "* List of liberal theorists" ], [ "References", "===Notes====== Citations ======Sources===* Ashcraft, Richard, 1986.", "''Revolutionary Politics & Locke's Two Treatises of Government.''", "Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "Discusses the relationship between Locke's philosophy and his political activities.", "* Ayers, Michael, 1991.''Locke.", "Epistemology & Ontology'' Routledge (the standard work on Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding.", ")* Bailyn, Bernard, 1992 (1967).", "''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution''.", "Harvard Uni.", "Press.", "Discusses the influence of Locke and other thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American political thought.", "* * Cohen, Gerald, 1995.", "'Marx and Locke on Land and Labour', in his ''Self-Ownership, Freedom and Equality'', Oxford University Press.", "* Cox, Richard, ''Locke on War and Peace'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960.A discussion of Locke's theory of international relations.", "* Chappell, Vere, ed., 1994.", "''The Cambridge Companion to Locke''.", "Cambridge U.P.", "excerpt and text search * Dunn, John, 1984.''Locke''.", "Oxford Uni.", "Press.", "A succinct introduction.", "* ———, 1969.", "''The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of the \"Two Treatises of Government\"''.", "Cambridge Uni.", "Press.", "Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the theological element in Locke's political thought.", "* * Hudson, Nicholas, \"John Locke and the Tradition of Nominalism,\" in: ''Nominalism and Literary Discourse'', ed.", "Hugo Keiper, Christoph Bode, and Richard Utz (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 283–299.", "* to Locke's ''Two Treatises of Government''* * * ''Locke Studies'', appearing annually from 2001, formerly ''The Locke Newsletter'' (1970–2000), publishes scholarly work on John Locke.", "* Macpherson, C.B.", "''The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).", "Establishes the deep affinity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and Locke through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism.", "* * * Tully, James, 1980.", "''A Discourse on Property : John Locke and his Adversaries''.", "Cambridge Uni.", "Press* * Yolton, John W., ed., 1969.", "''John Locke: Problems and Perspectives''.", "Cambridge Uni.", "Press.", "* Yolton, John W., ed., 1993.", "''A Locke Dictionary''.", "Oxford: Blackwell.", "* Zuckert, Michael, ''Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy''.", "Lawrence: University Press of Kansas." ], [ "External links", "===Works===* * The Clarendon Edition of the Works of John Locke* ''Of the Conduct of the Understanding''* * * * Work by John Locke at Online Books* ''The Works of John Locke''** 1823 Edition, 10 volumes on PDF files, and additional resources * John Locke Manuscripts * Updated versions of ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', ''Second Treatise of Government'', ''Letter on Toleration'' and ''Conduct of the Understanding'', edited (i.e.", "modernized and abridged) by Jonathan Bennett===Resources===* * * * * John Locke Bibliography * Locke Studies An Annual Journal of Locke Research* .", "* .", "* .", "* , a complex and positive answer.", "* * Anstey, Peter, '' John Locke and Natural Philosophy,'' Oxford University Press'','' 2011''.''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jewish holidays" ], [ "Introduction", "Jewish Sabbath (\"Shabbat\") and on Jewish holidays.", "'''Jewish holidays''', also known as '''Jewish festivals''' or '''''Yamim Tovim''''' (, or singular , in transliterated Hebrew ), are holidays observed by Jews throughout the Hebrew calendar.", "They include religious, cultural and national elements, derived from three sources: biblical ''mitzvot'' (\"commandments\"), rabbinic mandates, and the history of Judaism and the State of Israel.Jewish holidays occur on the same dates every year in the Hebrew calendar, but the dates vary in the Gregorian.", "This is because the Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar (based on the cycles of both the sun and moon), whereas the Gregorian is a solar calendar.", "Each holiday can only occur on certain days of the week, four for most, but five for holidays in Tevet and Shevat and six for Hanukkah (see Days of week on Hebrew calendar).+ Date ranges for Jewish holidays Holiday Date range Rosh Hashanah5 Sep\tto 5 Oct Yom Kippur14 Sep\tto 14 Oct Sukkot (first of seven days)\t19 Sep\tto 19 Oct Shemini Atzeret\t26 Sep\tto 26 Oct Simchat Torah\t27 Sep\tto 27 Oct Hanukkah (first of eight days)\t28 Nov\tto 27 Dec Tu Bishvat\t\t15 Jan\tto 13 Feb Purim\t\t24 Feb\tto 26 Mar Shushan Purim\t25 Feb\tto 27 Mar Yom HaAliyah\t\t21 Mar\tto 20 Apr Passover (first of seven/eight days)\t26 Mar\tto 25 Apr Yom HaShoah\t\t8 Apr\tto 7 May Yom Ha'atzmaut\t15 Apr\tto 15 May Lag B'Omer\t\t28 Apr\tto 28 MayYom Yerushalayim\t8 May\tto 7 Jun Shavuot \t\t15 May\tto 14 Jun Tzom Tammuz\t\t25 Jun\tto 25 Jul Tisha B'Av\t\t16 Jul\tto 15 Aug Tu B'Av\t\t22 Jul\tto 21 Aug" ], [ "General concepts", "===Groupings===Certain terms are used very commonly for groups of holidays.", "* The Hebrew-language term ''Yom Tov'' (), sometimes referred to as \"festival day\", usually refers to the six biblically mandated festival dates on which all activities prohibited on Shabbat are prohibited, except for some related to food preparation.", "These include the first and seventh days of Passover (the Feast of Unleavened Bread / the Feast of Matzot – Exodus 23:15, Deuteronomy 16:16), first day of Shavuot, both days of Rosh Hashanah, first day of Sukkot, and first day of Shemini Atzeret.", "By extension, outside the Land of Israel, the second-day holidays known under the rubric ''Yom tov sheni shel galuyot'' (literally, \"Second ''Yom Tov'' of the Diaspora\")—including Simchat Torah—are also included in this grouping.", "Colloquially, Yom Kippur, a biblically mandated date on which even food preparation is prohibited, is often included in this grouping.", "The tradition of keeping two days of Yom Tov in the diaspora has existed since roughly 300 BCE.", "* The English-language term High Holy Days or High Holidays refers to Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur collectively.", "Its Hebrew analogue, \"Days of Awe\" (), is more flexible: it can refer just to those holidays, or to the Ten Days of Repentance, or to the entire penitential period, starting as early as the beginning of Elul, and (more rarely) ending as late as Shemini Atzeret.", "* The term Three Pilgrimage Festivals ( or ''ḥaġim'') refers to Passover (the Feast of Unleavened Bread / Feast of Matzot), Shavuot and Sukkot.", "Within this grouping Sukkot normally includes Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah.", "* ''Ma'agal Hashana'' (; \"year cycle\"), a more general term, is often used – especially in educational settings – to refer to the overall study of the Jewish calendar, outlining the month by month events, with mitzvot and minhagim, and philosophical material, that occur over the course of the year.===Terminology used to describe holidays===Certain terminology is used in referring to different categories of holidays, depending on their source and their nature:''Shabbat'' () (Ashkenazi pron.", "from Yiddish ''shabbos''), or Sabbath, is referred to by that name exclusively.", "Similarly, ''Rosh Chodesh'' () is referred to by that name exclusively.", "*''Yom tov'' () (Ashkenazi pron.", "from Yid.", "''yontif'') (''lit.,'' \"good day\"): See \"Groupings\" above.", "* ''Moed'' () (\"festive season\"), plural ''moadim'' (), refers to any of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals of Passover, Shavuot and Sukkot.", "When used in comparison to ''Yom Tov,'' it refers to Chol HaMoed, the intermediate days of Passover and Sukkot.", "* ''Ḥag'' or ''chag'' () (\"festival\"), plural ''chagim'' (), can be used whenever ''yom tov'' or ''moed'' is.", "It is also used to describe Hanukkah and Purim, as well as ''Yom Ha'atzmaut'' (Israeli Independence Day) and ''Yom Yerushalayim'' (Jerusalem Day).", "* ''Ta'anit'' (), or, less commonly, ''tzom'' (), refers to a ''fast''.", "These terms are generally used to describe the rabbinic fasts, although ''tzom'' is used liturgically to refer to Yom Kippur as well.===\"Work\" on Sabbath and biblical holidays===The most notable common feature of Shabbat and the biblical festivals is the requirement to refrain from ''melacha'' on these days.", "''Melacha'' is most commonly translated as \"work\"; perhaps a better translation is \"creative-constructive work\".", "Strictly speaking, ''Melacha'' is defined in Jewish law ''(halacha)'' by 39 categories of labor that were used in constructing the Tabernacle while the Jews wandered in the desert.", "As understood traditionally and in Orthodox Judaism:*On Shabbat and Yom Kippur all ''melacha'' is prohibited.", "*On a Yom Tov (other than Yom Kippur) which falls on a weekday, not Shabbat, most ''melacha'' is prohibited.", "Some ''melacha'' related to preparation of food is permitted.", "*On weekdays during Chol HaMoed, ''melacha'' is not prohibited ''per se.''", "However, ''melacha'' should be limited to that required either to enhance the enjoyment of the remainder of the festival or to avoid great financial loss.", "*On other days, there are no restrictions on ''melacha.", "''In principle, Conservative Judaism understands the requirement to refrain from ''melacha'' in the same way as Orthodox Judaism.", "In practice, Conservative rabbis frequently rule on prohibitions around ''melacha'' differently from Orthodox authorities.", "Still, there are a number of Conservative/Masorti communities around the world where Sabbath and Festival observance fairly closely resembles Orthodox observance.However, many, if not most, lay members of Conservative congregations in North America do not consider themselves Sabbath-observant, even by Conservative standards.", "At the same time, adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism do not accept ''halacha'', and therefore restrictions on ''melacha,'' as binding at all.", "Jews fitting any of these descriptions refrain from ''melacha'' in practice only as they personally see fit.Shabbat and holiday work restrictions are always put aside in cases of ''pikuach nefesh,'' which is saving a human life.", "At the most fundamental level, if there is any possibility whatsoever that action must be taken to save a life, Shabbat restrictions are set aside immediately, and without reservation.", "Where the danger to life is present but less immediate, there is some preference to minimize violation of Shabbat work restrictions where possible.", "The laws in this area are complex.===Second day of biblical festivals===The Torah specifies a single date on the Jewish calendar for observance of holidays.", "Nevertheless, festivals of biblical origin other than Shabbat and Yom Kippur are observed for two days outside the land of Israel, and Rosh Hashanah is observed for two days even inside the land of Israel.Dates for holidays on the Jewish calendar are expressed in the Torah as \"day x of month y\".", "Accordingly, the beginning of ''month y'' needs to be determined before the proper date of the holiday on ''day x'' can be fixed.", "Months in the Jewish calendar are lunar, and originally were thought to have been proclaimed by the blowing of a ''shofar''.", "Later, the Sanhedrin received testimony of witnesses saying they saw the new crescent moon.", "Then the Sanhedrin would inform Jewish communities away from its meeting place that it had proclaimed a new moon.", "The practice of observing a second festival day stemmed from delays in disseminating that information.", "* ''Rosh Hashanah.''", "Because of holiday restrictions on travel, messengers could not even leave the seat of the Sanhedrin until the holiday was over.", "Inherently, there was no possible way for anyone living away from the seat of the Sanhedrin to receive news of the proclamation of the new month until messengers arrived ''after the fact''.", "Accordingly, the practice emerged that Rosh Hashanah was observed on both possible days, as calculated from the previous month's start, everywhere in the world.", "* ''Three Pilgrimage Festivals.''", "Sukkot and Passover fall on the 15th day of their respective months.", "This gave messengers two weeks to inform communities about the proclamation of the new month.", "Normally, they would reach most communities within the land of Israel within that time, but they might fail to reach communities farther away (such as those in Babylonia or overseas).", "Consequently, the practice developed that these holidays be observed for one day within Israel, but for two days (both possible days as calculated from the previous month's start) outside Israel.", "This practice is known as ''yom tov sheni shel galuyot'', \"second day of festivals in exile communities\".", ":: For Shavuot, calculated as the fiftieth day from Passover, the above issue did not pertain directly, as the \"correct\" date for Passover would be known by then.", "Nevertheless, the Talmud applies the same rule to Shavuot, and to the Seventh Day of Passover and Shemini Atzeret, for consistency.Yom Kippur is not observed for two days anywhere because of the difficulty of maintaining a fast over two days.", ": Shabbat is not observed based on a calendar date, but simply at intervals of seven days.", "Accordingly, there is never a doubt of the date of Shabbat, and it need never be observed for two days.Adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism generally do not observe the second day of festivals, although some do observe two days of Rosh Hashanah." ], [ "Holidays of biblical and rabbinic (Talmudic) origin", "===Shabbat—The Sabbath===Shabbat candles and kiddush cupJewish law ''(halacha)'' accords ''Shabbat'' () the status of a holiday, a day of rest celebrated on the seventh day of each week.", "Jewish law defines a day as ending at either sundown or nightfall, when the next day then begins.", "Thus,* Shabbat begins just before sundown Friday night.", "Its start is marked by the lighting of Shabbat candles and the recitation of Kiddush over a cup of wine.", "* Shabbat ends at nightfall Saturday night.", "Its conclusion is marked by the prayer known as Havdalah.The fundamental rituals and observances of Shabbat include:* Reading of the Weekly Torah portion* Abbreviation of the Amidah in the three regular daily services to eliminate requests for everyday needs* Addition of a musaf service to the daily prayer services* Enjoyment of three meals, often elaborate or ritualized, through the course of the day* Restraint from performing ''melacha'' (see above).In many ways, ''halakha'' (Jewish law) sees ''Shabbat'' as the most important holy day in the Jewish calendar.", "* It is the first holiday mentioned in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), and God was the first one to observe it (Genesis).", "* The Torah reading on ''Shabbat'' has more sections of ''parshiot'' (Torah readings) than on Yom Kippur or any other Jewish holiday.", "* The prescribed penalty in the Torah for a transgression of ''Shabbat'' prohibitions is death by stoning (Exodus 31), while for other holidays the penalty is (relatively) less severe.", "* Observance of Shabbat is the benchmark used in ''halacha'' to determine whether an individual is a religiously observant, religiously reliable member of the community.===Rosh Chodesh—The New Month===Rosh Chodesh () (lit., \"head of the month\") is a minor holiday or observance occurring on the first day of each month of the Jewish calendar, as well as the last day of the preceding month if it has thirty days.", "* Rosh Chodesh observance during at least a portion of the period of the prophets could be fairly elaborate.", "*Over time there have been varying levels of observance of a custom that women are excused from certain types of work.", "* Fasting is normally prohibited on Rosh Chodesh.Beyond the preceding, current observance is limited to changes in liturgy.", ":In the month of Tishrei, this observance is superseded by the observance of Rosh Hashanah, a major holiday.", "''Related observances:''* The date of the forthcoming Rosh Chodesh is announced in synagogue on the preceding Sabbath.", "* There are special prayers said upon observing the waxing moon for the first time each month.===Rosh Hashanah—The Jewish New Year=======Selichot====The month of Elul that precedes Rosh Hashanah is considered to be a propitious time for repentance.", "For this reason, additional penitential prayers called Selichot are added to the daily prayers, except on Shabbat.", "Sephardi Jews add these prayers each weekday during Elul.", "Ashkenazi Jews recite them from the last Sunday (or Saturday night) preceding Rosh Hashanah that allows at least four days of recitations.====Rosh Hashanah====Rosh Hashana symbols: shofar, apples and honey, pomegranates, kiddush wine* Erev Rosh Hashanah (eve of the first day): 29 Elul* Rosh Hashanah: 1–2 TishreiAccording to oral tradition, Rosh Hashanah () (lit., \"Head of the Year\") is the Day of Memorial or Remembrance (, ''Yom HaZikaron''), and the day of judgment (, ''Yom HaDin'').", "God appears in the role of King, remembering and judging each person individually according to his/her deeds, and making a decree for each person for the following year.The holiday is characterized by one specific mitzvah: blowing the ''shofar''.", "According to the Torah, this is the first day of the seventh month of the calendar year, and marks the beginning of a ten-day period leading up to Yom Kippur.", "According to one of two Talmudic opinions, the creation of the world was completed on Rosh Hashanah.Morning prayer services are lengthy on Rosh Hashanah, and focus on the themes described above: majesty and judgment, remembrance, the birth of the world, and the blowing of the ''shofar''.", "Ashkenazi Jews recite the brief ''Tashlikh'' prayer, a symbolic casting off of the previous year's sins, during the afternoon of Rosh Hashanah.The Bible specifies Rosh Hashanah as a one-day holiday, but it is traditionally celebrated for two days, even within the Land of Israel.", "(See ''Second day of biblical festivals,'' above.", ")====Four New Years====The Torah itself does not use any term like \"New Year\" in reference to Rosh Hashanah.", "The Mishnah in Rosh Hashanah specifies four different \"New Year's Days\" for different purposes:* 1 Tishrei (conventional \"Rosh Hashanah\"): \"new year\" for calculating calendar years, sabbatical-year ''(shmita)'' and jubilee cycles, and the age of trees for purposes of Jewish law; and for separating grain tithes.", "* 15 Shevat (Tu Bishvat): \"new year\" for trees–''i.e.,'' their current agricultural cycle and related tithes.", "* 1 Nisan: \"New Year\" for counting months and major festivals and for calculating the years of the reign of a Jewish king** In biblical times, the day following 29 Adar, Year 1 of the reign of ___, would be followed by 1 Nisan, Year 2 of the reign of ___.", "** In modern times, although the Jewish calendar year number changes on Rosh Hashanah, the months are still numbered from Nisan.", "** The three pilgrimage festivals are always reckoned as coming in the order Passover-Shavuot-Sukkot.", "This can have religious law consequences even in modern times.", "* 1 Elul (Rosh Hashanah LeMa'sar Behemah): \"new year\" for animal tithes.====Aseret Yemei Teshuva—Ten Days of Repentance====The first ten days of Tishrei (from the beginning of Rosh Hashana until the end of Yom Kippur) are known as the Ten Days of Repentance (עשרת ימי תשובה, ''Aseret Yemei Teshuva'').", "During this time, in anticipation of Yom Kippur, it is \"exceedingly appropriate\" for Jews to practice ''teshuvah'' (literally \"return\"), an examination of one's deeds and repentance for sins one has committed against other people and God.", "This repentance can take the form of additional supplications, confessing one's deeds before God, fasting, self-reflection, and an increase of involvement with, or donations to, charity.===Tzom Gedalia—Fast of Gedalia===* Tzom Gedalia: 3 TishreiThe Fast of Gedalia () is a minor Jewish fast day.", "It commemorates the assassination of the governor of Judah, Gedalia, which ended any level of Jewish rule following the destruction of the First Temple.", ": The assassination apparently occurred on Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei), but the fast is postponed to 3 Tishrei in respect for the holiday.", "It is further postponed to 4 Tishrei if 3 Tishrei is Shabbat.As on all minor fast days, fasting from dawn to dusk is required, but other laws of mourning are not normally observed.", "A Torah reading is included in both the ''Shacharit'' and ''Mincha'' prayers, and a Haftarah is also included at ''Mincha''.", "There are also a number of additions to the liturgy of both services.===Yom Kippur—Day of Atonement===A man in a tallit blows the shofar* Erev Yom Kippur: 9 Tishrei* Yom Kippur: 10 Tishrei (begins at sunset)Yom Kippur () is the holiest day of the year for Jews.", "Its central theme is atonement and reconciliation.", "This is accomplished through prayer and complete fasting—including abstinence from all food and drink (including water)—by all healthy adults.", "Bathing, wearing of perfume or cologne, wearing of leather shoes, and sexual relations are some of the other prohibitions on Yom Kippur—all them designed to ensure one's attention is completely and absolutely focused on the quest for atonement with God.", "Yom Kippur is also unique among holidays as having work-related restrictions identical to those of Shabbat.", "The fast and other prohibitions commence on 10 Tishrei at sunset—sunset being the ''beginning'' of the day in Jewish tradition.A traditional prayer in Aramaic called ''Kol Nidre'' (\"All Vows\") is traditionally recited just before sunset.", "Although often regarded as the start of the Yom Kippur evening service—to such a degree that ''Erev Yom Kippur'' (\"Yom Kippur Evening\") is often called \"Kol Nidre\" (also spelled \"Kol Nidrei\")—it is technically a separate tradition.", "This is especially so because, being recited before sunset, it is actually recited on 9 Tishrei, which is the day ''before'' Yom Kippur; it is not recited on Yom Kippur itself (on 10 Tishrei, which begins ''after'' the sun sets).", ": The words of Kol Nidre differ slightly between Ashkenazic and Sephardic traditions.", "In both, the supplicant prays to be released from all personal vows made to God during the year, so that any unfulfilled promises made to God will be annulled and, thus, forgiven.", "In Ashkenazi tradition, the reference is to the coming year; in Sephardic tradition, the reference is to the year just ended.", "Only vows between the supplicant and God are relevant.", "Vows made between the supplicant and other people remain perfectly valid, since they are unaffected by the prayer.A ''Tallit'' (four-cornered prayer shawl) is donned for evening and afternoon prayers–the only day of the year in which this is done.", "In traditional Ashkenazi communities, men wear the ''kittel'' throughout the day's prayers.", "The prayers on Yom Kippur evening are lengthier than on any other night of the year.", "Once services reconvene in the morning, the services (in all traditions) are the longest of the year.", "In some traditional synagogues prayers run continuously from morning until nightfall, or nearly so.", "Two highlights of the morning prayers in traditional synagogues are the recitation of ''Yizkor,'' the prayer of remembrance, and of liturgical poems ''(piyyutim)'' describing the temple service of Yom Kippur.Two other highlights happen late in the day.", "During the ''Minchah'' prayer, the ''haftarah'' reading features the entire Book of Jonah.", "Finally, the day concludes with ''Ne'ilah,'' a special service recited only on the day of Yom Kippur.", "Ne'ilah deals with the closing of the holiday, and contains a fervent final plea to God for forgiveness just before the conclusion of the fast.", "Yom Kippur comes to an end with the blowing of the ''shofar'', which marks the conclusion of the fast.", "It is always observed as a one-day holiday, both inside and outside the boundaries of the Land of Israel.Yom Kippur is considered, along with 15th of Av, as the happiest days of the year (Talmud Bavli—Tractate Ta'anit).===Sukkot—Feast of Booths (or Tabernacles)===A sukkah booth* Erev Sukkot: 14 Tishrei* Sukkot: 15–21 Tishrei (22 outside Israel)* The first day of Sukkot is (outside Israel, first two days are) full'' yom tov, ''while the remainder of Sukkot has the status of Chol Hamoed, \"intermediate days\".", "''Sukkot'' ( or , ''sukkōt'') or ''Succoth'' is a seven-day festival, also known as the Feast of Booths, the Feast of Tabernacles, or just Tabernacles.", "It is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals (''shalosh regalim'') mentioned in the Bible.", "Sukkot commemorates the years that the Jews spent in the desert on their way to the Promised Land, and celebrates the way in which God protected them under difficult desert conditions.", "The word ''sukkot'' is the plural of the Hebrew word ''sukkah'', meaning booth.", "Jews are commanded to \"dwell\" in booths during the holiday.", "This generally means taking meals, but some sleep in the ''sukkah'' as well, particularly in Israel.", "There are specific rules for constructing a ''sukkah''.Along with dwelling in a ''sukkah,'' the principal ritual unique to this holiday is use of the Four Species: ''lulav'' (palm), ''hadass'' (myrtle), ''aravah'' (willow) and ''etrog'' (citron).", "On each day of the holiday other than Shabbat, these are waved in association with the recitation of Hallel in the synagogue, then walked in a procession around the synagogue called the ''Hoshanot''.The seventh day of the Sukkot is called Hoshanah Rabbah, the \"Great ''Hoshanah\"'' (singular of ''Hoshanot'' and the source of the English word hosanna).", "The climax of the day's prayers includes seven processions of ''Hoshanot'' around the synagogue.", "This tradition mimics practices from the Temple in Jerusalem.", "Many aspects of the day's customs also resemble those of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.", "Hoshanah Rabbah is traditionally taken to be the day of the \"delivery\" of the final judgment of Yom Kippur, and offers a last opportunity for pleas of repentance before the holiday season closes.===Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah===Dancing with the Torah* Shemini Atzeret: 22 Tishrei (combined with Simchat Torah in Israel)* Simchat Torah outside Israel: 23 TishreiThe holiday of Shemini Atzeret () immediately follows the conclusion of the holiday of Sukkot.", "The Hebrew word ''shemini'' means \"eighth\", and refers to its position on \"the eighth day\" of Sukkot, actually a seven-day holiday.", "This name reflects the fact that while in many respects Shemini Atzeret is a separate holiday in its own right, in certain respects its celebration is linked to that of Sukkot.", "Outside Israel, meals are still taken in the Sukkah on this day.The main notable custom of this holiday is the celebration of ''Simchat Torah'' (), meaning \"rejoicing with the Torah\".", "This name originally referred to a special \"ceremony\": the last weekly Torah portion is read from Deuteronomy, completing the annual cycle, and is followed immediately by the reading of the first chapter of Genesis, beginning the new annual cycle.", "Services are especially joyous, and all attendees, young and old, are involved.This ceremony so dominates the holiday that in Israel, where the holiday is one day long, the whole holiday is often referred to as ''Simchat Torah''.", "Outside Israel, the holiday is two days long; the name ''Shemini Atzeret'' is used for the first day, while the second is normally called ''Simchat Torah''.===Hanukkah—Festival of Lights===Hanukkiah* Erev Hanukkah: 24 Kislev* Hanukkah: 25 Kislev – 2 or 3 TevetThe story of Hanukkah () is preserved in the books of the First and Second Maccabees.", "These books are not part of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), they are apocryphal books instead.", "The miracle of the one-day supply of olive oil miraculously lasting eight days is first described in the Talmud (Shabbat 21b), written about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees.Hanukkah marks the defeat of Seleucid Empire forces that had tried to prevent the people of Israel from practicing Judaism.", "Judah Maccabee and his brothers destroyed overwhelming forces, and rededicated the Temple in Jerusalem.", "The eight-day festival is marked by the kindling of lights—one on the first night, two on the second, and so on—using a special candle holder called a ''Hanukkiah'', or a ''Hanukkah menorah.", "''Religiously, Hanukkah is a minor holiday.", "Except on Shabbat, restrictions on work do not apply.", "Aside from the kindling of lights, formal religious observance is restricted to changes in liturgy.", "Hanukkah celebration tends to be informal and based on custom rather than law.", "Three widely practiced customs include:* Consumption of foods prepared in oil, such as potato pancakes or ''sufganiyot,'' commemorating the miracle of oil* Playing the game of dreidel (called a ''sevivon'' in Hebrew), symbolizing Jews' disguising of illegal Torah study sessions as gambling meetings during the period leading to the Maccabees' revolt* Giving children money, especially coins, called Hanukkah gelt.", "However, the custom of giving presents is of far more recent, North American, origin, and is connected to the gift economy prevalent around North American Christmas celebrations.===Tenth of Tevet===* Asarah B'Tevet: 10 TevetThe Tenth of Tevet (, ''Asarah B'Tevet'') is a minor fast day, marking the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem as outlined in 2 Kings 25:1:And it came to pass in the ninth year of his reign, in the tenth month, in the tenth day of the month, that Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came, he and all his army, against Jerusalem, and encamped against it; and they built forts against it round about.This fast's commemoration also includes other events occurring on 8, 9 and 10 Tevet.This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above).", "This is the only minor fast that can fall on a Friday under the current fixed Jewish calendar.===Tu Bishvat—New Year of the Trees===Nuts and dried fruits, traditionally eaten on Tu Bishvat* Tu Bishvat: 15 ShevatTu Bishvat () (lit., \"fifteenth of Shevat\", as is the number \"15\" in Hebrew letters), is the new year for trees.", "It is also known as (''Ḥag ha-Ilanot,'' Festival of Trees), or (''Rosh ha-Shanah la-Ilanot,'' New Year for Trees).", "According to the Mishnah, it marks the day from which fruit tithes are counted each year.", "Starting on this date, the biblical prohibition on eating the first three years of fruit (''orlah'') and the requirement to bring the fourth year fruit ''(neta revai)'' to the Temple in Jerusalem were counted.During the 17th century, Rabbi Yitzchak Luria of Safed and his disciples created a short seder, called ''Hemdat ha‑Yamim,'' reminiscent of the seder that Jews observe on Passover, that explores the holiday's Kabbalistic themes.", "This Tu Bishvat seder has witnessed a revival in recent years.", "More generally, Tu Bishvat is celebrated in modern times by eating various fruits and nuts associated with the Land of Israel.Traditionally, trees are planted on this day.", "Many children collect funds leading up to this day to plant trees in Israel.", "Trees are usually planted locally as well.===Purim—Festival of Lots===* Fast of Esther: normally 13 Adar* Purim: 14 Adar* Shushan Purim: 15 Adar* In leap years on the Hebrew calendar, the above dates are observed in the Second Adar ''(Adar Sheni)''.", "The 14th and 15th of First Adar ''(Adar Rishon)'' are known as ''Purim Katan''====Purim Katan====''Purim Katan'' () (lit., \"small Purim\") is observed on the 14th and 15th of First Adar in leap years.", "These days are marked by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight changes in the liturgy.====Ta'anit Esther–Fast of Esther====The opening chapter of a hand-written scroll of the Book of Esther, with reader's pointerMishloah manot''Ta'anit Esther'' (), or \"Fast of Esther\", is named in honor of the fast of Esther and her court as Esther prepared to approach the king unbidden to invite him and Haman to a banquet.", "It commemorates that fast, as well as one alluded to later in the Book of Esther, undertaken as the Jews prepared to battle their enemies.This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above).", "While normally observed on 13 Adar, the eve of Purim, this fast is advanced to Thursday, 11 Adar, when 13 Adar falls on Shabbat.====Purim and Shushan Purim====Purim () commemorates the events that took place in the Book of Esther.", "The principal celebrations or commemorations include:* The reading of the ''''Megillah''''.", "Traditionally, this is read from a scroll twice during Purim–once in the evening and again in the morning.", "Ashkenazim have a custom of making disparaging noises at every mention of Haman's name during the reading.", "* The giving of ''Mishloakh Manot'', gifts of food and drink to friends and neighbors.", "* The giving of ''Matanot La'evyonim'', gifts to the poor and the needy.", "* The Purim meal (''Se'udat Purim'' or ''Purim Se'udah'').", "This meal is traditionally accompanied by consumption of alcohol, often heavy, although Jewish sages have warned about the need to adhere to all religious laws even in a drunken state.Several customs have evolved from these principal commemorations.", "One widespread custom to act out the story of Purim.", "The Purim spiel, or Purim play, has its origins in this, although the ''Purim spiel'' is not limited to that subject.", "Wearing of costumes and masks is also very common.", "These may be an outgrowth of Purim plays, but there are several theories as to the origin of the custom, most related in some way to the \"hidden\" nature of the miracles of Purim.Purim carnivals of various types have also become customary.", "In Israel there are festive parades, known as ''Ad-D'lo-Yada'', in the town's main street.", "The largest and most renowned is in Holon.Most Jews celebrate Purim on 14 Adar, the day of celebration after the Jews defeated their enemies.", "Because Jews in the capital city of Shushan fought with their enemies an extra day, Purim is celebrated a day later there, on the day known as , Shushan Purim.", "This observance was expanded to \"walled cities\", which are defined as cities \"walled since the time of Joshua\".", "In practice, there are no Jews living in Shushan (Shush, Iran), and Shushan Purim is observed fully only in Jerusalem.", "Cities like Safed and Tiberias also partially observe Shushan Purim.", "Elsewhere, Shushan Purim is marked only by a small increase in festivity, including a prohibition on fasting, and slight changes in the liturgy.===Pesach—Passover===* Erev Pesach and Fast of the Firstborn, (\"Ta'anit Bechorot\"): 14 Nisan* Pesach (Passover): 15–21 Nisan (outside Israel 15–22 Nisan)* The first day and last day of Passover (outside Israel, first two and last two days) are full ''yom tov'', while the remainder of Passover has the status of ''Chol Hamoed'', \"intermediate days\".", "* Pesach Sheni (second Passover): 14 Iyar====Month of Nisan====As a rule, the month of Nisan is considered to be one of extra joy.", "Traditionally, throughout the entire month, Tahanun is omitted from the prayer service, many public mourning practices (such as delivering a eulogy at a funeral) are eliminated, and voluntary fasting is prohibited.", "However, practices sometimes vary.====Eve of Passover and Fast of the Firstborn====Traditional arrangement of symbolic foods on a Passover Seder PlateTable set for Passover sederThe day before Passover (''Erev Pesach,'' lit., \"Passover eve\") is significant for three reasons:* It is the day that all of the involved preparations for Passover, especially elimination of leavened food, or ''chametz'', must be completed.", "In particular, a formal search for remaining ''chametz'' is done during the evening of Erev Pesach, and all remaining ''chametz'' is finally destroyed, disposed of or nullified during the morning of Erev Pesach.", "* It is the day observed as the Fast of the Firstborn (תענית בכורות).", "Jews who are firstborn fast, in remembrance of the tenth plague, when God killed the Egyptian firstborn, while sparing the Jewish firstborn.", "This fast is overridden by a ''seudat mitzvah'', a meal celebrating the fulfillment of a commandment; accordingly, it is almost universal for firstborn Jews to attend such a meal on this day so as to obviate their need to fast.", "* During the era of the Temple in Jerusalem, the ''Korban Pesach'', or sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb, was carried out the afternoon of 14 Nisan in anticipation of its consumption on Passover night.When Passover starts on Sunday, and the eve of Passover is therefore Shabbat, the above schedule is altered.", "See Eve of Passover on Shabbat for details.====Passover====Passover (פּסח) ''(Pesach''), also known liturgically as חג המצות ''(\"Ḥag haMatzot\"'', the \"Festival of Unleavened Bread\"), is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals (''shalosh regalim'') mentioned in the Torah.", "Passover commemorates the Exodus, the liberation of the Israelite slaves from Egypt.", "No ''chametz'' (leavened food) is eaten, or even owned, during the week of Passover, in commemoration of the biblical narrative in which the Israelites left Egypt so quickly that their bread did not have enough time to rise.", "Observant Jews go to great lengths to remove all ''chametz'' from their homes and offices in the run-up to Passover.Along with the avoidance of ''chametz'', the principal ritual unique to this holiday is the seder.", "The ''seder'', meaning \"order\", is an ordered ritual meal eaten on the first night of Passover, and outside Israel also on the second night.", "This meal is known for its distinctive ritual foods—matzo (unleavened bread), maror (bitter herbs), and four cups of wine—as well as its prayer text/handbook/study guide, the Haggadah.", "Participation in a Passover seder is one of the most widely observed Jewish rituals, even among less affiliated or less observant Jews.Passover lasts seven days in Israel, and eight days outside Israel.", "The holiday of the last day of Passover (outside Israel, last two days) commemorates the Splitting of the Red Sea; according to tradition this occurred on the seventh day of Passover.====Pesach Sheni====''Pesach Sheni'' (פסח שני) (\"Second Passover\") is a day prescribed in the Torah to allow those who did not bring the Paschal Lamb offering ''(Korban Pesach)'' a second chance to do so.", "Eligibility was limited to those who were distant from Jerusalem on Passover, or those who were ritually impure and ineligible to participate in a sacrificial offering.", "Today, some have the custom to eat matzo on Pesach Sheni, and some make a small change to the liturgy.===Sefirah—Counting of the Omer===* ''Sefirat HaOmer'' (Counting of the Omer): 16 Nisan – 5 Sivan ''Sefirah'' (lit.", "\"Counting\"; more fully, ''Sefirat HaOmer,'' \"Counting of the Omer\") (ספירת העומר), is the 49-day period between the biblical pilgrimage festivals of Passover and Shavuot.", "The Torah states that this period is to be counted, both in days and in weeks.", "The first day of this period is the day of the first grain offering of the new year's crop, an omer of barley.", "The day following the 49th day of the period is the festival of Shavuot; the Torah specifies a grain offering of wheat on that day.Symbolically, this period has come to represent the spiritual development of the Israelites from slaves in the polytheistic society of Ancient Egypt to free, monotheistic people worthy of the revelation of the Torah, traditionally said to have occurred on Shavuot.", "Spiritual development remains a key rabbinic teaching of this period.Sefirah has long been observed as a period of semi-mourning.", "The customary explanation cites a plague that killed 24,000 students of Rabbi Akiva (BT ''Yevamot'' 62b).", "In broad terms, the mourning practices observed include limiting actual celebrations (such as weddings), not listening to music, not wearing new clothing, and not shaving or taking a haircut.", "There is a wide variety of practice as to the specifics of this observance.", "See Counting of the Omer (Semi-mourning).Lag Ba'Omer bonfire====Lag Ba'Omer====* Lag Ba'Omer: 18 Iyar''Lag Ba'Omer'' () is the 33rd day in the Omer count ( is the number 33 in Hebrew).", "By Ashkenazi practice, the semi-mourning observed during the period of Sefirah (see above) is lifted ''on'' Lag Ba'Omer, while Sefardi practice is to lift it ''at the end of'' Lag Ba'Omer.", "Minor liturgical changes are made on Lag Ba'omer; because mourning practices are suspended, weddings are often conducted on this day.Lag Ba'Omer is identified as the ''Yom Hillula (yahrzeit)'' of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, one of the leading ''Tannaim'' (teachers quoted in the Mishna) and ascribed author of the core text of Kabbalah, the Zohar.", "Customary celebrations include bonfires, picnics, and bow and arrow play by children.", "Boys sometimes receive their first haircuts on Lag Ba'Omer, while Hasidic rebbes hold ''tishes'' in honor of the day.In Israel, Lag Ba'Omer is associated with the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire.", "In Zionist thought, the plague that decimated Rabbi Akiva's 24,000 disciples is explained as a veiled reference to the revolt; the 33rd day representing the end of the plague is explained as the day of Bar Kokhba's victory.", "The traditional bonfires and bow-and-arrow play were thus reinterpreted as celebrations of military victory.", "In this vein, the order originally creating the Israel Defense Forces was issued on Lag Ba'Omer 1948, 13 days after Israel declared independence.===Shavuot—Feast of Weeks—Yom HaBikurim===Cheese blintzes, a traditional food on Shavuot* Erev Shavuot: 5 Sivan* Shavuot: 6 (and outside Israel: 7) Sivan''Shavuot'' (), the Feast of Weeks, is one of the three pilgrimage festivals (''Shalosh regalim'') ordained in the Torah.", "Different from other biblical holidays, the date for Shavuot is not explicitly fixed in the Torah.", "Instead, it is observed on the day following the 49th and final day in the counting of the Omer.", "In the current era of the fixed Jewish calendar, this puts the date of Shavuot as 6 Sivan.", "In Israel and in Reform Judaism, it is a one-day holiday; elsewhere, it is a two-day holiday extending through 7 Sivan.According to Rabbinic tradition, codified in the Talmud at Shabbat 87b, the Ten Commandments were given on this day.", "In the era of the Temple, there were certain specific offerings mandated for Shavuot, and Shavuot was the first day for bringing of Bikkurim to the Temple.", "Other than those, there are no explicit ''mitzvot'' unique to Shavuot given in the Torah (parallel to matzo on Passover or Sukkah on Sukkot).Nevertheless, there are a number of widespread customs observed on Shavuot.", "During this holiday the Torah portion containing the Ten Commandments is read in the synagogue, and the biblical Book of Ruth is read as well.", "It is traditional to eat dairy meals during Shavuot.", "In observant circles, all night Torah study is common on the first night of Shavuot, while in Reform Judaism, Shavuot is the customary date for Confirmation ceremonies.===Mourning for Jerusalem: Seventeenth of Tammuz and Tisha B'Av===The three-week period starting on 17 Tammuz and concluding after Tisha B'Av has traditionally been observed as a period of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Holy Temple there.====Fast of the Seventeenth of Tammuz====* Shiva Asar B'Tammuz: 17 TammuzThe Seventeenth of Tamuz (שבעה עשר בתמוז, ''Shiva Asar B'Tamuz'') traditionally marks the first breach in the walls of the Jerusalem during the Roman conquest in 70 CE, at the end of the Second Temple period.", "According to tradition, this day has had negative connotations since Moses broke the first set of tablets on this day.", "The Mishnah cites five negative events that happened on 17 Tammuz.This fast is observed like other minor fasts (see Tzom Gedalia, above).", "When this fast falls out on Shabbat, its observance is postponed until Sunday.====The Three Weeks and the Nine Days====* The Three Weeks: 17 Tammuz – 9 Av* The Nine Days: 1–9 Av* The Week of Tisha B'Av (beginning at the conclusion of Shabbat preceding Tisha B'Av)The period between the fasts of 17 Tammuz and 9 Av, known as the \"Three Weeks\" (Hebrew: בין המצרים, \"between the straits\"), features a steadily increasing level of mourning practices as Tisha B'Av approaches.", "Ashkenazi Jews refrain from conducting weddings and other joyful events throughout the period unless the date is established by Jewish law (as for a bris or ''pidyon haben)''.", "They do not cut their hair during this period.", "Starting on the first of Av and throughout the nine days between the 1st and 9th days of Av, Ashkenazim traditionally refrain from eating meat and drinking wine, except on Shabbat or at a ''Seudat Mitzvah'' (a Mitzvah meal, such as for a bris or ''siyum'').", "They also refrain from bathing for pleasure.", "Sefardic practice varies some from this; the less severe restrictions usually begin on 1 Av, while the more severe restrictions apply during the week of Tisha B'Av itself.Subject to the variations described above, Orthodox Judaism continues to maintain the traditional prohibitions.", "In Conservative Judaism, the Rabbinical Assembly's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has issued several responsa (legal rulings) which hold that the prohibitions against weddings in this timeframe are deeply held traditions, but should not be construed as binding law.", "Thus, Conservative Jewish practice would allow weddings during this time, except on the 17th of Tammuz and 9th of Av themselves.", "Rabbis within Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism hold that halakha (Jewish law) is no longer binding and follow their individual consciences on such matters.", "Nevertheless, the rabbinical manual of the Reform movement encourages Reform rabbis not to conduct weddings on Tisha B'Av itself \"out of historical consciousness and respect\" for the Jewish community.====Tisha B'Av—Ninth of Av====Worshipers seated on the floor of the synagogue before the reading of Lamentations on Tisha B'Av* Tisha B'Av : 9 Av''Tisha B'Av'' () is a major fast day and day of mourning.", "A Midrashic tradition states that the spies' negative report concerning the Land of Israel was delivered on Tisha B'Av.", "Consequently, the day became auspicious for negative events in Jewish history.", "Most notably, both the First Temple, originally built by King Solomon, and the Second Temple of Roman times were destroyed on Tisha B'Av.", "Other calamities throughout Jewish history are said to have taken place on Tisha B'Av, including King Edward I's edict compelling the Jews to leave England (1290) and the Jewish expulsion from Spain in 1492.Tisha B'Av is a major fast.", "It is a 25-hour fast, running from sundown to nightfall.", "As on Yom Kippur, not only are eating and drinking prohibited, but also bathing, anointing, marital relations and the wearing of leather shoes.", "Work is not prohibited, as on biblical holidays, but is discouraged.", "In the evening, the Book of Lamentations is read in the synagogue, while in the morning lengthy ''kinot,'' poems of elegy, are recited.", "From evening until noon mourning rituals resembling those of shiva are observed, including sitting on low stools or the floor; after noon those restrictions are somewhat lightened, in keeping with the tradition that Messiah will be born on Tisha B'Av.While the fast ends at nightfall of 9–10 Av, the restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days continue through noon on 10 Av because the Second Temple continued to burn through most of that day.", "When 9 Av falls on Shabbat, when fasting is prohibited, the fast is postponed until 10 Av.", "In that case, the restrictions of the Three Weeks and Nine Days end with the fast, except for the prohibition against eating meat and drinking wine, which extend until the morning of 10 Av.===Tu B'Av===* Tu B'Av: 15 Av''Tu B'av'' (ט״ו באב), lit.", "\"15th of Av\", is a day mentioned in the Talmud alongside Yom Kippur as \"happiest of the year\".", "It was a day celebrating the bringing of wood used for the Temple Service, as well as a day when marriages were arranged.", "Today, it is marked by a small change in liturgy.", "In modern Israel, the day has become somewhat of an analog to Valentine's Day.===Other fasts===Several other fast days of ancient or medieval origin continue to be observed to some degree in modern times.", "Such continued observance is usually by Orthodox Jews only, and is not universal today even among Orthodox Jews.", "* Fasts for droughts and other public troubles.", "Much of the Talmudic tractate ''Ta'anit'' is devoted to the proclamation and execution of public fasts.", "The most detailed description refers to fasts in times of drought in the Land of Israel.", "Apparently these fasts included a ''Ne'ilah'' (closing) prayer, a prayer now reserved for recitation on Yom Kippur only.", ":While the specific fasts described in the Mishnah fell into disuse once Jews were exiled from the land of Israel, various Jewish communities have declared fasts over the years, using these as a model.", "Two examples include a fast among Polish Jews commemorating the massacre of Jews during the Khmelnytsky Uprising and one among Russian Jews during anti-Jewish pogroms of the 1880s.", ":Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the Chief Rabbinate of Israel has urged fasting in times of drought.", "* ''Behab'' (בה\"ב).", "The fasts of ''bet-hey-bet''—Monday-Thursday-Monday—were established as a vehicle for atonement from possible excesses during the extended holiday periods of Passover and Sukkot.", "They are proclaimed on the first Shabbat of the month of Iyar following Passover, and Marcheshvan following Sukkot.", "Based on the model of Mishnah ''Ta'anit'', they are then observed on the Monday, Thursday and Monday following that Shabbat.", "* ''Yom Kippur Katan'' (\"little Yom Kippur\").", "These fasts originated in the sixteenth-century Kabbalistic community of Safed.", "They are conceptually linked to the sin-offerings that were brought to the Temple in Jerusalem on each Rosh Chodesh.", "These fasts are observed on the day before Rosh Chodesh in most months." ], [ "Israeli/Jewish national holidays and days of remembrance", "As a general rule, the biblical Jewish holidays (Sabbath, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Passover, Shavuot, Sukkot and Purim) are observed as public holidays in Israel.", "Chanukah is a school holiday, but businesses remain open.", "On Tisha B'Av, restaurants and places of entertainment are closed.", "Other Jewish holidays listed above are observed in varying ways and to varying degrees.Between the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 and the aftermath of the Six-Day War, the Knesset, generally in consultation with the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, established four national holidays or days of remembrance:* ''Yom HaShoah:'' Holocaust Remembrance Day* ''Yom Hazikaron:'' Memorial Day* ''Yom Ha'atzmaut:'' Israel Independence Day* ''Yom Yerushalayim:'' Jerusalem DayThe status of these days as ''religious'' events is not uniform within the Jewish world.", "Non-Orthodox, Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jewish religious movements accept these days as ''religious'' as well as ''national'' in nature.As a rule, these four days are not accepted as religious observances by most Haredi Jews, including Hasidim.", "Some ''ḥaredim'' are opposed to the existence of the State of Israel altogether on religious grounds; others simply feel that there are not sufficient grounds under Jewish law to justify the establishment of new religious holidays.", "For details, see Haredim and Zionism.Observance of these days in Jewish communities outside Israel is typically more muted than their observance in Israel.", "Events held in government and public venues within Israel are often held in Jewish communal settings (synagogues and community centers) abroad.More recently, the Knesset established two additional holidays:* ''Yom HaAliyah'': Aliyah Day* A day to commemorate the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands and IranFinally, the Israeli government also recognizes several ethnic Jewish observances with holiday status.===Yom HaShoah—Holocaust Remembrance Day===A lit Yom HaShoah Yellow Candle* Yom HaShoah: (nominally) 27 Nisan''Yom HaShoah'' (lit.", "\"Holocaust Day\") is a day of remembrance for victims of the Holocaust.", "Its full name is ''Yom Hazikaron LaShoah v'LiGevurah'' (lit.", "\"Holocaust and Heroism Remembrance Day\") (), and reflects a desire to recognize martyrs who died in active resistance to the Nazis alongside those who died as passive victims.", "Its date, 27 Nisan, was chosen because it commemorates the Warsaw Ghetto uprising, the best known of the armed Jewish uprisings.Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.", "Public commemoration of Yom HaShoah usually includes religious elements such as the recitation of Psalms, memorial prayers, and kaddish, and the lighting of memorial candles.", "In Israel, the most notable observances are the State memorial ceremony at Yad Vashem and the sirens marking off a two-minute silence at 10:00 am.", "Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jews generally participate in such public observances along with secular Jews and Jews who adhere to more liberal religious movements.", "Outside Israel, Jewish communities observe Yom HaShoah in addition to or instead of their countries' Holocaust Memorial Days.", "Probably the most notable commemoration is the March of the Living, held at the site of Auschwitz-Birkenau, attended by Jews from all parts of the world.Outside Orthodoxy, a liturgy for Yom HaShoah is beginning to develop.", "The Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist prayer books all include liturgical elements for Yom HaShoah, to be added to the regular weekday prayers.", "Conservative Judaism has written a scroll, called ''Megillat HaShoah,'' intended to become a definitive liturgical reading for Yom HaShoah.", "The Orthodox world–even the segment that participates publicly in Yom HaShoah–has been reluctant to write a liturgy for the day, preferring to compose ''Kinnot'' (prayers of lamentation) for recitation on Tisha B'Av.In order to ensure that public Yom HaShoah ceremonies in Israel do not violate Shabbat prohibitions, the date for Yom HaShoah varies as follows:*If 27 Nisan occurs on a Friday, the observance of Yom HaShoah is advanced to the previous day (Thursday, 26 Nisan).", "*If 27 Nisan occurs on a Sunday, the observance of Yom HaShoah is delayed to the following day (Monday, 28 Nisan).===Yom Hazikaron—Memorial Day===A moment of silence as the siren is sounded in Tel Aviv, Yom Hazikaron 2007* Yom Hazikaron: (nominally) 4 Iyar''Yom Hazikaron'' (lit.", "\"Memorial Day\") is a day of remembrance of the fallen of Israel's wars.", "During the first years of Israel's independence, this remembrance was observed on Yom Ha'atzmaut (Independence Day) itself.", "However, by 1951, the memorial observance was separated from the festive celebration of Independence Day and moved to its current date, the day before Yom Ha'atzmaut.", "Since 2000, the scope of the memorial has expanded to include civilians slain by acts of hostile terrorism.", "Its full name is now (\"Day of Remembrance for the Fallen of the Battles of Israel and the Victims of Terror\").Places of public entertainment are closed throughout Israel in recognition of the day.", "Many schools, businesses and other institutions conduct memorial services on this day, and it is customary to visit the graves of fallen soldiers and to recite memorial prayers there.", "The principal public observances are the evening opening ceremony at the Western Wall and the morning services of remembrance at military cemeteries throughout the country, each opened by the sounding of sirens.", "The public observances conclude with the service at the military cemetery on Mount Herzl that serves as the transition to Yom Ha'atzmaut.Outside Israel, Yom HaZikaron observances are often folded into Yom Ha'atzmaut celebrations.", "Within Israel, Yom Hazikaron is always the day before Yom Ha'atzmaut, but that date moves to prevent violation of Sabbath prohibitions during the ceremonies of either day.", "See following section for details.===Yom Ha'atzmaut—Israel Independence Day===The final round of the International Bible Contest (here in 1985) is held on Yom Ha'atzmautJerusalem Day celebrations* Yom Ha'atzmaut: (nominally) 5 Iyar''Yom Ha'atzmaut'' () is Israel's Independence Day.", "Observance of this day by Jews inside and outside Israel is widespread, and varies in tone from secular (military parades and barbecues) to religious (recitation of Hallel and new liturgies).Although Israel's independence was declared on a Friday, the Chief Rabbinate has long been mindful of the possibility of Yom Ha'atzmaut (and Yom Hazikaron) observances leading to violation of Sabbath prohibitions.", "To prevent such violations, the dates of Yom Hazikaron and Yom Ha'atzmaut vary as follows:*If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Sunday-Monday, the observances are delayed to Monday-Tuesday, 5–6 Iyar.", "*If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Tuesday-Wednesday, the observances are not moved.", "*If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Thursday-Friday, the observances are advanced to Wednesday-Thursday, 3–4 Iyar.", "*If 4–5 Iyar occur on a Friday-Shabbat, the observances are advanced to Wednesday-Thursday, 2–3 Iyar.Nearly all non-''ḥaredi'' Jewish religious communities have incorporated changes or enhancements to the liturgy in honor of Yom Ha'atzmaut and suspend the mourning practices of the period of Sefirat Ha'Omer.", "(See Yom Ha'atzmaut—Religious Customs for details.)", "Within the Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox communities, these changes are not without controversy, and customs continue to evolve.", "''Ḥaredi'' religious observance of Yom Ha'atzmaut varies widely.", "A few ''ḥaredim'' (especially Sefardic Ḥaredim) celebrate the day in a reasonably similar way to the way non-''ḥaredim'' do.", "Most ''ḥaredim'' simply treat the day indifferently; ''i.e.,'' as a regular day.", "And finally others (notably Satmar Ḥasidim and Neturei Karta) mourn on the day because of their opposition to the enterprise of the State of Israel.===Yom Yerushalayim—Jerusalem Day===* Yom Yerushalayim: 28 IyarJerusalem Day () marks the 1967 reunification of Jerusalem under Israeli control during the Six-Day War.", "This marked the first time in 19 years that the Temple Mount was accessible to Jews, and the first time since the destruction of the Second Temple 1897 years earlier that the Temple Mount was under Jewish political control.As with Yom Ha'atzmaut, celebrations of Yom Yerushalayim range from completely secular (including hikes to Jerusalem and a large parade through downtown Jerusalem) to religious (recitation of Hallel and new liturgies).", "Although Haredim do not participate in the liturgical changes, they are somewhat more likely to celebrate Yom Yerushalayim than the other modern Israeli holidays because of the importance of the liberation of the Western Wall and the Old City of Jerusalem.Outside Israel, observance of Yom Yerushalayim is widespread, especially in Orthodox circles.", "It has not gained as widespread acceptance as Yom Ha'atzmaut, especially among more politically liberal Jews, because of the continuing conflicts over the future of the city.Yom Yerushalayim has not traditionally moved to avoid Shabbat desecration, although in 2012 the Chief Rabbinate began some efforts in that direction.===Yom HaAliyah—Aliyah Day===* Yom HaAliyah: 10 Nisan''Joshua passing the River Jordan with the Ark of the Covenant'' by Benjamin WestAliyah Day () is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of Nisan.", "The day was established to acknowledge Aliyah, immigration to the Jewish state, as a core value of the State of Israel, and honor the ongoing contributions of Olim (immigrants) to Israeli society.Immigration to Israel is a recognized religious value of Judaism, sometimes referred to as the Gathering of Israel.", "The date chosen for Yom HaAliyah, 10 Nisan, has religious significance: it is the day on which Joshua and the Israelites crossed the Jordan River at Gilgal into the Promised Land.", "It was thus the first documented \"mass Aliyah\".", "The alternative date observed in the school system, 7 Heshvan, falls during the week of the Torah portion in which God instructs Abraham to leave his home and his family and go up to the Land of Israel.At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature.===Day to commemorate the expulsion of Jews from Arab lands and Iran===* Day to Mark the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from the Arab Countries and Iran: 30 November (on the Gregorian calendar)The Knesset established this observance in 2014.The purpose of this observance is to recognize the collective trauma of Mizrahi Jews during the period around the establishment of the State of Israel.", "Many Mizrachi Jews felt that their own suffering was being ignored, both in comparison to the suffering of European Jewry during the Holocaust and in comparison to the Palestinian Nakba.", "The Gregorian-calendar date chosen is the day after the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was adopted, as that date marked the beginning of concentrated pressure and hostility against the community.At the present time, observance of this day appears to be secular in nature.===Ethnic holidays===The Israeli government officially recognizes three traditional holidays of ethnic Jewish communities in Israel.", "These days are also observed by their respective communities outside Israel.", "* ''Mimouna'' began as a holiday among Moroccan Jews, while similar celebrations also exist among Turkish Jews and Persian Jews.", "These festivals are observed on the day after Passover, when the eating of ordinary food (\"chametz\") resumes.", "In Israel, the observance of Mimouna has spread widely in recent years; it has been estimated that up to two million Jews who live in Israel now participate in Mimouna celebrations.", ": On the evening concluding Passover, the celebration centers on visiting the homes of friends and neighbors, Jewish and non-Jewish.", "A variety of traditional foods are served, and symbols which represent good luck and prosperity are prominently displayed.", "The next day, barbecues and picnics are among the most widespread activities of the celebration.", "* The ''Seharane'' was celebrated by Kurdish Jews as a multi-day nature festival starting the day after Passover.", "Communities would leave their villages and camp out for several days, celebrating with eating and drinking, nature walks, singing and dancing.", ": Its observance was interrupted after the relocation of this community to Israel in the 1950s.", "In recent years it has been revived.", "But because of the already-widespread celebration of Mimouna in Israel, the celebration of the Seharane was moved to ''Chol HaMoed'' Sukkot.", "* The ''Sigd'' began among the Beta Israel (Ethiopian) community as a variation of the observance of Yom Kippur.", "Currently that community now observes it in addition to Yom Kippur; its date is 29 Heshvan, 49 days after Yom Kippur.", "It shares some features of Yom Kippur, Shavuot, and other holidays.", ": The Sigd is modeled on a ceremony of fasting, study and prayer described in Nehemiah 8, when the Jews rededicated themselves to religious observance on return to Israel after the Babylonian exile.", "In Ethiopia, the community would gather on a mountaintop and pray for a return to Jerusalem.", "The modern Sigd is centered on a promenade overlooking the Old City of Jerusalem.", "The day's observance ends with a celebratory break fast." ], [ "See also", "* Chabad holidays* Jewish greetings* Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000–2050* List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar* List of Gregorian Jewish-related and Israeli holidays* Religious festival* Yom Tov Torah readings" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brofsky, David.", "''Hilkhot Moadim: Understanding the Laws of the Festivals''.", "Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, 2013.", "* Greenberg, Irving.", "''The Jewish Way: Living the Holidays''.", "New York: Touchstone, 1988.", "* Renberg, Dalia H. ''The Complete Family Guide to Jewish Holidays''.", "New York: Adama, 1985.", "* Strassfeld, Michael.", "''The Jewish Holidays: A Guide and Commentary''.", "New York: Harper & Row, 1985." ], [ "External links", "* Jewish Holidays Online List of all Jewish holidays for the current year (or any given year)* Jewish holiday calendars & Hebrew date converter.", "Hebcal home page.", "Interactive Jewish calendar with candle lighting times and Torah readings.", "* Jewish Holidays Hebcal.", "Major and Minor holidays and fasts for 6 Jewish year* Four-year calendar of major Jewish holidays; Summary Explanation of the Jewish Holidays.", "JewishColumbus* Jewish Holidays.", "Upcoming Holidays, links to others; at Orthodox Union.", "* JewishGen Jewish Festival Dates calculator of the dates of Jewish holidays * Jewish Holidays: A Primer Patheos" ] ]
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[ [ "John Engler" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Mathias Engler''' (born October 12, 1948) is an American politician, lawyer, businessman, and lobbyist who served as the 46th governor of Michigan from 1991 to 2003.Considered one of the country's top lobbyists, he is a member of the Republican Party.Engler was serving in the Michigan Senate when he enrolled at Thomas M. Cooley Law School and graduated with a Juris Doctor degree, having served as a Michigan State senator since 1979.He was elected Senate majority leader in 1984 and served there until being elected governor in 1990.He was reelected in 1994 and 1998, and is the last Michigan governor to serve more than two terms.", "After his governorship, he worked for Business Roundtable.Engler served on the board of advisors of the Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal, an educational organization that continues the intellectual legacy of noted conservative and Michigan native Russell Kirk.", "Engler also served on the board of trustees of the Marguerite Eyer Wilbur Foundation, which funds many Kirk Center programs.", "Engler was a member of the Annie E. Casey Foundation board of trustees until 2014.As of 2018, he serves on the board of directors of Universal Forest Products.", "Previous board service included serving as a director of Dow Jones and Delta Air Lines and as a trustee of Munder Funds." ], [ "Early life and education", "Engler, a Roman Catholic, was born in Mount Pleasant, Michigan, on October 12, 1948, to Mathias John Engler and his wife, Agnes Marie (née Neyer), but grew up on a cattle farm near Beal City.He attended Michigan State University, graduating with a degree in agricultural economics in 1971, and Thomas M. Cooley Law School, graduating with a Doctor of Jurisprudence degree in 1981.He was elected to the Michigan House of Representatives as a state representative in 1970 at the age of 22.He served in the House from 1971 to 1978.His campaign manager in that first election was a college friend, Dick Posthumus.", "Engler later became the first Republican youth vice-chair for the Michigan Republican Party, defeating future U.S.", "Senator Spencer Abraham.", "Posthumus later went on to be elected a state senator, Senate Majority Leader and Lieutenant Governor.", "He was Engler's running mate in the 1998 election and served from 1999 to 2003." ], [ "Career", "President Ronald Reagan in 1988President George H. W. Bush in 1991===Governorship===Engler's administration was characterized by privatization of state services, income tax reduction, a sales tax increase, educational reform, welfare reform, and major reorganization of executive branch departments.In 1996, he was elected chairman of the Republican Governors Association, and in 2001, he was elected to head the National Governors Association.In 2002, near the end of his final term, Engler and the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality attempted to negotiate a consent order with Dow Chemical that would have resulted in a ninefold increase in the allowable levels of dioxins.", "The consent order would have resulted in Dow not having to pay to clean up high levels of toxins in Midland, Michigan, near its plant there, as well as in the Tittabawassee flood plain, which had been contaminated by dioxins dumped into the river from the facility and from overflow from waste ponds.", "The consent order fell through in late 2002.===Vice presidential speculation=======1996====During the 1996 presidential election, Engler was considered to be a potential vice presidential running mate for Republican nominee Bob Dole.", "However, Dole instead selected Jack Kemp, a former representative and HUD secretary.====2000====Engler endorsed Texas Governor George W. Bush in the 2000 Republican primary.", "After Bush secured the GOP nomination, Engler's name was again floated as a possible running mate.", "In his book ''Decision Points'', Bush says that Engler was someone he was \"close\" with and could \"work well with.\"", "Ultimately, Engler was passed over for the running mate position in favor of Dick Cheney.", "After the election, Engler's close political ally Spencer Abraham, who narrowly lost his re-election bid for the Senate to Debbie Stabenow, was chosen as Bush's Secretary of Energy.===2002 elections===Engler's lieutenant governor, Dick Posthumus, sought to succeed Engler in the 2002 gubernatorial race.", "Posthumus lost the race to the state's attorney general, Democrat Jennifer Granholm.===Election results===In 1990, Engler, then the state senate majority leader, challenged Governor James Blanchard in his bid for a third term.", "Political observers viewed his bid as a long shot, and he trailed Blanchard by double digits in the polls the weekend before the election.", "However, on election day, Engler pulled off the upset, defeating Blanchard by approximately 17,000 votes—a margin of less than one percentage point.", "In 1994, Engler ran for his second term.", "The Democrats nominated former Representative Howard Wolpe, who had close ties to the labor movement—a potent force in Democratic politics in Michigan.", "Engler bested Wolpe 61 to 39 percent, and the state Republican Party made significant gains.", "Spencer Abraham picked up the Senate seat of retiring Democrat Donald Riegle.", "Republicans gained a seat to break a tie in the state House of Representatives, taking a 56–54 majority, while also picking up a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives.", "Republican Candice Miller won an upset victory to win the post of Secretary of State.Michigan voters re-elected Engler to his third and final term in 1998.He won a landslide victory over lawyer Geoffrey Fieger.", "Engler took 1,883,005 votes—62 percent of the total—to Fieger's 38 percent and 1,143,574 votes.", "Engler's landslide helped the state Republican Party gain six seats in the state House of Representatives, taking control of the chamber they had lost two years previously with a 58–52 margin, as well as picking up an additional seat in the State Senate, for a 23–15 majority.", "Republicans also gained a seat on the technically non-partisan state Supreme Court, holding a 4–3 majority over the Democrats.===Electoral history======After governorship===After leaving the governor's mansion in January 2003, Engler served as president of the state and local government sector of Electronic Data Systems.", "Engler left that position in June 2004 to be elected president and CEO of the National Association of Manufacturers.", "Engler's tenure at the NAM ended in January 2011.In January 2011, Engler was named president of the Business Roundtable.Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice with (left to right): Tom Pickering, John Engler and John Breaux at the presentation of final report of the Secretary's Advisory Committee on Transformational Diplomacy in 2008In 2017, Engler was appointed to a four-year term on the governing board of the National Assessment of Educational Progress project.===Interim presidency of Michigan State University===On January 30, 2018, Engler was named the interim president of Michigan State University to replace Lou Anna Simon, who was embroiled with the school in the USA Gymnastics sex abuse scandal involving Larry Nassar.", "The appointment of Engler sparked controversy due to his previous handling of sexual misconduct as governor of Michigan.", "Engler's tenure as interim president was plagued by controversies, brought on by Engler's apparent callous statements and actions toward survivors during Board of Trustees meetings and statements that were reported by the press.", "One on Nassar's victims, Rachael Denhollander, said Engler \"chose to stand against every child and every sexual assault victim in the entire state, to protect an institution.", "\"Engler resigned on January 16, 2019 after the Board of Trustees indicated its intent to ask him to resign following a series of embarrassing incidents regarding Nassar's victims and his responses to issues in the aftermath.", "Engler initially indicated he planned to resign on January 23, 2019 but the Board required him to resign the morning after he submitted his resignation letter." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1975, Engler married Colleen House, who served in the Michigan House of Representatives before running for lieutenant governor of Michigan in 1986.The day after she lost the race for lieutenant governor, she filed for divorce.", "The couple had no children together; she remarried in 2002, and died in 2022.Engler married Michelle DeMunbrun, a Texas attorney, on December 8, 1990.The couple has triplet daughters, born November 13, 1994.As First Lady, Michelle Engler served as the founding chair of the Michigan Community Service Commission.", "Michelle Engler was named to the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac) board in 2001 by President George W. Bush, and re-appointed in 2002." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jacques Lacan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacques Marie Émile Lacan''' (, , ; 13 April 1901 – 9 September 1981) was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist.", "Described as \"the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud\", Lacan gave yearly seminars in Paris, from 1953 to 1981, and published papers that were later collected in the book ''Écrits''.", "Transcriptions of his seminars, given between 1954 and 1976, were also published.", "His work made a significant impact on continental philosophy and cultural theory in areas such as post-structuralism, critical theory, feminist theory and film theory, as well as on the practice of psychoanalysis itself.Lacan took up and discussed the whole range of Freudian concepts, emphasizing the philosophical dimension of Freud's thought and applying concepts derived from structuralism in linguistics and anthropology to its development in his own work, which he would further augment by employing formulae from predicate logic and topology.", "Taking this new direction, and introducing controversial innovations in clinical practice, led to expulsion for Lacan and his followers from the International Psychoanalytic Association.", "In consequence, Lacan went on to establish new psychoanalytic institutions to promote and develop his work, which he declared to be a \"return to Freud\", in opposition to prevalent trends in psychology and institutional psychoanalysis collusive of adaptation to social norms." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Lacan was born in Paris, the eldest of Émilie and Alfred Lacan's three children.", "His father was a successful soap and oils salesman.", "His mother was ardently Catholic – his younger brother entered a monastery in 1929.Lacan attended the Collège Stanislas between 1907 and 1918.An interest in philosophy led him to a preoccupation with the work of Spinoza, one outcome of which was his abandonment of religious faith for atheism.", "There were tensions in the family around this issue, and he regretted not persuading his brother to take a different path, but by 1924 his parents had moved to Boulogne and he was living in rooms in Montmartre.During the early 1920s, Lacan actively engaged with the Parisian literary and artistic avant-garde.", "Having met James Joyce, he was present at the Parisian bookshop where the first readings of passages from ''Ulysses'' in French and English took place, shortly before it was published in 1922.He also had meetings with Charles Maurras, whom he admired as a literary stylist, and he occasionally attended meetings of Action Française (of which Maurras was a leading ideologue), of which he would later be highly critical.In 1920, after being rejected for military service on the grounds that he was too thin, Lacan entered medical school.", "Between 1927 and 1931, after completing his studies at the faculty of medicine of the University of Paris, he specialised in psychiatry under the direction of Henri Claude at the Sainte-Anne Hospital, the major psychiatric hospital serving central Paris, at the Infirmary for the Insane of the Police Prefecture under Gaëtan Gatian de Clérambault and also at the Hospital Henri-Rousselle.===1930s===Lacan was involved with the Parisian surrealist movement of the 1930s, associating with André Breton, Georges Bataille, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso.", "For a time, he served as Picasso's personal therapist.", "He attended the ''mouvement Psyché'' that Maryse Choisy founded and published in the Surrealist journal ''Minotaure''.", "\"Lacan's interest in surrealism predated his interest in psychoanalysis,\" former Lacanian analyst and biographer Dylan Evans explains, speculating that \"perhaps Lacan never really abandoned his early surrealist sympathies, its neo-Romantic view of madness as 'convulsive beauty', its celebration of irrationality.\"", "Translator and historian David Macey writes that \"the importance of surrealism can hardly be over-stated... to the young Lacan... who also shared the surrealists' taste for scandal and provocation, and viewed provocation as an important element in psycho-analysis itself\".In 1931, after a second year at the Sainte-Anne Hospital, Lacan was awarded his ''Diplôme de médecin légiste'' (a medical examiner's qualification) and became a licensed forensic psychiatrist.", "The following year he was awarded his (roughly equivalent to an M.D.", "degree) for his thesis \"On Paranoiac Psychosis in its Relations to the Personality\" (\"De la Psychose paranoïaque dans ses rapports avec la personnalité\".", "Its publication had little immediate impact on French psychoanalysis but it did meet with acclaim amongst Lacan's circle of surrealist writers and artists.", "In their only recorded instance of direct communication, Lacan sent a copy of his thesis to Sigmund Freud who acknowledged its receipt with a postcard.Lacan's thesis was based on observations of several patients with a primary focus on one female patient whom he called Aimée.", "Its exhaustive reconstruction of her family history and social relations, on which he based his analysis of her paranoid state of mind, demonstrated his dissatisfaction with traditional psychiatry and the growing influence of Freud on his ideas.", "Also in 1932, Lacan published a translation of Freud's 1922 text, \"''Über einige neurotische Mechanismen bei Eifersucht, Paranoia und Homosexualität''\" (\"Some Neurotic Mechanisms in Jealousy, Paranoia and Homosexuality\") as \"''De quelques mécanismes névrotiques dans la jalousie, la paranoïa et l'homosexualité''\" in the ''''.", "In Autumn 1932, Lacan began his training analysis with Rudolph Loewenstein, which was to last until 1938.In 1934 Lacan became a candidate member of the Société psychanalytique de Paris (SPP).", "He began his private psychoanalytic practice in 1936 whilst still seeing patients at the Sainte-Anne Hospital, and the same year presented his first analytic report at the Congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) in Marienbad on the \"Mirror Phase\".", "The congress chairman, Ernest Jones, terminated the lecture before its conclusion, since he was unwilling to extend Lacan's stated presentation time.", "Insulted, Lacan left the congress to witness the Berlin Olympic Games.", "No copy of the original lecture remains, Lacan having decided not to hand in his text for publication in the conference proceedings.Lacan's attendance at Kojève's lectures on Hegel, given between 1933 and 1939, and which focused on the ''Phenomenology'' and the master-slave dialectic in particular, was formative for his subsequent work, initially in his formulation of his theory of the mirror phase, for which he was also indebted to the experimental work on child development of Henri Wallon.It was Wallon who commissioned from Lacan the last major text of his pre-war period, a contribution to the 1938 ''Encyclopédie française'' entitled \"La Famille\" (reprinted in 1984 as \"Les Complexes familiaux dans la formation de l'individu\", Paris: Navarin).", "1938 was also the year of Lacan's accession to full membership (''membre titulaire'') of the SPP, notwithstanding considerable opposition from many of its senior members who were unimpressed by his recasting of Freudian theory in philosophical terms.Lacan married Marie-Louise Blondin in January 1934 and in January 1937 they had the first of their three children, a daughter named Caroline.", "A son, Thibaut, was born in August 1939 and a daughter, Sybille, in November 1940.===1940s===The SPP was disbanded due to Nazi Germany's occupation of France in 1940.Lacan was called up for military service which he undertook in periods of duty at the Val-de-Grâce military hospital in Paris, whilst at the same time continuing his private psychoanalytic practice.", "In 1942 he moved into apartments at 5 rue de Lille, which he would occupy until his death.", "During the war he did not publish any work, turning instead to a study of Chinese for which he obtained a degree from the École spéciale des langues orientales.In a relationship they formed before the war, Sylvia Bataille (née Maklès), the estranged wife of his friend Georges Bataille, became Lacan's mistress and, in 1953, his second wife.", "During the war their relationship was complicated by the threat of deportation for Sylvia, who was Jewish, since this required her to live in the unoccupied territories.", "Lacan intervened personally with the authorities to obtain papers detailing her family origins, which he destroyed.", "In 1941 they had a child, Judith.", "She kept the name Bataille because Lacan wished to delay the announcement of his planned separation and divorce until after the war.After the war, the SPP recommenced their meetings.", "In 1945 Lacan visited England for a five-week study trip, where he met the British analysts Ernest Jones, Wilfred Bion and John Rickman.", "Bion's analytic work with groups influenced Lacan, contributing to his own subsequent emphasis on study groups as a structure within which to advance theoretical work in psychoanalysis.", "He published a report of his visit as 'La Psychiatrique anglaise et la guerre' (''Evolution psychiatrique'' 1, 1947, pp.", "293–318).In 1949, Lacan presented a new paper on the mirror stage, 'The Mirror-Stage, as Formative of the I, as Revealed in Psychoanalytic Experience', to the sixteenth IPA congress in Zurich.", "The same year he set out in the ''Doctrine de la Commission de l'Enseignement,'' produced for the Training Commission of the SPP, the protocols for the training of candidates.===1950s===With the purchase in 1951 of a country mansion at Guitrancourt, Lacan established a base for weekend retreats for work, leisure—including extravagant social occasions—and for the accommodation of his vast library.", "His art collection included Courbet's L'Origine du monde, which he had concealed in his study by a removable wooden screen on which an abstract representation of the Courbet by the artist André Masson was portrayed.In 1951, Lacan started to hold a private weekly seminar in Paris in which he inaugurated what he described as \"a return to Freud,\" whose doctrines were to be re-articulated through a reading of Saussure's linguistics and Levi-Strauss's structuralist anthropology.", "Becoming public in 1953, Lacan's 27-year-long seminar was highly influential in Parisian cultural life, as well as in psychoanalytic theory and clinical practice.In January 1953 Lacan was elected president of the SPP.", "When, at a meeting the following June, a formal motion was passed against him criticising his abandonment of the standard analytic training session for the variable-length session, he immediately resigned his presidency.", "He and a number of colleagues then resigned from the SPP to form the Société Française de Psychanalyse (SFP).", "One consequence of this was to eventually deprive the new group of membership of the International Psychoanalytical Association.Encouraged by the reception of \"the return to Freud\" and of his report \"The Function and Field of Speech and Language in Psychoanalysis,\" Lacan began to re-read Freud's works in relation to contemporary philosophy, linguistics, ethnology, biology, and topology.", "From 1953 to 1964 at the Sainte-Anne Hospital, he held his Seminars and presented case histories of patients.", "During this period he wrote the texts that are found in the collection ''Écrits'', which was first published in 1966.In his seventh seminar \"The Ethics of Psychoanalysis\" (1959–60), which according to Lewis A. Kirshner \"arguably represents the most far-reaching attempt to derive a comprehensive ethical position from psychoanalysis,\" Lacan defined the ethical foundations of psychoanalysis and presented his \"ethics for our time\"—one that would, in the words of Freud, prove to be equal to the tragedy of modern man and to the \"discontent of civilization.\"", "At the roots of the ethics is desire: the only promise of analysis is austere, it is the entrance-into-the-I (in French a play on words between ''l'entrée en je'' and ''l'entrée en jeu'').", "\"I must come to the place where the id was,\" where the analysand discovers, in its absolute nakedness, the truth of his desire.", "The end of psychoanalysis entails \"the purification of desire.\"", "He defended three assertions: that psychoanalysis must have a scientific status; that Freudian ideas have radically changed the concepts of subject, of knowledge, and of desire; and that the analytic field is the only place from which it is possible to question the insufficiencies of science and philosophy.===1960s===Starting in 1962, a complex negotiation took place to determine the status of the SFP within the IPA.", "Lacan's practice (with its controversial indeterminate-length sessions) and his critical stance towards psychoanalytic orthodoxy led, in August 1963, to the IPA setting the condition that registration of the SFP was dependent upon the removal of Lacan from the list of SFP analysts.", "With the SFP's decision to honour this request in November 1963, Lacan had effectively been stripped of the right to conduct training analyses and thus was constrained to form his own institution in order to accommodate the many candidates who desired to continue their analyses with him.", "This he did, on 21 June 1964, in the \"Founding Act\" of what became known as the École Freudienne de Paris (EFP), taking \"many representatives of the third generation with him: among them were Maud and Octave Mannoni, Serge Leclaire ... and Jean Clavreul\".With the support of Claude Lévi-Strauss and Louis Althusser, Lacan was appointed lecturer at the École Pratique des Hautes Études.", "He started with a seminar on ''The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis'' in January 1964 in the Dussane room at the École Normale Supérieure.", "Lacan began to set forth his own approach to psychoanalysis to an audience of colleagues that had joined him from the SFP.", "His lectures also attracted many of the École Normale's students.", "He divided the École Freudienne de Paris into three sections: the section of pure psychoanalysis (training and elaboration of the theory, where members who have been analyzed but have not become analysts can participate); the section for applied psychoanalysis (therapeutic and clinical, physicians who either have not started or have not yet completed analysis are welcome); and the section for taking inventory of the Freudian field (concerning the critique of psychoanalytic literature and the analysis of the theoretical relations with related or affiliated sciences).", "In 1967 he invented the procedure of the Pass, which was added to the statutes after being voted in by the members of the EFP the following year.1966 saw the publication of Lacan's collected writings, the ''Écrits'', compiled with an index of concepts by Jacques-Alain Miller.", "Printed by the prestigious publishing house Éditions du Seuil, the ''Écrits'' did much to establish Lacan's reputation to a wider public.", "The success of the publication led to a subsequent two-volume edition in 1969.By the 1960s, Lacan was associated, at least in the public mind, with the far left in France.", "In May 1968, Lacan voiced his sympathy for the student protests and as a corollary his followers set up a Department of Psychology at the University of Vincennes (Paris VIII).", "However, Lacan's unequivocal comments in 1971 on revolutionary ideals in politics draw a sharp line between the actions of some of his followers and his own style of \"revolt.", "\"In 1969, Lacan moved his public seminars to the Faculté de Droit (Panthéon), where he continued to deliver his expositions of analytic theory and practice until the dissolution of his school in 1980.===1970s===Throughout the final decade of his life, Lacan continued his widely followed seminars.", "During this period, he developed his concepts of masculine and feminine jouissance and placed an increased emphasis on the concept of \"the Real\" as a point of impossible contradiction in the \"symbolic order\".", "Lacan continued to draw widely on various disciplines, working closely on classical Chinese literature with François Cheng and on the life and work of James Joyce with Jacques Aubert.The growing success of the ''Écrits'', which was translated (in abridged form) into German and English, led to invitations to lecture in Italy, Japan and the United States.", "He gave lectures in 1975 at Yale, Columbia and MIT.===Last years===Lacan's failing health made it difficult for him to meet the demands of the year-long Seminars he had been delivering since the fifties, but his teaching continued into the first year of the eighties.", "After dissolving his School, the EFP, in January 1980, Lacan travelled to Caracas to found the Freudian Field Institute on 12 July.The Overture to the Caracas Encounter was to be Lacan's final public address.", "His last texts from the spring of 1981 are brief institutional documents pertaining to the newly formed Freudian Field Institute.Lacan died on 9 September 1981." ], [ "Major concepts", "===Return to Freud===Lacan's \"return to Freud\" emphasizes a renewed attention to the original texts of Freud, and included a radical critique of ego psychology, whereas \"Lacan's quarrel with Object Relations psychoanalysis\" was a more muted affair.", "Here he attempted \"to restore to the notion of the Object Relation... the capital of experience that legitimately belongs to it\", building upon what he termed \"the hesitant, but controlled work of Melanie Klein...", "Through her we know the function of the imaginary primordial enclosure formed by the ''imago'' of the mother's body\", as well as upon \"the notion of the transitional object, introduced by D. W. Winnicott... a key-point for the explanation of the genesis of fetishism\".", "Nevertheless, \"Lacan systematically questioned those psychoanalytic developments from the 1930s to the 1970s, which were increasingly and almost exclusively focused on the child's early relations with the mother... the pre-Oedipal or Kleinian mother\"; and Lacan's rereading of Freud—\"characteristically, Lacan insists that his return to Freud supplies the only valid model\"—formed a basic conceptual starting-point in that oppositional strategy.Lacan thought that Freud's ideas of \"slips of the tongue\", jokes, and the interpretation of dreams all emphasized the agency of language in subjects' own constitution of themselves.", "In \"The Instance of the Letter in the Unconscious, or Reason Since Freud,\" he proposes that \"the psychoanalytic experience discovers in the unconscious the whole structure of language\".", "The unconscious is not a primitive or archetypal part of the mind separate from the conscious, linguistic ego, he explained, but rather a formation as complex and structurally sophisticated as consciousness itself.", "Lacan is associated with the idea that \"the unconscious is structured like a language\", but the first time this sentence occurs in his work, he clarifies that he means that both the unconscious and language are structured, not that they share a single structure; and that the structure of language is such that the subject cannot necessarily be equated with the speaker.", "This results in the self being denied any point of reference to which to be \"restored\" following trauma or a crisis of identity.André Green objected that \"when you read Freud, it is obvious that this proposition doesn't work for a minute.", "Freud very clearly opposes the unconscious (which he says is constituted by thing-presentations and nothing else) to the pre-conscious.", "What is related to language can only belong to the pre-conscious\".", "Freud certainly contrasted \"the presentation of the ''word'' and the presentation of the ''thing''... the unconscious presentation is the presentation of the thing alone\" in his metapsychology.", "Dylan Evans, however, in his ''Dictionary of Lacanian Psychoanalysis,'' \"... takes issue with those who, like André Green, question the linguistic aspect of the unconscious, emphasizing Lacan's distinction between ''das Ding'' and ''die Sache'' in Freud's account of thing-presentation\".", "Green's criticism of Lacan also included accusations of intellectual dishonesty, he said, \"He cheated everybody... the return to Freud was an excuse, it just meant going to Lacan.", "\"===Mirror stage===Lacan's first official contribution to psychoanalysis was the mirror stage, which he described as \"formative of the function of the 'I' as revealed in psychoanalytic experience.\"", "By the early 1950s, he came to regard the mirror stage as more than a moment in the life of the infant; instead, it formed part of the permanent structure of subjectivity.", "In the \"imaginary order\", the subject's own image permanently catches and captivates the subject.", "Lacan explains that \"the mirror stage is a phenomenon to which I assign a twofold value.", "In the first place, it has historical value as it marks a decisive turning-point in the mental development of the child.", "In the second place, it typifies an essential libidinal relationship with the body-image\".As this concept developed further, the stress fell less on its historical value and more on its structural value.", "In his fourth seminar, \"La relation d'objet\", Lacan states that \"the mirror stage is far from a mere phenomenon which occurs in the development of the child.", "It illustrates the conflictual nature of the dual relationship.", "\"The mirror stage describes the formation of the ego via the process of objectification, the ego being the result of a conflict between one's perceived visual appearance and one's emotional experience.", "This identification is what Lacan called \"alienation\".", "At six months, the baby still lacks physical co-ordination.", "The child is able to recognize itself in a mirror prior to the attainment of control over their bodily movements.", "The child sees its image as a whole and the synthesis of this image produces a sense of contrast with the lack of co-ordination of the body, which is perceived as a fragmented body.", "The child experiences this contrast initially as a rivalry with its image, because the wholeness of the image threatens the child with fragmentation—thus the mirror stage gives rise to an aggressive tension between the subject and the image.", "To resolve this aggressive tension, the child identifies with the image: this primary identification with the counterpart forms the ego.", "Lacan understood this moment of identification as a moment of jubilation, since it leads to an imaginary sense of mastery; yet when the child compares its own precarious sense of mastery with the omnipotence of the mother, a depressive reaction may accompany the jubilation.Lacan calls the specular image \"orthopaedic\", since it leads the child to anticipate the overcoming of its \"real specific prematurity of birth\".", "The vision of the body as integrated and contained, in opposition to the child's actual experience of motor incapacity and the sense of his or her body as fragmented, induces a movement from \"insufficiency to anticipation\".", "In other words, the mirror image initiates and then aids, like a crutch, the process of the formation of an integrated sense of self.In the mirror stage a \"misunderstanding\" (''méconnaissance'') constitutes the ego—the \"me\" (''moi'') becomes alienated from itself through the introduction of an imaginary dimension to the subject.", "The mirror stage also has a significant symbolic dimension, due to the presence of the figure of the adult who carries the infant.", "Having jubilantly assumed the image as their own, the child turns their head towards this adult, who represents the big other, as if to call on the adult to ratify this image.===Other===While Freud uses the term \"other\", referring to ''der Andere'' (the other person) and ''das Andere'' (otherness), Lacan (influenced by the seminar of Alexandre Kojève) theorizes alterity in a manner more closely resembling Hegel's philosophy.Lacan often used an algebraic symbology for his concepts: the big other (''l'Autre'') is designated ''A'', and the little other (''l'autre'') is designated ''a''.", "He asserts that an awareness of this distinction is fundamental to analytic practice: \"the analyst must be imbued with the difference between ''A'' and ''a'', so he can situate himself in the place of Other, and not the other\".", "Dylan Evans explains that:* The little other is the other who is not really other, but a reflection and projection of the ego.", "Evans adds that for this reason the symbol ''a'' can represent both the little other and the ego in the schema L. It is simultaneously the counterpart and the specular image.", "The little other is thus entirely inscribed in the imaginary order.", "* The big other designates radical alterity, an other-ness which transcends the illusory otherness of the imaginary because it cannot be assimilated through identification.", "Lacan equates this radical alterity with language and the law, and hence the big other is inscribed in the order of the symbolic.", "Indeed, the big other ''is'' the symbolic insofar as it is particularized for each subject.", "The other is thus both another subject, in its radical alterity and unassimilable uniqueness, and also the symbolic order which mediates the relationship with that other subject.", "\"For Lacan \"the Other must first of all be considered a locus in which speech is constituted,\" so that the other as another subject is secondary to the other as symbolic order.", "We can speak of the other ''as a subject'' in a secondary sense only when a subject occupies this position and thereby embodies the other for another subject.In arguing that speech originates in neither the ego nor in the subject but rather in the other, Lacan stresses that speech and language are beyond the subject's conscious control.", "They come from another place, outside of consciousness\"the unconscious is the discourse of the Other\".", "When conceiving the other as a place, Lacan refers to Freud's concept of psychical locality, in which the unconscious is described as \"the other scene\".", "\"It is the mother who first occupies the position of the big Other for the child\", Dylan Evans explains, \"it is she who receives the child's primitive cries and retroactively sanctions them as a particular message\".", "The castration complex is formed when the child discovers that this other is not complete because there is a \"lack (manque)\" in the other.", "This means that there is always a signifier missing from the trove of signifiers constituted by the other.", "Lacan illustrates this incomplete other graphically by striking a bar through the symbol ''A''; hence another name for the castrated, incomplete other is the \"barred other\".===Phallus===Feminist thinkers have both utilised and criticised Lacan's concepts of castration and the phallus.", "Feminists such as Avital Ronell, Jane Gallop, and Elizabeth Grosz, have interpreted Lacan's work as opening up new possibilities for feminist theory.Some feminists have argued that Lacan's phallocentric analysis provides a useful means of understanding gender biases and imposed roles, while others, most notably Luce Irigaray, accuse Lacan of maintaining the sexist tradition in psychoanalysis.", "For Irigaray, the phallus does not define a single axis of gender by its presence or absence; instead, gender has two positive poles.", "Like Irigaray, French philosopher Jacques Derrida, in criticizing Lacan's concept of castration, discusses the phallus in a chiasmus with the hymen, as both one and other.===Three orders (plus one)===Lacan considered psychic functions to occur within a universal matrix.", "The Real, Imaginary and Symbolic are properties of this matrix, which make up part of every psychic function.", "This is not analogous to Freud's concept of id, ego and superego since in Freud's model certain functions take place within components of the psyche while Lacan thought that all three orders were part of every function.", "Lacan refined the concept of the orders over decades, resulting in inconsistencies in his writings.", "He eventually added a fourth component, the sinthome.====The Imaginary====The Imaginary is the field of images and imagination.", "The main illusions of this order are synthesis, autonomy, duality, and resemblance.", "Lacan thought that the relationship created within the mirror stage between the ego and the reflected image means that the ego and the Imaginary order itself are places of radical alienation: \"alienation is constitutive of the Imaginary order\".", "This relationship is also narcissistic.In ''The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis'', Lacan argues that the Symbolic order structures the visual field of the Imaginary, which means that it involves a linguistic dimension.", "If the signifier is the foundation of the symbolic, the signified and signification are part of the Imaginary order.", "Language has symbolic and Imaginary connotations—in its Imaginary aspect, language is the \"wall of language\" that inverts and distorts the discourse of the Other.", "The Imaginary, however, is rooted in the subject's relationship with his or her own body (the image of the body).", "In ''Fetishism: the Symbolic, the Imaginary and the Real'', Lacan argues that in the sexual plane the Imaginary appears as sexual display and courtship love.Insofar as identification with the analyst is the objective of analysis, Lacan accused major psychoanalytic schools of reducing the practice of psychoanalysis to the Imaginary order.", "Instead, Lacan proposes the use of the symbolic to dislodge the disabling fixations of the Imaginary—the analyst transforms the images into words.", "\"The use of the Symbolic\", he argued, \"is the only way for the analytic process to cross the plane of identification.", "\"====The Symbolic====In his Seminar IV, \"La relation d'objet\", Lacan argues that the concepts of \"Law\" and \"Structure\" are unthinkable without language—thus the Symbolic is a linguistic dimension.", "This order is not equivalent to language, however, since language involves the Imaginary and the Real as well.", "The dimension proper to language in the Symbolic is that of the signifier—that is, a dimension in which elements have no positive existence, but which are constituted by virtue of their mutual differences.The Symbolic is also the field of radical alterity—that is, the Other; the unconscious is the discourse of this Other.", "It is the realm of the Law that regulates desire in the Oedipus complex.", "The Symbolic is the domain of culture as opposed to the Imaginary order of nature.", "As important elements in the Symbolic, the concepts of death and lack (''manque'') connive to make of the pleasure principle the regulator of the distance from the Thing (in German, \"''das Ding an sich''\") and the death drive that goes \"beyond the pleasure principle by means of repetition\"\"the death drive is only a mask of the Symbolic order\".By working in the Symbolic order, the analyst is able to produce changes in the subjective position of the person undergoing psychoanalysis.", "These changes will produce imaginary effects because the Imaginary is structured by the Symbolic.====The Real====Lacan's concept of the Real dates back to 1936 and his doctoral thesis on psychosis.", "It was a term that was popular at the time, particularly with Émile Meyerson, who referred to it as \"an ontological absolute, a true being-in-itself\".", "Lacan returned to the theme of the Real in 1953 and continued to develop it until his death.", "The Real, for Lacan, is not synonymous with reality.", "Not only opposed to the Imaginary, the Real is also exterior to the Symbolic.", "Unlike the latter, which is constituted in terms of oppositions (i.e.", "presence/absence), \"there is no absence in the Real\".", "Whereas the Symbolic opposition \"presence/absence\" implies the possibility that something may be missing from the Symbolic, \"the Real is always in its place\".", "If the Symbolic is a set of differentiated elements (signifiers), the Real in itself is undifferentiatedit bears no fissure.", "The Symbolic introduces \"a cut in the real\" in the process of signification: \"it is the world of words that creates the world of things—things originally confused in the 'here and now' of the all in the process of coming into being\".", "The Real is that which is outside language and that resists symbolization absolutely.", "In Seminar XI Lacan defines the Real as \"the impossible\" because it is impossible to imagine, impossible to integrate into the Symbolic, and impossible to attain.", "It is this resistance to symbolization that lends the Real its traumatic quality.", "Finally, the Real is the object of anxiety, insofar as it lacks any possible mediation and is \"the essential object which is not an object any longer, but this something faced with which all words cease and all categories fail, the object of anxiety ''par excellence''.", "\"====The Sinthome====The term \"sinthome\" () was introduced by Jacques Lacan in his seminar ''Le sinthome'' (1975–76).", "According to Lacan, ''sinthome'' is the Latin way (1495 Rabelais, IV,63) of spelling the Greek origin of the French word ''symptôme'', meaning symptom.", "The seminar is a continuing elaboration of his topology, extending the previous seminar's focus (''RSI'') on the Borromean Knot and an exploration of the writings of James Joyce.", "Lacan redefines the psychoanalytic symptom in terms of his topology of the subject.In \"Psychoanalysis and its Teachings\" (''Écrits'') Lacan views the symptom as inscribed in a writing process, not as ciphered message which was the traditional notion.", "In his seminar \"L'angoisse\" (1962–63) he states that the symptom does not call for interpretation: in itself it is not a call to the Other but a pure ''jouissance'' addressed to no-one.", "This is a shift from the linguistic definition of the symptomas a signifierto his assertion that \"the symptom can only be defined as the way in which each subject enjoys (''jouit'') the unconscious in so far as the unconscious determines the subject\".", "He goes from conceiving the symptom as a message which can be deciphered by reference to the unconscious structured like a language to seeing it as the trace of the particular modality of the subject's ''jouissance''.===Desire===Lacan's concept of desire is related to Hegel's ''Begierde'', a term that implies a continuous force, and therefore somehow differs from Freud's concept of ''Wunsch''.", "Lacan's desire refers always to unconscious desire because it is unconscious desire that forms the central concern of psychoanalysis.The aim of psychoanalysis is to lead the analysand to recognize his/her desire and by doing so to uncover the truth about his/her desire.", "However this is possible only if desire is articulated in speech: \"It is only once it is formulated, named in the presence of the other, that desire appears in the full sense of the term.\"", "And again in ''The Ego in Freud's Theory and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis'': \"what is important is to teach the subject to name, to articulate, to bring desire into existence.", "The subject should come to recognize and to name her/his desire.", "But it isn't a question of recognizing something that could be entirely given.", "In naming it, the subject creates, brings forth, a new presence in the world.\"", "The truth about desire is somehow present in discourse, although discourse is never able to articulate the entire truth about desire; whenever discourse attempts to articulate desire, there is always a leftover or surplus.Lacan distinguishes desire from need and from demand.", "Need is a biological instinct where the subject depends on the Other to satisfy its own needs: in order to get the Other's help, \"need\" must be articulated in \"demand\".", "But the presence of the Other not only ensures the satisfaction of the \"need\", it also represents the Other's love.", "Consequently, \"demand\" acquires a double function: on the one hand, it articulates \"need\", and on the other, acts as a \"demand for love\".", "Even after the \"need\" articulated in demand is satisfied, the \"demand for love\" remains unsatisfied since the Other cannot provide the unconditional love that the subject seeks.", "\"Desire is neither the appetite for satisfaction, nor the demand for love, but the difference that results from the subtraction of the first from the second.\"", "Desire is a surplus, a leftover, produced by the articulation of need in demand: \"desire begins to take shape in the margin in which demand becomes separated from need\".", "Unlike need, which can be satisfied, desire can never be satisfied: it is constant in its pressure and eternal.", "The attainment of desire does not consist in being fulfilled but in its reproduction as such.", "As Slavoj Žižek puts it, \"desire's ''raison d'être'' is not to realize its goal, to find full satisfaction, but to reproduce itself as desire\".Lacan also distinguishes between desire and the drives: desire is one and drives are many.", "The drives are the partial manifestations of a single force called desire.", "Lacan's concept of \"''objet petit a''\" is the object of desire, although this object is not that towards which desire tends, but rather the cause of desire.", "Desire is not a relation to an object but a relation to a lack (''manque'').In ''The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis'' Lacan argues that \"man's desire is the desire of the Other.\"", "This entails the following:# Desire is the desire of the Other's desire, meaning that desire is the object of another's desire and that desire is also desire for recognition.", "Here Lacan follows Alexandre Kojève, who follows Hegel: for Kojève the subject must risk his own life if he wants to achieve the desired prestige.", "This desire to be the object of another's desire is best exemplified in the Oedipus complex, when the subject desires to be the phallus of the mother.# In \"The Subversion of the Subject and the Dialectic of Desire in the Freudian Unconscious\", Lacan contends that the subject desires from the point of view of another whereby the object of someone's desire is an object desired by another one: what makes the object desirable is that it is precisely desired by someone else.", "Again Lacan follows Kojève.", "who follows Hegel.", "This aspect of desire is present in hysteria, for the hysteric is someone who converts another's desire into his/her own (see Sigmund Freud's \"Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria\" in SE VII, where Dora desires Frau K because she identifies with Herr K).", "What matters then in the analysis of a hysteric is not to find out the object of her desire but to discover the subject with whom she identifies.# ''Désir de l'Autre'', which is translated as \"desire for the Other\" (though it could also be \"desire of the Other\").", "The fundamental desire is the incestuous desire for the mother, the primordial Other.# Desire is \"the desire for something else\", since it is impossible to desire what one already has.", "The object of desire is continually deferred, which is why desire is a metonymy.# Desire appears in the field of the Otherthat is, in the unconscious.Last but not least for Lacan, the first person who occupies the place of the Other is the mother and at first the child is at her mercy.", "Only when the father articulates desire with the Law by castrating the mother is the subject liberated from desire for the mother.===Drive===Lacan maintains Freud's distinction between drive (''Trieb'') and instinct (''Instinkt'').", "Drives differ from biological needs because they can never be satisfied and do not aim at an object but rather circle perpetually around it.", "He argues that the purpose of the drive (''Triebziel'') is not to reach a goal but to follow its aim, meaning \"the way itself\" instead of \"the final destination\"that is, to circle around the object.", "The purpose of the drive is to return to its circular path and the true source of ''jouissance'' is the repetitive movement of this closed circuit.", "Lacan posits drives as both cultural and symbolic constructs: to him, \"the drive is not a given, something archaic, primordial\".", "He incorporates the four elements of drives as defined by Freud (pressure, end, object and source) to his theory of the drive's circuit: the drive originates in the erogenous zone, circles round the object, and returns to the erogenous zone.", "Three grammatical voices structure this circuit:# the active voice (to see)# the reflexive voice (to see oneself)# the passive voice (to be seen)The active and reflexive voices are autoeroticthey lack a subject.", "It is only when the drive completes its circuit with the passive voice that a new subject appears, implying that, prior to that instance, there was no subject.", "Despite being the \"passive\" voice, the drive is essentially active: \"to make oneself be seen\" rather than \"to be seen\".", "The circuit of the drive is the only way for the subject to transgress the pleasure principle.To Freud sexuality is composed of partial drives (i.e.", "the oral or the anal drives) each specified by a different erotogenic zone.", "At first these partial drives function independently (i.e.", "the polymorphous perversity of children), it is only in puberty that they become organized under the aegis of the genital organs.", "Lacan accepts the partial nature of drives, but (1) he rejects the notion that partial drives can ever attain any complete organizationthe primacy of the genital zone, if achieved, is always precarious; and (2) he argues that drives are partial in that they represent sexuality only partially and not in the sense that they are a part of the whole.", "Drives do not represent the reproductive function of sexuality but only the dimension of ''jouissance''.Lacan identifies four partial drives: the oral drive (the erogenous zones are the lips (the partial object the breastthe verb is \"to suck\"), the anal drive (the anus and the faeces, \"to shit\"), the scopic drive (the eyes and the gaze, \"to see\") and the invocatory drive (the ears and the voice, \"to hear\").", "The first two drives relate to demand and the last two to desire.The notion of dualism is maintained throughout Freud's various reformulations of the drive-theory.", "From the initial opposition between sexual drives and ego-drives (self-preservation) to the final opposition between the life drives (''Lebenstriebe'') and the death drives (''Todestriebe'').", "Lacan retains Freud's dualism, but in terms of an opposition between the symbolic and the imaginary and not referred to different kinds of drives.", "For Lacan all drives are sexual drives, and every drive is a death drive (''pulsion de mort'') since every drive is excessive, repetitive and destructive.The drives are closely related to desire, since both originate in the field of the subject.", "But they are not to be confused: drives are the partial aspects in which desire is realizeddesire is one and undivided, whereas the drives are its partial manifestations.", "A drive is a demand that is not caught up in the dialectical mediation of desire; drive is a \"mechanical\" insistence that is not ensnared in demand's dialectical mediation.===Other concepts===* Name of the Father* Foreclosure (psychoanalysis)* Lack (manque)* ''Objet petit a''* The graph of desire* Matheme* Sinthome* The Four discourses" ], [ "Lacan on error and knowledge", "Building on Freud's ''The Psychopathology of Everyday Life'', Lacan long argued that \"every unsuccessful act is a successful, not to say 'well-turned', discourse\", highlighting as well \"sudden transformations of errors into truths, which seemed to be due to nothing more than perseverance\".", "In a late seminar, he generalised more fully the psychoanalytic discovery of \"truth—arising from misunderstanding\", so as to maintain that \"the subject is naturally erring... discourse structures alone give him his moorings and reference points, signs identify and orient him; if he neglects, forgets, or loses them, he is condemned to err anew\".Because of \"the alienation to which speaking beings are subjected due to their being in language\", to survive \"one must let oneself be taken in by signs and become the dupe of a discourse... of fictions organized in to a discourse\".", "For Lacan, with \"masculine knowledge irredeemably an erring\", the individual \"must thus allow himself to be fooled by these signs to have a chance of getting his bearings amidst them; he must place and maintain himself in the wake of a discourse... become the dupe of a discourse... ''les non-dupes errent''\".Lacan comes close here to one of the points where \"very occasionally he sounds like Thomas Kuhn (whom he never mentions)\", with Lacan's \"discourse\" resembling Kuhn's \"paradigm\" seen as \"the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on shared by the members of a given community\"." ], [ "Clinical contributions", "===Variable-length session===The \"variable-length psychoanalytic session\" was one of Lacan's crucial clinical innovations, and a key element in his conflicts with the IPA, to whom his \"innovation of reducing the fifty-minute analytic hour to a Delphic seven or eight minutes (or sometimes even to a single oracular ''parole'' murmured in the waiting-room)\" was unacceptable.", "Lacan's variable-length sessions lasted anywhere from a few minutes (or even, if deemed appropriate by the analyst, a few seconds) to several hours.", "This practice replaced the classical Freudian \"fifty minute hour\".With respect to what he called \"the cutting up of the 'timing'\", Lacan asked the question, \"Why make an intervention impossible at this point, which is consequently privileged in this way?\"", "By allowing the analyst's intervention on timing, the variable-length session removed the patient's former certainty as to the length of time that they would be on the couch.", "When Lacan adopted the practice, \"the psychoanalytic establishment were scandalized\"—and, given that \"between 1979 and 1980 he saw an average of ten patients an hour\", it is perhaps not hard to see why.", "Psychoanalysis was \"reduced to zero\",, though the treatments were no less lucrative.At the time of his original innovation, Lacan described the issue as concerning \"the systematic use of shorter sessions in certain analyses, and in particular in training analyses\"; and in practice it was certainly a shortening of the session around the so-called \"critical moment\" which took place, so that critics wrote that \"everyone is well aware what is meant by the deceptive phrase 'variable length' ... sessions systematically reduced to just a few minutes\".", "Irrespective of the theoretical merits of breaking up patients' expectations, it was clear that \"the Lacanian analyst never wants to 'shake up' the routine by keeping them for more rather than less time\".", "Lacan's shorter sessions enabled him to take many more clients than therapists using orthodox Freudian methods, and this growth continued as Lacan's students and followers adopted the same practice.Accepting the importance of \"the critical moment when insight arises\", object relations theory would nonetheless suggest that \"if the analyst does not provide the patient with space in which nothing ''needs'' to happen there is no space in which something ''can'' happen\".", "Julia Kristeva would concur that \"Lacan, alert to the scandal of the timeless intrinsic to the analytic experience, was mistaken in wanting to ritualize it as a technique of scansion (short sessions)\"." ], [ "Writings and writing style", "According to Jean-Michel Rabaté, Lacan in the mid-1950s classed the seminars as commentaries on Freud rather than presentations of his own doctrine (like the writings), while Lacan by 1971 placed the most value on his teaching and \"the interactive space of his seminar\" (in contrast to Sigmund Freud).", "Rabaté also argued that from 1964 onward, the seminars include original ideas.", "However, Rabaté also wrote that the seminars are \"more problematic\" because of the importance of the interactive performances, and because they were partly edited and rewritten.Most of Lacan's psychoanalytic writings from the 1940s through to the early 1960s were compiled with an index of concepts by Jacques-Alain Miller in the 1966 collection, titled simply ''Écrits''.", "Published in French by Éditions du Seuil, they were later issued as a two-volume set (1970/1) with a new \"Preface\".", "A selection of the writings (chosen by Lacan himself) were translated by Alan Sheridan and published by Tavistock Press in 1977.The full 35-text volume appeared for the first time in English in Bruce Fink's translation published by Norton & Co. (2006).", "The ''Écrits'' were included on the list of 100 most influential books of the 20th century compiled and polled by the broadsheet ''Le Monde''.Lacan's writings from the late sixties and seventies (thus subsequent to the 1966 collection) were collected posthumously, along with some early texts from the nineteen thirties, in the Éditions du Seuil volume ''Autres écrits'' (2001).Although most of the texts in ''Écrits'' and ''Autres écrits'' are closely related to Lacan's lectures or lessons from his Seminar, more often than not the style is denser than Lacan's oral delivery, and a clear distinction between the writings and the transcriptions of the oral teaching is evident to the reader.An often neglected aspect of Lacan's oral and writing style is his influence from his colleague and personal friend Henry Corbin, who introduced Lacan to the thought of Ibn Arabi.", "Both Lacan and Ibn Arabi share nearly identical ideas and writing styles according to the researcher Abdesselem Rechak.Jacques-Alain Miller is the sole editor of Lacan's seminars, which contain the majority of his life's work.", "\"There has been considerable controversy over the accuracy or otherwise of the transcription and editing\", as well as over \"Miller's refusal to allow any critical or annotated edition to be published\".", "Despite Lacan's status as a major figure in the history of psychoanalysis, some of his seminars remain unpublished.", "Since 1984, Miller has been regularly conducting a series of lectures, \"L'orientation lacanienne.\"", "Miller's teachings have been published in the US by the journal ''Lacanian Ink.", "''Lacan's writing is notoriously difficult, due in part to the repeated Hegelian/Kojèvean allusions, wide theoretical divergences from other psychoanalytic and philosophical theory, and an obscure prose style.", "For some, \"the impenetrability of Lacan's prose... is too often regarded as profundity precisely because it cannot be understood\".", "Arguably at least, \"the imitation of his style by other 'Lacanian' commentators\" has resulted in \"an obscurantist antisystematic tradition in Lacanian literature\".Although Lacan is a major influence on psychoanalysis in France and parts of Latin America, in the English-speaking world his influence on clinical psychology has been far less and his ideas are best known in the arts and humanities.", "However, there are Lacanian psychoanalytic societies in both North America and the United Kingdom that carry on his work.One example of Lacan's work being practiced in the United States is found in the works of Annie G. Rogers (''A Shining Affliction''; ''The Unsayable: The Hidden Language of Trauma''), which credit Lacanian theory for many therapeutic insights in successfully treating sexually abused young women.", "Lacan's work has also reached Quebec, where The Interdisciplinary Freudian Group for Research and Clinical and Cultural Interventions (GIFRIC) claims that it has used a modified form of Lacanian psychoanalysis in successfully treating psychosis in many of its patients, a task once thought to be unsuited for psychoanalysis, even by psychoanalysts themselves." ], [ "Legacy", "In his introduction to the 1994 Penguin edition of Lacan's ''The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis'', translator and historian David Macey describes Lacan as \"the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud\".", "His ideas had a significant impact on post-structuralism, critical theory, French philosophy, film theory, and clinical psychoanalysis.In 2003, Rabaté described \"The Freudian Thing\" (1956) as one of his \"most important and programmatic essays\"." ], [ "Criticism", "===Theory of psychoanalysis===Social psychologist, psychoanalyst, and humanistic philosopher Erich Fromm rejected Lacan's view on psychonalysis whereby \"true psychoanalysis is founded on the relation between man and talk ''parole'',\" and denounced the reduction of analysis to \"a pure and simple exchange of words,\" arguing that the relation is instead about an \"exchange of signs.\"", "Fromm supports \"clarity and unambiguity\" in the communication with others (''autrui'') and opposes the Lacanian \"wordplay that is associated with the provision of meaning.\"", "Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalyst Élisabeth Roudinesco, in her biography of Lacan, writes that some writings of her subject were \"incomprehensible\" also to Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Martin Heidegger.Former Lacan student Didier Anzieu, in a 1967 article titled \"Against Lacan,\" described him as a \"danger\" because he kept his students tied to an \"unending dependence on an idol, a logic, or a language,\" by holding out the promise of \"fundamental truths\" to be revealed \"but always at some further point ...and only to those who continued to travel with him.\"", "According to Sherry Turkle, these attitudes are \"representative of how most members of the Association talk about Lacan.", "\"By 1977, Lacan was declaring that he was not \"too keen\" (''\"pas chaud-chaud\"'') to claim that \"when one practices psychoanalysis, one knows where one goes,\" stating that \"psychoanalysis, like every other human activity, undoubtedly participates in abuse.", "One does as if one knows something.", "\"Lacan's charismatic authority has been linked to the many conflicts among his followers and in the analytic schools he was involved with.", "His intellectual style has also come in for much criticism.", "Eclectic in his use of sources, Lacan has been seen as concealing his own thought behind the apparent explication of that of others.", "Thus, his \"return to Freud\" was called by Malcolm Bowie \"a complete pattern of dissenting assent to the ideas of Freud Lacan's argument is conducted on Freud's behalf and, at the same time, against him\".", "Bowie has also suggested that Lacan suffered from both a love of system and a deep-seated opposition to all forms of system.===Therapeutic practice===Lacan, in his psychoanalytic practice, came to hold sessions of diminishing duration.", "Eventually, Lacan's student relates, they often lasted no more than five minutes, held sometimes with Lacan standing in the typically open door of the room.", "According to Godin, Lacan sometimes struck patients, once literally kicking out a female patient.", "Author and Lacanian psychoanalyst Jacques-Alain Miller asserts that \"Lacan's morality derives from a superior cynicism.", "\"Lacan was criticised for being aggressive with his clients, often physically hitting them, sometimes sleeping with them, and charging \"exorbitant amounts of money\" for each session.", "Jean Laplanche argued that Lacan could have \"harmed\" some of his clients.Others have been more forceful still, describing him as \"The Shrink from Hell\" and listing the many associates —from lovers and family to colleagues, patients, and editors— who were left damaged in his wake.===Feminist criticism===Many feminist thinkers have criticized Lacan's thought.", "American philosopher Cynthia Willett accuses Lacan for portraying the mother less as a \"loving,\" \"nurturing\" presence in the infant's world, but rather as a \"whore\" who abandons the child to a \"higher bidder for her affections,\" while Judith Butler, philosopher and gender studies scholar, reworks these notions as \"gender performativity.", "\"Psycholinguist and cultural theorist Luce Irigaray \"ridicules\" through \"mimicry and exaggeration\" these representations of femininity posited as natural and proper by Lacan.", "Irigaray accuses Lacan of perpetuating phallocentric mastery in philosophical and psychoanalytic discourse.Others have echoed this accusation, seeing Lacan as trapped in the very phallocentric mastery his language ostensibly sought to undermine.", "The result, Castoriadis would maintain, was to make all thought depend upon Lacan himself, and thus to stifle the capacity for independent thought among all those around him.In an interview with anthropologist James Hunt, Sylvia Lacan said of her late husband: \"He was a man who worked tremendously hard.", "Tremendously intelligent.", "He was...what is called, well, a domestic tyrant...", "But he was worth the trouble.", "I have absolutely no reproaches to make against him.", "Just the contrary.", "But it was not possible to be a wife, a mother to my children, and an actress at the same time.", "\"===Mathematics in psychoanalysis===In their work ''Fashionable Nonsense'' (1997), through which their stated intention was to show that \"famous intellectuals\" abuse scientific terminology and concepts, professors of Physics Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont examine Lacan's frequent references to Mathematics.", "They are highly critical of his use of terms from mathematical fields, accusing him of \"superficial erudition\", of abusing scientific concepts that he does not understand, and of producing statements that are \"not even wrong.", "\"In a seminar held in 1959, he confuses the irrational numbers with the imaginary numbers, despite claiming to be \"precise.\"", "A year later, the mathematical \"calculations\" he presents in another seminar are assessed as \"pure fantasies.", "\"Sokal and Bricmont find Lacan to be \"fond\" of topology, in which, though, they see Lacan committing serious errors.", "He uses technical terms erroneously, e.g.", "\"space\", \"bounded\", \"closed\", and even \"topology\" itself, and posits claims about a literal and not just symbolic or even metaphorical relation of topological mathematics with neurosis.In the book's preface, the authors state they shall not enter into the debate over the purely psychoanalytic part of Lacan's work.", "Nonetheless, after presenting their case, they comment that \"Lacan never explains the relevance of his mathematical concepts for psychoanalysis,\" stating that \"the link with psychoanalysis is not supported by any argument.\"", "Equally meaningless they find his \"famous formulae of sexuation\" offered in support for the maxim \"There are no sexual relations.\"", "Considering the \"cryptic writings,\" the \"play on words\" and \"fractured syntax\", as well as the \"reverent exegesis\" accorded to Lacan's work by \"disciples\", they point out a similarity to religiosity.===Incomprehensibility===Several critics have dismissed Lacan's work wholesale.", "French philosopher called it an \"incoherent system of pseudo-scientific gibberish\", and quoted linguist Noam Chomsky's opinion that Lacan was an \"amusing and perfectly self-conscious charlatan\".", "Noam Chomsky, in a 2012 interview on ''Veterans Unplugged'', said: \"Quite frankly I thought Lacan was a total charlatan.", "He was just posturing for the television cameras in the way many Paris intellectuals do.", "Why this is influential, I haven't the slightest idea.", "I don't see anything there that should be influential.", "\"Academic and former Lacanian analyst Dylan Evans came to dismiss Lacanianism as lacking a sound scientific basis and as harming rather than helping patients.", "He criticized Lacan's followers for treating Lacan's writings as \"holy writ\".", "Richard Webster decries what he sees as Lacan's obscurity, arrogance, and the resultant \"Cult of Lacan\".Roger Scruton included Lacan in his book ''Fools, Frauds and Firebrands: Thinkers of the New Left'', and named him as the only 'fool' included in the book—his other targets merely being misguided or frauds.In ''Les Freudiens hérétiques'', the 8th tome of his work ''Contre-histoire de la philosophie'' (''Anti-History of Philosophy''), philosopher and author Michel Onfray describes Lacan's ''Écrits'' as \"illegible\".", "According to Onfray, Lacan engages in constant word play, has a taste for the formulaic, and deploys \"incantatory glossolalia\" and unnecessary neologisms.", "He calls Lacan a \"charlatan,\" and a \"dandy figure\" who \"sinks into autism,\" eventually becoming senile." ], [ "Works", "Selected works published in English listed below.", "More complete listings can be found at Lacan.com.", "* ''Écrits: A Selection'', transl.", "by Alan Sheridan, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1977, .", "* ''Écrits: The First Complete Edition in English'', transl.", "by Bruce Fink, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2006, .", "* ''Feminine Sexuality: Jacques Lacan and the école freudienne'', edited by Juliet Mitchell and Jacqueline Rose, transl.", "by Jacqueline Rose, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1983, .", "* ''My Teaching'', transl.", "by David Macey, Verso, London, 2008, * ''The Seminar, Book I. Freud's Papers on Technique, 1953–1954'', edited by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by John Forrester, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1988, .", "* ''The Seminar, Book II.", "The Ego in Freud's Theory and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis, 1954–1955'', ed.", "by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by Sylvana Tomaselli, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1988, .", "* ''The Seminar, Book III.", "The Psychoses'', edited by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by Russell Grigg, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1993, .", "* ''The Seminar, Book V. Formations of the Unconscious'', edited by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by Russell Grigg, Polity Press, New York, 2017, .", "* ''The Seminar, Book VII.", "The Ethics of Psychoanalysis, 1959–1960'', ed.", "by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by Dennis Porter, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1992, .", "* ''The Seminar, Book VIII.", "Transference'', ed.", "by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by Bruce Fink, Polity Press, New York, 2015, .", "* ''The Seminar, Book X. Anxiety, 1962–1963'', ed.", "by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by A. R. Price, Polity Press, New York, 2014, .", "*''The Seminar, Book XI.", "The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis, 1964'', ed.", "by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by Alan Sheridan, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1977, .", "*''The Seminar, Book XVII.", "The Other Side of Psychoanalysis'', ed.", "by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by Russell Grigg, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 2007, .", "*''The Seminar, Book XIX.", "...or Worse'', ed.", "by Jacques-Alain Miller, Polity Press, New York, 2018, .", "*''The Seminar, Book XX.", "Encore: On Feminine Sexuality, the Limits of Love and Knowledge'', ed.", "by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by Bruce Fink, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1998, .", "*''The Seminar, Book XXIII.", "The Sinthome'', ed.", "by Jacques-Alain Miller, transl.", "by A.R.", "Price, Polity Press, New York, 2016, .", "*''Television/ A Challenge to the Psychoanalytic Establishment'', ed.", "Joan Copjec, trans.", "Rosalind Krauss, Jeffrey Mehlman, et al., W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1990, ." ], [ "See also", "* Chronology of Jacques Lacan* The Seminars of Jacques Lacan* Jacques Lacan's Complete French Bibliography* Of Structure as the Inmixing of an Otherness Prerequisite to Any Subject Whatever – Johns Hopkins University (1966)* Jacques Lacan; Kant with Sade* The Seminar on \"The Purloined Letter\"* The Crime of the Papin Sisters* Love beyond Law – further discussions by Žižek on Desire in the Lacanian conceptual edifice" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Biographical works===* Millot, Catherine (2018).", "''Life With Lacan''.", "Cambridge: Polity.", "* Roudinesco, Élisabeth (1999) ''Jacques Lacan: An Outline of a Life and History of a System of Thought''.", "Cambridge: Polity.===Introductory texts===* * Bowie, Malcolm, (1991) ''Lacan'' London: Fontana.", "* Dor, Joel, (2001) ''Introduction to the Reading of Lacan: The Unconscious Structured Like a Language'', New York: Other Press.", "* Evans, Dylan (1997).", "''An Introductory Dictionary of Lacanian Psychoanalysis.''", "London: Routledge.", "* Grosz, Elizabeth.", "(1991) ''Jacques Lacan: a Feminist Introduction''.", "London: Routledge.", "*Homer, S. (2005) ''Jacques Lacan''.", "London: Routledge.", "*Leader, D. & Groves, J.", "(1995) ''Lacan for Beginners.''", "London: Icon Books.", "* Lee, Jonathan Scott.", "(2002) ''Jacques Lacan''.", "Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press.", "*===Textual commentaries======= Écrits ====* Fink, Bruce.", "''Lacan to the Letter: Reading Ecrits Closely''.", "University of Minnesota Press, 2004.", "*Hook, D., Vanheule, S. & Neill, C.", "(eds.)", "(2019) ''Reading Lacan’s Écrits: From ‘The Freudian Thing’ to ‘Remarks on Daniel Lagache’''.", "London: Routledge.", "*Hook, D., Vanheule, S. & Neill, C.", "(eds.)", "(2022) ''Reading Lacan’s Écrits: From ‘Logical Time’ to ‘Response to Jean Hyppolite’''.", "London: Routledge.", "*Vanheule, S., Hook, D. & Neill, C.", "(eds.)", "(2018) ''Reading Lacan’s Écrits: From ‘Signification of the Phallus’ to ‘‘Metaphor of the Subject’''.", "London: Routledge*Neill, C., Hook, D. & Vanheule, S.", "(eds.)", "(2023) ''Reading Lacan’s Écrits: From ‘Overture to This Collection’ to ‘Presentation on Psychical Causality’''.", "London: Routledge.", "*Johnston, Adrian (2017).", "''Irrepressible Truth: On Lacan's \"The Freudian Thing\"''.", "Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.", "*Muller, John P.; Richardson, William J.", "(1982).", "''Lacan and Language: A Reader's Guide to Écrits''.", "New York: International University Press.", "*Nobus, Dany (2022) ''The Law of Desire: On Lacan's 'Kant with Sade'.''", "Cham: Palgrave MacMillan.====The Seminars====*Cox Cameron, O. with Owens, C. (2021) ''Studying Lacan’s Seminar VI: Dream, Symptom, and the Collapse of Subjectivity''.", "London.", "Routledge.", "*Owens, C. and Almqvist, N. (2019) ''Studying Lacan’s Seminars IV and V: From Lack to Desire.", "London''.", "Routledge.", "* * * * Harari, Roberto, ''Lacan's Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis: An Introduction'', New York: Other Press, 2004.", "* Harari, Roberto, ''Lacan's Seminar on \"Anxiety\": An Introduction'', New York: Other Press, 2005.", "* Miller, Jacques-Alain, \"Introduction to Reading Jacques Lacan's Seminar on Anxiety I\", New York: ''Lacanian Ink'' 26, Fall 2005.", "* Miller, Jacques-Alain, \"Introduction to Reading Jacques Lacan's Seminar on Anxiety II\", New York: ''Lacanian Ink'' 27, Spring 2006.===General commentaries===* Badiou, Alain, \"The Formulas of l'Étourdit\", New York: ''Lacanian Ink'' 27, Spring 2006.", "* * * * Bracher, Mark; Massardier-Kenney, Françoise; Alcorn, Marshall W.; Corthell, Ronald J.", "(1994).", "''Lacanian Theory of Discourse: Subject, Structure, and Society''.", "New York: New York University Press.", "ISBN 0-8147-1299-1.", "* Brennan, Teresa (1993).", "''History after Lacan''.", "London: Routledge* Dor, Joel (1999) ''The Clinical Lacan'', New York: Other Press.", "* Felman, Shoshana (1987).", "''Jacques Lacan and the Adventure of insight: Psychoanalysis in Contemporary Culture''.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard Univ.", "Press.", "* Fink, Bruce (1996) ''The Lacanian Subject: Between Language and Jouissance'' Princeton University Press, 1996.", "* Fink, Bruce (1997) ''A Clinical Introduction to Lacanian Psychoanalysis: Theory and Technique''.", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.", "* *Forrester, John (1985) ''Language and the Origins of Psychoanalysis'', Basingstoke and London: Macmillan.", "* Glynos, Jason and Stavrakakis, Yannis (eds) (2002).", "''Lacan and Science''.", "London: Karnac Books.", "* * Johnston, Adrian (2005) ''Time Driven: Metapsychology and the Splitting of the Drive'', Evanston: Northwestern University Press.", "* Kovacevic, Filip (2007) \"Liberating Oedipus?", "Psychoanalysis as Critical Theory\" Landham, MD: Lexington Books.", "* Macey, David (1988).", "''Lacan in Contexts''.", "London: Verso.", "* Mandal, Mahitosh (2018) ''Jacques Lacan: From Clinic to Culture''.", "Hyderabad: Orient BlackSwan * McGowan, Todd and Sheila Kunkle Eds.", "(2004) ''Lacan and Contemporary Film'', New York: Other Press.", "* Miller, Jacques-Alain, \"Jacques Lacan's Later Teachings\", New York: Spring ''Lacanian Ink'' 21, 2003.", "* Miller, Jacques-Alain, \"The Paradigms of Jouissance\" New York, ''Lacanian Ink'' 17, Fall 2000.", "* Miller, Jacques-Alain, \"Suture: Elements of the Logic of the Signifier\", Lacan Dot Com, The Symptom 2006.", "* Miller, Jacques-Alain, \"Religion, Psychoanalysis\", Lacanian Ink 23, Spring 2004.", "* Miller, Jacques-Alain, \"Pure Psychoanalysis, Applied Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy\", ''Lacanian Ink'' 20, Spring 2002.", "* * Nasio, Juan-David, ''Book of Love and Pain: The Thinking at the Limit with Freud and Lacan'', transl.", "by David Pettigrew and Francois Raffoul, Albany: SUNY Press, 2003.", "* Nasio, Juan-David (1998) ''Five Lessons on the Psychoanalytic Theory of Jacques Lacan'', Albany, SUNY Press.", "* Nasio, Juan-David (1999) ''Hysteria: The Splendid Child of Psychoanalysis''.", "Translated by Susan Fairfield.", "New York: Other Press.", "** Nobus, Dany (ed.)", "(1999) ''Key Concepts of Lacanian Psychoanalysis''.", "New York: Other Press.", "* Nobus, Dany (2022).", "''Critique of Psychoanalytic Reason: Studies in Lacanian Theory and Practice''.", "London: Routledge.", "* Parker, Ian (2011) ''Lacanian Psychoanalysis: Revolutions in Subjectivity''.", "London: Routledge.", "* Pettigrew, David and François Raffoul (eds.", "), (1996) ''Disseminating Lacan'', Albany: SUNY Press.", "* Rabaté, Jean-Michel (ed.", "), (2003) ''The Cambridge Companion to Lacan'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* Rose, Jacqueline (1986) ''Sexuality in the Field of Vision''.", "London: Verso.", "* Roudinesco, Élisabeth, 'Lucien Febvre à la rencontre de Jacques Lacan, Paris 1937'.", "with Peter Schöttler, ''Genèses'', Année 1993, Vol.13, n°1.", "* Roudinesco, Elisabeth (1990) ''Jacques Lacan & Co.: a History of Psychoanalysis in France, 1925–1985''.", "Chicago: Chicago University Press.", "* Roudinesco, Élisabeth, \"Lacan, The Plague\", ''Psychoanalysis and History'', ed.", "John Forrester, Teddington, Artesian Books, 2008.", "* Safouan, Moustafa (2004) ''Four Lessons of Psychoanalysis'', New York, Other Press.", "* Schneiderman, Stuart (1983) ''Jacques Lacan: the Death of an Intellectual Hero'', Harvard University Press.", "* * Stavrakakis, Yannis (2007) ''The Lacanian Left'', Albany: State University of New York Press.", "* Turkle, Sherry and Wandollheim, Richard, 'Lacan: an exchange', ''New York Review of Books'', 26 (9), 1979.", "* Žižek, Slavoj, \"Jacques Lacan's Four Discourses\", ''Lacan Dot Com'', 2008.", "* Žižek, Slavoj, \"Woman is One of the Names-of-the-Father, or how Not to misread Lacan´s formulas of sexuation\", Lacan Dot Com, 2005.", "* Žižek, Slavoj, 'The object as a limit of discourse: approaches to the Lacanian real', ''Prose Studies'', 11 (3), 1988, pp.", "94–120.", "* Žižek, Slavoj, \"Jacques Lacan as Reader of Hegel\", New York, ''Lacanian Ink'' 27, Fall 2006.", "* Žižek, Slavoj, (2006) \"How to Read Lacan'' London: Granta Books." ], [ "External links", "* Centre for Freudian Analysis and Research* World Association of Psychoanalysis* Homepage of the Lacanian School of Psychoanalysis and the San Francisco Society for Lacanian Studies* The London Society of the New Lacanian School.", "Site includes online library of clinical & theoretical texts* Lacan Dot Com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jupiter Ace" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Jupiter Ace''' by Jupiter Cantab was a British home computer released in 1982.The Ace differed from other microcomputers of the time in that its programming environment used Forth instead of the more popular BASIC.", "This difference, along with limited available software and poor character based graphic display, limited sales and the machine was not a success." ], [ "History", "A small Jupiter Ace systemJupiter Cantab was formed by Richard Altwasser and Steven Vickers.", "Both had been on the design team for the ZX Spectrum: Altwasser worked on ZX81 development and hardware design of the Spectrum.", "Vickers adapted and expanded the 4K ZX80 ROM to the 8K ZX81 ROM and wrote most of the ROM for the Spectrum.The Jupiter Ace was named after an early British computer, the Pilot ACE, and went on sale on September 22, 1982 with a price of £89.95.Sales to the general public were slow.", "Initially the computer was only available by mail order, and Jupiter Cantab reported that there were production difficulties, but these had been overcome by January 1983 and that units were arriving in shops.", "The use of Forth rather than the more usual choice of BASIC, and the availability and success of the ZX Spectrum, as well as limited published software, the poor case and small initial memory all weighed against wider market acceptance.", "Eventually Jupiter Cantab ceased trading by the end of October 1983.The brand was then acquired by Boldfield Computing Ltd in 1984 that sold the remaining stock by mail order for £26.The brand was again sold to Paul Andrews's company Andrews UK Limited in 2015.=== Sales ===Sales of the machine were never very large; the reported number of Ace's sold before Jupiter Cantab closed for business was around 5,000.As of the early 2000s, surviving machines are uncommon, often fetching high prices as collector's items.Forth, while being structured and powerful, was considered difficult to learn, and a knowledge of BASIC acquired from familiarity with other home computers was of no practical help in learning it.", "A 1982 review stated that \"The success of the Jupiter Ace will depend on the machine-buying public's acceptance of another microcomputer language.", "\"Further, there was only a very limited range of published software either commercial programs or type-in programs printed in hobby magazines for the machine, and these were restricted by the base model's small amount of RAM.Attempts to promote the Ace in the educational market also failed; doubts over whether Forth would be relevant for exam syllabuses, and the lack of support for Forth from teaching staff were key issues.", "Pupils were more interested in learning the widely used BASIC than a language used by only one (uncommon) machine with a peculiar RPN syntax.Finally, the tile-based graphics compared poorly to the pixel-based graphics of other machines which were also colour rather than the Ace's monochrome.", "This restricted sales largely to a niche market of technical programming enthusiasts." ], [ "Design", "The Jupiter Ace is often compared with ZX81 due to its similar size, low cost, and similar form factor.", "Internally its design is more similar to the ZX Spectrum although the Ace also had a dedicated video memory of 2 KB, partly avoiding the slow down when programs accessed the same bank (same chips) as the video memory.", "Like the Spectrum, the Ace used black conductive rubber keys although unlike the Spectrum, the keys had a conductive pad that was squashed directly onto tracks on the PCB rather than using a membrane.", "As a result, the keys would often stop working reliably until they were cleaned or the conductive material was refreshed.Audio capabilities were CPU-controlled with programmable frequency and duration.", "Sound output was through a small built-in speaker.As was common at the time, it used a common tape recorder instead of disk/tape drives.", "Similarly, a television was needed as a display but this was in black and white only, rather than the colour supported by competing models such as the Spectrum.", "A secondary (undocumented) edge connector on the back of the case made some video signals available, presumably for a forthcoming colour video card, but no official product that used this connector was ever released.The Jupiter Ace was based on the Zilog Z80, which the designers had previous experience of from working on the Sinclair ZX81 and ZX Spectrum.Both graphics and text could be displayed at the same time: (1) redefinition of the character tiles provided standard 256×192 graphics limited to the 128 available (definable) 8×8 chars, concurrent with plotting of 64×48 graphics.Internal speaker directly controlled by the CPU in single task mode, with control of sound frequency and duration in milliseconds.Storage was through a cassette-tape interface at 1500 baud.", "Files could be used for either storage of Forth programs (compiled code) or raw dumps of memory.=== Memory ===The Ace had an 8 KB ROM containing the Forth kernel and operating system, and the predefined dictionary of Forth words in about 5 KB.", "The remaining 3 KB of ROM supported several functionalities: floating-point numbers library and character definitions table, tape recorder access, decompiling and redefining newly re-edited 'words' (i.e.", "routines).", "Some of the ROM was written in Z80 machine code, but some was also coded in Forth.The next 8 KB was built in RAM that was only partially decoded, with 2 KB of video RAM echoed twice, and 1 KB of user RAM echoed 4 times (with the same memory appearing at several different memory addresses).Using the lower-address mirror of the video RAM would select CPU priority, resulting in some momentary random pixels on the screen when video subsystem and the CPU accessed the video RAM in the same clock cycle.", "Using the higher-address would briefly pause the CPU on the interference, affecting the program timing and making this mode unsuitable for I/O operations.", "Since video RAM was partially separated from the main address and data busses, for the most part the video subsystem and the CPU could operate in parallel.The first 16 KB of the memory map was used for ROM, Video and User-available RAM, leaving the second 16 KB of the memory map free for RAM extension and the topmost 32 KB undefined.One 1K bank allowed redefinition of most of its 128 ASCII-based characters in 8×8 pixel bitmap format.", "The other 1K bank stored the full screen display of 24 rows × 32 columns of characters in black and white.", "Colour was intended to be achieved as expansion, but although a colour-graphics board was designed, none was ever produced commercially.1 KB RAM with the option of a 16 KB RAM-Pack, and later a 32 KB one.", "A PCB was also marketed by Boldfield Computing that converted the edge connector to electrical compatibility with a Sinclair ZX81, allowing use of the ZX81 16K RAM pack.=== Specifications === Characteristic Value Processor Zilog Z80A clocked at 3.25 MHz.", "Operating system FORTH (as both the programming language and command-line interface).", "Memory 2 KB for Video + 1 KB base expandable up to 49 KB (Video excluded).", "Video Independent sub-system with 2 dedicated SRAM banks: Screen (1 KB) + Char Tiles (1 KB).", "Sound Internal speaker, CPU-driven (non-dedicated).", "Expansion 2 connectors: Main (CPU related) + Video (Screen + AV signal).", "Keyboard and Charset 40-key QWERTY keyboard (Symbols access with extra key).All chars in Charset (based on ASCII-1967) being redefinable.", "Character set Based on ASCII-1967 with extensions as for the ZX Spectrum character set including ↑, £ and ©.References to the Ace RAM sometimes include the separate 2 KB video memory, which was not available for programming, thus leading to some confusion.", "Similarly, it is sometimes argued that because of Forth's efficiency, the 1 KB standard RAM was in effect comparable to at least 2 KB on a BASIC system." ], [ "Programming", "Ace's Forth vocabularyIts most distinctive characteristic was the choice of Forth, a structured language.", "Threaded compilation allowed programs written to run nearly as fast as many native-compiled languages loaded by more expensive computers.", "Forth was considered well-adapted to microcomputers with their small memory and relatively low-performance processors.", "Forth programs are memory-efficient; as they become bigger, they reuse more previously-defined code.", "Control structures could be nested to any level, limited only by available memory.", "This allowed complex programs to be implemented, even allowing recursive programming.", "The Ace's Forth was stated to be \"ten times faster than Basic\" and used less than half the memory (a significant cost percentage of low end computers of the time) of an equivalent program written in interpreted BASIC.", "It also allowed easy implementation of machine code routines if needed.Ace's Forth was based mostly on Forth-79, with some relevant differences, in particular it added syntax checking to control structures and definer constructions and a few extra words were added based on common BASIC sound, video and tape commands.", "The implementation lacked some less frequently used Forth words, these being easily implemented if needed.", "Runtime error checking could be turned off to raise speed by 25% to 50%.=== Decompiling ===Its Forth was adapted to the disk-less tape-using home computer hardware by being able to save/load user \"compiled vocabularies\", instead of the usual numbered programming blocks used by diskette systems.Decompiling avoided wasting RAM in simulating an absent Block System, used with both disk and tape drivers (these last not to be confused with tape recorders).", "As replacement, it included an extra data file, for raw binary data.", "These solutions were unique to the Jupiter Ace.=== DEFINER vs COMPILER ===To allow decompile, it distinguished usual Forth definer and compiler words creation, replacing the CREATE .. DOES>, creation pair with:# DEFINER .... DOES> : Create new Defining words, usually used to define and build data structures.", "Similar to CREATE..DOES usage in standard FORTH.", "(Example: Adding Data Structures as Arrays, Records, ...).# COMPILER .. RUNS> : Create new Compiling words, less frequently used to extend the language with compiler words where CREATE..DOES> is FORTH implementation dependent.", "(Example: New Compiler Control Structures as Case, Infinite Loop, ...).These two defining pairs, instead of one alone, allowed the Ace to decompile its programs, unlike usual Forth systems.", "This decompiling ability was a solution to the absence of the more flexible disk system used by Forth.", "Not storing the source of a Forth program, but compiling the code after editing, it avoided completely the emulation of a disk/tape drive on RAM saving computer memory.", "It also saved time in reading and writing programs from cassette tape.", "This tape-friendly and RAM-saving solution was unique to the Jupiter Ace Forth.The names can be equivocal out of a Forth context, as all Words are compiled when declared.DEFINER defines a new Class (as an array) that will build (compile) an array Object.", "These are active on 'Interpreter'.", "Pairing this Interaction mode, COMPILER defines a programming structure (usually a pair or a triplet) as IF-ELSE-THEN.", "These 'Structured Programming' are active on 'Compile' mode (which is simply building a new Forth Word).", "In short, \"Interpreting mode\" means Run stage, while \"Compiling mode\" refers to an Editing stage.=== Development ===Avoiding sources was compensated by storing comments entered in the code with the compiled output, traditional compilation would discard such comments.", "The comments were then recovered on decompiling.", "As a result of \"code is the source\", modified words (edited) would demand actualization of all code using the one newly edited.", "This was done with the non standard REDEFINE command.Although not explicitly designed for such a purpose, the compiled Forth could be utilised for ROM extensions to the built in system.", "External ROMs were developed with Ace Forth to be used as control applications." ], [ "Add-ons", "The machine was able to use some ZX81 add-ons due to similar RAM locations, and external expansion slot.", "Jupiter Cantab made a 16 KB RAM pack, and external companies made similar RAM packs as well as other peripherals and interfaces.", ":'''RAM packs''':#16 KB by Jupiter Cantab.", ":#16 KB and 32 KB by Stonechip Electronics.", ":#16 KB by Sinclair, with adaptor board from Jupiter Cantab for electrical compatibility.", ":#48 KB by Boldfield (new Jupiter Ace owner after Jupiter Cantab).", ":'''Keyboard''':*Memotech Keyboard, by Memotech.", ":'''Sound''':*SoundBoard (1983) by Essex Micro Electronics,:'''Storage''':#Jet-Disc Disc Drive System (1983) by MPE (control up to four 3\", 5\", or 8\" drives).", ":#\"Deep Thought\" Disc interface with a 4K AceDOS in an EPROM (1986) by J Shepherd & S Leask.", ":'''Printer Adapters''':*ADS Centronics Interface Machine (1983), by Advanced Digital Systems,:*RS232 & Centronics PrinterCard (1984) by Essex Micro Electronics.", ":*It was possible to connect the Sinclair ZX Printer via an adaptor board and software.", ":'''Graphics Card''':#Gray Scale card – 4 shades of gray by S Leask (1986)" ], [ "Models", "=== Jupiter Ace issue 1 ===The original Jupiter Ace issue 1 was introduced in 1982, and came in a vacuum-drawn case.", "Reportedly 5000 units were produced.File:Jupiter-ace-issue-1.jpg|Jupiter Ace issue 1File:Jupiter Ace - Retrosystems 2010.jpg|Jupiter Ace issue 1=== Jupiter Ace 4000 ===The Jupiter Ace 4000 was introduced in 1983, and came on stronger injection-moulded case.", "Reportedly 800 units were produced.File:Jupiter Ace 4000.jpg|Jupiter Ace 4000File:Jupiter Ace 4000 (Museum Swindon).jpg|Jupiter Ace 4000" ], [ "Video game", "There are 51 known commercially released video games for Jupiter AceTitlePublisherRelease yearAce Invaders (Forth Dimension)Forth Dimension1983Ace Invaders (Hi-Tech Microsoft)Hi-Tech Microsoft (UK)1983Ace InvasionTitan Programs Ltd (UK)1984Ace Pack 2 (Defence, Sketch, Racer)Dream Software1983Ace Pack 3 (Picman, Breakout, Life)Dream Software1983ACE SnakeStusoft1984AcevadersMicro Marketing (UK)1984Alien DefenderBoldfield Computing Ltd1984Amazing MazeBoldfield Computing Ltd1984Atic RaidBoldfield Computing Ltd1984Black Island AdventureBoldfield Computing Ltd1984Cavern AttackHi-Tech Microsoft (UK)1984CentipedeBoldfield Computing Ltd1984Champs De Mines / Casse BriquesERE Informatique (France)1983ChessBoldfield Computing Ltd1984CygnusBoldfield Computing Ltd1984Dot Man (Sushiro)Micro Marketing (UK)1984Duckshoot / Minefield / ZapemMicro Marketing (UK)1984Elusive Recluse / AcesnakeStusoft1984FirebirdVoyager Software1983Fish / FluttererJupiter Cantab (UK)1983Frogger (Boldfield Computing Ltd)Boldfield Computing Ltd1983Galactic InvasionJRS Software Ltd (UK)1983Games Tape One (Brick Catcher, Asteroids, Street Racer, TimeVaders)Voyager Software1983Games Tape Three (Bomber, Jackpot)Voyager Software1983GobbledegookJupiter Cantab (UK)1983Greedy Gobbler / Blowing Up The WorldJupiter Cantab (UK)1983Green Cross FrogHi-Tech Microsoft (UK)1982Jovian Game Tape 1 (Aceteroids, Demolition, Moneymatrix, Golfgrid, Duckinvaders)Jovian Games1983JumpmanCallisto Software1984MastermindHamsoft1983Memory StarsHi-Tech Microsoft (UK)1984Meteor RacerForth Dimension1983Micro MazeHi-Tech Microsoft (UK)1983MillepedeSoftspot1983Missile Man / Space Fighter PilotJupiter Cantab (UK)1983Moo / HangmanJupiter Cantab (UK)1983OthelloJupiter Cantab (UK)1983Overtaker / Brands HatchJupiter Cantab (UK)1983OwlerCallisto Software1983Puzzle / BombsBoldfield Computing Ltd1984Snake / SuperbatWaylandsoft1983Space BattleHi-Tech Microsoft (UK)1984SuperChess IICP Software1983Swamp MonstersMicro Marketing (UK)1984Tape 5: FroggerRemsoft1983Tape 12: Frogger / Scramble / Meteor / Breakout / Star WarsRemsoft1983Titan Defender / Dual DuelStusoft1984Triple Pack 1: Balloon Pilot / ShuttlecockBoldfield Computing Ltd1983WormA Curtis1983Zombies And PotholesJupiter Cantab (UK)1983" ], [ "See also", "Other Forth-based microcomputers:* Hector HRX* Canon Cat" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jupiter Ace Resource Site: The Jupiter Ace restoration and preservation project.", "* ACE-ROM-PROJECT: Latest ROM Docs E-Book(PDF) with restored ACE ROM (ZIP).", "* theregister.co.uk: The Jupiter Ace is 30, schematic (2012)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jacksonville Jaguars" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Jacksonville Jaguars''' are a professional American football team based in Jacksonville, Florida.", "The Jaguars compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the American Football Conference (AFC) South Division.", "The team plays its home games at EverBank Stadium.Founded alongside the Carolina Panthers in 1995 as an expansion team, the Jaguars competed in the AFC Central until they were moved to the AFC South in 2002.The franchise is owned by Shahid Khan, who bought the team from its original majority owner Wayne Weaver in 2012.The Jaguars saw early success, making the playoffs in each of their second through fifth seasons, a four-year span in which they won two division titles and appeared in two AFC Championship Games.", "They are the youngest NFL expansion team to appear in a conference championship (by their second season in 1996, along with the Panthers) and clinch their conference's top seed (by their fifth season in 1999).", "The Jaguars have been less successful since, with only four playoff appearances and two division titles since 2000.Jacksonville is one of four NFL franchises that have never played in the Super Bowl, alongside the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, and division rival Houston Texans." ], [ "Franchise history" ], [ "Logos and uniforms", "===Logos===The day after the NFL awarded the expansion team to Jacksonville, Jaguars owner Wayne Weaver held up the Jaguars' proposed silver helmet and teal jersey at the NFL owners' meeting in Chicago.", "The team's colors were to be teal, gold, and silver with black accents.", "However, this jersey and helmet design, with a gold leaping jaguar, created controversy.", "Ford Motor Company, then-parent of the automaker Jaguar, believed that the Jaguars' logo bore too much resemblance to the automaker's logo.", "Though no lawsuit was brought to trial, lawyers from the team and the automaker negotiated an ultimately amicable agreement whereby Jaguar would be named the official car of the Jaguars, and the Jaguars would redesign their uniforms.The new logo was a snarling jaguar head with a teal tongue, which Weaver said was his wife's touch.", "He also claimed that the teal tongue came from \"feeding Panthers to our Jaguars\" — an obvious jab at their expansion brethren.", "During the Jaguars' first-ever preseason game teal-colored candies were handed out to all the fans who attended, turning their tongues a teal color just like on the logo.", "Additionally, raspberry lollipops were handed out by the \"Candy Man\" in section 142 to also turn the home fans' tongues teal.In 2009, Weaver announced that he wanted to \"clean up\" the team's image.", "This meant the elimination of the full-body crawling Jaguar logo, the clawing Jaguar, and the two previous wordmarks which bent the text around these logos.In February 2013, Jaguars owner Shahid Khan, who had acquired the team in late 2011, introduced a new brand identity for the team that included a new logo, wordmark, and secondary logo.", "The new Jaguar head logo was intended to be \"fiercer\" and more realistic.", "The secondary logo incorporated the new Jaguar head logo along with the first official usage of the team's popular nickname \"Jags\".", "The two images were encased in a shield-style shape, designed to be a tribute to Jacksonville's military community.Beginning in 2013, the Jaguars began to feature gold more prominently than in the past.", "From 2009 to 2012, gold had only been used in the team logo and as a minor accent color.File:Jaguars script logo 1995-1998.gif|Jaguars wordmark logo (1995–1998)File:Jaguars script logo 1999-2008.gif|Jaguars wordmark logo (1999–2008)File:Jacksonville Jaguars third wordmark.png|Jaguars wordmark logo (2009–2012)File:Jacksonville Jaguars wordmark.svg|Jaguars wordmark logo (2013–present)===Uniforms===For most of their history, the Jaguars have done what many other NFL teams located in subtropical climates traditionally practice: wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season — forcing opponents to wear their dark ones under the sweltering autumns in Jacksonville.", "The only exceptions were in 2004 and 2008–2010, when the Jaguars chose to wear teal for all home games.", "In the preseason, the Jaguars typically wear teal at home, since these games are played at night when there is very little advantage with the heat.====1995–2001====Jaguars' first home game in 1995Following the logo change, the redesigned uniforms featured an all-black helmet, white pants with teal, black, and gold stripes, and numbers with gold inner trim and black outer trim.", "The home jersey was teal with white numbers and the away jersey was white with teal numbers.", "Both jerseys had a black collar and no sleeve stripes.A prowling jaguar on each sleeve replaced the leaping jaguar going across both shoulders in the original design.", "The Jaguars in 1995 were the first NFL team to have two-tone borders on their numbers and lettering, and the first NFL team to show a complex logo (the crawling jaguar) on the sleeve.Minor modifications were introduced to the Jaguars uniform during this time, most notably the font of the jersey numbers, replacing the original block numbers with a unique font.", "Two stripes were also added to the end of the sleeves below the prowling jaguar.====2002–2008====Jaguars away in Pittsburgh in 2005The team introduced a black alternate jersey in 2002.During that same year, the team also introduced alternate black pants, worn with either the white or the teal jersey.", "After the black pants were introduced, the white pants would only be seen for the first few games of the year, presumably due to the heat.", "The black pants originally included two teal stripes down each side.", "The fan reaction to the extra black in the alternate jersey and alternate pants was positive, so in 2004 the Jaguars went through a formal uniform change, which teams are only allowed to do once every five years.", "These changes were mostly to the away look.", "Before 2004, the white away jerseys had teal numbers with black and gold trim, but after, the white jerseys had black numbers with teal and gold trim.", "The black pants were also changed.", "The teal stripes were replaced with the jaguar logo on each hip.", "Teal almost disappeared from the away uniform.The stripes on the white pants were altered in 2008 so that the center, thickest stripe was black, and its accents were teal.", "In the 2008 year, the gold in the uniforms noticeably shifted from a bright yellow metallic appearance to more beige.====2009–2012====Jaguars home game in 2011The Jaguars unveiled new uniforms for the 2009 season.", "Team owner Wayne Weaver reportedly wanted to \"clean up\" the look, feeling that the team had too many uniform styles.", "The new uniforms were introduced in a press conference on April 22.At this press conference, Weaver elaborated that different people had taken different liberties with the Jaguars' image over the years, singling out the \"all black\" look which the team wore for every prime-time home game from 2003 to 2007 as a point of regret.", "He also said that the team would wear their teal jerseys at home even on hot days, saying that the practice of choosing to wear white on hot days had also diluted the team's image.", "The new uniform reflected a simpler look overall.", "The collar and sleeve ends are the same color as the rest of the jersey.", "The crawling jaguar was removed.", "The numbers on the jerseys were changed to a simpler, block font with a thicker, single color border.", "After all of these subtractions, two features were added.", "The first was a \"Jaguars\" wordmark underneath the NFL insignia on the chest.", "The second was two thin \"stripes\" of off-color fabric which were added to each midseam of the jersey, curling up to the neckline on the front and below the number on the back.", "The stripe on the home jersey is a white line next to a black line, matching the color of the numbers, and the stripe on the away jersey is a black line next to a teal line, again matching the numbers.", "The pants have similar stripes, both for the home and away uniform.", "The away uniforms were still black pants and numbers on a white jersey, but they now used teal as the only accent color as opposed to using gold in previous years.", "The Jaguars' identity, in terms of colors, beginning in 2009 is exclusively teal and black, with gold only being used in the logo.", "The final change made to the Jaguars' uniforms in 2009 was to the helmet.", "The new helmet and facemask were black just like the old ones, but when light hit the new ones a certain way, both the helmet and face mask sparkled with a shiny teal appearance.", "These were the first helmets in professional football which changed color with different angles of light.", "The logo and number decals also incorporated this effect.Prior to the 2012 season, new Jaguars owner Shahid Khan announced that the team would once again use a black jersey, something they had not done since 2008.In September of that year, the team announced that it would use the black jersey and black pants as their primary home uniform.", "The teal jersey was resurrected as an alternate.====2013–2017====Jaguars home game in 2013On April 23, 2013, the Jaguars unveiled new uniforms designed by Nike.", "The primary home jersey is black with white numerals outlined in teal and gold.", "The road jersey is white with teal numerals outlined in black and gold, marking the first time since 2003 that the team has used teal numbers on their road jersey.", "The alternate jersey is teal with black numerals outlined in white and gold.", "The team had never before used black numbers on their teal jersey.", "All three jerseys feature a contrasting stripe that bends around the neck, and semi-glossy patches on the shoulders meant to resemble claw marks.", "The team added their new shield logo onto a patch just above the player's heart, meant to pay tribute to Jacksonville's military heritage.The helmet, first of its kind in the NFL, featured a glossy gold finish in the back that fades to matte black in the front, via a color gradient.The new uniform set includes black and white pants with the Jaguars logo on the hip and a tri-color pattern down the player's leg.In November 2015, as one of eight teams participating in Nike's \"Color Rush\" initiative for four games of ''Thursday Night Football'' during the 2015 season, Jacksonville introduced an all-gold second alternative uniform.", "The set features a gold jersey with black sleeves and black trim, as well as all gold pants.", "The white front and back numbers are lined in the teal accent color and bordered by black.", "The TV numbers on the shoulders are white with black bordering.", "The set also features gold undershirts and socks.====2018–present====On April 19, 2018, the Jaguars again revealed re-designed uniforms.", "The new design returns to an all-black gloss helmet and removes many of the complicated details from the previous set.", "For the first time, there are no borders at all on any of the jersey numbers.", "There are no stripes or team logo on the pants; only an NFL logo and a Nike logo, which is the first and only of its kind in the NFL.", "Like the 2009 uniform set, the only gold in the uniform set belongs to the jaguar logo itself, and the block number font is not distinct from that used by other teams.", "The sleeve trim and collar trim are both a different color than the rest of the jersey, that and the solitary jaguar logo are the only distinct markings on the jersey.", "For the first time, the sock has a teal stripe between the black and white.", "The black jersey is the primary, as it has been since 2012, and the teal is the alternate.", "The Jaguars continued to pair the uniforms with either black or white pants, but added alternate teal pants for the first time.In 2019, the Jaguars began wearing either solid black or white socks as part of a new NFL mandate allowing solid-colored hosiery on the field.In Week 3 of the 2020 season against the Miami Dolphins, the Jaguars wore an all-teal ensemble for the first time, complete with solid teal socks.On February 17, 2021, the Jaguars announced that the club would return to wearing teal jerseys as its designated primary home jersey color." ], [ "Stadium", "EverBank Stadium (formerly known as Jacksonville Municipal Stadium, Alltel Stadium, EverBank Field, and TIAA Bank Field) is located on the north bank of the St. Johns River, and has been the home of the Jaguars since the team's first season in 1995.The stadium has a capacity of 67,814, with additional seating added during Florida–Georgia Game and the Gator Bowl.The stadium served as the site of Super Bowl XXXIX in addition to five Jaguar playoff games including the 1999 AFC Championship Game.", "It also hosted the ACC Championship Game from 2005 to 2007 and the River City Showdown in 2007 and 2008.From 1995 to 1997 and again from 2006 to 2009, the stadium was named Jacksonville Municipal Stadium.", "From 1997 to 2006, the stadium was referred to as Alltel Stadium.", "The naming rights were purchased by EverBank prior to the 2010 season.", "Prior to the 2018 season the Jaguars announced the stadium would be renamed TIAA Bank Field.The stadium received a substantial upgrade in 2014 with the addition of new scoreboards, pools, cabana seating and premium seating that includes 180 field-level seats.", "The scoreboards are high and long.", "The new scoreboards are the world's largest video boards.", "Two by pools were installed in the north end zone along with the cabana seating.", "The cost of the stadium upgrades were $63 million, of which owner Shahid Khan helped finance $20 million." ], [ "Rivalries", "The Jaguars share rivalries with the other three teams in the AFC South: the Indianapolis Colts, Houston Texans, and Tennessee Titans.", "The Jaguars also have geographic rivalries with the two other Florida-based teams: the Miami Dolphins and Tampa Bay Buccaneers.", "The Jaguars, Dolphins, and Buccaneers frequently play each other during the preseason.", "During the AFC Central days of the mid-1990s and early 2000s, the Jaguars had a rivalry with the Pittsburgh Steelers as the two teams were consistently in playoff contention.", "The rivalry would reach new heights in the 2000s and 2010s when the Jaguars and Steelers joined the AFC South and North respectively.", "Jacksonville also defeated Pittsburgh in the playoffs in and .=== Tennessee Titans ===The Jaguars' rivalry with the Tennessee Titans dates back to the Jaguars inaugural season in the NFL prior to the season.", "when the Titans were then-known as the Houston Oilers.", "During the 1995 season, the Jaguars recorded their first win as a franchise over the Oilers in Houston.", "The rivalry intensified in the late 1990s as both teams were consistently near the top of the AFC Central standings.", "In , the Jaguars posted a 14–2 record with both losses coming to Tennessee.", "The two teams met in the AFC Championship Game, with Tennessee beating Jacksonville for a third time that season, 33–14.The rivalry continued into the 2000s as both teams were placed in the newly formed AFC South in .", "The Titans lead the overall series, 34–23, having also won the only playoff game in the series.=== Houston Texans ===The Jaguars share a divisional rivalry with the Houston Texans.", "Both franchises are two of the youngest in the league, the two teams clashed particularly during Jacksonville's notorious \"Sacksonville\" era defenses while the Texans often fought hard for control of the division.", "The Texans currently lead the all-time series versus the Jaguars, 29–14.=== Miami Dolphins ===The Jaguars have taken part in a minor rivalry with the Miami Dolphins as both teams are the only two AFC franchises located in Florida.", "The two teams first met during the 1998 NFL season on a Monday Night Football matchup.", "Both teams later met in the 1999 AFC Divisional Round in what would ultimately be the final career game for Dolphins' hall-of-fame quarterback Dan Marino.", "The Dolphins entered the game as heavy underdogs as they had finished the 1999 season 9–7, securing the lowest wild card berth.", "Meanwhile; the Jaguars had boasted an impressive 14–2 campaign under pro-bowl quarterback Mark Brunell; culminating in the Jaguars defeating Miami in a 62–7 blowout loss.", "The Jaguars managed an improbable upset victory during the 2021 season as the team had declined severely under controversial head coach Urban Meyer.", "Despite this; the Jaguars managed a comeback victory against the Dolphins in London during Week 6.The teams are tied 5–5 all time, though the Jaguars lead 1–0 in the postseason." ], [ "Statistics and records", "===Season-by-season results===This is a partial list of the Jaguars' last five completed seasons.", "For the full season-by-season franchise results, see List of Jacksonville Jaguars seasons.", "'''''Note:''' The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.", "'''''Super Bowl champions''' (1970–present)'''Conference champions''''''Division champions''''''Wild Card berth'''As of January 14, 2021SeasonTeamLeagueConferenceDivisionRegular seasonPostseason resultsAwardsFinishWinsLossesTies 2019 NFL AFC South 4th 6 10 0 — — 2020 NFL AFC South 4th 1 15 0 — — 2021 NFL AFC South 4th 3 14 0 — — 2022 NFL AFC South 1st 9 8 0 '''Won''' Wild Card Playoffs (Chargers) 31–30Lost Divisional Playoffs (Chiefs) 27–20 — 2023 NFL AFC South 2nd 9 8 0 — —" ], [ "Current roster" ], [ "Players of note", "===Pro Football Hall of Fame===Jacksonville Jaguars in the Pro Football Hall of FamePlayers No.", "Player Position Seasons Inducted 71 '''Tony Boselli''' OT 1995–2001 2022===Pride of the Jaguars===Pride of the Jaguars display in EverBank StadiumA contest was held in July 2006 to name the club's ring of honor, \"Pride of the Jaguars\" was chosen with 36% of the vote.", "It was unveiled during the 2006 season during a game against the New York Jets on October 8.Former offensive tackle Tony Boselli was the first player inducted.On January 1, 2012, team owner Wayne Weaver and his wife Delores were added to the Pride of the Jaguars in their final game before the sale of the team to Shahid Khan.", "On June 7, 2012, the Jaguars announced Fred Taylor would be the next inductee into the Pride of the Jaguars.", "He was inducted on September 30, 2012.Longtime Jaguars quarterback Mark Brunell was also inducted into the \"Pride of the Jaguars\" on December 15, 2013.Former wide receiver Jimmy Smith was inducted in 2016.On November 9, 2023, it was announced that former head coach Tom Coughlin would be inducted on an unspecified date in 2024.", "'''Pride of the Jaguars'''No.PlayerPositionSeasonsInducted 71 Tony Boselli OT 1995–2001 2006 — Wayne and Delores Weaver Owners 1993–2011 2012 28 Fred Taylor RB 1998–2008 2012 8 Mark Brunell QB 1995–2003 2013 82 Jimmy Smith WR 1995–2005 2016— Tom Coughlin HC 1995–2002 2024===Retired numbers===On October 9, 2022, the Jacksonville Jaguars retired Tony Boselli's number 71, at a halftime ceremony against the division-rival Houston Texans.", "It is the first number retired by the organization.", "'''Jacksonville Jaguars retired numbers'''No.PlayerPositionSeasonsRetiredReferences '''71''' Tony Boselli OT 1995–2001 October 9, 2022 Also, despite not being formally retired, the Jaguars have not reissued the numbers '''8''', '''28''', or '''82''', worn by Mark Brunell, Fred Taylor, and Jimmy Smith respectively, since they retired or left the team.", "Additionally, Brunell and Smith are the only players in franchise history to have worn their respective numbers.===All-time first-round draft picks===" ], [ "Head coaches and coordinators", "===Head coaches===Doug Pederson is the current head coach of the Jacksonville Jaguars since 2022The Jaguars have had nine head coaches (including two interim coaches) throughout their franchise history.", "Their first head coach was Tom Coughlin, who compiled a 72–64 (.529) overall record with the team from 1995 to 2002.Jack Del Rio was the longest-tenured head coach in Jaguars history, holding the position from 2003 to 2011.The current head coach is Doug Pederson, who was hired on February 3, 2022, and is the ninth head coach in franchise history.===Offensive coordinators===Name Tenure Kevin Gilbride 1995–1996 Chris Palmer 1997–1998 Bobby Petrino 2001 Bill Musgrave 2003–2004 Carl Smith 2005–2006 Dirk Koetter 2007–2011 Bob Bratkowski 2012 Jedd Fisch 2013–2014 Greg Olson 2015–2016 Nathaniel Hackett 2016–2018 John DeFilippo 2019 Jay Gruden 2020 Darrell Bevell 2021 Press Taylor 2022–present===Defensive coordinators===Name Tenure Dick Jauron 1995–1998 Dom Capers 1999–2000 Gary Moeller 2001 John Pease 2002 Mike Smith 2003–2007 Gregg Williams 2008 Mel Tucker 2009–2012 Bob Babich 2013–2015 Todd Wash 2016–2020 Joe Cullen 2021 Mike Caldwell 2022–2023 Ryan Nielsen 2024–present" ], [ "Current staff" ], [ "Culture", "===Mascot===Jaxson de Ville with ''American Idol'' season 6 finalist Phil StaceySince his introduction in 1996, Jaxson de Ville has served as the Jaguars' mascot.", "Jaxson entertains the crowd before and during games with his antics.", "The mascot has established a reputation for making dramatic entrances including bungee jumping off the stadium lights, sliding down a rope from the scoreboard, and parachuting into the stadium.Jaxson's antics got him into trouble in 1998 and stemmed the changing of the NFL's mascot rules, and also caused him to calm down.", "However, Jaxson was still seen, by some, as a mascot that gets in the way during the game.", "After the October 22, 2007 game against Indianapolis, Colts President Bill Polian complained to the NFL, and Jaxson was reprimanded again.Jaxson's first appearance was on August 18, 1996, and was played by Curtis Dvorak from his inception until his retirement in June 2015.===Jacksonville Roar===The Jacksonville Roar is the professional cheerleading squad of the Jaguars.", "The group was established in 1995, the team's inaugural year, and regularly performs choreographed routines during the team's home contests.In addition to performing at games and pep rallies, members function as goodwill ambassadors of the team, participating in corporate, community, and charitable events in the Jacksonville metropolitan area where they sign autographs and pose for pictures.", "They also join NFL tours to entertain American servicemen and women around the world.===Community work===The Jacksonville Jaguars Foundation was established in 1994, when the franchise deal was first announced.", "Since then, the Foundation has given over $20 million to area efforts in community improvement.", "The Foundation focuses on many initiatives, such as Honor Rows, anti-tobacco programs, NFL Play 60, and support for veterans.", "The Foundation grants over $1 million annually to organizations that assist \"economically and socially disadvantaged youth and families\".The Jaguars' first head coach, Tom Coughlin, established the Tom Coughlin Jay Fund Foundation in 1996 to help young cancer victims and their families with emotional and financial assistance.", "The charity remained in Jacksonville after Coughlin left to coach the New York Giants." ], [ "Broadcast media", "===Radio===From their inaugural 1995 season until 2013, the Jaguars' flagship radio station was WOKV, which simulcasts on both AM 690 and on 104.5 FM.Starting with the 2014 season, the team moved their broadcast to WJXL and WJXL-FM (1010 AM and 92.5 FM) and simulcast on 99.9 Gator CountryFrank Frangie is the play-by-play announcer with former Jaguars players Tony Boselli and Jeff Lageman providing color analysis.Jaguars Radio network affiliatesMarketFrequencyCall signBrandingJacksonville 1010 AM & 92.5 FM WJXL & WJXL-FM 1010XL 99.9 WGNE-FM 99.9 Gator Country St. Augustine 1420 AM WAOC ESPN Radio 1420 Orlando 1080 AM WHOO Sports Talk 1080 The Team Melbourne 1240 AM WMMB New Talk WMMB Lake City 94.3 FM WNFB Mix 94.3 Ocala 900 AM WMOP ESPN Radio Port St. Lucie 1590 AM WPSL 1590 WPSL Gainesville 850 AM WRUF ESPN 850 Savannah, GA 1400 AM WSEG Star 1400 Brunswick, GA 107.7 FM WHFX 107.7 The Fox Jesup, GA 105.5 FM WIFO-FM Big Dog 105.5 Country Waycross, GA 1150 AM WJEM The Jock 1150 Tallahassee 93.3 FM WVFT Talk Radio 93.3 Panama City 97.7 FM WYYX 97X Palm Coast 1550 AM WNZF WNZF Newsradio Kingsland, GA 106.3 FM WKBX KBAY 106.3===Television===WJAX-TV or WFOX-TV televises all preseason games and also televises regular season games that are televised nationally on ESPN or NFL Network.Television affiliatesMarketStationNotes Jacksonville WJXX Monday Night Football Wild Card simulcast on ABC WJAX-TV CBS games, preseason games, games aired on ESPN WFOX-TV Fox games, preseason games, games aired on NFL Network WTLV NBC games Orlando WFTV Preseason games Tallahassee WTXL-TV Preseason games Gainesville WNBW-DT Preseason and NBC games Savannah, GA WSAV-TV Preseason and NBC games Dothan, AL WTVY Preseason and CBS regional/national games Panama City WJHG-TV Preseason and NBC games Valdosta/Albany, GA WSWG Preseason and CBS regional/national Games Charleston, SC WTAT-TV Preseason and Fox regional/national games Mobile, AL-Pensacola WPMI-TV Preseason and NBC games" ], [ "See also", "* List of Jacksonville Jaguars seasons* Cultural significance of the jaguar in North America" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* * Jacksonville Jaguars at the National Football League official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jutes" ], [ "Introduction", "The Jutland Peninsula, possible homeland of the JutesThe '''Jutes''' ( ) were one of the Germanic tribes who settled in Great Britain after the departure of the Romans.", "According to Bede, they were one of the three most powerful Germanic nations, along with the Angles and the Saxons:There is no consensus amongst historians on the origins of the Jutes.", "One hypothesis is that they originated from the Jutland Peninsula but after a Danish invasion of that area, migrated to the Frisian coast.", "From the Frisian coast they went on to settle southern Britain in the later fifth century during the Migration Period, as part of a larger wave of Germanic migration into Britain." ], [ "Settlement in southern Britain", "A map of Jutish settlements in Britain ''circa'' 575During the period after the Roman occupation and before the Norman conquest, people of Germanic descent arrived in England.", "The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' provides what historians regard as foundation legends for Anglo-Saxon settlement.The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' describes how the brothers Hengist and Horsa in the year 449 were invited to Sub-Roman Britain by Vortigern to assist his forces in fighting the Picts.", "They landed at Wippidsfleet (Ebbsfleet), and went on to defeat the Picts wherever they fought them.", "Hengist and Horsa sent word home to Germany asking for assistance.", "Their request was granted and support arrived.", "Afterward, more people arrived in Britain from \"the three powers of Germany; the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes\".", "The Saxons populated Essex, Sussex and Wessex; the Jutes Kent, the Isle of Wight and Hampshire; and the Angles East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria (leaving their original homeland, Angeln, deserted).The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' also lists ''Wihtgar'' and ''Stuf'' as founders of the ''Wihtwara'' (Isle of Wight) and a man named ''Port'' and his two sons ''Bieda'' and ''Maeglaof'' as founders of the ''Meonwara'' (southern Hampshire).", "In 686 Bede tells us that Jutish Hampshire extended to the western edge of the New Forest; however, that seems to include another Jutish people, the Ytene, and it is not certain that these two territories formed a continuous coastal block.Towards the end of the Roman occupation of England, raids on the east coast became more intense and the expedient adopted by Romano-British leaders was to enlist the help of mercenaries to whom they ceded territory.", "It is thought that mercenaries may have started arriving in Sussex as early as the 5th century.Before the 7th century, there is a dearth of contemporary written material about the Anglo-Saxons' arrival.", "Most material that does exist was written several hundred years after the events.", "The earlier dates for the beginnings of settlement, provided by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', has been contested by some findings in archaeology.", "One alternative hypothesis to the foundation legend suggests, because previously inhabited sites on the Frisian and north German coasts had been rendered uninhabitable by flooding, that the migration was due to displacement.", "Under this alternative hypothesis, the British provided land for the refugees to settle on in return for peaceful coexistence and military cooperation.Ship construction in the 2nd or 3rd century adopted the use of iron fastenings, instead of the old sewn fastenings, to hold together the plank built boats of the Jutland peninsula.", "This enabled them to build stronger sea going vessels.", "Vessels going from Jutland to Britain probably would have sailed along the coastal regions of Lower Saxony and the Netherlands before crossing the English Channel.", "This was because navigation techniques of the time required the ship to be moored up overnight.", "Marine archaeology has suggested that migrating ships would have sheltered in various river estuaries on the route.", "Artefacts and parts of ships, of the period, have been found that support this theory.It is likely that the Jutes initially inhabited Kent and from there they occupied the Isle of Wight, southern Hampshire and also possibly the area around Hastings in East Sussex (Haestingas).", "J E A Jolliffe compared agricultural and farming practices across 5th century Sussex to that of 5th century Kent.", "He suggested that the Kentish system underlaid the 5th century farming practices of Sussex.", "He hypothesised that Sussex was probably settled by Jutes before the arrival of the Saxons, with Jutish territory stretching from Kent to the New Forest.", "The north Solent coast had been a trading area since Roman times.", "The old Roman roads between Sidlesham and Chichester and Chichester to Winchester would have provided access to the Jutish settlements in Hampshire.", "Therefore, it is possible that the German folk arriving in the 5th century that landed in the Selsey area would have been directed north to Southampton Water.", "From there into the mouth of the Meon valley and would have been allowed to settle near the existing Romano-British people.", "The Jutish kingdom in Hampshire that Bede describes has various placenames that identify the locations as Jutish.", "These include Bishopstoke (''Ytingstoc'') and the Meon Valley (''Ytedene'').===Mercian and South Saxon takeover===In Kent, Hlothhere had been ruler since 673/4.He must have come into conflict with Mercia, because in 676 the Mercian king Æthelred invaded Kent and according to Bede:In 681 Wulfhere of Mercia advanced into southern Hampshire and the Isle of Wight.", "Shortly after he gave the Isle of Wight and Meonwara to Æthelwealh of Sussex.In Kent, Eadric was for a time co-ruler alongside his uncle Hlothhere with a law code being issued in their names.", "Ultimately, Eadric revolted against his uncle and with help from a South Saxon army in about 685, was able to kill Hlothhere, and replace him as ruler of Kent.===West Saxon invasion===In the 680s, the Kingdom of Wessex was in the ascendant, the alliance between the South Saxons and the Mercians and their control of southern England, put the West Saxons under pressure.", "Their king Caedwalla, probably concerned about Mercian and South Saxon influence in Southern England, conquered the land of the South Saxons and took over the Jutish areas in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight.", "Bede describes how Caedwalla brutally suppressed the South Saxons and attempted to slaughter the Jutes of the Isle of Wight and replace them with people from \"his own province\", but maintained that he was unable to do so, and Jutes remained a majority on the island.", "Caedwalla killed Aruald, the king of the Isle of Wight.", "Aruald's two younger brothers, who were heirs to the throne, escaped from the island but were hunted down and found at Stoneham, Hampshire.", "They were killed on Cædwalla's orders.", "The Isle of Wight was then permanently under West Saxon control and the ''Meonwara'' was integrated into Wessex.", "Caedwalla also invaded Kent and installed his brother Mul as leader.", "However, it was not long before Mul and twelve others were burnt to death by the Kentishmen.", "After Caedwalla was superseded by Ine of Wessex, Kent agreed to pay compensation to Wessex for the death of Mul, but they retained their independence." ], [ "Influences and culture", "When the Jutish kingdom of Kent was founded, around the middle of the 5th century, Roman ways and influences must have still had a strong presence.", "The Roman settlement of ''Durovernum Cantiacorum'' became Canterbury.", "The people of Kent were described as ''Cantawara'', a Germanised form of the Latin ''Cantiaci''.Although not all historians accept Bede's scheme for the settlement of Britain into Anglian, Jutish and Saxon areas as perfectly accurate, the archaeological evidence indicates that the peoples of west Kent wereculturally distinct from those in the east of Kent, with west Kent sharing the 'Saxon' characteristics of its neighbours in the south east of England.", "Brooches and bracteates found in east Kent, the Isle of Wight and southern Hampshire showed a strong Frankish and North Sea influence from the mid-fifth century to the late sixth century compared to north German styles found elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon England.", "There is discussion about who crafted the jewellery (found in the archaeological sites of Kent).", "Suggestions include crafts people who had been trained in the Roman workshops of northern Gaul or the Rhineland.", "It is also possible that those artisans went on to develop their own individual style.", "By the late 6th century grave goods indicate that west Kent had adopted the distinctive east Kent material culture.The Frankish princess Bertha arrived in Kent around 580 to marry the king Æthelberht of Kent.", "Bertha was already a Christian and had brought a bishop, Liudhard, with her across the Channel.", "Æthelberht rebuilt an old Romano-British structure and dedicated it to St Martin allowing Bertha to continue practising her Christian faith.", "In 597 Pope Gregory I sent Augustine to Kent, on a mission to convert the Anglo-Saxons, There are suggestions that Æthelberht had already been baptised when he \"courteously received\" the popes mission.", "Æthelberht was the first of the Anglo-Saxon rulers to be baptised.The simplified Christian burial was introduced at this time.", "Christian graves were usually aligned East to West, whereas with some exceptions pagan burial sites were not.", "The lack of archaeological grave evidence in the land of the ''Haestingas'' is seen as supporting the hypothesis that the peoples there would have been Christian Jutes who had migrated from Kent.", "In contrast to Kent, the Isle of Wight was the last area of Anglo-Saxon England to be evangelised in 686.The Jutes used a system of partible inheritance known as gavelkind and this was practised in Kent until the 20th century.", "The custom of gavelkind was also found in other areas of Jutish settlement.", "In England and Wales gavelkind was abolished by the Administration of Estates Act 1925.Before abolition in 1925, all land in Kent was presumed to be held by gavelkind until the contrary was proved.", "The popular reason given for the practice remaining so long, is due to the \"Swanscombe Legend\", according to this, Kent made a deal with William the Conqueror whereby he would allow them to keep local customs in return for peace." ], [ "Homeland and historical accounts", "The early migrations of Germanic peoples from coastal regions of northern Europe to areas of modern-day England.", "The settlement regions correspond roughly to later dialect divisions of Old English.Although historians are confident of where the Jutes settled in England, they are divided on where they actually came from.The chroniclers, Procopius, Constantius of Lyon, Gildas, Bede, Nennius, and also the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', Alfred the Great and Asser provide the names of tribes who settled Britain during the mid-fifth century, and in their combined testimony, the four tribes mentioned are the ''Angli'', ''Saxones'', ''Iutae'' and ''Frisii''.The Roman historian Tacitus refers to a people called the ''Eudoses,'' a tribe who possibly developed into the Jutes.The Jutes have also been identified with the ''Eotenas'' (''ēotenas'') involved in the Frisian conflict with the Danes as described in the Finnesburg episode in the Old English poem ''Beowulf''.", "Theudebert, king of the Franks wrote to the Emperor Justinian and in the letter claimed that he had lordship over a nation called the ''Saxones Eucii'' .", "The Eucii are thought to have been Jutes and may have been the same as a little-documented tribe called the ''Euthiones''.", "The Euthiones are mentioned in a poem by Venantius Fortunatus (583) as being under the suzerainty of Chilperic I of the Franks.", "The Euthiones were located somewhere in northern Francia, modern day Flanders, an area of the European mainland opposite to Kent.Bede inferred that the Jutish homeland was on the Jutland peninsula.", "However, analysis of grave goods of the time have provided a link between East Kent, south Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, but little evidence of any link with Jutland.", "There is evidence that the Jutes who migrated to England came from northern Francia or from Frisia.", "Historians have posited that Jutland was the homeland of the Jutes, but when the Danes invaded the Jutland Peninsula in about AD 200, some of the Jutes would have been absorbed by the Danish culture and others may have migrated to northern Francia and Frisia.There is a hypothesis, suggested by Pontus Fahlbeck in 1884, that the Geats were Jutes.", "According to this hypothesis the Geats resided in southern Sweden and also in Jutland (where Beowulf would have lived).The evidence adduced for this hypothesis includes:* primary sources referring to the Geats (''Geátas'') by alternative names such as ''Iútan'', ''Iótas'', and ''Eotas''.", "* Asser in his ''Life of Alfred'' (Chapter 2) identifies the Jutes with the Goths (in a passage claiming that Alfred the Great was descended, through his mother, Osburga, from the ruling dynasty of the Jutish kingdom of Wihtwara, on the Isle of Wight).", "* the Gutasaga is a saga that charts the history of Gotland prior to Christianity.", "It is an appendix to the ''Guta Lag'' (Gotland law) written in the thirteenth or fourteenth century.", "It says that some inhabitants of Gotland left for mainland Europe.", "Large burial sites attributable to either Goths or Gepids were found in the 19th century near Willenberg, Prussia.However, the tribal names possibly were confused in the above sources in both ''Beowulf'' (8th – 11th centuries) and ''Widsith'' (late 7th – 10th century).", "The ''Eoten'' (in the Finn passage) are clearly distinguished from the ''Geatas''.The Finnish surname ''Juutilainen'', which comes from the word \"juutti\", is speculated by some to have had a connection to Jutland or the Jutes.===Language and writing===The runic alphabet is thought to have originated in the Germanic homelands that were in contact with the Roman Empire, and as such was a response to the Latin alphabet.", "In fact some of the runes emulated their Latin counterpart.", "The runic alphabet crossed the sea with the Anglo-Saxons and there have been examples, of its use, found in Kent.", "As the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were evangelised the script of the Latin alphabet was introduced by Irish Christian missionaries.", "However, they ran into problems when they were unable to find a Latin equivalent to some of the Anglo-Saxon phonetics.", "They overcame this by modifying the Latin alphabet to include some runic characters.", "This became the Old English Latin alphabet.", "The runic characters were eventually replaced by Latin characters by the end of the 14th century.", "Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)AÆBCDÐEFꝽ/GHILMNOPRSTÞUǷ/WXY Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters)aæbcdðefᵹ/ghilmnoprs/ſtþuƿ/wxyThe language that the Anglo-Saxon settlers spoke is known as Old English.", "There are four main dialectal forms, namely Mercian, Northumbrian, West Saxon and Kentish.", "Based on Bede's description of where the Jutes settled, Kentish was spoken in what are now the modern-day counties of Kent, Surrey, southern Hampshire and the Isle of Wight.", "However, historians are divided on what dialect it would have been and where it originated from.", "The Jutish peninsula has been seen by historians as a pivotal region between the Northern and the Western Germanic dialects.", "It has not been possible to prove whether Jutish has always been a Scandinavian dialect which later became heavily influenced by West Germanic dialects, or whether Jutland was originally part of the West Germanic dialectal continuum.", "An analysis of the Kentish dialect by linguists indicates that there was a similarity between Kentish and Frisian.", "Whether the two can be classed as the same dialect or whether Kentish was a version of Jutish, heavily influenced by Frisian and other dialects, is open to conjecture." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Time Team'', season 9, episode 13 starting at min 21:30 of this video.", "Robin Bush discusses ethnic cleansing issue with Helen Geake" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jewish prayer" ], [ "Introduction", "Morning Prayer, 2005Jews praying at the Western Wall ''(Kotel)'' in Jerusalem, 2010Video-clips of Jews praying, from the archive of the Israeli News Company of Israel's Channel 2'''Jewish prayer''' (, '''''' ; plural ; , plural ; Yinglish: '''davening''' from Yiddish 'pray') is the prayer recitation that forms part of the observance of Rabbinic Judaism.", "These prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in the ''Siddur'', the traditional Jewish prayer book.Prayer, as a \"service of the heart,\" is in principle a Torah-based commandment.", "It is not time-dependent and is mandatory for both Jewish men and women.", "However, the rabbinic requirement to recite a specific prayer text does differentiate between men and women: Jewish men are obligated to recite three prayers each day within specific time ranges (''zmanim''), while, according to many approaches, women are only required to pray once or twice a day, and may not be required to recite a specific text.Traditionally, three prayer services are recited daily:* Morning prayer: ''Shacharit'' or ''Shaharit'' (, \"of the dawn\")* Afternoon prayer: ''Mincha'' or ''Minha'' (), named for the flour offering that accompanied sacrifices at the Temple in Jerusalem,* Evening prayer: ''Arvit'' (, \"of the evening\") or ''Maariv'' (, \"bringing on night\")Two additional services are recited on Shabbat and holidays:* ''Musaf'' (, \"additional\") are recited by Orthodox and Conservative congregations on Shabbat, major Jewish holidays (including Chol HaMoed), and Rosh Chodesh.", "* ''Ne'ila'' (, \"closing\"), is recited only on Yom Kippur.A distinction is made between individual prayer and communal prayer, which requires a quorum known as a ''minyan'', with communal prayer being preferable as it permits the inclusion of prayers that otherwise would be omitted.According to tradition, many of the current standard prayers were composed by the sages of the Great Assembly in the early Second Temple period (516 BCE – 70 CE).", "The language of the prayers, while clearly from this period, often employs biblical idiom.", "The main structure of the modern prayer service was fixed in the tannaic era (1st–2nd centuries CE), with some additions and the exact text of blessings coming later.", "Jewish prayerbooks emerged during the early Middle Ages during the period of the Geonim of Babylonia (6th–11th centuries CE).Over the last 2000 years, traditional variations have emerged among the traditional liturgical customs of different Jewish communities, such as Ashkenazic, Sephardic, Yemenite, Eretz Yisrael and others, or rather recent liturgical inventions such as Hassidic, and Chabad.", "However the differences are minor compared with the commonalities.", "Most of the Jewish liturgy is sung or chanted with traditional melodies or trope.", "Synagogues may designate or employ a professional or lay ''hazzan'' (cantor) for the purpose of leading the congregation in prayer, especially on Shabbat or holidays." ], [ "Origin and history", "===Biblical origin===According to the Babylonian Talmud, prayer is a biblical command:Based on this passage, Maimonides categorizes daily prayer as one of the 613 commandments.", "He rules that the commandment is fulfilled by any prayer at any time in the day, not a specific text; and thus is not time-dependent, and is mandatory for both Jewish men and women.", "In contrast, the requirement to say specific prayers at specific times is based not on biblical law, but rather rabbinic decree.===The number of prayers per day===Yisrael Meir HaCohen Kagan, the \"Chofetz Chaim\", at prayer towards the end of his lifeAdditional references in the Hebrew Bible have been interpreted to suggest that King David and the prophet Daniel prayed three times a day.", "In Psalms, David states:And in the Book of Daniel:The Talmud gives two reasons why there are three basic prayers each day:# Each service was instituted parallel to a sacrificial act in the Temple in Jerusalem: the morning ''Tamid'' offering, the afternoon ''Tamid'' offering, and the overnight burning of this last offering.# According to Rabbi Jose bar Hanina, each of the Patriarchs instituted one prayer: Abraham the morning, Isaac the afternoon and Jacob the evening prayers.", "This view is supported with biblical quotes indicating that the Patriarchs prayed at the times mentioned.", "However, even according to this view, the exact times of when the services are held, and moreover the entire concept of a ''mussaf'' service, are still based on the sacrifices.===Development of the prayer text===The earliest parts of Jewish prayer are the ''Shema Yisrael'' and the Priestly Blessing, which are in the Torah.Maimonides asserts that until the Babylonian exile, all Jews composed their own prayers.", "After the exile, however, when the exiles' understanding of Hebrew diminished and they found it difficult to compose prayers in Hebrew, Ezra and his court composed the ''Amidah'' prayer.", "Modern scholarship dating from the Wissenschaft des Judentums movement of 19th-century Germany, as well as textual analysis influenced by the 20th-century discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, suggests that dating from the Second Temple period there existed \"liturgical formulations of a communal nature designated for particular occasions and conducted in a centre totally independent of Jerusalem and the Temple, making use of terminology and theological concepts that were later to become dominant in Jewish and, in some cases, Christian prayer.", "\"The structure of the modern Jewish prayer service was established during the period of the Tannaim, \"from their traditions, later committed to writing, we learn that the generation of rabbis active at the time of the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE) gave Jewish prayer its structure and, in outline form at least, its contents.\"", "This liturgy included the twice-daily recitation of the Shema, the Amidah, and the cycle of public Torah reading.The ''Amidah'' (or ''Shemoneh Esreh'') prayer is traditionally ascribed to the Great Assembly (in the time of Ezra, near the end of the biblical period), though other sources suggest it was established by Simeon HaPakoli in the late 1st century.", "Even in the 1st century, though, the precise wording of the blessings was not yet fixed, and varied from locale to locale.", "By the Middle Ages the texts of the blessings was nearly fixed, and in the form in which they are still used today.Readings from the Torah (five books of Moses) and the Nevi'im (\"Prophets\") are specified in the Mishnah and Talmud, as are the order of blessings surrounding the ''Shema''.", "Other parts of the service, such as Pesukei dezimra, have little mention in early sources, but became established by custom.The oldest prayer books date from the time of the Geonim of Babylonia; \"some were composed by respected rabbinic scholars at the request of far-flung communities seeking an authoritative text of the required prayers for daily use, Shabbat, and holidays.\"", "The earliest existing codification of the prayerbook was drawn up by Rav Amram Gaon of Sura, Babylon, about 850 CE.", "Half a century later Rav Saadia Gaon, also of Sura, composed a siddur, in which the rubrical matter is in Arabic.", "These were the basis of Simcha ben Samuel's Machzor Vitry (11th-century France), which was based on the ideas of his teacher, Rashi.", "Another formulation of the prayers was that appended by Maimonides to the laws of prayer in his Mishneh Torah: this forms the basis of the Yemenite liturgy, and has had some influence on other rites.", "From this point forward, all Jewish prayerbooks had the same basic order and contents.The siddur was printed by Soncino in Italy as early as 1486, though a siddur was first mass-distributed only in 1865.The siddur began appearing in the vernacular as early as 1538.The first English translation, by Gamaliel ben Pedahzur (a pseudonym), appeared in London in 1738; a different translation was released in the United States in 1837.Over the last 2000 years, the various branches of Judaism have resulted in small variations in the Rabbinic liturgy customs among different Jewish communities, with each community having a slightly different nusach (customary liturgy).", "The principal difference is between Ashkenazic and Sephardic customs, although there are other communities (e.g., Yemenite and Italian Jews, and in the past Eretz Yisrael), and rather recent liturgical inventions such as Hassidic, Chabad and other communities also have distinct customs, variations, and special prayers.", "However, the differences between all these customs are quite minor compared with the commonalities.", "Reform Judaism also has its own version.===Text and language===According to halakha, all individual prayers and virtually all communal prayers may be said in any language that the person praying understands.", "For example, the ''Mishnah'' mentions that the ''Shema'' need not be said in Hebrew.", "A list of prayers that must be said in Hebrew is given in the Mishna, and among these only the Priestly Blessing is in use today, as the others are prayers that are to be said only in a Temple in Jerusalem, by a priest, or by a reigning King.Despite this, the tradition of most Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogues is to use Hebrew for all except a small number of prayers, including Kaddish and Yekum Purkan in Aramaic, and Gott Fun Avraham, which was written in Yiddish.", "In other streams of Judaism there is considerable variability: Sephardic communities may use Ladino or Portuguese for many prayers, although usually only for added prayers and not for the established prayers; Conservative synagogues tend to use the local language to a varying degree; and at some Reform synagogues almost the whole service may be in the local language.The language of the prayers, while clearly being from the Second Temple period, often employs biblical idiom, and according to some authorities it should not contain rabbinic or Mishnaic idiom apart from in the sections of Mishnah that are featured." ], [ "Denominational variations", "Conservative services generally use the same basic format for services as Orthodox Judaism, with some doctrinal leniencies and some prayers in English.", "In practice, there is wide variation among Conservative congregations.", "In traditionalist congregations the liturgy can be almost identical to that of Orthodox Judaism, almost entirely in Hebrew (and Aramaic), with a few minor exceptions, including excision of a study session on Temple sacrifices, and modifications of prayers for the restoration of the sacrificial system.", "In more liberal Conservative synagogues there are greater changes to the service, with up to a third of the service in English; abbreviation or omission of many of the preparatory prayers; and replacement of some traditional prayers with more contemporary forms.", "There are some changes for doctrinal reasons, including egalitarian language, fewer references to restoring sacrifices in the Temple in Jerusalem, and an option to eliminate special roles for Kohanim and Levites.The liturgies of Reform and Reconstructionist are based on traditional elements, but contain language more reflective of liberal belief than the traditional liturgy.", "Doctrinal revisions generally include revising or omitting references to traditional doctrines such as bodily resurrection, a personal Jewish Messiah, and other elements of traditional Jewish eschatology, Divine revelation of the Torah at Mount Sinai, angels, conceptions of reward and punishment, and other personal miraculous and supernatural elements.", "Services are often from 40% to 90% in the vernacular.Reform Judaism has made greater alterations to the traditional service in accord with its more liberal theology including dropping references to traditional elements of Jewish eschatology such as a personal Messiah, a bodily resurrection of the dead, and others.", "The Hebrew portion of the service is substantially abbreviated and modernized and modern prayers substituted for traditional ones.", "In addition, in keeping with their view that the laws of Shabbat (including a traditional prohibition on playing instruments) are inapplicable to modern circumstances, Reform services often play instrumental or recorded music with prayers on the Jewish Sabbath.", "All Reform synagogues are Egalitarian with respect to gender roles." ], [ "Philosophy of prayer", "An Israeli soldier lays tefillin at the Western Wall prior to prayer.In Jewish philosophy and in Rabbinic literature, it is noted that the Hebrew verb for prayer— ()—is in fact the reflexive form of (), to judge.", "Thus, \"to pray\" conveys the notion of \"judging oneself\": ultimately, the purpose of prayer— ()—is to transform oneself.This etymology is consistent with the Jewish conception of divine simplicity.", "It is not God that changes through one's prayer—man does not influence God as a defendant influences a human judge who has emotions and is subject to change—rather it is man himself who is changed.", "It is further consistent with Maimonides' view on Divine Providence.", "Here, Tefillah is the medium which God gave to man by means of which he can change himself, and thereby establish a new ''relationship'' with God—and thus a new destiny for himself in life; see also under Psalms.===Kabbalistic view===Kabbalah (esoteric Jewish mysticism) uses a series of ''kavanot'', directions of intent, to specify the path the prayer ascends in the dialogue with God, to increase its chances of being answered favorably.", "Kabbalism ascribes a higher meaning to the purpose of prayer, which is no less than affecting the very fabric of reality itself, restructuring and repairing the universe in a real fashion.", "In this view, every word of every prayer, and indeed, even every letter of every word, has a precise meaning and a precise effect.", "Prayers thus literally affect the mystical forces of the universe, and repair the fabric of creation.This approach has been taken by the Chassidei Ashkenaz (German pietists of the Middle-Ages), the Zohar, the Arizal's Kabbalist tradition, the Ramchal, most of Hassidism, the Vilna Gaon and Jacob Emden.Hassidism, although incorporating the kabbalistic worldview and its corresponding kavanot, also emphasized straightforward sincerity and depth of emotional engagement in prayer.", "The Baal Shem Tov's great-grandson, Rebbe Nachman of Breslov, particularly emphasized speaking to God in one's own words, which he called Hitbodedut (self-seclusion) and advised setting aside an hour to do this every day." ], [ "Methodology and terminology", "===Terms for praying===''Daven'' is the originally exclusively Eastern Yiddish verb meaning \"pray\"; it is widely used by Ashkenazic Orthodox Jews.", "In Yinglish, this has become the Anglicised ''davening''.The origin of the word is obscure, but is thought by some to have come from Arabic (from ''diwan'', a collection of poems or prayers), French (from ''devoner'', 'to devote' or 'dedicate' or possibly from the French 'devant'- 'in front of' with the idea that the person praying is mindful of before whom they stand), Latin (from ''divin'', 'divine') or even English (from ''dawn'').", "Others believe that it derives from a Slavic word meaning \"to give\" ().", "Some claim that it originates from an Aramaic word, ''de'avuhon'' or ''d'avinun'', meaning 'of their/our forefathers', as the three prayers are said to have been invented by Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.", "Another Aramaic derivation, proposed by Avigdor Chaikin, cites the Talmudic phrase, \"''ka davai lamizrach''\", 'gazing wistfully to the east' Kevin A. Brook, cites Zeiden's suggestion that the word ''daven'' comes from the Turkish root ''tabun-'' meaning 'to pray', and that in Kipchak Turkish, the initial ''t'' morphs into ''d''.In Western Yiddish, the term for ''pray'' is ''oren'', a word with clear roots in Romance languages, similar to Spanish and Portuguese ''orar'' and Latin ''orare''.===Minyan (quorum)===Members of the Israel Defense Forces' Givati Brigade pray the Evening Service (Ma'ariv) at the Western Wall, October 2010.Individual prayer is considered acceptable, but prayer with a quorum of ten Jewish adults—a ''minyan''—is the most highly recommended form of prayer and is required for some prayers.", "An adult in this context means over the age of 12 or 13 (''bat'' or ''bar mitzvah'').", "Judaism had originally counted only men in the ''minyan'' for formal prayer, on the basis that one does not count someone who is not obligated to participate.", "The rabbis had exempted women from almost all time-specific positive mitzvot (commandments), including those parts of the prayer that cannot be recited without a quorum, due to women in the past being bound up in an endless cycle of pregnancy, birthing and nursing from a very early age.", "Orthodox Judaism still follows this reasoning and excludes women from the minyan.Since 1973, Conservative congregations have overwhelmingly become egalitarian and count women in the ''minyan''.", "A very small number of congregations that identify themselves as Conservative have resisted these changes and continue to exclude women from the minyan.", "Those Reform and Reconstructionist congregations that consider a ''minyan'' mandatory for communal prayer, count both men and women for a ''minyan''.", "All denominations of Judaism except for Orthodox Judaism ordain female rabbis and cantors.There is a publicly said prayer, called Birkhat HaGomel, for giving thanks for surviving an illness or danger.", "which, in addition to needing a ''Minyan'', also needs a Torah scroll taken out for a scheduled Torah reading.===Attire===* ''Head covering''.", "In most synagogues, it is considered a sign of respect for male attendees to wear a head covering, either a dress hat or a kippa (skull cap, plural ''kipot'', also known by the Yiddish term ''yarmulke'').", "It is common practice for both Jews and non-Jews who attend a synagogue to wear a head covering.", "Some Conservative synagogues may also encourage (but rarely require) women to cover their heads.", "Many Reform and Progressive temples do not require people to cover their heads, although individual worshipers, both men and women, may choose to.", "Many Orthodox and some conservative men and women wear a head covering throughout their day, even when not attending religious services.", "* ''Tallit'' (prayer shawl) is traditionally worn during all morning services (with the exception of Tisha B'av in many communities), during Aliyah to the Torah, as well as during all the services of Yom Kippur.", "In many communities, the ''hazzan'' alone wears a tallit during the daily afternoon and evening services.", "In Orthodox synagogues they are expected to be worn only by men who are halakhically Jewish and though in some Conservative synagogues they should be worn only by men, in other Conservative synagogues both men and women who are halakhically Jewish should wear a tallit.", "In most Orthodox Ashkenazi synagogues (except for those who follow German or Hungarian customs) they are worn only by men who are or have been married.", "* IDF soldier Asael Lubotzky prays with tefillin.", "''Tefillin'' (phylacteries) are a set of small cubic leather boxes painted black, containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah.", "They are tied to the head and arm with leather straps dyed black, and worn by Jews only, during weekday morning prayers.", "In Orthodox synagogues they are expected to be worn only by men; in Conservative synagogues they are also worn by some women.", "The Karaite Jews, however, do not don tefillin.", "* ''Tzeniut'' (modesty) applies to men and women.", "When attending Orthodox synagogues, women will likely be expected to wear long sleeves (past the elbows), long skirts (past the knees), a high neckline (to the collar bone), and if married, to cover their hair with a wig, scarf, hat or a combination of the above.", "For men, short pants or sleeveless shirts are generally regarded as inappropriate.", "In some Conservative and Reform synagogues the dress code may be more lax, but still respectful.===Other laws and customs===In the event one of the prayers was missed inadvertently, the Amidah prayer is said twice in the next service—a procedure known as ''tefillat tashlumin''.Many Jews sway their body back and forth during prayer.", "This practice, referred to as ''shuckling'' in Yiddish, is not mandatory.Many are accustomed to giving charity before, during (especially during Vayivarech David) or after prayer, in the hopes that this will make their prayer more likely to be heard.According to the Talmud, during prayer one should face toward Jerusalem, and specifically the site of the Temple in Jerusalem.", "This is based on Solomon's prayer \"...and they will pray to You toward their land, which You gave to their fathers; the city which You have chosen; and the house which I have built for Your name\" ()." ], [ "Daily prayers", "===Shacharit===The ''Shacharit'' (from ''shachar'', morning light) prayer is recited in the morning.", "''Halacha'' limits parts of its recitation to the first three (Shema) or four (Amidah) hours of the day, where \"hours\" are 1/12 of daylight time, making these times dependent on the season.Shacharit is generally the lengthiest prayer of the day.", "Its components include Birkot hashachar, Korbanot, Pesukei dezimra, the ''Shema Yisrael'' and its blessings, the Amidah, and Tachanun.", "Of these, the recitation of Shema Yisrael and the Amidah constitute the core of the Shacharit service.", "Those Jews who wear tallit and tefillin generally only do so during the Shacharit prayer.===Mincha===''Mincha'' or ''Minha'' may be recited from half an hour after ''halachic'' noontime, until sunset.", "Sephardim and Italian Jews start the Mincha prayers with Psalm 84 and ''Korbanot'', and usually continue with the ''Pittum hakketoret''.", "The opening section is concluded with Malachi 3:4.Ashrei is recited, followed by half-Kaddish, the Amidah (including repetition), ''Tachanun'', and then the full Kaddish.", "Sephardim insert a Psalm, followed by the Mourner's Kaddish.", "After this follows, in most modern rites, the ''Aleinu''.", "Most Ashkenazim then conclude with the Mourner's Kaddish.", "In Ashkenazic, Italian and Yemenite communities, the service leaders often wears a tallit.===Ma'ariv/Arvit===Minyan Ma'ariv prayer in a Jaffa Tel Aviv flea-market shopGenerally, the time when ''Maariv'' can first be recited is when the time for reciting ''Mincha'' ends.", "But there are varying opinions on this.", "''Maariv'' should not begin before 1¼ hours before sunset.", "Others delay ''Maariv'' until after sunset or after dusk.", "If ''Maariv'' is recited prior to dusk, individuals repeat the Shema later in the evening.The main components of Maariv are the recitation of the Shema (with two blessings before it and two after it), followed by the Amidah (which is not repeated, unlike with other recitations of the Amidah).", "Some communities add a third blessing between the Shema and Amidah.", "Some additional prayers and biblical verses are recited as well; these vary by community and occasion." ], [ "Prayer on Shabbat", "On Shabbat (the Sabbath), prayers are similar in structure to those on weekdays, although almost every part is lengthened.", "One exception is the ''Amidah'', the main prayer, which is abridged.", "The first three and last three blessings are recited as usual, but the middle thirteen are replaced with a single blessing known as \"''sanctity of the day,''\" describing the Sabbath.", "Atypically, this middle blessing is different for each of the prayers.===Friday night===Shabbat services begin on Friday evening with the weekday Mincha, followed in some communities by the Song of Songs, and then in most communities by the ''Kabbalat Shabbat'', the mystical prelude to Shabbat services composed by 16th-century Kabbalists.", "This Hebrew term literally means \"Receiving the Sabbath\".", "In recent decades, some communities have adopted the practice to sing the piyut ''Yedid Nefesh'' before (or occasionally after) the Kabbalat Shabbat prayers.Kabbalat Shabbat is, except among many Italian and many Sephardic Jews (including Spanish and Portuguese Jews, but also many Middle Eastern Sephardic communities), composed of six Psalms, representing the six weekdays.", "Next comes the poem ''Lekha Dodi'', based on the words of the Talmudic sage Hanina: \"Come, let us go out to meet the Queen Sabbath\" Kabbalat Shabbat is concluded by Psalm 92 (the recital of which constitutes acceptance of the current Shabbat with all its obligations) and Psalm 93.Many add a study section here, including ''Bameh Madlikin'' and ''Amar rabbi El'azar'' and the concluding ''Kaddish deRabbanan'' (in the Western Ashkenazic rite, a mourners kaddish is instead recited after ''Bameh Madlikin'') and is then followed by the Maariv service; other communities delay the study session until after Maariv.", "According to Nusach Sefard, a passage from the Zohar, entitled ''Kegavna'' is recited instead of ''Bameh Madlikin''.", "In modern times the Kabbalat Shabbat has been set to music by many composers including: Robert Strassburg and Samuel AdlerThe Shema section of the Friday night service varies in some details from the weekday services—mainly in the different ending of the ''Hashkivenu'' prayer and the omission of ''Baruch Adonai le-Olam'' prayer in those traditions where this section is otherwise recited.", "In the Italian rite, there are also different versions of the ''Ma'ariv aravim'' prayer (beginning ''asher killah'') and the ''Emet Ve-Emunah'' prayer.Most commemorate the Shabbat at this point with ''VeShameru''.", "The custom to recite these verses appears in many early sources such as Siddur Rav Saadya Gaon (who recited the blessing Yiru Eineinu after these verses) and is found in the vast majority of old prayer books of a variety of rites.", "However, it is absent from the Yemenite ''Baladi'' tradition (although has been added in most Baladi communities in the last few hundred years), and it is not recited according to the traditions of the Vilna Gaon or Chabad who are opposed to adding additional readings to the siddur which are not mentioned in the Talmud.On Friday night, the middle blessing of the ''Amidah'' discusses the conclusion of creation, quoting the relevant verses from Genesis.", "The Amidah is then followed by the Seven-Faceted Blessing, the hazzan's mini-repetition of the Amidah.", "In some Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogues the second chapter of Mishnah tractate Shabbat, ''Bameh Madlikin'', is read at this point, instead of earlier.", "Kiddush is recited in the synagogue in Ashkenazi and a few Sephardi communities.", "The service then follows with Aleinu.", "Most Sephardi and many Ashkenazi synagogues end with the singing of ''Yigdal'', a poetic adaptation of Maimonides' 13 principles of Jewish faith.", "Other Ashkenazi synagogues end with ''Adon Olam'' instead.===Shacharit===Shabbat morning prayers differ from weekday morning prayers in several ways: an expanded version of Pesukei dezimra, a longer version of the Yotzer ohr blessing, the seven-blessing Shabbat version of the Amidah, no Tachanun, a longer Torah reading, and some additional prayers after the Torah reading.", "In many communities, the rabbi (or a learned member of the congregation) delivers a sermon at the very end of Shacharit and before Mussaf, usually on the topic of the Torah reading.===Mussaf===The ''Musaf'' service starts with the silent recitation of the ''Amidah''.", "The middle blessing includes the ''Tikanta Shabbat'' reading on the holiness of Shabbat (in Yemenita communities, as well as some Sephardic communities ''Le-Mosheh Tsivita'' is recited instead of ''Tikanta Shabbat''), and then by a reading from the biblical Book of Numbers about the sacrifices that used to be performed in the Temple in Jerusalem.", "Next comes ''Yismechu'', \"They shall rejoice in Your sovereignty\", and ''Eloheynu'', \"Our God and God of our Ancestors, may you be pleased with our rest\" (which is recited during all ''Amidah''s of the Sabbath).", "After the silent prayer, the leader repeats the prayer, adding an expanded version of Kedushah.", "In some Sephardic and Yemenite communities, rather than the silent prayer and repetition, the leader recited his own prayer aloud and the congregation prays along with him.After the ''Amidah'' comes the full Kaddish, followed by ''Ein keloheinu''.", "In Orthodox Judaism this is followed by a reading from the Talmud on the incense offering called ''Pittum Haketoreth'' and daily psalms that used to be recited in the Temple in Jerusalem.", "These readings are usually omitted by Conservative Jews, and are always omitted by Reform Jews.The ''Musaf'' service culminates with the Rabbi's Kaddish (in the Western Ashkenazic rite, the Mourners Kaddish is recited instead), the ''Aleinu'', followed in many communities by the Mourner's Kaddish.", "Some synagogues conclude with the reading of Shir Hayichud, Anim Zemirot (sometimes followed by a Mourner's Kaddish), the Psalm of the Day (sometimes followed by a Mourner's Kaddish) - in some communities, these are recited before the Torah reading or at the beginning of services instead.", "Many communities conclude with either Adon Olam or Yigdal.===Mincha===Mincha commences with Ashrei and the prayer Uva letzion, after which the first section of the next weekly portion is read from the Torah scroll.", "The ''Amidah'' follows the same pattern as the other Shabbat ''Amidah'' prayers, with the middle blessing starting ''Attah Echad''.", "The short prayer Tzidkatcha is recited after the ''Amidah'', followed by Kaddish and Aleinu.===Ma'ariv===The week-day Ma'ariv is recited on the evening immediately following Shabbat, concluding with ''Vihi No'am'', ''Ve-Yitten lekha'', and ''Havdalah''." ], [ "Special observances and circumstances", "===Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur===The services for the Days of Awe, Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, take on a solemn tone as befits these days.", "Traditional solemn tunes are used in the prayers.The musaf service on Rosh Hashana has nine blessings; the three middle blessings include biblical verses attesting to sovereignty, remembrance and the ''shofar'', which is sounded during the service.Yom Kippur is the only day in the year when there are five prayer services.", "The evening service, containing the Ma'ariv prayer, is widely known as \"Kol Nidrei\", the opening declaration made preceding the prayer.", "During the daytime, shacharit, musaf (which is recited on Shabbat and all festivals) and mincha are followed, as the sun begins to set, by Ne'ila, which is recited just this once a year.===Pesach, Shavuot and Sukkot===The services for the three festivals of Pesach (\"Passover\"), Shavuot (\"Feast of Weeks\" or \"Pentecost\"), and Sukkot (\"Feast of Tabernacles\") are alike, except for interpolated piyyutim and readings for each individual festival.", "The preliminaries and conclusions of the prayers are the same as on Shabbat.", "The Amidah on these festivals only contains seven benedictions, with ''Attah Bechartanu'' as the main one.", "Hallel (communal recitation of Psalms 113–118) follows.The Musaf service includes Umi-Penei Hata'enu, with reference to the special festival and Temple sacrifices on the occasion.The Priestly Blessing (\"dukhening\") is pronounced during the repetition of the Amidah.", "While this occurs daily in Israel and most Sephardic congregations, it occurs only on Pesach, Shavuot, Sukkot, Rosh Hashanah, and Yom Kippur in Ashkenazic (and some Sephardic communities) congregations of the Jewish diaspora.", "Even when it is omitted, or when there are no kohanim present, a special prayer is instead recited by the ''hazzan'' after the ''Modim'' (\"Thanksgiving\") prayer) in commemoration of the priestly blessing.", "(American Reform Jews omit the Musaf service.)" ], [ "Role of women", "Jewish women praying by the Western Wall, early 1900sWomen praying in the Western Wall tunnel at the closest physical point to the Holy of Holies===Number of obligatory prayers===According to halakha, Jewish men are obligated to perform public prayer three times a day, within specific time ranges (zmanim), plus additional services on Jewish holidays.According to the Talmud, women are generally exempted from obligations that have to be performed at a certain time.", "(This has interpreted as being due to the need to constantly care for small children, or due to women's alleged higher spiritual level which makes it unnecessary for them to connect to God at specific times, since they are always connected to God.)", "In accordance with the general exemption from time-bound obligations, women are not required to recite the morning and evening Shema (though ''Mishnah Berurah'' suggests that they say it anyway), and most Orthodox authorities have exempted women from reciting Maariv.Authorities have disagreed on whether this exemption applies to additional prayers.", "According to (Ashkenazi) Magen Avraham and more recently (Sephardi) Rabbi Ovadia Yosef, women are only required to pray once a day, in any form they choose, so long as the prayer contains praise of (brakhot), requests to (bakashot), and thanks of (hodot) God.", "However, most Orthodox authorities agree that women are not completely exempt from time-bound prayer.", "The ''Mishnah Berurah'', an important code of Ashkenazic Jewish law, holds that the Men of the Great Assembly obligated women to recite ''Shacharit'' and ''Minchah'' each day, \"just like men\".", "Nonetheless, even the most liberal Orthodox authorities hold that women cannot count in a minyan for purposes of public prayer.Traditionally, women were also reciting individual tkhine prayers in Yiddish.Conservative Judaism regards the ''halakhic'' system of multiple daily services as mandatory.", "Since 2002, Jewish women from Conservative congregations have been regarded as having undertaken a communal obligation to pray the same prayers at the same times as men, with traditional communities and individual women permitted to opt out.", "Reform and Reconstructionist congregations do not regard ''halakha'' as binding and hence regard appropriate prayer times as matters of personal spiritual decision rather than a matter of religious requirement.===Seating===Throughout Orthodox Judaism, including its most liberal forms, men and women are required to sit in separate sections with a mechitza (partition) separating them.", "Historically, a learned woman in the ''weibershul'' (women's section or annex) of a synagogue took on the informal role of precentress or firzogerin for the women praying in parallel to the main service led in the men's section.", "Conservative/Masorti Judaism permits mixed seating (almost universally in the United States, but not in all countries).", "All Reform and Reconstructionist congregations have mixed seating.===Prayer leaders===Haredi and the vast majority of Modern Orthodox Judaism has a blanket prohibition on women leading public congregational prayers.", "Conservative Judaism has developed a blanket justification for women leading all or virtually all such prayers, holding that although only obligated individuals can lead prayers and women were not traditionally obligated, Conservative Jewish women in modern times have as a collective whole voluntarily undertaken such an obligation.", "Reform and Reconstructionist congregations permit women to perform all prayer roles because they do not regard halakha as binding.A small liberal wing within Modern Orthodox Judaism, particularly rabbis friendly to the Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance (JOFA), has begun re-examining the role of women in prayers based on an individual, case-by-case look at the historical role of specific prayers and services, doing so within classical ''halakhic'' interpretation.", "Accepting that where obligation exists only the obligated can lead, this small group has typically made three general arguments for expanded women's roles:# Because women were required to perform certain korbanot (sacrifices) in the Temple in Jerusalem, women today are required to perform, and hence can lead (and can count in the ''minyan'' for if required), the specific prayers substituting for these specific sacrifices.", "''Birchat Hagomel'' falls in this category.# Because certain parts of the service were added after the Talmud defined mandatory services, such prayers are equally voluntary on everyone and hence can be led by women (and no ''minyan'' is required).", "''Pseukei D'Zimrah'' in the morning and ''Kabbalat Shabbat'' on Friday nights fall in this category.# In cases where the Talmud indicates that women are generally qualified to lead certain services but do not do so because of the \"dignity of the congregation\", modern congregations are permitted to waive such dignity if they wish.", "Torah reading on Shabbat falls in this category.", "An argument that women are permitted to lead the services removing and replacing the Torah in the Ark on ''Shabbat'' extends from their ability to participate in Torah reading then.A very small number of Modern Orthodox congregations accept some such arguments, but very few Orthodox congregations or authorities accept all or even most of them.", "Many of those who do not accept this reasoning point to ''kol isha'', the tradition that prohibits a man from hearing a woman other than his wife or close blood relative sing.", "JOFA refers to congregations generally accepting such arguments as Partnership Minyanim.", "On Shabbat in a Partnership Minyan, women can typically lead ''Kabbalat Shabbat'', the ''P'seukei D'Zimrah'', the services for removing the Torah from and replacing it to the Ark, and Torah reading, as well as give a ''D'Var Torah'' or sermon.The first Orthodox Jewish women's prayer group was created on the holiday of Simhat Torah at Lincoln Square Synagogue in Manhattan in the late 1960s.Ephraim Mirvis, an Orthodox rabbi who serves as the Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, supports Shabbat prayer groups for Orthodox women, saying, \"Some of our congregations have women prayer groups for Friday night, some Saturday mornings.", "This is without women reading from the Torah.", "But for women to come together as a group to pray, this is a good thing.", "\"However, many Modern Orthodox rabbis, including Rabbi Hershel Schachter, Rabbi Mordechai Willig, Rabbi Nisson Alpert and others have ruled that this practice is not permitted.", "These practices are also unheard of in the Hareidi world" ], [ "Role of minors", "In most divisions of Judaism boys prior to bar mitzvah cannot act as a Chazzen for prayer services that contain ''devarim sheb'kidusha'', i.e.", "Kaddish, Barechu, the amida, etc., or receive an ''aliya'' or chant the Torah for the congregation.", "Since ''Kabbalat Shabbat'' and ''Pesukei D'zimra'' do not technically require a chazzan at all, it is possible for a boy prior to bar mitzvah to lead these services.", "The conclusion of the service on Shabbat and ''chagim'' may also be led by children.", "Under the Moroccan, Yemenite, and Mizrachi customs, a boy prior to bar mitzvah may lead certain prayers, read the Torah, and have an aliyah.", "It is customary among many Ashkenazim to have children sing \"Adon 'Olam\" after Mussaf and \"Yigdal\" after Shabbat and Holiday Maariv.", "Among Sefardim, Mizrachim, Yemenites, and some Askenazim, a child leads the congregation in Kiryat Shema." ], [ "Denominational variations", "Conservative services generally use the same basic format for services as in Orthodox Judaism, with some doctrinal leniencies and some prayers in English.", "In practice, there is wide variation among Conservative congregations.", "In traditionalist congregations the liturgy can be almost identical to that of Orthodox Judaism, almost entirely in Hebrew (and Aramaic), with a few minor exceptions, including excision of a study session on Temple sacrifices, and modifications of prayers for the restoration of the sacrificial system.", "In more liberal Conservative synagogues there are greater changes to the service, with up to a third of the service in English; abbreviation or omission of many of the preparatory prayers; and replacement of some traditional prayers with more contemporary forms.", "There are some changes for doctrinal reasons, including egalitarian language, fewer references to restoring sacrifices in the Temple in Jerusalem, and an option to eliminate special roles for Kohanim and Levites.The liturgies of Reform and Reconstructionist are based on traditional elements, but contains language more reflective of liberal belief than the traditional liturgy.", "Doctrinal revisions generally include revising or omitting references to traditional doctrines such as bodily resurrection, a personal Jewish Messiah, and other elements of traditional Jewish eschatology, Divine revelation of the Torah at Mount Sinai, angels, conceptions of reward and punishment, and other personal miraculous and supernatural elements.", "Services are often from 40% to 90% in the vernacular.Reform Judaism has made greater alterations to the traditional service in accord with its more liberal theology including dropping references to traditional elements of Jewish eschatology such as a personal Messiah, a bodily resurrection of the dead, and others.", "The Hebrew portion of the service is substantially abbreviated and modernized and modern prayers substituted for traditional ones.", "In addition, in keeping with their view that the laws of Shabbat (including a traditional prohibition on playing instruments) are inapplicable to modern circumstances, Reform services often play instrumental or recorded music with prayers on the Jewish Sabbath.", "All Reform synagogues are egalitarian with respect to gender roles." ], [ "See also", "* Baladi-rite prayer* Carlebach minyan* List of Jewish prayers and blessings" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "** ''Entering Jewish Prayer'', Reuven Hammer ()* ''Kavvana: Directing the Heart in Jewish Prayer'', Seth Kadish, Jason Aronson Inc. 1997..* ''Or Hadash: A Commentary on Siddur Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals'', Reuven Hammer, The Rabbinical Assembly and the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism* S. Baer.", "''Siddur Avodath Yisrael'' (newly researched text with commentary Yachin Lashon), 19th century.", "* ''A Guide to Jewish Prayer'', Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, Shocken Books ()* ''Hilchot Tefilla: A Comprehensive Guide to the Laws of Daily Prayer'', David Brofsky, KTAV Publishing House/OU Press/Yeshivat Har Etzion.", "2010.", "()* ''God's Favorite Prayers'', Tzvee Zahavy, Talmudic Books.", "2011.", "()* ''Holistic Prayer: A Guide to Jewish Spirituality'', Rabbi Avi Weiss, Maggid Books.", "2014.", "()" ], [ "External links", "* Jewish Prayer – Prayer in Judaism – Chabad.org* The Open Siddur Project* GoDaven.com – The Worldwide Minyan Database – GoDaven.com* Introduction to Jewish Prayer – Aish.com* Siddur in PDF* Audio and text of the Siddur – SiddurAudio.com* Q&A about Prayer – Ask the Rabbi" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jewish eschatology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jewish eschatology''' is the area of Jewish theology concerned with events that will happen in the end of days and related concepts.", "This includes the ingathering of the exiled diaspora, the coming of the Jewish Messiah, the afterlife, and the resurrection of the dead.", "In Judaism, the end times are usually called the \"end of days\" (''aḥarit ha-yamim'', אחרית הימים), a phrase that appears several times in the Tanakh.These beliefs have evolved over time, and according to some authors there is evidence of Jewish belief in a personal afterlife with reward or punishment referenced in the Torah." ], [ "Sources", "In Judaism, the main textual source for the belief in the end of days and accompanying events is the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible.", "The roots of Jewish eschatology are to be found in the pre-exile prophets, including Isaiah and Jeremiah, and the exilic prophets Ezekiel and Deutero-Isaiah.", "The main tenets of Jewish eschatology are the following, in no particular order, elaborated in the Book of Isaiah, the Book of Jeremiah and the Book of Ezekiel." ], [ "The End of Days", "===War of Gog and Magog===According to Ezekiel chapter 38, the \"war of Gog and Magog\" is a climactic war that will happen at the end of the Jewish exile.", "According to biblical commentator and rabbi David Kimhi, this war will take place in Jerusalem.===Events to occur===* God redeems the Jewish people from their captivity that began with the Babylonian Exile, in a new Exodus (Kibbutz Galuyot)* God returns the Jewish people to the Land of Israel* God restores the kingly House of David and the Temple in Jerusalem* God appoints a regent from the House of David (i.e.", "the Messiah) to lead the Jewish people and the world, and usher in the Messianic Age, characterised by justice, righteousness, and peace* All nations recognize that the God of Israel is the only true God* God resurrects the dead* God creates a new heaven and a new earth" ], [ "World to come", "The afterlife is known as ''olam ha-ba'' (literally “coming world\" or \"next world\", עולם הבא in Hebrew), and is related to concepts of ''Gan Eden'', the Heavenly \"Garden in Eden\", or Paradise, and ''Gehinnom''.\"", "The phrase “''olam ha-ba''” itself does not occur in the Hebrew Bible.", "The accepted halakha is that it is impossible for living human beings to know what the world to come is like.===Second Temple period===In the late Second Temple period, beliefs about the ultimate fate of an individual were diverse.", "The Pharisees and Essenes believed in the immortality of the soul, but the Sadducees did not.", "The Dead Sea Scrolls, Jewish pseudepigrapha and Jewish magical papyri all reflect this variety of opinions.===Medieval rabbinical views===While all classical rabbinic sources discuss the afterlife, Medieval scholars dispute the nature of existence in the \"End of Days\" after the Messianic Age.", "While Maimonides describes an entirely spiritual existence for souls, which he calls \"disembodied intellects,” Nachmanides discusses an intensely spiritual existence on Earth, where spirituality and physicality are merged.", "Both agree that life after death is as Maimonides describes the \"End of Days.\"", "This existence entails an extremely heightened understanding of and connection to the Divine Presence.", "This view is shared by all classical rabbinic scholars.According to Maimonides, any non-Jew who lives according to the Seven Laws of Noah is regarded as a righteous gentile, and is assured of a place in the world to come, the final reward of the righteous.There is a great deal of surviving rabbinic material concerning the fate of the soul after death, its experiences, and where it goes.", "At various points in the afterlife journey, the soul may encounter: ''Hibbut ha-kever'', the pains and experiences of the physico-spiritual dissolution or reconfiguration within the grave; ''Dumah'', the angel in charge of funerary matters; Satan as the angel of death or other equally grim figure; the ''Kaf ha-Kela'', the ensnarement or confinement of the stripped-down soul within various ghostly material reallocations (devised for the purpose of cleansing a soul of contamination but not severe enough to warrant Gehinnom, see Tanya Chapter 8)); ''Gehinnom'' (pure purgatory); and ''Gan Eden'' (heavenly respite or paradise, a purified state).", "All classical rabbinic scholars agree that these concepts are beyond typical human understanding, so these ideas are expressed throughout rabbinic literature via parables and analogies.", "''Gehinnom'' is fairly well defined in rabbinic literature.", "It is sometimes translated as \"hell\", but is more similar to the Nicene Christian view of Purgatory than to its Hell.", "Rabbinic thought maintains that souls are not tortured in Gehinnom forever; the longest that one can be there is said to be eleven months, with the exception of heretics and extremely sinful Jews.", "This is why Jews mourning for near relatives will not recite mourner's kaddish for more than eleven months after a death.", "''Gehinnom'' is considered a spiritual forge where the soul is purified for its eventual ascent to ''Gan Eden'' (\"Garden of Eden\").===Rabbinic legends===Rabbinic literature includes many legends about the World to Come and the two Gardens of Eden.", "As compiled by Louis Ginzberg in the book ''Legends of the Jews'' these include the world to come, which is called Paradise, and said to have a double gate made of carbuncle guarded by 600,000 shining angels.", "Seven clouds of glory overshadow Paradise, and under them, in the center of Paradise, stands the tree of life.", "The tree of life overshadows Paradise too, and it has fifteen thousand different tastes and aromas that winds blow all across Paradise.", "Under the tree of life are many pairs of canopies, one of stars and the other of sun and moon, while a cloud of glory separates the two.", "In each pair of canopies sits a rabbinic scholar who explains the Torah to one.", "When one enters Paradise, one is proffered by Michael the archangel to God on the altar of the Temple in the heavenly Jerusalem.", "One is transfigured into an angel, with the ugliest person becoming as beautiful and shining as \"the grains of a silver pomegranate upon which fall the rays of the sun”.", "The angels that guard Paradise's gate adorn the soul in seven clouds of glory, crown it with gems and pearls and gold, place eight myrtles in the hand, and praise it for being righteous while leading it to a garden of eight hundred roses and myrtles watered by many rivers.", "In the garden is one's canopy, its beauty according to one's merit, but each canopy has four rivers – milk, honey, wine, and balsam – flowing out from it, and has a golden vine and thirty shining pearls hanging from it.", "Under each canopy is a table of gems and pearls attended to by sixty angels.", "The light of Paradise is the light of the righteous people therein.", "Each day in Paradise one wakes up a child and goes to bed an elder to enjoy the pleasures of childhood, youth, adulthood, and old age.", "In each corner of Paradise is a forest of 800,000 trees, the least among these greater than the best herbs and spices, attended to by 800,000 sweetly singing angels.", "Paradise is divided into seven sub-paradises, each one 120,000 miles long and wide.", "Depending on one's merit, a soul is assigned to one of these sections of Paradise: the first is made of glass and cedar and is for converts to Judaism; the second is of silver and cedar and is for penitents; the third is of silver, gold, gems and pearls, and is for the Patriarchs, Moses and Aaron, the Israelites that left Egypt and lived in the wilderness, and the kings of Israel; the fourth is of rubies and olive wood and is for the holy and steadfast in faith; the fifth is like the third, except a river flows through it and its bed was woven by Eve and the angels, and it is for the Messiah and Elijah; and the sixth and seventh divisions are not described, except that they are respectively for those who died doing pious acts and those who died from illness in expiation for Israel's sins.Above this Paradise is the higher Gan Eden, where God is enthroned and explains the Torah to its inhabitants.", "The higher Gan Eden contains 310 worlds and is divided into seven compartments.", "The compartments are not described, though it is implied that each compartment is greater than the previous one and is made open to a soul based on its merit.", "The first compartment is for Jewish martyrs, the second for those who drowned, the third for \"Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai and his disciples,\" the fourth for those whom the cloud of glory carried off, the fifth for penitents, the sixth for youths who have never sinned; and the seventh for the poor who lived decently and studied Torah.===Resurrection of the dead===Resurrection of the dead, fresco from the Dura-Europos synagogueAn early explicit mention of resurrection in Hebrew texts is the Vision of the Valley of Dry Bones in the Book of Ezekiel dated somewhere around 539 BCE.", "Alan Segal argues that this narrative was intended as a metaphor for national rebirth, promising the Jews return to Israel and reconstruction of the Temple, not as a description of personal resurrection.The Book of Daniel promised literal resurrection to the Jews, in concrete detail.", "Alan Segal interprets Daniel as writing that with the coming of the Archangel Michael, misery would beset the world, and only those whose names were in a divine book would be resurrected.", "Moreover, Daniel's promise of resurrection was intended only for the most righteous and the most sinful because the afterlife was a place for the virtuous individuals to be rewarded and the sinful individuals to receive eternal punishment.Greek and Persian culture influenced Jewish sects to believe in an afterlife between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE as well.The Hebrew Bible, at least as seen through interpretation of Bavli Sanhedrin, contains frequent reference to resurrection of the dead.", "The Mishnah (c. 200) lists belief in the resurrection of the dead as one of three essential beliefs necessary for a Jew to participate in it:In the late Second Temple period, the Pharisees believed in resurrection, while Essenes and Sadducees did not.", "During the Rabbinic period, beginning in the late first century and carrying on to the present, the works of Daniel were included into the Hebrew Bible, signaling the adoption of Jewish resurrection into the officially sacred texts.Jewish liturgy, most notably the ''Amidah'', contains references to the tenet of the bodily resurrection of the dead.", "In contemporary Judaism, both Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism maintain the traditional references to it in their liturgy.", "However, many Conservative Jews interpret the tenet metaphorically rather than literally.", "Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have altered traditional references to the resurrection of the dead in the liturgy (\"who gives life to the dead\") to refer to \"who gives life to all.", "\"===The last judgment===In Judaism, the day of judgment happens every year on Rosh Hashanah; therefore, the belief in a last day of judgment for all mankind is disputed.", "Some rabbis hold that there will be such a day following the resurrection of the dead.", "Others hold that there is no need for that because of Rosh Hashanah.", "Yet others hold that this accounting and judgment happens when one dies.", "Other rabbis hold that the last judgment only applies to the gentile nations and not the Jewish people.===In contemporary Judaism===Irving GreenbergIrving Greenberg, representing an Open Orthodox viewpoint, describes the afterlife as a central Jewish teaching, deriving from the belief in reward and punishment.", "According to Greenberg, suffering Medieval Jews emphasized the World to Come as a counterpoint to the difficulties of this life, while early Jewish modernizers portrayed Judaism as interested only in this world as a counterpoint to \"otherworldly\" Christianity.", "Greenberg sees each of these views as leading to an undesired extreme – overemphasizing the afterlife leads to asceticism, while devaluing the afterlife deprives Jews of the consolation of eternal life and justice – and calls for a synthesis, in which Jews can work to perfect this world, while also recognizing the immortality of the soul.Conservative Judaism both affirms belief in the world beyond (as referenced in the ''Amidah'' and Maimonides' Thirteen Precepts of Faith) while recognizing that human understanding is limited and we cannot know exactly what the world beyond consists of.", "Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism affirm belief in the afterlife, though they downplay the theological implications in favor of emphasizing the importance of the \"here and now,\" as opposed to reward and punishment.", "The Union for Reform Judaism believes the righteous of any faith have a place in heaven but does not believe in a concept of hell." ], [ "Jewish messianism", "The Hebrew word ''mashiach'' (or ''moshiach'') refers to the Jewish idea of the messiah.", "In biblical times the title ''mashiach'' was awarded to someone in a high position of nobility and greatness.", "For example, ''Cohen ha-Mašíaḥ'' means High Priest.", "While the name of the Jewish Messiah is considered to be one of the things that precede creation, he is not considered divine, in contrast to Christianity where Jesus is both divine and the Messiah.In the Talmudic era the title ''Mashiach'' or מלך המשיח, ''Méleḵ ha-Mašíaḥ'' literally means \"the anointed King\".", "The Messiah is to be a human leader, physically descended from the Davidic line, who will rule and unite the people of Israel and will usher in the Messianic Age of global and universal peace.===Early Second Temple period (516 BCE – c.220 BCE)===Early in the Second Temple period hopes for a better future are described in the Jewish scriptures.", "After the return from the Babylonian exile, Cyrus the Great was called \"messiah\" in Isaiah, due to his role in the return of the Jews exiles.===Later Second Temple period (c.220 BCE – 70 CE)===A number of messianic ideas developed during the later Second Temple Period, ranging from this-worldy, political expectations, to apocalyptic expectations of an endtime in which the dead would be resurrected and the Kingdom of Heaven would be established on earth.", "The Messiah might be a kingly \"son of David\" or a more heavenly \"son of man\", but \"Messianism became increasingly eschatological, and eschatology was decisively influenced by apocalypticism,\" while \"messianic expectations became increasingly focused on the figure of an individual savior.", "According to Zwi Werblowsky, \"the Messiah no longer symbolized the coming of the new age, but he was somehow supposed to bring it about.", "The \"Lord's anointed\" thus became the \"savior and redeemer\" and the focus of more intense expectations and doctrines.\"", "Messianic ideas developed both by new interpretations (''pesher'', ''midrash'') of the Jewish scriptures, but also by visionary revelations.===Talmud===A full set of the Babylonian TalmudThe Babylonian Talmud (200–500 CE), tractate Sanhedrin, contains a long discussion of the events leading to the coming of the Messiah.", "Throughout their history Jews have compared these passages (and others) to contemporary events in search of signs of the Messiah's imminent arrival, continuing into present times.The Talmud tells many stories about the Messiah, some of which represent famous Talmudic rabbis as receiving personal visitations from Elijah the Prophet and the Messiah.===Rabbinic commentaries===Monument to Maimonides in CórdobaIn rabbinic literature, the rabbis elaborated and explained the prophecies that were found in the Hebrew Bible along with the oral law and rabbinic traditions about its meaning.Maimonides' commentary to tractate Sanhedrin stresses a relatively naturalistic interpretation of the Messiah, de-emphasizing miraculous elements.", "His commentary became widely (although not universally) accepted in the non- or less-mystical branches of Orthodox Judaism.===Contemporary views=======Orthodox Judaism====The belief in a human Messiah of the Davidic line is a universal tenet of faith among Orthodox Jews and one of Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith.Some authorities in Orthodox Judaism believe that this era will lead to supernatural events culminating in a bodily resurrection of the dead.", "Maimonides, on the other hand, holds that the events of the Messianic Era are not specifically connected with the resurrection.====Conservative Judaism====Conservative Judaism varies in its teachings.", "While it retains traditional references to a personal redeemer and prayers for the restoration of the Davidic line in the liturgy, Conservative Jews are more inclined to accept the idea of a Messianic Era:====Reform Judaism====Reform Judaism generally concurs with the more liberal Conservative perspective of a future Messianic Era rather than a human Messiah." ], [ "See also", "* Saoshyant" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jewish Encyclopedia: Eschatology* The Origin of Jewish Eschatology, by Nathaniel Schmidt" ] ]
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[ [ "Judah" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Judah''' or '''Yehuda''' is the name of a biblical patriarch, Judah (son of Jacob).", "It may also refer to:" ], [ "Historical ethnic, political and geographic terms", "* Tribe of Judah, one of the twelve Tribes of Israel; their allotment corresponds to Judah or Judaea* Judah (region), the name of part of the Land of Israel** Kingdom of Judah, an Iron Age kingdom of the Southern Levant*** History of ancient Israel and Judah** Yehud (Persian province), a name introduced in the Babylonian period** Judaea (Roman province)" ], [ "People", "* Judah (given name), or Yehudah, including a list of people with the name * Judah (surname)" ], [ "Other uses", "* Judah, Indiana, a small town in the United States* N Judah, a light trail line in San Francisco, U.S.* Yehuda Matzos, an Israeli matzo company" ], [ "See also", "* Juda (disambiguation)* Judas (disambiguation)* Jude (disambiguation)* Yehud (disambiguation)* Yahud (disambiguation)* Yehudi (disambiguation)* Yuda (disambiguation)* Jews, an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites and Hebrews of historical Israel and Judah* Judas Iscariot, one of the 12 apostles" ] ]
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[ [ "John Macleod (physiologist)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John James Rickard Macleod''', (6 September 1876 – 16 March 1935), was a Scottish biochemist and physiologist.", "He devoted his career to diverse topics in physiology and biochemistry, but was chiefly interested in carbohydrate metabolism.", "He is noted for his role in the discovery and isolation of insulin during his tenure as a lecturer at the University of Toronto, for which he and Frederick Banting received the 1923 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine." ], [ "Biography", "Macleod was born in Clunie, near Dunkeld in Perthshire.", "Soon after he was born, his father Robert Macleod, a minister of the Free Church, was transferred to Aberdeen, where John attended Aberdeen Grammar School and enrolled in the study of medicine at the University of Aberdeen.", "At the University of Aberdeen, one of Macleod's principal teachers was the young professor John Alexander MacWilliam.", "He was awarded his medical degree with honours in 1898 and then spent a year studying biochemistry at the University of Leipzig, Germany, on a travelling scholarship.", "He became a demonstrator at the London Hospital Medical School, where in 1902 he was appointed lecturer in biochemistry.", "In the same year, he was awarded a doctorate in public health from Cambridge University.", "Around that time he published his first research article, a paper on phosphorus content in muscles.In 1903, Macleod became a lecturer in physiology at the Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio, where he remained for 15 years.", "This was the period when he developed an interest in carbohydrate metabolism that was to last for the rest of his career.In 1910, he delivered a lecture on various forms of experimental diabetes and their significance for diabetes mellitus at the joint meeting of the section on Pharmacology and Therapeutics and the section on Pathology and Physiology of the American Medical Association.In 1916, he was a Professor of Physiology at McGill University in Montreal, Canada.", "After the First World War, he went on to teach physiology at the University of Toronto, where he became director of the physiology lab and an assistant to the dean of the medical faculty.", "He researched various topics in physiology and biochemistry, among which were the chemism of ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'', electroshocks, creatinine metabolism and blood circulation in the brain.", "In 1905 he became interested in carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes, publishing a series of scientific papers and several monographs on the subject from then on.", "Additionally, Macleod was a popular lecturer and an influential contributor to the development of the six-year course in medicine at the University of Toronto.===Frederick Banting and the discovery of insulin===At the end of 1920, Macleod was approached by Frederick Banting, a young Canadian physician who had the idea of curing diabetes using an extract from a pancreas whose functioning had been disrupted.", "Macleod was not enthusiastic, because (unlike Banting) he knew about unsuccessful experiments in this direction by other researchers.", "He thought it more likely that the nervous system had a crucial role in regulating blood glucose concentration.", "Macleod was not initially impressed by his interview with Banting.", "However, he came to the conclusion that it was worth trying because the results may be of \"great physiological value,\" and granted Banting laboratory space while Macleod himself would be away on holiday.", "In addition to the laboratory, Macleod provided experimental animals and his student Charles Best, who worked as a demonstrator.", "Macleod instructed Banting on the accepted method of pancreatectomy to be used on the experimental subjects.", "While he was of the opinion that the project would \"go up in smoke,\" Macleod believed it would at least be good training for Best.", "While Macleod was away, Banting and Best achieved a breakthrough: They isolated an internal secretion of the pancreas and succeeded in reducing the blood sugar level of another dog, whose pancreas had been surgically removed.Frederick Banting and Charles BestOn his return, Macleod expressed doubt about the results, leading tensions between himself and Banting to mount.", "They argued bitterly over Banting's demands to Macleod, which included a salary for himself and Best, a private room to work in, an assistant to take care of the dogs, and repairs for the operating room.", "Macleod initially declined on the grounds that this would cause other research in the department to suffer, to which Banting remarked that he would take the research elsewhere if the University of Toronto did not see any value in it.", "Macleod relented, and for a while their relations improved.", "Further experiments were successful and the three started to present their work at meetings.", "Again worsening the relationship between the researchers was Macleod's tendency to speak on behalf of the team.", "This was exemplified by a December 1921 presentation to the American Physiological Society at Yale, where Banting and Best were due to present their findings.", "Banting felt he had not presented well but wanted to answer audience questions.", "However, it was Macleod who addressed the audience next, to which Banting took offense.", "After their return to Toronto, Macleod was persuaded by another professor to apologize to Banting, smoothing over the relationship once again.", "Their discovery was first published in the February 1922 issue of ''The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine''.", "Macleod declined co-authorship because he considered it Banting's and Best's work.", "Despite their success, there remained the issue of how to get enough pancreas extract to continue the experiments.", "Together, the three researchers developed alcohol extraction, which proved to be far more efficient than other methods.", "This convinced Macleod to divert the whole laboratory to insulin research and to bring in the biochemist James Collip to help with purifying the extract.The first human clinical trial was unsuccessful.", "Towards the end of January 1922, there was an altercation between Banting and Collip, who refused to share details of his alcohol purification.", "Banting and Best viewed this as a violation of a verbal agreement to share their discoveries with each other.", "Collip threatened to leave because of the strained atmosphere but the encouragement of others who saw the potential of their research prevented escalation of the conflict.", "That same month, the team performed the first successful clinical trial, on 13-year-old Leonard Thompson, and it was soon followed by others.Demonstrations of the method's efficiency drew huge public interest, because the effect on patients, especially children, who until then were bound to die, seemed almost miraculous.", "The pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly & Co. took over mass production, but without an exclusive license, as the patent was transferred to the Medical Research Council to prevent exploitation.In the summer of 1923 Macleod resumed other research.", "He took interest in teleost fish, which have separate regions of islet and acinar tissue in their pancreas.", "Working at the Marine Biological Station in St. Andrews, New Brunswick, he made extracts from each of those parts separately and proved that insulin is derived from the insular and not the acinar tissue of the pancreas.", "Meanwhile, Banting remained in Toronto and relationships soon deteriorated again because of conflicting press accounts.", "Macleod wrote a report on the discovery in 1922, but otherwise refrained from active involvement in controversy about credit.", "Banting hated him passionately, believing Macleod had purposely overstated his and the University of Toronto's contributions to the discovery, and the two never spoke again.", "When Macleod left the University of Toronto in 1928, Banting harbored such enmity that he refused to attend the farewell dinner for Macleod.Grave of Macleod and his wife at Aberdeen cemetery===Later years===Macleod returned to Scotland in 1928 to become Regius Professor of Physiology at the University of Aberdeen (in succession to his former teacher, John Alexander MacWilliam who retired in 1927) and later Dean of the University of Aberdeen Medical Faculty.", "Between 1929 and 1933 he was also a member of the Medical Research Council.Macleod did not continue to work on insulin, but he remained active as a researcher, lecturer and author.", "His last major contribution was a proof that the central nervous system does have an important role in maintaining carbohydrate metabolism balance, as was his original hypothesis.", "His theory about conversion of fats into carbohydrates remained unproven, despite his provision of several indirect proofs.", "He devoted his spare time to golf, motorcycling and painting.", "He was married to Mary W. McWalter, but they never had children.", "He died in 1935 in Aberdeen after several years of suffering from arthritis, despite which he remained active almost until his death.", "In 1933 he made a lecture tour of the US, and in 1934 he published the 7th edition of his book ''Physiology and Biochemistry in Modern Medicine''." ], [ "Works", "Macleod was a prolific writer.", "His first academic article was a paper on phosphorus content in muscles published in 1899.During his career he authored or co-authored over 200 papers and eleven books.", "Among them are:* ''Practical Physiology'' (1903)* ''Recent Advances in Physiology'' (with Leonard E. Hill, 1905)* ''Diabetes: its Pathological Physiology'' (1913)* ''Physiology for dental students'' (with R. G. Pearce, 1915)* ''Physiology and Biochemistry in Modern Medicine'' (1st edition 1918)* ''Insulin and its Use in Diabetes'' (with W. R. Campbell, 1925)* ''Carbohydrate Metabolism and Insulin'' (1926)* ''The Fuel of life: Experimental Studies in Normal and Diabetic Animals'' (1928)" ], [ "Awards and honours", "John Macleod was a distinguished physiologist prior to the discovery of insulin.", "He was elected a member of the Royal Society of Canada in 1919 and president of American Physiological Society in 1921.In 1923, Macleod was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh.", "Among the recognitions he received after 1923 were memberships of the Royal Society and the Royal Society of Edinburgh, corresponding membership of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina and honorary membership of the Regia Accademia Medica.Macleod's reputation in Canada was overshadowed by the contributions of Banting and Best.", "It was only in the 1980s that it became commonly accepted that Banting's and Best's story was distorted, since more documentation had been made publicly available, and it made a precise reconstruction of the events possible.", "Until Best died, this documentation had been kept confidntial for over 50 years by the University of Toronto, whose administration wanted to avoid fuelling the controversy.", "The auditorium of the Toronto University Medical Research Centre was named in his honour, as was Diabetes UK's award for patients who survive for 70 years with diabetes.", "In 2012, he was inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame.===Nobel Prize===The Nobel Committee reacted almost immediately to the first successful clinical trials.", "In the autumn of 1923, Banting and Macleod received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, even though the long-term importance of the discovery was not yet apparent.", "They were nominated by the Danish physiologist and Nobel laureate August Krogh, who had a diabetic wife and had visited Macleod's laboratory and taken the method back to Denmark.", "The committee concluded that Macleod's work in interpreting the data, managing the clinical trials and providing a high level of public presentation were crucial for success, so they awarded the Nobel prize to both.", "Upon accepting, Banting gave half of his prize money to Best.", "Macleod in turn gave half of his to Collip.", "In 1972 the Nobel Foundation officially conceded that omitting Best was a mistake.A second controversial aspect of the award was the fact that eight months before Banting's and Best's paper, the Romanian physiologist Nicolae Paulescu had reported the discovery of a pancreas extract that he dubbed ''pancrein'', which lowered blood glucose concentration.", "Banting and Best cited him in their paper, but misinterpreted his findings, purportedly because of an error in translation from French.", "Best publicly apologized for that mistake many years later." ], [ "See also", "* List of Case Western people" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* including the Nobel Lecture, 26 May 1925 ''The Physiology of Insulin and Its Source in the Animal Body''" ] ]
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[ [ "Jackson, Mississippi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jackson''' is the capital of and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Mississippi.", "Along with Raymond, Jackson is one of two county seats for Hinds County.", "The city had a population of 153,701 at the 2020 census, a significant decline from 173,514, or 11.42%, since the 2010 census, representing the largest decline in population during the decade of any major U.S. city.", "Jackson is the anchor for the Jackson metropolitan statistical area, the largest metropolitan area located entirely in the state and the tenth-largest urban area in the Deep South.", "With a 2020 population of nearly 600,000, metropolitan Jackson is home to over one-fifth of Mississippi's population.", "The city sits on the Pearl River and is located in the greater Jackson Prairie region of Mississippi.", "Jackson is the only city in Mississippi with a population exceeding 100,000 people.Founded in 1821 as new state capital for Mississippi, Jackson is named after General Andrew Jackson, a war hero in the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812 and subsequently the seventh U.S. president.", "Following the Battle of Vicksburg, which was fought near Jackson during the American Civil War in 1863, Union forces commanded by General William Tecumseh Sherman launched the siege of Jackson and set the city on fire.During the 1920s, Jackson surpassed Meridian to become the most populous city in the state following a speculative natural gas boom in the region.", "The current slogan for the city is \"The City with Soul\".", "It has had numerous musicians prominent in blues, gospel, folk, and jazz.", "The city is located in the deep south halfway between Memphis and New Orleans on Interstate 55 and Dallas and Atlanta on Interstate 20.The city has a number of museums and cultural institutions, including the Mississippi Children's Museum, Mississippi Museum of Natural Science, Mississippi Civil Rights Museum, Mississippi Museum of Art, Old Capital Museum, Museum of Mississippi History.", "Other notable locations are the Mississippi Coliseum and the Mississippi Veterans Memorial Stadium, home of the Jackson State Tigers football team.The Jackson metropolitan statistical area is the state's second-largest metropolitan area.", "In 2020, the Jackson metropolitan area held a GDP of 30 billion dollars, accounting for 29% of the state's total GDP of 104.1 billion dollars." ], [ "History", "Choctaw Nation's location and size compared to the U.S. state of Mississippi===Founding and antebellum period (to 1860)===Andrew Jackson, the 7th President of the United States and the city's namesakeLocated on the historic Natchez Trace trade route, created by Native Americans and used by European American settlers, and on the Pearl River, the city's first European American settler was Louis LeFleur, a French-Canadian trader.", "The village became known as LeFleur's Bluff.", "During the late 18th century and early 19th century, this site had a trading post.", "It was connected to markets in Tennessee.", "Soldiers returning to Tennessee from the military campaigns near New Orleans in 1815 built a public road that connected Lake Pontchartrain in Louisiana to this district.", "A United States treaty with the Choctaw, the Treaty of Doak's Stand in 1820, formally opened the area for non-Native American settlers.LeFleur's Bluff was developed when it was chosen as the site for the new state's capital city.", "The Mississippi General Assembly decided in 1821 that the state needed a centrally located capital (the legislature was then located in Natchez).", "They commissioned Thomas Hinds, James Patton, and William Lattimore to look for a suitable site.", "The absolute center of the state was a swamp, so the group had to widen their search.After surveying areas north and east of Jackson, they proceeded southwest along with the Pearl River until they reached LeFleur's Bluff in today's Hinds County.", "Their report to the General Assembly stated that this location had beautiful and healthful surroundings, good water, abundant timber, navigable waters, and proximity to the Natchez Trace.", "The Assembly passed an act on November 28, 1821, authorizing the site as the permanent seat of the government of the state of Mississippi.", "On the same day, it passed a resolution to instruct the Washington delegation to press Congress for a donation of public lands on the river for improved navigation to the Gulf of Mexico.", "One Whig politician lamented the new capital as a \"serious violation of principle\" because it was not at the absolute center of the state.The capital was named for General Andrew Jackson, to honor his January 1815 victory at the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812.He was later elected as the seventh president of the United States.The city of Jackson was originally planned, in April 1822, by Peter Aaron Van Dorn in a \"checkerboard\" pattern advocated by Thomas Jefferson.", "City blocks alternated with parks and other open spaces.", "Over time, many of the park squares have been developed rather than maintained as green space.", "The state legislature first met in Jackson on December 23, 1822.In 1839, the Mississippi Legislature passed the first state law in the U.S. to permit married women to own and administer their own property.Jackson was connected by public road to Vicksburg and Clinton in 1826.Jackson was first connected by railroad to other cities in 1840.An 1844 map shows Jackson linked by an east–west rail line running between Vicksburg, Raymond, and Brandon.", "Unlike Vicksburg, Greenville, and Natchez, Jackson is not located on the Mississippi River, and it did not develop during the antebellum era as those cities did from major river commerce.", "The construction of railroad lines to the city sparked its growth in the decades following the American Civil War.===American Civil War===September 1863 map of the siege of JacksonDespite its small population, during the Civil War, Jackson became a strategic center of manufacturing for the Confederacy.", "In 1863, during the military campaign which ended in the capture of Vicksburg, Union forces captured Jackson during two battles—once before the fall of Vicksburg and once after the fall of Vicksburg.On May 13, 1863, Union forces won the first Battle of Jackson, forcing Confederate forces to flee northward towards Canton.", "On May 14, Union troops under the command of William Tecumseh Sherman burned and looted key facilities in Jackson, a strategic manufacturing and railroad center for the Confederacy.", "After driving the Confederate forces out of Jackson, Union forces turned west and engaged the Vicksburg defenders at the Battle of Champion Hill in nearby Edwards.", "The Union forces began their siege of Vicksburg soon after their victory at Champion Hill.", "Confederate forces began to reassemble in Jackson in preparation for an attempt to break through the Union lines surrounding Vicksburg and end the siege.", "The Confederate forces in Jackson built defensive fortifications encircling the city while preparing to march west to Vicksburg.Confederate forces marched out of Jackson in early July 1863 to break the siege of Vicksburg.", "But, unknown to them, Vicksburg had already surrendered on July 4, 1863.General Ulysses S. Grant dispatched General Sherman to meet the Confederate forces heading west from Jackson.", "Upon learning that Vicksburg had already surrendered, the Confederates retreated into Jackson.", "Union forces began the siege of Jackson, which lasted for approximately one week.", "Union forces encircled the city and began an artillery bombardment.", "One of the Union artillery emplacements has been preserved on the grounds of the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson.", "Another Federal position is preserved on the campus of Millsaps College.", "John C. Breckinridge, former United States vice president, served as one of the Confederate generals defending Jackson.", "On July 16, 1863, Confederate forces slipped out of Jackson during the night and retreated across the Pearl River.Union forces completely burned the city after its capture this second time.", "The city was called \"Chimneyville\" because only the chimneys of houses were left standing.", "The northern line of Confederate defenses in Jackson during the siege was located along a road near downtown Jackson, now known as Fortification Street.Engraving from ''Harper's Weekly'', June 20, 1863, after the capture of Jackson by Union forces during the American Civil WarMississippi Old Capitol, downtown Jackson|alt=Because of the siege and following destruction, few antebellum structures have survived in Jackson.", "The Governor's Mansion, built in 1842, served as Sherman's headquarters and has been preserved.", "Another is the Old Capitol building, which served as the home of the Mississippi state legislature from 1839 to 1903.The Mississippi legislature passed the ordinance of secession from the Union there on January 9, 1861, becoming the second state to secede from the United States.", "The Jackson City Hall, built in 1846 for less than $8,000, also survived.", "It is said that Sherman, a Mason, spared it because it housed a Masonic Lodge, though a more likely reason is that it housed an army hospital.===Reconstruction===During Reconstruction, African Americans were granted civil rights.", "Schools were established and African Americans held political offices.", "Eugene Welborne, Charles Reese, Weldon Hicks, and George Caldwell Granberry were among the legislators who represented Hinds County in the legislature.", "African Americans also served in local offices, as judges, and as marshalls.Mississippi had considerable insurgent action, as whites struggled to maintain white supremacy.", "Jackson's appointed mayor Joseph G. Crane was stabbed to death in 1869.The assailant, Edward M. Yerger, was arrested by military authorities but, after a U.S. Supreme Court case (Ex parte Yerger), he was bonded out, moved to Baltimore and was never tried.The economic recovery from the Civil War was slow through the start of the 20th century, but there were some developments in transportation.", "In 1871, the city introduced mule-drawn streetcars which ran on State Street, which were replaced by electric ones in 1899.In 1875, the Red Shirts were formed, one of the second waves of insurgent paramilitary organizations that essentially operated as \"the military arm of the Democratic Party\" to take back political power from the Republicans and to drive black people from the polls (Mississippi Plan).===Post-Reconstruction===Democrats regained control of the state legislature in 1876.The constitutional convention of 1890, which produced Mississippi's Constitution of 1890, was held at the capitol.", "This was the first of new constitutions or amendments ratified in each Southern state through 1908 that effectively disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites, through provisions making voter registration more difficult: such as poll taxes, residency requirements, and literacy tests.", "These provisions survived a Supreme Court challenge in 1898.As 20th-century Supreme Court decisions later ruled such provisions were unconstitutional, Mississippi and other Southern states rapidly devised new methods to continue disfranchisement of most black people, who comprised a majority in the state until the 1930s.", "Their exclusion from politics was maintained into the late 1960s.The so-called New Capitol replaced the older structure upon its completion in 1903.Today the Old Capitol is operated as a historical museum.===Early 20th century (1901–1960)===Map of Jackson in 1919April 16, 1921, flood on Town Creek, a tributary of the Pearl River in Jackson.", "The photo is a view of East Capitol Street looking east from North Farish Street.Standard Life Building at night, downtown JacksonAuthor Eudora Welty was born in Jackson in 1909, lived most of her life in the Belhaven section of the city, and died there in 2001.Her memoir of development as a writer, ''One Writer's Beginnings'' (1984), presented a picture of the city in the early 20th century.", "She won the Pulitzer Prize in 1973 for her novel, ''The Optimist's Daughter,'' and is best known for her novels and short stories.", "The main library of the Jackson/Hinds Library System was named in her honor, and her home has been designated as a National Historic Landmark.Richard Wright, a highly acclaimed African-American author, lived in Jackson as an adolescent and young man in the 1910s and 1920s.", "He related his experience in his memoir ''Black Boy'' (1945).", "He described the harsh and largely terror-filled life most African Americans experienced in the South and Northern ghettos such as Chicago under segregation in the early 20th century.Jackson had significant growth in the early 20th century, which produced dramatic changes in the city's skyline.", "Jackson's new Union Station downtown reflected the city's service by multiple rail lines, including the Illinois Central.Across the street, the new, luxurious King Edward Hotel opened its doors in 1923, having been built according to a design by New Orleans architect William T. Nolan.", "It became a center for prestigious events held by Jackson society and Mississippi politicians.", "Nearby, the 18-story Standard Life Building, designed in 1929 by Claude Lindsley, was the largest reinforced concrete structure in the world upon its completion.Jackson's economic growth was further stimulated in the 1930s by the discovery of natural gas fields nearby.", "Speculators had begun searching for oil and natural gas in Jackson beginning in 1920.The initial drilling attempts came up empty.", "This failure did not stop Ella Render from obtaining a lease from the state's insane asylum to begin a well on its grounds in 1924, where he found natural gas.", "(Render eventually lost the rights when courts determined that the asylum did not have the right to lease the state's property.)", "Businessmen jumped on the opportunity and dug wells in the Jackson area.", "The continued success of these ventures attracted further investment.", "By 1930, there were 14 derricks in the Jackson skyline.Mississippi Governor Theodore Bilbo stated:This enthusiasm was subdued when the first wells failed to produce oil of a sufficiently high gravity for commercial success.", "The barrels of oil had considerable amounts of saltwater, which lessened the quality.", "The governor's prediction was wrong in hindsight, but the oil and natural gas industry did provide an economic boost for the city and state.", "The effects of the Great Depression were mitigated by the industry's success.", "At its height in 1934, there were 113 producing wells in the state.", "The overwhelming majority were closed by 1955.Due to provisions in the federal Rivers and Harbors Act, on October 25, 1930, city leaders met with U.S. Army engineers to ask for federal help to alleviate Jackson flooding.", "J.J. Halbert, city engineer, proposed a straightening and dredging of the Pearl River below Jackson.====Jackson's Gold Coast====During Mississippi's extended Prohibition period, from the 1920s until the 1960s, illegal drinking and gambling casinos flourished on the east side of the Pearl River, in Flowood along with the original U.S. Route 80 just across from the city of Jackson.", "Those illegal casinos, bootleg liquor stores, and nightclubs made up the Gold Coast, a strip of mostly black-market businesses that operated for decades along Flowood Road.", "Although outside the law, the Gold Coast was a thriving center of nightlife and music, with many local blues musicians appearing regularly in the clubs.The Gold Coast declined and businesses disappeared after Mississippi's prohibition laws were repealed in 1966, allowing Hinds County, including Jackson, to go \"wet\".", "In addition, integration drew off business from establishments that earlier had catered to African Americans, such as the Summers Hotel.", "When it opened in 1943 on Pearl Street, it was one of two hotels in the city that served black clients.", "For years its Subway Lounge was a prime performance spot for black musicians playing jazz and blues.In another major change, in 1990 the state-approved gaming on riverboats.", "Numerous casinos have been developed on riverboats, mostly in Mississippi Delta towns such as Tunica Resorts, Greenville, and Vicksburg, as well as Biloxi on the Gulf Coast.", "Before the damage and losses due to Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the state ranked second nationally in gambling revenues.====World War II and later development====During World War II, Hawkins Field (at that time, also known as the Jackson Army Airbase) the American 21st, 309th, and 310th Bomber Groups that were stationed at the base were re-deployed for combat.", "Following the German invasion of the Netherlands and the Japanese invasion of the Dutch East Indies, between 688 and 800 members of the Dutch Airforce escaped to the UK or Australia for training and, out of necessity, were eventually given permission by the United States to make use of Hawkins Field.From May 1942 until the end of the war, all Dutch military aircrews trained at the base and went on to serve in either the British or Australian Air Forces.In 1949, the poet Margaret Walker began teaching at Jackson State University, a historically black college.", "She taught there until 1979 and founded the university's Center for African-American Studies.", "Her poetry collection won a Yale Younger Poets Prize.", "Her second novel, ''Jubilee'' (1966), is considered a major work of African-American literature.", "She has influenced many younger writers.===Civil rights movement in Jackson===The civil rights movement had been active for decades, particularly mounting legal challenges to Mississippi's constitution and laws that disfranchised black people.", "Beginning in 1960, Jackson as the state capital became the site for dramatic non-violent protests in a new phase of activism that brought in a wide variety of participants in the performance of mass demonstrations.In 1960, the U.S. Census Bureau reported Jackson's population as 64.3% white and 35.7% black.", "At the time, public facilities were segregated and Jim Crow was in effect.", "Efforts to desegregate Jackson facilities began when nine Tougaloo College students tried to read books in the \"white only\" public library and were arrested.", "Founded as a historically black college (HBCU) by the American Missionary Association after the Civil War, Tougaloo College helped organize both black and white students of the region to work together for civil rights.", "It created partnerships with the neighboring mostly white Millsaps College to work with student activists.", "It has been recognized as a site on the \"Civil Rights Trail\" by the National Park Service.Old Greyhound Bus StationThe mass demonstrations of the 1960s were initiated with the arrival of more than 300 Freedom Riders on May 24, 1961.They were arrested in Jackson for disturbing the peace after they disembarked from their interstate buses.", "The interracial teams rode the buses from Washington, D.C., and sat together to demonstrate against segregation on public transportation, as the Constitution provides for unrestricted public transportation.", "Although the Freedom Riders had intended New Orleans as their final destination, Jackson was the farthest that any managed to travel.", "New participants kept joining the movement, as they intended to fill the jails in Jackson with their protest.", "The riders had encountered extreme violence along the way, including a bus burning and physical assaults.", "They attracted national media attention to the struggle for constitutional rights.After the Freedom Rides, students and activists of the Freedom Movement launched a series of merchant boycotts, sit-ins and protest marches, from 1961 to 1963.Businesses discriminated against black customers.", "For instance, at the time, department stores did not hire black salesclerks or allow black customers to use their fitting rooms to try on clothes, or lunch counters for meals while in the store, but they wanted them to shop in their stores.In Jackson, shortly after midnight on June 12, 1963, Medgar Evers, civil rights activist and leader of the Mississippi chapter of the NAACP, was assassinated by Byron De La Beckwith, a white supremacist associated with the White Citizens' Council.", "Thousands marched in Evers' funeral procession to protest the killing.", "Two trials at the time both resulted in hung juries.", "A portion of U.S. Highway 49, all of Delta Drive, a library, the central post office for the city, and Jackson–Evers International Airport were named in honor of Medgar Evers.", "In 1994, prosecutors Ed Peters and Bobby DeLaughter finally obtained a murder conviction in a state trial of De La Beckwith based on new evidence.During 1963 and 1964, civil rights organizers gathered residents for voter education and voter registration.", "Black people had been essentially disfranchised since 1890.In a pilot project in 1963, activists rapidly registered 80,000 voters across the state, demonstrating the desire of African Americans to vote.", "In 1964 they created the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party as an alternative to the all-white state Democratic Party, and sent an alternate slate of candidates to the national Democratic Party convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey, that year.Segregation and the disfranchisement of African Americans gradually ended after the Civil Rights Movement gained Congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965.In June 1966, Jackson was the terminus of the James Meredith March, organized by James Meredith, the first African American to enroll at the University of Mississippi.", "The march, which began in Memphis, Tennessee, was an attempt to garner support for full implementation of civil rights in practice, following the legislation.", "It was accompanied by a new drive to register African Americans to vote in Mississippi.", "In this latter goal, it succeeded in registering between 2,500 and 3,000 black Mississippians to vote.", "The march ended on June 26 after Meredith, who had been wounded by a sniper's bullet earlier on the march, addressed a large rally of some 15,000 people in Jackson.In September 1967 a Ku Klux Klan chapter bombed the synagogue of the Beth Israel Congregation in Jackson, and in November bombed the house of its rabbi, Dr. Perry Nussbaum.", "He and his congregation had supported civil rights.Gradually the old barriers came down.", "Since that period, both whites and African Americans in the state have had a consistently high rate of voter registration and turnout.", "Following the decades of the Great Migration, when more than one million black people left the rural South, since the 1930s the state has been majority white in total population.", "African Americans are a majority in the city of Jackson, although the metropolitan area is majority white.", "African Americans are also a majority in several cities and counties of the Mississippi Delta, which are included in the 2nd congressional district.", "The other three congressional districts are majority white.===Mid-1960s to present===The first successful cadaveric lung transplant was performed at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson in June 1963 by Dr. James Hardy.", "Hardy transplanted the cadaveric lung into a patient suffering from lung cancer.", "The patient survived for eighteen days before dying of kidney failure.In 1966 it was estimated that recurring flood damage at Jackson from the Pearl River averaged nearly a million dollars per year.", "The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers spent $6.8 million on levees and a new channel in 1966 before the project completion to prevent a flood equal to the December 1961 event plus an additional foot.Since 1968, Jackson has been the home of Malaco Records, one of the leading record companies for gospel, blues, and soul music in the United States.", "In January 1973, Paul Simon recorded the songs \"Learn How to Fall\" and \"Take Me to the Mardi Gras\", found on the album ''There Goes Rhymin' Simon'', in Jackson at the Malaco Recording Studios.", "Many well-known Southern artists recorded on the album, including the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section (David Hood, Jimmy Johnson, Roger Hawkins, Barry Beckett), Carson Whitsett, the Onward Brass Band from New Orleans, and others.", "The label has recorded many leading soul and blues artists, including Bobby Bland, ZZ Hill, Latimore, Shirley Brown, Denise LaSalle, and Tyrone Davis.On May 15, 1970, Jackson police killed two students and wounded twelve at Jackson State College after a protest of the Vietnam War included students' overturning and burning some cars.", "These killings occurred eleven days after the National Guard killed four students in an anti-war protest at Kent State University in Ohio, and were part of national social unrest.", "''Newsweek'' cited the Jackson State killings in its issue of May 18 when it suggested that U.S. President Richard Nixon faced a new home front.The influx of illegal drugs occurred nationally as smugglers used the highways, seaports, and airports of the Gulf region.", "The 1980s in Jackson were dominated by Mayor Dale Danks Jr. until he was unseated by lawyer and legislator J. Kane Ditto, who criticized the deficit funding and the politicized police department of the city.", "Federal investigations of drug trafficking at Jackson's Hawkins Field airport were a part of the ''Kerry Report,'' the 1986 U.S. Senate investigation of public corruption and foreign relations.As Jackson has become the medical and legal center of the state, it has attracted Jewish professionals in both fields.", "Since the late 20th century, it has developed the largest Jewish community in the state.In 1997, Harvey Johnson, Jr. was elected as Jackson's first African-American mayor.", "During his term, he proposed the development of a convention center to attract more business to the city.", "In 2004, during his second term, 66 percent of the voters passed a referendum for a tax to build the Convention Center.Mayor Johnson was replaced by Frank Melton on July 4, 2005.Melton generated controversy through his unconventional behavior, which included acting as a law enforcement officer.", "A dramatic spike in crime ensued during his term, despite Melton's efforts to reduce crime.", "The lack of jobs contributed to crime.", "In 2006 a young African-American businessman, Starsky Darnell Redd, was convicted of money laundering in federal court along with his mother, other associates, and Billy Tucker, the former airport security chief.In 2007, Hinds County sheriff Malcolm McMillin was appointed as the new police chief in Jackson, setting a historic precedent.", "McMillin was both the county sheriff and city police chief until 2009, when he stepped down due to disagreements with the mayor.", "Mayor Frank Melton died in May 2009, and City Councilman Leslie McLemore served as acting mayor of Jackson until July 2009, when former Mayor Harvey Johnson was elected and assumed the position.On June 26, 2011, 49-year-old James Craig Anderson was killed in Jackson after being beaten, robbed, and run over by a group of white teenagers.", "The district attorney described it as a \"hate crime\", and the FBI investigated it as a civil rights violation.On March 18, 2013, a severe hailstorm hit the Jackson metro area.", "The hail caused major damage to roofs, vehicles, and building siding.", "Hail ranged in size from golfball to softball.", "There were more than 40,000 hailstorm claims of homeowner and automobile damage.In 2013, Jackson was named as one of the top 10 friendliest cities in the United States by ''CN Traveler''.", "The capital city was tied with Natchez as Number 7.The city was noticed for friendly people, great food, and green and pretty public places.On July 1, 2013, Chokwe Lumumba was sworn into office as mayor of the city.", "After eight months in office, Lumumba died on February 25, 2014.Lumumba was a popular yet controversial figure due to his prior membership in the Republic of New Afrika, as well as being a co-founder of the National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America.Lumumba's son, Chokwe Antar Lumumba, ran for the mayoral seat following his father's death, but lost to Councillor Tony Yarber on April 22, 2014.In 2017, however, Chokwe Antar Lumumba ran for mayor again, and won.", "Following his victory, on June 26 he was interviewed by Amy Goodman on ''Democracy Now!", "'', at which time he declared a commitment to make Jackson the \"Most Radical City on the Planet\".For several years, the city water supply failed to meet federal drinking water standards and was subject to many boil water orders in 2021 and 2022.Due to deteriorating water infrastructure, some parts of the city experienced low water pressure, and in some neighborhoods residents reported untreated sewage flowing in city streets.", "In August 2022, Jackson lost access to water when its largest water treatment plant failed, leaving tap water untreated." ], [ "Geography", "Photograph of Jackson Mississippi taken from the International Space StationJackson is located primarily in northeastern Hinds County, with small portions in Madison and Rankin counties.", "The city of Jackson also includes around 3,000 acres (12.1 km2) comprising Jackson-Medgar Evers International Airport in Rankin County and a small portion of Madison County.", "The Pearl River forms most of the eastern border of the city.", "A small portion of the city containing Tougaloo College is the portion of Jackson that lies in Madison County, bounded on the west by Interstate 220 and on the east by the U.S. Route 51 and Interstate 55.In the 2010 census, only 622 of the city's residents lived in Madison County, and only 1 lived within the city limits in Rankin County.", "The city is bordered to the north by Ridgeland in Madison County, to the northeast by Ross Barnett Reservoir on the Pearl River, to the east by Flowood and Richland in Rankin County, to the south by Byram in Hinds County, and to the west by Clinton in Hinds County.According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which are land and , or 1.94% of the total, are water.=== Cityscape ===Downtown Jackson from Mississippi Baptist Hospital in June 2020Downtown Jackson is situated directly on the banks of the Pearl River.", "The downtown district has direct connections to both Interstate 55 via Pearl Street and Pasagoula Street and Interstate 20 via State Street (US 51).", "Much of the downtown was constructed before the 1980s and only small additions to the skyline have been made since then.=== Major highways ===*22px Interstate 55*22px Interstate 20*22px Interstate 220*22px US 51*22px US 49*22px US 80===Geology===For the most part, Jackson is built on acidic, variably drained silt loam soil.", "Loess forms the topsoil in western sections, where the Loring soil series is common.", "The Tippo series, also a silt loam, is found in the central flood plain.", "Farther east, common soil series include Guyton silt loam, Providence silt loam and Smithdale fine sandy loam.Jackson structure mapJackson sits atop the extinct Jackson Volcano, located underground.", "It is the only capital city in the United States to have this feature.", "The buried peak of the volcano is located directly below the Mississippi Coliseum.", "The municipality is drained on the west by tributaries of the Big Black River and on the east by the Pearl River, which is higher than the Big Black near Canton.", "The artesian groundwater flow is not as extensive in Jackson for this reason.", "The first large-scale well was drilled in the city in 1896, and the city water supply has relied on surface water resources.===Climate===Jackson is located in the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen ''Cfa'').", "Rain occurs throughout the year, though the winter and spring are the wettest seasons, while September and October are usually the driest months.", "Snow is rare, and accumulation very seldom lasts more than a day.", "Average annual precipitation is , see climate table.", "Much of Jackson's rainfall occurs during thunderstorms.", "Thunder is heard on roughly 70 days each year.", "Jackson lies in a region prone to severe thunderstorms which can produce large hail, damaging winds, and tornadoes.", "Among the most notable tornado events was the F5 Candlestick Park tornado on March 3, 1966, which destroyed the shopping center of the same name and surrounding businesses and residential areas, killing 19 in South Jackson.The record low temperature is , set on January 27, 1940, and the record high is , recorded on September 6–7, 1925, July 29, 1930, and August 30, 2000." ], [ "Demographics", "Jackson remained a small town for much of the 19th century.", "Before the American Civil War, Jackson's population remained small, particularly in contrast to the river towns along the commerce-laden Mississippi River.", "Despite the city's status as the state capital, the 1850 census counted only 1,881 residents, excluding slaves, which were not returned separately.By 1900 the population of Jackson was still less than 8,000.Although it expanded rapidly, during this period Meridian became Mississippi's largest city, based on trade, manufacturing, and access to transportation via railroad and highway.In the early 20th century, Jackson had its largest rates of growth but ranked second to Meridian in Mississippi.", "By 1944, Jackson's population had risen to some 70,000 inhabitants, and it became the largest city in the state.", "For several decades, Jackson had the most thriving business districts and the largest public school system in Mississippi.", "It achieved its peak population in the 1980 census of more than 200,000 residents in the city.", "Since 1980, Jackson has declined in population due to several factors while the surrounding suburban population has increased.===Race and ethnicity===+'''Jackson city, Mississippi – Racial and ethnic composition''' (''NH = Non-Hispanic'')Race / EthnicityPop 2000Pop 2010% 2000% 2010White alone (NH)50,67931,19425,42427.50%17.98%16.54%Black or African American alone (NH)129,609137,265120,72770.34%79.11%78.55%Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)2132322370.12%0.13%0.15%Asian alone (NH)1,0456607510.57%0.38%0.49%Pacific Islander alone (NH)1818300.01%0.01%0.02%Some Other Race alone (NH)128993620.07%0.06%0.24%Mixed Race/Multi-Racial (NH)1,1131,3232,9510.60%0.76%1.92%Hispanic or Latino (any race)1,4512,7233,2190.79%1.57%2.09%'''Total''''''184,256''''''173,514''''''153,701''''''100.00%''''''100.00%''''''100.00%'''Map of racial distribution in Jackson, 2010 U.S. census.", "Each dot is 25 people: According to the 2010 census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the city was predominantly Black and African American, and non-Hispanic white; in 2020, they remained the largest racial and ethnic composition for the city.", "This Hispanic or Latino population is the fastest growing racial and ethnic group in the city.=== Income ===According to census statistics in 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $30,414, and the median income for a family was $36,003.Males had a median income of $29,166 versus $23,328 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $17,116.About 19.6% of families and 23.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.7% of those under age 18 and 15.7% of those age 65 or over.", "At the publication of the 2020 American Community Survey, the city's median household income increased to $35,070; families had a median income of $44,348, married-couple families $74,893, and non-families $22,061." ], [ "Crime", "High criminal activity, particularly the homicide rate, is a major reoccurring issue in the city.", "In 1993, Jackson had the nation's 12th highest homicide rate among cities with more than 100,000 residents, according to the FBI.", "The 87 slayings in the city in 1993 gave Jackson a homicide rate of 41.9 per 100,000 residents, the FBI reported, and set a new record for the most violent deaths in one year.", "1994 had higher homicides, with 91, and the record was broken again in 1995 with a total of 92.In 2020, the city's homicide rate reached its highest in history with 79.69 homicides per 100,000 residents, with a total of 128 homicides.", "Of major U.S. cities, only St. Louis surpassed Jackson's homicide rate.", "The homicide rate in 2020 represented a significant spike after years of declining homicide rates in the early 2000s.", "Property crime remains much lower than in the 1990s and overall violent crime has not increased as significantly as homicide in recent years and is below the peak in 1994 as of 2020.In 2021, a record number of homicides (155) were recorded, and at a rate of 101 per 100,000 was the highest in the United States.", "In late 2020, Police Chief James Davis along with the Mayor and other city leaders unveiled the virtual policing concept.", "After months of struggling to move the concept forward, Chief Davis began discussions with Eric B.", "Fox, a veteran Jackson Police Officer to return to the department.", "Fox returned officially in January 2022, and launched a new concept, the Real Time Command Center.Also in 2021, the Jackson Police Department stated that the city had a serious street gang problem which is a major contributor to violent crimes.", "The city has had a gang presence since the 1980s but it has seemingly grown over the years.", "Several gangs have settled in the city and are heavily involved in drug-selling territory wars and many other crimes.In 2022, for the second year in a row Jackson had the highest homicide rate per capita in the United States.In 2023, Mayor Lumumba announced the opening of the Jackson Crime Center which is a facility that houses monitoring cameras strategically placed around the city to better identify criminals so they can be held accountable for their actions.", "The Jackson Police Department is short-staffed so the center will help the department as they work to increase recruitment and retention.", "Also in 2023, Jackson murders dropped by 15% but the city still had the nation's highest homicide rate per capita.In February 2024, Governor Reeves announced a new and tougher plan to lower rampant crime in the city and protect innocent residents." ], [ "Economy", "Jackson is home to several major industries; these include electrical equipment and machinery, processed food, and primary and fabricated metal products.", "The surrounding area supports the agricultural development of livestock, soybeans, cotton, and poultry.According to the city's government, Jackson's top three employers are the University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson Public Schools, and Nissan North America as of 2020.Other notable corporations with a large presence in the city and area include C Spire and Amazon in nearby Madison County.The city is home to Cooperation Jackson, which is an economic development vehicle for worker-owned cooperative business.", "The organization has led to the creation of several businesses including lawn care provider The Green Team, organic farm Freedom Farms, print shop The Center for Community Production, and The Balagoon Center, which is a cooperative business incubator." ], [ "Arts and culture", "Thalia Mara Hall in Jackson, MississippiJackson is home to a number of cultural and artistic attractions, including the following:* Ballet Mississippi* Celtic Heritage Society of Mississippi* Crossroads Film Society and its annual Film Festival* International Museum of Muslim Cultures* Jackson State University Botanical Garden* Jackson Zoo* Light and Glass Studio* Margaret Walker Center *Mississippi Agriculture and Forestry Museum* Mississippi Arts Center* Mississippi Chorus* Mississippi Civil Rights Museum* Mississippi Department of Archives and History, which contains the state archives and records* Mississippi Heritage Trust* Mississippi Hispanic Association* Mississippi Metropolitan Ballet* Mississippi Museum of Art* Mississippi Opera* Mississippi Symphony Orchestra (MSO), formerly the Jackson Symphony Orchestra, founded in 1944* Municipal Art Gallery* Museum of Mississippi History* Mynelle Gardens* New Stage Theatre* Russell C. Davis Planetarium* Smith-Robertson Museum and Cultural Center* USA International Ballet Competition=== Notable restaurants ===* Bully's Restaurant" ], [ "Sports", "Veterans Memorial Stadium is the largest stadium facility in Jackson.", "Its parking lot often is used by employees of the University of Mississippi Medical Center nearbyThe city of Jackson and its metropolitan area are home to collegiate and semi-professional sports teams; Major League Baseball's Atlanta Braves minor affiliate, the Mississippi Braves, plays in the area.", "Mississippi Brilla of USL League Two also operates in the area." ], [ "Government and infrastructure", "1874 engraving in ''Scribner's Monthly'' of the Old Capitol, the seat of Mississippi's legislature from 1839 to 1903.===Municipal government===In 1985, Jackson voters opted to replace the three-person mayor-commissioner system with a city council and mayor.", "This electoral system enables a wider representation of residents on the city council.", "City council members are elected from each of the city's seven wards, considered single-member districts.", "The mayor is elected at-large citywide.Jackson's mayor is Chokwe Antar Lumumba (D), who was elected on July 3, 2017.Jackson's City Council members are:*Ward 1: Ashby Foote*Ward 2: Angelique C. Lee*Ward 3: Kenneth Stokes*Ward 4: Brian C. Grizzell*Ward 5: Vernon W. Hartly*Ward 6: Aaron Banks*Ward 7: Virgi Lindsay===State government===The Mississippi Department of Corrections (MDOC) operates the Jackson Probation & Parole Office in Jackson.", "The MDOC Central Mississippi Correctional Facility, in unincorporated Rankin County, is located in proximity to Jackson.===Federal representation===The larger portion of Jackson is part of Mississippi's 2nd congressional district.", "U.S. Representative Bennie Gordon Thompson, a Democrat, has served since 1993.Until 2011 he was Chairman of the Committee on Homeland Security and has been the ranking member since 2011.1The United States Postal Service operates the Jackson Main Post Office and several smaller post offices." ], [ "Education", "===Higher education===The Sonic Boom\"Millsaps College is one of several institutions in and around Jackson established before 1900.Jackson is home to the most collegiate institutions in Mississippi.", "Jackson State University is the largest collegiate institution in the city, fourth largest in the state, and the only doctoral-granting research institution based in its region.====Colleges and universities====*Jackson State University*Tougaloo College*Millsaps College*Belhaven University*University of Mississippi Medical Center*Mississippi College School of Law*Hinds Community College===Primary and secondary schools=======Public schools====Jackson Public School District (JPS) operates 60 public schools.", "It is one of the largest school districts in the state with about 30,000 students in thirty-eight elementary schools, thirteen middle schools, seven high schools, and two special schools.", "Jackson Public Schools is the only urban school district in the state.", "the public schools have few children who are middle or upper class, as 99% of the students in JPS qualify for free or reduced school lunches.", "In 2017 Susan Womack, president of the Parents for Public Schools Jackson (PPSJ) from 2000 to 2012, stated that middle to upper-class families in Jackson tended to leave public school after elementary school, with parents who remained in Jackson enrolling their children in private school, and those who wished to continue enrolling their children in public schools moving to Madison County.", "The PPSJ decided circa the mid-2000s that it was not feasible to encourage middle and upper-class parents to put their children in JPS schools.The district's high schools include:* Callaway High School* Capital City Alternative School* Career Development Center* Forest Hill High School* Jim Hill High School* Lanier High School* Murrah High School* Provine High School* Wingfield High SchoolWhile most of Jackson is in Jackson PSD, there are parts in Hinds County that are instead in Hinds County School District.", "This part is zoned to Terry High School in Terry.", "The portion of Jackson in Madison County is within the Madison County School District.There are state-operated K-12 public schools for special purposes;* Mississippi School for the Blind* Mississippi School for the Deaf====Private schools====Private secondary schools include:* Christ Missionary & Industrial (CM&I) College High School* Hillcrest Christian School* Jackson Academy* Woodland Hills Academy (closed)Some schools are in nearby municipalities:* St. Andrew's Episcopal Middle and Upper School – North Campus (Ridgeland)* Jackson Preparatory School (Flowood)* The Veritas School (Ridgeland), closed* St. Joseph Catholic School (Madison), of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Jackson* Hartfield Academy (Flowood)* Madison-Ridgeland Academy (Madison)* Canton Academy (Canton)* Tri-County Academy (Flora)* Central Hinds Academy (Raymond)* Rebul Academy (Learned)* East Rankin Academy (Pelahatchie)Private primary schools include:* Jackson Academy* First Presbyterian Day School* Magnolia Speech School* St. Andrew's Episcopal Lower School – South Campus* St. Richard Catholic School* St. Therese Catholic School===Public libraries===Jackson/Hinds Library System is the library system of Jackson." ], [ "Infrastructure", "On March 27, 2015, Jackson Mayor Tony Yarber issued a state of emergency for transportation (potholes) and water infrastructure (breaks in water mains).", "The quality of Jackson's water infrastructure system decreased after the severe winter weather of 2014–2015.Jackson's office estimated the cost to fix the roads and water pipes at $750 million to $1 billion.After issuing the state of emergency, the City of Jackson filed a letter of intent to Department of Health to borrow $2.5 million to repair broken water pipes.", "The Jackson City Council must approve the mayor's proposal.", "Additionally, Mayor Yarber asked for help from both FEMA and the state Governor's office.Calling for a state of emergency increases the likelihood that the U.S. Department of Transportation would give the city money from a \"quick release\" funding account.In late August 2022, the Pearl River overflowed, flooding much of the city and contaminating the water supply.", "Mayor Lumumba declared a state of emergency and shut down all businesses and schools.=== Transportation ===In 2015, 11 percent of the city of Jackson households lacked a car, which decreased to 7.6 percent in 2016.The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016.Jackson averaged 1.68 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.Jackson has an increasing number of bicycle lanes.Jackson–Medgar Wiley Evers International Airport, the busiest commercial airport in Mississippi, is located east of city in Rankin County between Flowood and Pearl.Jackson's Union Station serves Amtrak's daily overnight train, the ''City of New Orleans'' from Chicago to New Orleans.", "The intermodal station also serves Greyhound Lines intercity buses and is the primary station for Jackson's municipal buses.The city is at the intersection of major Interstate and Federal Highways: north-south I-55, US 49, US 51, east–west I-20 and US 80." ], [ "In popular culture", "In 2011, the United States Navy named the USS ''Jackson'' (LCS-6) in honor of the city.In 2002, the Subway Lounge (of the Summers Hotel on the Gold Coast) was featured as the subject of the film documentary entitled ''Last of the Mississippi Jukes.", "''The popular film ''The Help'' (2011), based on the bestselling novel by the same name by Kathryn Stockett, was filmed in Jackson.", "The city has a two-part, self-guided tour of areas featured in the film and the book.In the song \"Uptown Funk\" by Mark Ronson and featuring Bruno Mars Jackson is mentioned in the lines \"Julio!", "Get the Stretch!", "Ride to Harlem; Hollywood, Jackson, Mississippi.", "\"''Get on Up'', a movie released in August 2014, had some scenes filmed in Jackson, and nearby Natchez.", "The movie is based on the life of James Brown.The movie ''Speech & Debate'', an adaptation of the stage play of the same name of Broadway theatre, was filmed entirely in Jackson.The Charlie Daniels song \"Uneasy Rider\" is set in Jackson." ], [ "Notable people", ":''See: List of people from Mississippi''" ], [ "Further reading", "*'' Jackson Rising: The Struggle for Economic Democracy and Black Self-Determination in Jackson, Mississippi'', edited by Kali Akuno and Ajamu Nangwaya.", "(2017) Daraja Press.", "." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "External links", "** Jackson Convention & Visitors Bureau* Metro Jackson Chamber of Commerce" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jackson County, Michigan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jackson County''' is a county located in the U.S. state of Michigan.", "Its population was 160,366 as of the 2020 Census.", "The county seat is Jackson.", "The county was set off in 1829 and organized in 1832.It is named for U.S. President Andrew Jackson and considered to be one of Michigan's \"Cabinet counties\", named for members of Jackson's Cabinet.Jackson County comprises the Jackson, MI Metropolitan Statistical Area.The Jackson County Courthouse was designed by Claire Allen, a prominent southern Michigan architect.", "Jackson County is also home to the Michigan Whitetail Hall of Fame." ], [ "Geography", "According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (3.0%) is water.===Rivers=======Grand River====The Grand River is Michigan's longest river.", "It starts in Somerset Township in Hillsdale County and Liberty Township in Jackson County.", "It then flows through a small part of Columbia Township, into Summit township, and then right through the Jackson city limits.", "It then flows through Blackman Charter Township and then Rives Township and Tompkins Township before entering Ingham County, Eaton County, Clinton County, Ionia County, Kent County, Ottawa County and into the city of Grand Haven where it empties into Lake Michigan.", "The river is long; its watershed drains an area of including 18 counties and 158 townships.====Kalamazoo River====The Kalamazoo River is made up of the north and south branches.The north branch starts in Jackson County in Hanover Township.", "It starts in Pine Hills Lake and Farewell Lake and flows through a small part of Liberty Township and then back into Hanover Township.", "It then flows into Spring Arbor Township and Concord Township.", "It then flows out of Jackson County and into Calhoun County before it goes through the town of Albion where the north branch connects with the south branch and they form to be one river.The south branch starts in the wetlands near the town North Adams in Hillsdale County and flows through the rest of Hillsdale County.", "It enters Jackson County and goes through a small part of Hanover Township before reentering Hillsdale County and then reentering Jackson County where it goes through Pulaski Township.", "It then enters Calhoun County and connects with the northern branch when it reaches the town of Albion.When the south branch and north branch connect to form just the Kalamazoo River, it then flows through the rest of Calhoun County.", "It then enters Kalamazoo County and then Allegan County.", "When it reaches the towns of Saugatuck and Douglas it stops and enters Lake Michigan.", "In total the Kalamazoo River is long, and its watershed drains a total of and drains into 8 counties.===Adjacent counties===*Livingston County (northeast)*Ingham County (north)*Eaton County (northwest)*Washtenaw County (east)*Calhoun County (west)*Lenawee County (southeast)*Hillsdale County (southwest)" ], [ "Transportation", "===Transit===*Amtrak ''Wolverine'' at Jackson station*Greyhound Lines*Indian Trails*Jackson Area Transportation Authority===Highways===***********" ], [ "Government", "The county government operates the county jail, maintains township roads, operates the major local courts, keeps files of deeds and mortgages, maintains vital records, administers public health regulations, and participates with the state in the provision of welfare and other social services.", "The county board of commissioners controls the budget but has only limited authority to make laws or ordinances.", "In Michigan, most local government functions – police and fire, building and zoning, tax assessment, street maintenance, etc.", "– are the responsibility of individual cities and townships.===Elected officials===* Michigan State House of Representatives, State Representative District 64: Julie Alexander (R)* Michigan State House of Representatives, State Representative District 65: Mike Shirkey (R)* Michigan State Senate, State Senate District 17: Randy Richardville ''President pro tempore'' (R)* Michigan State Senate, State Senate District 19: Mike Nofs (R)* Prosecuting Attorney: Jerry Jarzynka* Sheriff: Gary R. Schuette * County Clerk/Register of Deeds: Amanda L. Riska* County Treasurer: Karen Coffman* Drain Commissioner: Geoffrey W. Snyder* County Surveyor: Dean R. Gutekunst* County Commissioners: Tony Bair District 1, Rodney Walz District 2, Corey Kennedy District 3, Philip Duckham District 4, Chairman James Shotwell Jr. District 5, Earl Poleski District 6, Daniel J. Mahoney District 7, Darius Williams District 8, and Ray Snell District 9.", "(information as of February 21, 2013)" ], [ "Politics", "With the exceptions of 1964 and 2008, Jackson County has voted for the Republican nominee in every presidential election since 1940, and is thus considered a reliable Republican stronghold." ], [ "Demographics", "As of the census of 2000, there were 158,422 people, 58,168 households, and 40,833 families residing in the county.", "The population density was .", "There were 62,906 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the county was 88.54% White, 7.92% Black or African American, 0.40% Native American, 0.53% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.83% from other races, and 1.74% from two or more races.", "2.20% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.", "24.3% were of English, 21.7% of German, 11.5% American, 9.9% Irish and 8.1% Polish ancestry according to the 2012 American Community Survey.", "95.9% spoke English and 2.1% Spanish as their first language.There were 58,168 households, out of which 33.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.80% were married couples living together, 12.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.80% were non-families.", "24.60% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.03.In the county, the population was spread out, with 25.60% under the age of 18, 8.10% from 18 to 24, 30.40% from 25 to 44, 23.00% from 45 to 64, and 12.90% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 37 years.", "For every 100 females there were 104.20 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.70 males.The median income for a household in the county was $43,171, and the median income for a family was $50,970.Males had a median income of $38,919 versus $26,448 for females.", "The per capita income for the county was $20,171.About 6.50% of families and 9.00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.40% of those under age 18 and 6.10% of those age 65 or over." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "*Blackman Park: a small city park on Michigan Avenue in the middle of the city of Jackson, contains a fountain in the middle of the park honoring soldiers from the Civil War, a few benches and some foliage.", "*Bloomfield Park: a small park in the Jackson city limits on Michigan Avenue.", "There are picnic tables, basketball courts, tennis courts, baseball/softball fields and a small playground.", "*Falling Waters Trail: 10.5-mile asphalt rail-trail follows the old rail bed of the former Michigan Central Railroad from Weatherwax Road in Jackson to the village of Concord.", "The trail has been dedicated as a Jackson County Park.", "The trail is mostly rural, with only a few road crossings.", "It also crosses the Lime Lake County Park (5501 Teft Road) where you can drop a line for fish.", "The trail continues as the Intercity Trail for another 3.4 miles from Weatherwax Road to Morrell Street.", "*YMCA Storer Camp: a campground in Napoleon Township in the eastern part of the county.", "It is located on Stony Lake in a wooded area with wetlands.", "*Camp Teetonkah: a campground for Boy Scout troops.", "It was created in 1912 and is the second oldest Boy Scout camp in America.", "Usually every spring, all the local Boy Scout troops in the area come and compete against each other for the weekend.", "The campground is on the shores of Big Wolf Lake and consists of of forest and wetlands.", "It has a dining hall and bathrooms with showers.", "It is located in Leoni Township in the eastern part of the county.", "*Sparks Park and The Cascades (AKA Cascade Falls Park): one of the larger parks in the country.", "The park contains the Cascades Championship Golf Course, one with 18 holes and a short course with 9-hole, as well as two large play structures, basketball court, baseball and softball fields and a popular paved walking path.", "It is famous for its Cascade Manor House and Cascade Falls (Jackson, Michigan), which is one of the largest man-made waterfalls in the world, with 6 immense fountains, 3 reflecting pools and 16 falls.", "The park is also home to the Cascades Ice Cream Co. which opens when there is usually still snow on the ground and stays open until October.", "Every late August, the annual Cascades Civil War Muster is held there.", "There are some man-made ponds and wetlands with many types of water fowl.", "In 2012, the urban fishery opened, stocked with blue gill and large mouth bass.", "This pond features informative signs, a large picnic gazebo and a fishing pier, accessible by wheelchair.", "Part of it is in the city limits of Jackson, but most is in Summit Township.", "* Dahlem Environmental Education Center: is a nature center located in Summit Township in the southern part of the county.", "It has an educational center, five miles of trails, many ponds, wetlands, and a forest area.", "A resurfaced 3/8 mile trail has been specially redesigned for visitors with limited mobility.", "Dahlem is also known to have one of the largest eastern bluebird trails.", "* Ella Sharp Park: the largest city park located on 562 acres along the banks of the southwest branch of the Grand River in the city of Jackson.", "It consists of a golf course, a miniature golf course, a golf learning center, flower gardens, miles of hiking & biking trails, a basketball court, soccer fields, softball fields, the Peter Hurst Planetarium, and the Ella Sharp Museum.", "The Ella Sharp Park is the host to the annual Jackson Hot Air Jubilee in July.", "*Grand River Nature Preserve: a preserve located near Grand Lake where the Grand River starts in the lower part of Jackson County in Liberty Township.", "*Green Park: a small park on the northern part of the Jackson city limits in Blackman Township it is right by Interstate 94 (I-94).", "The Grand River goes through the outskirts of the park, the Penn Central Transportation Company railroad track also goes through the park.", "An old train engine car lies in the park as a monument.", "The park consist of some ponds and many water fowl.", "*Loomis Park: a small park in the Jackson city limits.", "It consist of picnic tables, two outdoor basketball courts, two outdoor tennis courts, baseball/softball fields and a large wooden playground.", "The park also contains the Boos Recreation Center which hosts a variety of classes, events and workshops year-round.", "*MacCready Reserve: a fairly large nature preserve on the west side of the township.", "It has six and a half miles of hiking trails and .", "The property used to be owned by Thomas C. MacCready in the late 19th century, and after three generations of family, Douglas, Lynn, and Willis MacCready donated the land to Michigan State University in 2001.The area has five hiking trails, some easy and some more difficult ones.", "The area is managed by the Departments of Forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife, MSU Extension, and MSU Land Management Office.", "The area contains many forests, rolling hills, and wetlands and even a natural spring.", "The area is meant to be forest studies and hiking.", "*Martin Luther King Center: a full service community center part of the Howard Charles Woods Recreational Complex, a small park in the Jackson city limits.", "It has picnic tables, a playground, two outdoor basketball courts, a tennis court, two baseball/softball fields and a recreation area with some trees and foliage.", "*Meridian Baseline State Park: a historical park in Henrietta Township in the northern part of the county.", "The park is currently landlocked by private property and is inaccessible to the public.", "*Portage Lake County Park: a small 6-acre park on Portage lake in the Waterloo State Recreation Area.", "It is located in Waterloo Township in the eastern part of the county.", "It consists of picnic areas, grills, playground, a historic pump house, swimming area, boat launch and beaches on Portage Lake.", "*Snyder Park: a small park in the small unincorporated village of Horton in Hanover Township in the southwestern part of the county.", "The park has a gazebo, picnic tables, and a small man-made waterfall that connects to a pond called Mill Pond which is part of the Northern Branch of the Kalamazoo River.", "The area is also wetland, forest, and the village of Horton.", "*Sharonville State Game Area: a wilderness wildlife area consisting of forest and swamps.", "It is located in Norvell Township in the eastern part of the county and in part of Washtenaw County.", "*Twin Pines Campground: a large campground in Pulaski Township in the southwestern part of the county.", "The campground is on the South Branch Kalamazoo River.", "There is a playground and a basketball court.", "The campground allows campers and RVs, as well as traditional camping in a tent.", "They feature a dining and activity hall.", "There is the Kalamazoo River, wetlands, and forest.", "They also offer a canoe livery.", "*Vandercook Lake County Park: a small 17-acre park on Vandercook Lake in the village area of Vandercook Lake in Summit Township.", "It consists of a beach, a swim area, 3 ball diamonds, a boat launch, playground area, fishing area, grills, 2 picnic shelters and modern restrooms.", "*Waterloo State Recreation Area: the only State Park in Jackson County.", "It covers about ; it is also the largest State Park in the Lower Peninsula and the third largest in Michigan.", "The area contains 17 lakes, many ponds and streams, and numerous woods.", "They have RV or tent camping there.", "The park offers swimming on Portage Lake, canoeing, fishing, boating, picnicking, and biking.", "Waterloo State Recreation Area is located in the eastern part of Jackson County and the western part of Washtenaw County.", "*William Nixon Memorial Park: a small park in the middle of the city of Jackson.", "It has skateboard ramps, a public water park, including two large water slides, a full-size inline hockey rink as well as four softball fields, playground equipment and a picnic shelter.", "*4-H Camp McGregor: a small campground, mainly a place for children in Liberty Township.", "The area has swamps, ponds and forests.", "It is on the shoreline of Crispell Lake." ], [ "Communities", "U.S. Census data map showing local municipal boundaries within Jackson County.", "Shaded areas represent incorporated cities.===Cities===*Jackson (county seat)===Villages===*Brooklyn*Cement City (partial)*Concord*Grass Lake*Hanover*Parma*Springport===Charter townships===*Blackman Charter Township*Grass Lake Charter Township*Sandstone Charter Township===Civil townships===*Columbia Township*Concord Township*Hanover Township*Henrietta Township*Leoni Township*Liberty Township*Napoleon Township*Norvell Township*Parma Township*Pulaski Township*Rives Township*Spring Arbor Township*Springport Township*Summit Township*Tompkins Township*Waterloo Township===Census-designated places===*Michigan Center*Napoleon*Spring Arbor*Vandercook Lake*Vineyard Lake===Other unincorporated communities===*Clarklake*Horton*Leoni*Liberty*Munith*Norvell*Pleasant Lake*Pulaski*Rives Junction*Sandstone*Tompkins*Waterloo" ], [ "Education", "School districts include:* Addison Community Schools* Columbia School District* Chelsea School District* Concord Community Schools* East Jackson Community Schools* Grass Lake Community Schools* Hanover-Horton Schools* Homer Community Schools* Jackson Public Schools* Jonesville Community Schools* Leslie Public Schools* Litchfield Community Schools* Manchester Community Schools* Marshall Public Schools* Michigan Center School District* Napoleon Community Schools* North Adams-Jerome Schools* Northwest School District* Springport Public Schools* Stockbridge Community Schools* Vandercook Lake Public Schools* Western School District" ], [ "See also", "* List of Michigan State Historic Sites in Jackson County, Michigan*National Register of Historic Places listings in Jackson County, Michigan" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jackson County* Jackson County Convention and Visitors Bureau* Jackson County Chamber of Commerce* The Enterprise Group of Jackson, Inc.*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jennifer Lopez" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jennifer Lynn Affleck''' ( '''Lopez'''; born July 24, 1969), also known as '''J.Lo''', is an American singer, actress and dancer.", "With a career spanning four decades, Lopez is regarded as a pop icon and one of the most influential entertainers in the world.", "During the late 1990s and early 2000s, she was credited with helping propel the Latin pop movement in American music and paving the way for increased representation of Latino Americans in Hollywood.Lopez began her career as a dancer, making her television debut as a Fly Girl on the sketch comedy television series ''In Living Color'' in 1991.After deciding to pursue an acting career, she rose to prominence with her leading roles in the films ''Selena'' (1997), ''Anaconda'' (1997) and ''Out of Sight'' (1998), which established her as the highest-paid Latin actress.", "She ventured into the music industry with her debut studio album, ''On the 6'' (1999).", "With the release of her second studio album ''J.Lo'' and her romantic comedy ''The Wedding Planner'' in 2001, she became the first woman to simultaneously have the number one album and film in the United States.", "She has since become known for starring in romantic comedies, including ''Maid in Manhattan'' (2002), ''Shall We Dance?''", "(2004), and ''Monster-in-Law'' (2005).Lopez released two albums in 2002: ''J to tha L–O!", "The Remixes'' and ''This Is Me... Then'', the former of which became the first remix album in history to debut atop the US ''Billboard'' 200.Media scrutiny surrounding her personal life and the failure of her film ''Gigli'' (2003) preceded a downturn in her career.", "Her subsequent albums included ''Rebirth'' (2005) and ''Como Ama una Mujer'' (2007), the latter of which had the highest first-week sales for a debut Spanish album in the United States.", "In 2011, Lopez returned to prominence with her role as a judge on ''American Idol'', and released her seventh studio album, ''Love?''.", "From 2016 to 2018, she performed a concert residency, Jennifer Lopez: All I Have, and starred in the police drama series ''Shades of Blue''.", "She later served as a judge on ''World of Dance'' (2017–2020) and garnered critical praise for her role as a stripper in the crime drama ''Hustlers'' (2019).", "Lopez's ninth studio album ''This Is Me... Now'' and a companion musical film were released in 2024.With over 80 million records sold, Lopez's most successful singles include: \"If You Had My Love\", \"Waiting for Tonight\", \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\", \"I'm Real\", \"Ain't It Funny\", \"Jenny from the Block\", \"All I Have\", \"Get Right\" and \"On the Floor\".", "Her numerous accolades include a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, the ''Billboard'' Icon Award and the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award.", "In 2012, ''Forbes'' ranked her the world's most powerful celebrity, and the 38th most powerful woman in the world.", "''Time'' listed her among their 100 most influential people in the world in 2018.Her other ventures include beauty and clothing lines, fragrances, a production company and a charitable foundation." ], [ "Early life", "Jennifer Lynn López was born on July 24, 1969, in the Bronx, a borough of New York City, and raised in its Castle Hill neighborhood.", "Her parents, David López and Guadalupe Rodríguez, were born in Puerto Rico and met in New York City.", "After serving in the army, David worked as a computer technician at Guardian Insurance Company.", "Guadalupe was a homemaker for the first ten years of López's life and later worked as a Tupperware salesperson and a kindergarten and gym teacher.", "They divorced in the 1990s after 33 years of marriage.Lopez is a middle child; she has an older sister, Leslie, and a younger sister, Lynda.", "The three shared a bedroom.", "Lopez has described her upbringing as \"strict\".", "She was raised in a Roman Catholic family; she attended Mass every Sunday and received a Catholic education, attending Holy Family School and the all-girls Preston High School.", "In school, López ran track on a national level, participated in gymnastics and was on the softball team.", "She danced in school musicals and played a lead role in a production of ''Godspell''.There was \"lots of music\" in the typically Puerto Rican household, and López and her sisters were encouraged to sing, dance and create their own plays for family events.", "''West Side Story'' made a particular impression on the young López and she wanted to be an entertainer from an early age.", "As a teenager, she learned flamenco, jazz and ballet at the Kips Bay Boys & Girls Club and taught dance to younger students, including Kerry Washington.", "After graduating from high school, she had a part-time secretarial job at a law firm and studied business at New York's Baruch College for one semester.", "At age 18, she enrolled as a full-time student at Manhattan's Phil Black Dance Studio, where she had already taken night classes in jazz and tap dance.", "Her parents were unhappy with her decision to leave college to pursue a dance career.", "Her mother asked her to move out of the family home and they stopped speaking for eight months.", "López moved to Manhattan, sleeping in the dance studio's office for the first few months." ], [ "Career", "===1989–1996: Professional dancing and early acting roles===López's first professional job came in 1989 when she spent five months touring Europe with the musical revue show ''Golden Musicals of Broadway''.", "She was the only member of the chorus not to have a solo and later characterized it as a pivotal moment where she realized the importance of a \"tough skin\" in the entertainment business.", "In 1990, she danced alongside MC Hammer in an episode of ''Yo!", "MTV Raps'' and traveled around Japan for four months as a chorus member in ''Synchronicity''.", "When she returned to the United States, she was hired as a backup dancer for New Kids on the Block's performance of \"Games\" at the 1991 American Music Awards.", "She also traveled around America with regional productions of the musicals ''Jesus Christ Superstar'' and ''Oklahoma!''", "During this period, Lopez also danced in music videos including Doug E. Fresh's \"Summertime\", Richard Rogers' \"Can't Stop Loving You\", EPMD's \"Rampage\" and Samantha Fox's \"(Hurt Me!", "Hurt Me!)", "But the Pants Stay On\".López's most high-profile job as a professional dancer was as a Fly Girl jazz-funk dancer on the sketch comedy television series ''In Living Color''.", "At the New York audition, the show's choreographer, Rosie Perez, noticed that Lopez had \"star quality\" and \"did not complain, not once\" when asked to repeatedly perform the dance routine.", "López moved to Los Angeles in late 1991 for the job; she filmed ''In Living Color'' during the day and attended acting classes taught by Aaron Speiser at night.", "The head of Virgin Records considered signing The Fly Girls as a girl group to rival the Spice Girls, but the deal fell apart.", "After appearing as a Fly Girl in seasons three and four of ''In Living Color'', López left to work as a backup dancer for Janet Jackson, and appeared in the music video for \"That's the Way Love Goes\".", "She was scheduled to tour with Jackson on her Janet World Tour in late 1993 but opted to pursue an acting career instead.López's first professional acting job was a small recurring role on the television show ''South Central'' (1994).", "She was invited to audition for the pilot by a casting director who had seen her speak to camera during a behind-the-scenes ''In Living Color'' segment.", "López then acquired an agent and was cast in the CBS show ''Second Chances'' and its spin-off ''Hotel Malibu''.", "She appeared in the direct-to-video drama film ''Lost in the Wild'' (1993).", "For her first major movie role, in Gregory Nava's 1995 drama ''Mi Familia'', López received a nomination for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Actress.", "Lopez then starred in the action comedy ''Money Train'' (1995).", "Kenneth Turan of the ''Los Angeles Times'' said she \"mostly holds her own\" with co-stars Wesley Snipes and Woody Harrelson, while Stephen Holden of ''The New York Times'' praised her \"scene-stealing charm\".", "In 1996, Lopez had a supporting role opposite Robin Williams in the comedy ''Jack''.", "She next starred opposite Jack Nicholson in the neo-noir thriller ''Blood and Wine'' (1996).", "David Rooney of ''Variety'' felt López delivered in \"juggling\" the \"smoldering and soulful sides\" of the character but Lisa Schwarzbaum of ''Entertainment Weekly'' said she was \"used as a place marker rather than as a real girl.", "\"===1997–1999: Breakthrough in film and music ===With her casting as the singer Selena Quintanilla-Pérez in the biopic ''Selena'' (1997), López became the first Latina actress to earn $1 million.", "She was excited by the rare opportunity to \"actually star\" in a movie \"in the title role\" but expressed disappointment that other Latina actors were not being afforded the same opportunities.", "Despite having previously worked with the film's director Gregory Nava on ''Mi Familia'', López participated in an intense auditioning process and spent time with the late singer's family in Corpus Christi, Texas before filming began.", "Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' described it as \"a star-making performance\" and particularly enjoyed the onstage scenes: \"She has the star presence to look convincing in front of 100,000 fans.\"", "Kenneth Turan of the ''Los Angeles Times'' praised the \"incandescent\" performance.", "López received her first Golden Globe nomination for the performance.", "The director later said he asked the heads of Warner Bros. to fund an Academy Award campaign for López but was told the academy would \"never nominate a Latina.\"", "Later in 1997, López starred opposite Ice Cube in the horror film ''Anaconda''.", "While Joe Leydon of ''Variety'' found ''Anaconda'' \"silly\", he said the film deserved \"a little credit\" for being \"the first movie of its kind to have a Latina and an African-American\" as its stars.", "In the crime film ''U Turn'' (1997), López appeared topless in a sex scene that was added by director Oliver Stone during filming.", "Speaking in 2003, López said it was not something \"I would have chosen to do\" and that she and Stone fought over it: \"It's hard being the only woman on a set ...", "But it actually worked in the movie.", "\"López starred opposite George Clooney in the crime caper ''Out of Sight'' (1998), Steven Soderbergh's adaptation of the Elmore Leonard novel of the same name.", "Cast as a deputy federal marshal who falls for a charming criminal, López won rave reviews for her performance.", "Janet Maslin of ''The New York Times'' described it as her \"best movie role thus far, and she brings it both seductiveness and grit; if it was hard to imagine a hard-working, pistol-packing bombshell on the page, it couldn't be easier here.\"", "Turan of the ''Los Angeles Times'' described López as \"an actress who can be convincingly tough and devastatingly erotic\" and said the film solidified \"her position as a woman you can confidently build a film around.\"", "In 2021, Peter Bradshaw of ''The Guardian'' named Lopez and Clooney's partnership as one of the best examples of on-screen chemistry in cinema history.", "Also in 1998, Lopez provided the voice of Azteca in the animated film ''Antz''.Lopez decided to pursue a music career after working on ''Selena'', realizing that she had missed \"the excitement of the stage\" and was \"really feeling her Latin roots\".", "Her new manager Benny Medina sought to position her as \"a brand name that will cross over into all media.\"", "Lopez recorded a Spanish-language demo for circulation among prospective labels.", "Tommy Mottola, the head of Sony Music's Work Group, signed her but suggested that she sing in English instead.", "Her debut album ''On the 6'' (1999), named after the 6 Subway line which connected her childhood home in the Bronx to Manhattan, was met with positive reviews and further propelled her public profile.", "The album was a success and Lopez's debut single, \"If You Had My Love\", topped the U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot 100 for five consecutive weeks, with another single, \"Waiting for Tonight\", reaching number eight and becoming a celebratory anthem for the new millenium.", "Other singles from the album included \"Let's Get Loud\", which became one of Lopez's signature songs, and \"No Me Ames\", a duet with future husband Marc Anthony.", "===2000–2002: International success===In February 2000, Lopez and then-boyfriend Sean Combs attended the Grammy Awards, with Lopez wearing a plunging green Versace silk chiffon dress.", "The dress generated worldwide attention and became the most popular search query in Google's history, leading to the creation of Google Images, while boosting Lopez's album and movie ticket sales.", "Later that year, Lopez starred in the psychological thriller ''The Cell''.", "David Edelstein of ''Slate'' remarked that the \"imperious\" Lopez was \"trying to look waifishly expectant\" while Amy Taubin of ''The Village Voice'' noted that she appeared to be engaged \"in some kind of pouting competition\" \"in lieu of acting.", "\"Lopez became the first woman to have a number one film and album simultaneously when, in early 2001, the romantic comedy ''The Wedding Planner'', co-starring Matthew McConaughey, and her sophomore album ''J.Lo'' were released in the same week.", "In a review of ''The Wedding Planner'', Bob Graham of the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' remarked that, while there was \"no doubt of Lopez's screen poise or acting chops\", she should choose comedic projects with \"more bite.\"", "Jessica Winter of ''The Village Voice'' found her \"bewilderingly miscast\" as a \"buttoned down, celibate\" woman, writing that the movie \"achieves the dubious but perversely impressive feat, for its 90-minute duration, of neutering Jennifer Lopez.\"", "The album ''J.Lo'' received mixed reviews.", "Jon Pareles of ''Rolling Stone'' was unimpressed by her \"merely adequate, studio-assisted voice\".", "''J.Lo'' became her best-selling album and took her career to new heights.", "It included the singles \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\", which reached number one in various countries, and \"I'm Real\" featuring Ja Rule, which peaked atop the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.In other 2001 work, Lopez launched her first business venture, the clothing line J.Lo by Jennifer Lopez, and starred opposite Jim Caviezel in the romantic drama ''Angel Eyes''.", "Lopez's performance was well-reviewed, with Mick LaSalle of the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' describing her as \"an actress who can do things other movie stars can't do.", "She doesn't push, just thinks, and her thoughts and emotions burn into the film.", "\"Lopez released two albums in 2002.The first was a remix album, ''J to tha L–O!", "The Remixes'', which featured collaborations with Ja Rule, 50 Cent, Fat Joe and P Diddy.", "It became the first remix album in history to debut at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200, with its lead single Ain't It Funny (Murder Remix)\" reaching the top of the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.It also produced the top ten hit \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\".", "Lopez's third studio album, ''This Is Me... Then'', was released in late 2002.Jon Caramanica of ''The Village Voice'' was unimpressed by her studio-enhanced vocals and expressed bemusement as to how the \"mega-millionaire Bronx-expat public-fantasy bombshell\" was \"making the least interesting music on the pop charts today.\"", "The album had the highest opening sales of Lopez's career.", "The album's lead single \"Jenny from the Block\", peaked at number three on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 while its second single, \"All I Have\", reached number one.", "In 2002 business ventures, Lopez opened Madre's, a Los Angeles restaurant serving Latin cuisine, and released her first fragrance, Glow by JLo.", "It became the top-selling fragrance in the US, and Lopez ultimately released over 18 fragrances as part of a licensing deal with Coty.Lopez starred as an abused wife seeking revenge in the thriller ''Enough'' (2002).", "An overworked Lopez suffered a nervous breakdown in 2001 while filming it.", "Upon its release in 2002, Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' was unimpressed by the \"tacky material\" and was surprised to see \"an actress like Jennifer Lopez\" involved with the project.", "Nathan Rabin of ''The A.V.", "Club'' said \"the film's idiocy works for Lopez: Every diva needs at least one camp classic on her résumé\".", "The romantic comedy ''Maid in Manhattan'' (2002), in which Lopez starred opposite Ralph Fiennes, became the highest-grossing film of her career.", "Reviewing ''Maid in Manhattan'', A. O. Scott of ''The New York Times'' enjoyed Lopez as a romantic lead and said \"her greatest skill as an actress\" was \"her ability to melt without cracking the hard shell of composure she wears.", "\"===2003–2009: Media scrutiny and career downturn===MTV Video Music Awards in 2004Lopez became the subject of widespread media criticism in 2003 due to her public relationship with Affleck and the tabloid depiction of her as a demanding diva.", "''The Guardian'' published an article exploring her \"bilious\" media coverage, with journalist Lawrence Donegan positing that \"indefensible\" misogyny and racism were to blame for her position as \"the most vilified woman in modern popular culture\".", "Lopez fired both her personal manager Benny Medina and her publicist in mid-2003; ''The New York Times'' reported that movie executives had become frustrated by having their communications with Lopez \"largely filtered\" through Medina.Lopez starred opposite Affleck in the romantic comedy ''Gigli'' (2003), which was a box-office bomb and is considered one of the worst films of all time.", "Rex Reed of ''The Observer'' criticized the lead actors, writing that the film reminds the world how \"pathetically incompetent they both are in the only two things that matter in career longevity - craft and talent.\"", "Roger Ebert agreed that the movie \"doesn't quite work\", but found Lopez and Affleck \"appealing in their performances\" and noted that they \"have chemistry\" together.", "Lopez had a minor role opposite Affleck in the film ''Jersey Girl'' (2004).", "Following test audiences' negative reactions to the onscreen couple, Lopez's screen time was halved.", "Lopez later described this as the lowest point of her career and admitted she felt \"eviscerated\" by the media coverage surrounding ''Gigli'': \"I lost my sense of self, questioned if I belonged in this business, thought maybe I did suck at everything.", "And my relationship self-destructed in front of the entire world.", "It was a two-year thing for me until I picked myself up again.\"", "She became the face of a Louis Vuitton advertising campaign, launched her second fashion label, Sweetface, and starred opposite Richard Gere in the romantic comedy-drama ''Shall We Dance?", "'', which was a box-office success.The marketing for the romantic comedy ''Monster-in-Law'' (2005), in which Lopez starred opposite Jane Fonda, played up her \"''Gigli''-and-tabloid tarnished image\", and it became a box office success.", "She released her fourth studio album, ''Rebirth'', in early 2005.It was recorded during a period where Lopez felt \"a little bit lost, trying to get my footing in a new life\": \"I had just gotten married to singer Marc Anthony ...", "I wasn't with Benny Medina.\"", "Alexis Petridis of ''The Guardian'' remarked that the album title \"suggests even Lopez has realised that something is amiss with her career ...", "Despite the highlights, you're still left pondering the question: what happened to Jennifer Lopez?\"", "While the album reached number two on the ''Billboard'' 200 and its lead single \"Get Right\" charted at number twelve on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, the second and final single \"Hold You Down\" peaked at number 64.She returned the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 the following year, at number four, when she was a featured artist on \"Control Myself\", the lead single from LL Cool J's twelfth studio album.Lopez's next three movie projects were box office failures.", "She starred alongside Robert Redford and Morgan Freeman in the drama ''An Unfinished Life'' (2005).", "Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' predicted that the typical review would be unkind: \"It will have no respect for Jennifer Lopez, because she is going through a period right now when nobody is satisfied with anything she does ... Give Lopez your permission to be good again; she is the same actress now as when we thought her so new and fine.\"", "In 2006, she reunited with Gregory Nava, the director of both ''Mi Familia'' and ''Selena'', to star in the crime drama ''Bordertown'' as a journalist investigating female homicides in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico.", "The film was negatively reviewed and received a direct-to-video release.", "David D'Arcy of ''Screen Daily'' found Lopez \"unconvincing\" as a journalist.", "In 2007, she starred opposite her then-husband Marc Anthony in the music biopic ''El Cantante'', which told the story of Puerto Rican salsa singer Héctor Lavoe and his wife Puchi.", "It did not perform well at the box office and received mixed reviews from film critics.", "Mick LaSalle of the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' considered it her \"most mannered, least relaxed and least convincing performance to date\".", "Lopez later expressed particular pride in her work in the film.Lopez in 2008Lopez released two studio albums in 2007.Her fifth album, ''Como Ama una Mujer'', was her first to be recorded entirely in Spanish.", "Chris Willman of ''Entertainment Weekly'' acknowledged that the album offered \"fairly persuasive proof\" that Lopez can sing, but was unimpressed by the \"flaccid torch songs.\"", "It reached number 10 on the ''Billboard'' 200; the lead single \"Qué Hiciste\" reached number 86 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 while the second single \"Me Haces Falta\" failed to chart.", "Lopez's sixth studio album ''Brave'', released later that year, was her lowest-charting album worldwide.", "Jonathan Bernstein of ''Entertainment Weekly'' was disappointed that Lopez had returned to \"listless vocals\" for her \"back-to-the-dance-floor album.\"", "The album debuted at number 12 on the ''Billboard'' 200 and produced two singles, \"Do It Well\" and \"Hold It Don't Drop It\".", "The first peaked at number 31 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart, while the latter failed to chart.", "While pregnant with twins, Lopez embarked upon her first ever concert tour, a show co-headlined by Anthony, in September 2007.She also created, produced and was featured in the MTV show ''DanceLife''.After giving birth to twins in February 2008, Lopez took a career break.", "Her restaurant Madre's closed permanently, as did her two fashion lines.", "After rehiring former manager Medina, Lopez released two songs in late 2009, \"Louboutins\" and \"Fresh Out of the Oven\".", "The songs were intended for her seventh studio album but failed to make an appearance on the ''Billboard'' charts, leading to her departure from Sony Music and Epic Records.===2010–2015: ''American Idol'' and career rejuvenation===Lopez's first theatrical role in three years was in the romantic comedy ''The Back-up Plan'' (2010).", "Manohla Dargis of ''The New York Times'' was unimpressed by the movie and described Lopez as \"an appealing screen presence with a disappointing big-screen track record.", "That's probably not all her fault: romantic roles for women often are the provenance of the bland or the blonde.\"", "That year, a \"big turning point\" in Lopez's career came when she joined the judging panel of the singing competition series ''American Idol'' for its tenth season, replacing Simon Cowell.", "She accepted the job at a time when she was \"not getting offered a whole bunch of movies\" and the show returned her to prominence.", "Hannah Elliot of ''Forbes'' described it as \"a remarkable comeback\": \"''Idol'' humanized her.", "Viewers who knew only an attention-grabbing siren met a hardworking, self-made, empathetic single mother, who got emotional when contestants did well and when they failed.\"", "She returned as a judge for the eleventh season, earning a reported $20 million, and again for the thirteenth season, earning a reported $17.5 million.", "Around the time of her debut on ''American Idol'', Lopez became a brand ambassador for L'Oréal, Venus and Fiat, and launched the Jennifer Lopez Collection, a clothing and homeware line with Tommy Hilfiger for Kohl's.Lopez performing during her Dance Again World Tour in Paris, France in 2012After signing a new recording contract with Island Records, Lopez's seventh studio album, ''Love?", "'', was released in early 2011.While the album itself was a moderate commercial success, the single \"On the Floor\" was one of the year's most successful songs.", "It reached number three on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, becoming her highest-charting single as a lead artist since \"All I Have\".", "Lopez's greatest hits album, ''Dance Again... the Hits'', was released in mid-2012 to fulfil her contractual obligations with her former label Epic Records.", "Lopez, who was divorcing Anthony and navigating the \"breakup of a family\", felt as if the album's sole single, \"Dance Again\", had come to her at the \"perfect moment\".", "\"Dance Again\" reached number 17 on the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100.Lopez launched the Dance Again World Tour, her first headlining concert tour, in mid-2012.It grossed over $1 million per show.", "Also that year, she launched Teeology, a luxury T-shirt brand.Lopez returned to the big screen in 2012, starring alongside an ensemble cast in the film ''What to Expect When You're Expecting'', which is based on the book of the same name.", "Lopez voiced Shira, a saber tooth tiger, in the animated film, ''Ice Age: Continental Drift'', the fourth film in the ''Ice Age'' franchise.", "Also in 2012, a talent show, ''¡Q'Viva!", "The Chosen'' followed Lopez, Anthony, and director-choreographer Jamie King as they travelled across 21 countries in Latin America to find new talent for a Las Vegas show.", "In 2013, Lopez starred alongside Jason Statham in the crime thriller ''Parker'', in which she played Leslie.", "Her performance earned positive reviews, with ''Chicago Tribune'' commending the role for giving Lopez \"an opportunity to be dramatic, romantic, funny, depressed, euphoric and violent.", "The audience stays with her all the way\".", "Lopez became the chief creative officer of nuvoTV and founded the mobile phone retail brand Viva Móvil.", "She was an executive producer of the television series ''The Fosters''.Lopez at the 25th GLAAD Media Awards in 2014Lopez's eighth studio album, ''A.K.A.", "'', was released in mid-2014 through Capitol Records, experiencing lacklustre sales, becoming her lowest-selling album in the US.", "The album produced three singles: \"I Luh Ya Papi\", featuring French Montana, \"First Love\", and \"Booty\", featuring Iggy Azalea.", "They reached 77, 87 and 18 respectively on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.Also that year, Lopez released \"We Are One (Ole Ola)\", the official song for the 2014 FIFA World Cup along with Pitbull and Claudia Leitte.", "Lopez partnered with Endless Jewelry on a range of jewelry and released a book, ''True Love'', which became a ''New York Times'' best-seller.2015 saw the release of ''The Boy Next Door'', an erotic thriller that Lopez both co-produced and starred in as a high school teacher who becomes involved with a student, which eventually leads to his dangerous obsession with her.", "The film received negative reviews from critics.", "Despite this, it became her most successful opening at the box office for a live action film since ''Monster-in-Law''.", "Lopez had a voice role in the animated feature ''Home'' and contributed the single \"Feel the Light\" to the film's official soundtrack.", "Lopez also starred in the independent drama film ''Lila & Eve'', alongside Viola Davis.===2016–2021: Television work, ''Hustlers'' and Super Bowl LIV===From 2016 to 2018, Lopez had a residency concert show, All I Have, at Planet Hollywood's Zappos Theater in Las Vegas.", "She performed 120 shows during the three-year run, grossing over $100 million in ticket sales.", "At the beginning of the residency, Lopez signed a multi-album deal with her former label Epic Records, and released the single \"Ain't Your Mama\", which became one of her most successful releases during the 2010s.", "She subsequently announced she was working on her second Spanish-language album which was to be titled ''Por Primera Vez'', but was eventually shelved.", "Lopez ultimately released a number of standalone Spanish and Spanglish singles, including \"Ni Tú Ni Yo\", \"Amor, Amor, Amor\", \"El Anillo\" and \"Dinero\", featuring DJ Khaled and Cardi B.", "In collaboration with Giuseppe Zanotti, Lopez designed a capsule collection of shoes and jewelry and, with Inglot Cosmetics, launched a limited-edition makeup collection.From 2016 to 2018, Lopez produced and starred in NBC's crime drama series ''Shades of Blue'' as Detective Harlee Santos, a single mother and police detective in New York City who goes undercover for the FBI to investigate her own squad.", "The series' premiere brought NBC its most-watched Thursday debut in seven years.", "Starring alongside Ray Liotta, Lopez's performance received critical praise.", "Lopez was executive producer and judge on NBC's successful series ''World of Dance'' (2017–2020).", "Lopez reprised her voice role as Shira in the animated film ''Ice Age: Collision Course'' (2016).", "In 2018, Lopez starred in the comedy film ''Second Act'', directed by Peter Segal; she also produced the film, and recorded the single \"Limitless\" for its soundtrack.", "''Second Act'' earned mixed reviews from critics, but performed well at the box office, grossing $72.3 million during its theatrical run.It's My Party tour in July 2019Lopez starred in the film ''Hustlers'' (2019), for which she also served as an executive producer, and which grossed over US$100 million in North American box office receipts alone.", "Directed by Lorene Scafaria, the film is inspired by a true story, following a group of Manhattan strippers who con wealthy men.", "Lopez's portrayal of a veteran stripper in ''Hustlers'' garnered acclaim from critics, with some deeming it the best performance of her acting career.", "The film also gave Lopez her highest opening weekend at the box office for a live action film, grossing $33.2 million.", "Her performance garnered her nominations for Best Supporting Actress at the Golden Globe Awards, Screen Actors Guild Awards, Critics' Choice Movie Awards and Independent Spirit Awards; her omission from the Academy Awards nominations was widely viewed as a snub.", "The success of ''Hustlers'' has been regarded by various media outlets as a comeback as an actress for Lopez.", "She was announced as the global face of the Coach brand and launched a collection of sunglasses with the brand Quay Australia.", "Also in September 2019, Lopez modeled an updated version of her Green Versace dress at Milan Fashion Week.", "She also became executive producer of the two television series, ''Good Trouble'' and ''Thanks a Million''.In 2019, Lopez embarked on an international concert tour, It's My Party, to celebrate her 50th birthday; the tour grossed an estimated $54.7 million from thirty-eight shows.", "In February 2020, Lopez co-headlined the Super Bowl LIV halftime show in Miami, Florida alongside Shakira; the performance included an appearance by her child Emme Muñiz.", "The performance was widely praised and is currently the most-watched Super Bowl halftime show to date.", "In June 2020, she appeared in YouTube Originals's special, ''Dear Class of 2020'', which featured a virtual commencement event and highlighted the George Floyd protests.", "By the end of the year, Lopez headlined the 2021 ''Dick Clark’s New Year’s Rockin’ Eve with Ryan Seacrest'' special on ABC.", "She also released a number of singles between 2019 and 2021, including: \"Medicine\" featuring French Montana, \"Pa' Ti + Lonely\" with Maluma and \"Cambia el Paso\" with Rauw Alejandro.In January 2021, Lopez performed at the 2021 inauguration of President Joe Biden in Washington, D.C., where she sang \"This Land Is Your Land\" and \"America the Beautiful\", while also reciting the last phrase of the Pledge of Allegiance in Spanish.", "That month, she also launched her skincare line, JLo Beauty.", "In mid-2021, she signed a multi-year deal with Netflix to produce a range of films and television shows through her own Nuyorican Productions.=== 2022–present: Focus on film and ''This Is Me... Now'' ===Lopez co-produced and starred opposite Owen Wilson and Maluma in the romantic comedy ''Marry Me'', which was filmed in late 2019 and released in February 2022.The film grossed over $50 million at the box office while becoming the most-streamed day-and-date film on Peacock, and received generally mixed reviews from critics.", "Lopez also released a soundtrack for the film, with Maluma, which generated the singles \"On My Way\" and \"Marry Me\".", "In March 2022, Lopez was appointed as the chief \"entertainment and lifestyle\" officer of the cruise line, Virgin Voyages.", "Her next project was the documentary ''Jennifer Lopez: Halftime'', which focuses on her life following the release of ''Hustlers'' and in preparation for her Super Bowl performance.", "Released on Netflix in June 2022 following its premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival, it garnered generally positive reviews from film critics.", "In September, Lopez was announced as the global ambassador of Italian lingerie label Intimissimi.", "The following month, Jimmy Fallon and Lopez released a children's book, ''Con Pollo: A Bilingual Playtime Adventure'', which became a ''New York Times'' best-seller.Lopez co-produced and starred opposite Josh Duhamel and Jennifer Coolidge in the action-comedy ''Shotgun Wedding'', which was released on Amazon Prime Video in January 2023.It became one of the top-streamed films on Prime Video that year.", "She also led and co-produced the action thriller feature ''The Mother'', directed by Niki Caro and released on Netflix in May 2023.The film received mixed reviews, but became the most-watched film on the platform for 2023.That September, she entered a \"recording and publishing\" partnership with BMG Rights Management, in conjunction with her Nuyorican Productions.", "Lopez's business ventures in 2023 included: launching a spritz brand named Delola, a collaboration between her lifestyle brand J.Lo by Jennifer Lopez and fashion retailer Revolve, and a footwear line, JLO Jennifer Lopez, which was released as three collections in March, May, and June.Lopez's ninth studio album ''This Is Me... Now'', a sequel album to ''This Is Me... Then'' (2002), was released by Nuyorican and BMG on February 16, 2024.A musical film, titled ''This Is Me...Now: A Love Story'', directed by Dave Meyers and produced by Nuyorican, will be released simultaneously as a visual companion to the album on Prime Video.", "Her first studio album in nearly a decade, Lopez described it as an \"emotional, spiritual, and psychological journey\" of the past two decades; she stated that her reunion and marriage to Ben Affleck, who is also a co-writer for the film, inspired her to write honest music.", "Lopez plays a fictionalized version of herself in ''A Love Story'', which has been described as an \"autobiographical musical rom-com action sci-fi\"; Tim Jonze of ''The Guardian'' suggested that Lopez had possibly invented the \"therapy-musical biopic\" genre.", "After potential partners backed out, Lopez financed the film herself for $20 million before Amazon subsequently purchased it.", "The album's lead single \"Can't Get Enough\" was released in January 2024.Lopez further promoted the album with performances on ''Saturday Night Live'' and a lingerie collection with Intimissimi, which was inspired by the album.", "She is set to embark on This Is Me... Now: The Tour in North America, beginning June 2024.==== Upcoming projects ====Lopez filmed the sci-fi thriller ''Atlas'' from September to November 2022 in L.A. and New Zealand, her third project under her Netflix deal.", "She will star alongside Jharrel Jerome in William Goldenberg's biographical wrestling drama ''Unstoppable,'' produced by Ben Affleck and Matt Damon, and based on the life of wrestler Anthony Robles.", "Lopez has signed on to star in the Bill Condon-directed film adaptation of the Broadway musical, ''Kiss of the Spider Woman'', which she will also executive produce.", "It is her first role in a full-fledged musical; filming will begin in April 2024 in New Jersey.", "She has also committed to lead and co-produce Netflix's film adaptation of the bestselling novel, ''The Cipher''.", "She has several projects in the works as a producer." ], [ "Personal life", "Lopez was in a nearly decade-long relationship with David Cruz, her high school boyfriend, until the mid-1990s.", "She would later say of Cruz, \"You get lucky, you have a first love like that.\"", "She was married to Cuban waiter Ojani Noa from February 1997 to January 1998.In subsequent court cases, Noa was prevented from publishing a book about their marriage and from using private honeymoon footage of Lopez in a documentary.", "Lopez was in an on again–off again relationship with record producer and rapper Sean Combs (then known as \"Puff Daddy\") from 1999 to early 2001.On the night of December 27, 1999, Lopez and Combs were arrested and charged with criminal possession of a weapon and possession of stolen property, after leaving the scene of a shooting at a Times Square nightclub.", "Charges against Lopez were dropped within an hour while Combs was acquitted of all charges at trial in early 2001.They broke up shortly thereafter.", "Lopez later said that, while she had \"cared very much\" about Combs, their \"crazy, tumultuous\" relationship \"was always something I knew would end.\"", "She was married to Cris Judd, her former backup dancer, from September 2001 to January 2003.Before her divorce with Judd was finalized, Lopez was in a relationship with actor and filmmaker Ben Affleck from mid-2002 to early 2004.Although they had crossed paths several times before (including at the 70th Academy Awards and at the premiere of ''Armageddon'', both in 1998), the first major meeting was on the set of ''Gigli'' (2003) in December 2001.They later worked together on the music video for \"Jenny from the Block\" and the film ''Jersey Girl'' (2004).", "Her album ''This Is Me... Then'' was dedicated to and inspired by Affleck.", "Their relationship was extensively publicized.", "Tabloids referred to the couple as \"Bennifer\", a portmanteau ''Vanity Fair'' described as \"the first of that sort of tabloid branding\".", "They became engaged in November 2002, but their planned wedding on September 14, 2003, was postponed with four days' notice because of \"excessive media attention\".", "They ended their engagement in January 2004.Years later, Lopez said Affleck's discomfort with media scrutiny was one reason for their split and described it as her \"first real heartbreak\": \"I think different time, different thing, who knows what could've happened, but there was a genuine love there.", "\"Lopez and Anthony, 2006Lopez was married to singer Marc Anthony from June 2004 to June 2014; they had previously worked together and dated for a few months in the late 1990s.", "Their wedding took place five months after the end of her relationship with Affleck.", "During their marriage, they collaborated on music and performed together, as well as co-starring in ''El Cantante'' (2006).", "Lopez gave birth to fraternal twins, a boy and a girl, on Long Island in February 2008.", "''People'' paid a reported US$6 million for the first photographs of the twins, making them the most expensive celebrity pictures ever taken at the time.", "In 2009, Anthony and Lopez purchased a stake in the Miami Dolphins.", "The couple announced their separation in July 2011.Anthony filed for divorce in April 2012 and it was finalized in June 2014.Lopez retained primary physical custody of the two children.", "Lopez occasionally performs with Emme.Lopez had an on again-off again relationship relationship with her former backup dancer Casper Smart from October 2011 to August 2016.She dated New York Yankees baseball player Alex Rodriguez from February 2017 to early 2021.They became engaged in March 2019 but postponed their wedding twice due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In response to tabloid speculation about the state of their relationship, they released a statement in March 2021, saying they were \"working through some things\".", "They announced the end of their relationship in April 2021.In April 2021, Lopez and Affleck were reported to be dating again, with Lopez publicly confirming their rekindled relationship that July.", "In the years after their breakup, they had remained in contact and spoken highly of each other in the press.", "Both Affleck and Lopez have spoken of the gift of a second chance with each other since reuniting.", "In April 2022, Lopez announced their second engagement, 20 years after the first proposal.", "They were married in Las Vegas on July 16, 2022, and held a wedding celebration for family and friends the following month." ], [ "Other ventures", "===Philanthropy===Lopez and then First Lady Michelle Obama posing for a selfie at the League of United Latin American Citizens National Convention and Exposition in 2014Following the September 11 attacks, Lopez was heavily involved in charitable activities.", "Joining various other artists, she was featured on charitable singles such as \"What's Going On\" and \"El Ultimo Adios (The Last Goodbye)\", which benefited people affected by the tragedy.", "One dollar from each ticket sold at Lopez and Anthony's co-headlining North American concert tour, which grossed an estimated $10 million, was donated to Run for Something Better—a charitable organization supporting physical fitness programs for children.", "In February 2007, Lopez was honored with the Artists for Amnesty prize by the human rights organization Amnesty International, for her work in the film ''Bordertown'', which shed light on the hundreds of feminicides in Ciudad Juárez.", "Lopez described it as \"one of the world's most shocking and disturbing, underreported crimes against humanity\".Since early in her life, Lopez has supported children; her album ''Rebirth'' (2005) is dedicated to Paige Peterson, an eleven-year-old cancer patient whom Lopez befriended during visits to the Children's Hospital Los Angeles.", "Peterson died in November 2004.Lopez stated that \"she doesn't like to do her charity work in public.", "That's not what you do it for.\"", "Having had plans to create a charitable foundation for years, she eventually launched the Lopez Family Foundation (originally known as the Maribel Foundation) alongside her sister, Lynda, in 2009.The nonprofit organization seeks to increase the availability of healthcare for underprivileged women and children, offering a telemedicine program supported by a partnership with the Children's Hospital Los Angeles.", "The foundation has facilitated the expansion of medical facilities in Panama and Puerto Rico, and created the Center for a Healthy Childhood at Montefiore Medical Center in the Bronx.In December 2012, Lopez held a charity drive to benefit her three favorite charities: the Gloria Wise Boys and Girls Club, the Children's Hospital Los Angeles and the American Red Cross, mainly benefiting victims of Hurricane Sandy.", "In May 2015, she became the first national celebrity spokesperson for the Children's Miracle Network Hospitals and the BC Children's Hospital Foundation (BCCHF), appearing in a campaign entitled \"Put Your Money Where the Miracles Are\".", "That September, Lopez was announced as the first Global Advocate for Girls and Women at the United Nations Foundation.", "This role sees her mobilizing action to address challenges faced by girls and women around the world, including maternal health care programs, education and violence against women.", "In September 2017, following Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria, Lopez donated $1 million from the proceeds of her Las Vegas residency to humanitarian aid for Puerto Rico.", "Along with Marc Anthony, she launched a humanitarian relief campaign entitled Somos Una Voz (English: We Are One Voice), an effort supported by various celebrities to rush supplies to areas affected by Hurricane Maria.", "Lopez and Anthony presented a subsequent concert and telethon for disaster relief, \"One Voice: Somos Live!", "\", which raised over $35 million.", "She was also among various artists featured on Lin-Manuel Miranda's charity single \"Almost Like Praying\" which benefits Puerto Rico.As of 2021, Lopez continues to regularly donate and support charities.", "In September 2021, she launched her own philanthropic organization, Limitless Labs, that supports and empowers Latina entrepreneurs and business owners.", "Lopez announced a partnership between the venture and the 10,000 Small Businesses initiative.", "In June 2022, Lopez and Limitless Labs partnered with nonprofit Grameen America as a national ambassador to empower women-led Latina businesses with $14 billion in business loans and \"6 million hours of financial education and training by 2030.\"", "Lopez has performed at charity concerts throughout her career, including the Los Angeles Dodgers Foundation's Blue Diamond Gala in 2022, which raised $3.6 million in support of education, health care, homelessness and social justice.===Political activism===Lopez is an avid supporter of LGBT rights, and has raised millions of dollars for HIV/AIDS research.", "In June 2013, amfAR presented her with its humanitarian award for her philanthropic work.", "That September, she was awarded the Ally for Equality award presented by the Human Rights Campaign, for her support of the LGBT community.", "The following year, she received the GLAAD Vanguard Award.", "In July 2016, Lopez released a single entitled \"Love Make the World Go Round\", a collaboration with Lin-Manuel Miranda, which benefits victims of the Orlando nightclub shooting.", "She was also featured on the song \"Hands\" along with numerous other artists, also benefiting those affected by the Orlando shooting.", "Lopez signed an open letter from ''Billboard'' magazine to the United States Congress in 2016, which demanded action on gun control.A supporter of the Democratic Party, Lopez has a long history of backing Democratic candidates for public office.", "She endorsed President Barack Obama in his 2012 presidential campaign, speaking in television advertisements and attending fundraising events for Obama.", "She endorsed Democratic presidential nominee Hillary Clinton in 2016, headlining a free concert in Florida in support of her that October.", "She endorsed President Joe Biden in his 2020 presidential campaign and also performed at his 2021 inauguration.In June 2020, Lopez attended a Black Lives Matter movement protest in Los Angeles, in connection with the broader George Floyd protests.", "Lopez has also been an active advocate for the Time's Up movement.", "In January 2022, she became one of the Co-Chairs for Michelle Obama's When We All Vote.", "She expressed solidarity with the people of the Gaza Strip during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war.", "Lopez, as part of a group called Artists4Ceasefire, signed a letter urging President Joe Biden to call for an immediate ceasefire in Gaza." ], [ "Artistry", "===Influences and musical style===Lopez cited Madonna as her \"first big musical influence\"Lopez has cited Madonna as her \"first big musical influence\", explaining \"It was all about Madonna for me.", "She inspired me to want to sing, to dance, to work hard.\"", "Her other major influences include Tina Turner, James Brown, and Michael Jackson.", "Another major influence on Lopez is Barbra Streisand, stating that, \"watching her career over the years, watching her sing and act and direct, was very inspiring to me.\"", "Lopez has cited Janet Jackson as a major inspiration for her own dance and videos, stating that she \"probably started dancing\" because of Jackson's music video for \"The Pleasure Principle\".", "She has said that she also looks to the careers of Cher and Diana Ross, and has been influenced by younger artists such as Lady Gaga.Growing up, she was influenced by Latin music styles ranging from salsa to bachata, and artists including Celia Cruz and Tito Puente.", "However, it was the hip hop song \"Rapper's Delight\" (1979) by The Sugarhill Gang that she said changed her life.", "She was also \"hugely inspired in her youth\" by Rita Moreno's performance in the musical film ''West Side Story'' (1961), noting that she \"was Puerto Rican\" like herself at a time when that was rare in Hollywood.", "Speaking of musicals being an essential influence, she has said that, \"musicals were a part of the tapestry of my childhood\", crediting her mom for introducing her to music.According to author Ed Morales in ''The Latin Beat: The Rhythms And Roots Of Latin Music From Bossa Nova To Salsa And Beyond'' (2003), Lopez's music explores the \"romantic innocence\" of Latin music, while strongly identifying with hip hop.", "Her debut album ''On the 6'' fuses the influence of Latin music with R&B and hip hop, which Lopez described as Latin soul.", "To the contrary, Morales described it as \"state-of-the-art dance pop\".", "While primarily sung in English, she speaks in Spanish and asserts her Latin heritage throughout the album, which is apparent in the song \"Let's Get Loud\".", "She has also recorded bilingual songs, including the Latin pop song \"Cariño\", for her second album ''J.Lo''.", "A departure from her previous albums, ''This Is Me... Then'' blends 1970s soul with \"streetwise\" hip hop.Described as autobiographical, much of Lopez's music has centered around the \"ups and downs\" of love.", "The lyrical content of ''This Is Me... Then'' is largely focused on her relationship with Ben Affleck, with the song \"Dear Ben\" being described as the album's \"glowing centerpiece\".", "Her first full-length Spanish-language album, ''Como Ama una Mujer'' features introspective lyrics about romance, heartache and self-loathing.", "When explaining her seventh studio album ''Love?", "'', Lopez stated: \"There's still so much to learn and that's why the question mark.\"", "Other recurrent themes in Lopez's music have included her upbringing in the Bronx and women's empowerment.Some critics have considered Lopez's voice to be limited, and overshadowed by the production of her music, while remaining \"radio-friendly\".", "Rob Sheffield of ''Rolling Stone'' remarked: \"Instead of strained vocal pyrotechnics, Lopez sticks to the understated R&B murmur of a round-the-way superstar who doesn't need to belt because she knows you're already paying attention ... She makes a little va-va and a whole lot of voom go a long way.\"", "Meanwhile, AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called her voice \"slight\" and wrote: \"Lopez was never, ever about singing; she was about style\".", "''Entertainment Weekly'' criticized her vocal performance for lacking the trademark \"husky-voiced voluptuousness\" she has in her films.", "J. D. Considine of ''The Baltimore Sun'' regards Lopez as having a \"breathy\" stylistic range, but lacking personality.===Dance and stage===Lopez performing during the 2014 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony in BrazilConsidered one of dance's \"greatest success stories\", ''Refinery29'' ranked Lopez at number two on a list of \"11 Of Pop's Most Iconic Dancers\" in 2015.Lopez felt an emotional connection to dance since her youth, when she specialized in ballet, jazz and flamenco.", "Throughout her music career, she has become known for her body-emphasizing music videos, which often include dance routines.", "CNN's Holly Thomas stated that \"Lopez's years of professional dance experience gave her a captivating, commanding presence in her videos.\"", "Some of these videos have been the subject of controversy, including \"Jenny from the Block\", \"Dance Again\" and \"Booty\".", "Her provocatively choreographed music video for \"If You Had My Love\" allowed Lopez to become a dominant figure on MTV networks worldwide.", "Madeline Roth of MTV wrote: \"Her diverse videography encompasses some of the most memorable visuals of the 21st century\", with ''Rolling Stone'' writer Brittany Spanos observing that her \"dancing skills and ability to toy with her own celebrity have made her videos an important part of the new millennium's pop canon\".", "Her videography has also been noted for its influence on 2000s fashion trends.On stage, Lopez is recognized for her showmanship, sex appeal, and costumes, which often include bodysuits.", "Author Priscilla Peña Ovalle stated in ''Dance and the Hollywood Latina: Race, Sex and Stardom'' (2011) that Lopez was one of the Latin stars who \"used dance to gain agency as working performers with mainstream careers, yet many of their roles paradoxically racialized and sexualized their bodies\".", "Troy Patterson of ''Entertainment Weekly'' also observed that she used her body for emphasis on stage, \"She turned herself out as the fly girl hyperversion of postfeminist power, flaunting her control by toying with the threat of excess.", "In consequence, her star went supernova.\"", "Her signature movements include \"clock-wise pivoting with salsa hip circles and sequential torso undulations\".", "While being noted to lip sync in the early stages of career, Lopez's Dance Again World Tour was praised for showcasing live vocals and choreography synchronously.", "In a review of her Las Vegas residency All I Have, ''Los Angeles Times'' writer Nolan Feeney remarked that her dancing is \"undoubtedly the centerpiece of the show\".Her provocative stage performances have also drawn scrutiny at times.", "Robin Givhan of ''The Daily Beast'' criticized Lopez's performance at the 2011 American Music Awards where she wore a nude bodysuit, stating that it \"cried out for attention in all the wrong ways\" and was \"banal exhibitionism\".", "In May 2013, her performance on the finale of the television series ''Britain's Got Talent'' was deemed inappropriate for family-friendly television, and drew viewer complaints to Ofcom.", "Following her controversial performance at the musical festival Mawazine in 2015, Moroccan Prime Minister Abdelilah Benkirane called it \"indecent\" and \"disgraceful\", while an education group claimed that she \"disturbed public order and tarnished women's honor and respect\".===Acting and screen===Lopez's films often see her playing \"relatable everywomen\", with Cady Lang of ''Time'' writing: \"A longtime hallmark of Lopez’s filmography is her penchant for stories about survivors.", "Her characters are never shrinking violets.\"", "Discussing the roles she is drawn to, Lopez said in 1998: \"I don't think of them as strong women ...", "I like characters that are really part of the story as opposed to window dressing, but I think the interesting thing is that they are real people.", "Nobody walks around being strong all the time.", "\"Film critic Stephanie Zacharek described Lopez as \"one of the most gifted and appealing performers of the past two decades ... and yet the movies have rarely known what to do with her and her significant gifts as an actor.\"", "While Lopez received acclaim for her early film work, ''The New York Times'' writer Kyle Buchanan noted that her tendency to star in romantic comedies, and her pop music career, \"lowered her critical bona fides\".", "Taylor Hackford, who directed Lopez in ''Parker'', said she \"can really act\": \"She knows how to transmit nuances, to make the subtlest of shifts.", "Does she have humor?", "Yes.", "But at the same time she can get into the deepest dramatic areas.\"", "Lopez, who identifies the romantic comedy as her favorite film genre, has been referred to as the \"Patron Saint of Romantic Comedies\" and the \"Queen of Romantic Comedies\".In her early films, Lopez played stereotypical roles which signified her as a \"racialized, exoticized\" other.", "In films such as ''Blood and Wine'' and ''U Turn'', her body is fetishized \"through extreme close-ups\" and \"framed as animalistic, primitive, and irresistibly dangerous to the Anglo American male characters.\"", "This shifted with her role in ''Selena'', which \"affirmed her Latinx identity, and won her the loyalty of that significant section of the US and global audience.\"", "She has also been criticized for playing ethnically ambiguous parts and tapping into \"the ability to perform a panethnic other\" to commodify herself.", "Her role as an Italian woman in ''The Wedding Planner'' has been described as \"a case of classic Hollywood whitewashing.\"" ], [ "Public image", "Lopez at the Toronto Film Festival in 2019Writing of Lopez's image, Andrew Barker of ''Variety'' observed: \"Despite a carefully cultivated image as an imperious pop empress in ludicrously expensive outfits, her signature hits bear the titles 'I'm Real' and 'Jenny From the Block'.", "She managed the perilous transition from actress to music star without ever seeming to pick either as a primary gig.", "She established herself as an oft-provocative sex symbol while her demeanor made it abundantly clear that she's not asking you to come hither.\"", "In 2002, Lynette Holloway of ''The New York Times'' described Lopez as overexposed, writing: \"Forgive yourself if you are seeing Jennifer Lopez in your sleep.", "She is everywhere.\"", "Holloway noted her image to be \"a dash of ''ghetto fabulousness''\" and \"middle-class respectability\" for mass appeal.", "''Entertainment Weekly'' observed a change in her public profile upon joining ''American Idol'' in 2011, writing: \"Gone was her old cut-a-bitch swagger; J.", "Lo 2.0 is an all-embracing, Oprahfied earth ''''.\"", "Lopez is widely celebrated for her callipygian figure.", "''Vanity Fair'' described her buttocks as \"in and of themselves, a cultural icon\".", "Recounting her experience on early films, Lopez stated: \"I've always had costume people looking at me a little weary and immediately fitting me out with things to hide my bottom.\"", "She has been credited with influencing a change in mainstream female body image.", "In ''Latin Sensations'' (2001), Herón Marquez wrote: \"Because she wasn't rail thin, Lopez had broken the mold and allowed millions of women to feel good about their bodies.", "Suddenly, it was okay for women to have hips, curves, and a big backside.\"", "Author Mary Beltrán opined that for Lopez to \"unashamedly display her well-endowed posterior during this time period\" could be viewed as \"a revolutionary act with respect to Anglo beauty ideals generally reflected and perpetuated through media images.\"", "However, she was also criticized for perceived changes in her image upon launching her music career, which included \"weight loss and lightening her hair\".Considered a sex symbol, ''Details'' magazine named Lopez the \"Sexiest Woman of the Year\" in 1998, and she topped ''FHM''s \"100 Sexiest Women in the World\" list twice.", "In 2011, she was named \"The Most Beautiful Woman\" by ''People''.", "The following year, VH1 ranked her the fourth on their list of \"100 Sexiest Artists\", while ''Vibe'' magazine named her the most \"lustable\" celebrity of the past twenty years.", "Lopez has criticized \"this funny notion in America that you can't be a mom and be sexy\", and said, \"sometimes, as women, we think: 'if I'm too sexy I won't be taken seriously'\".Described as \"one of the most photographed women in the world\", Lopez has been a tabloid fixture and has admitted to having a \"less-than-perfect\" public image.", "The media has often drawn comparisons between Lopez and actress Elizabeth Taylor due to her numerous failed relationships and glamourous public persona, with Lopez sometimes being dubbed a \"modern-day Liz Taylor\".", "Considered a fashion icon, her sense of style continues to be a big part of her public image.", "Her style was described by ''Billboard''s Lauren Savage as \"scantily clad\".", "Lopez looks to \"women who epitomize Hollywood glamour\" for style inspiration, including Rita Hayworth, Ava Gardner and Marilyn Monroe, though her style has \"a more urban, hip hop influence\" due to her Bronx upbringing.Since early in her career, Lopez has received a bad reputation as being a demanding and outspoken \"diva\", something which she has denied, stating: \"I've always been fascinated by how much more well-behaved we have to be than men.\"", "Frances Negrón-Muntaner wrote that by 1999, \"Internet chat rooms exploded with anti-Lopez babble\" and she became \"one of the easiest moving targets for cheap laughs as well as anxieties about working-class ‘loud’ sexuality and specifically Latino visibility.\"", "In 2021, actor and filmmaker Ben Affleck attributed her reputation to racism and sexism: \"People were so fucking mean about her; sexist, racist, ugly vicious shit was written about her in ways that if you wrote it now, you would literally be fired for saying some of the things you said.\"" ], [ "Legacy and cultural impact", "===Entertainment industry===Puerto Rican flag in 2009 at the Puerto Rican Day Parade in ManhattanLopez is regarded as the most influential Latin entertainer of all time, credited with breaking ethnic barriers in the entertainment industry.", "In ''Icons of American Popular Culture'' (2009), Robert C. Cottrell described Lopez as a \"multidimensional artist who had turned into a financial powerhouse\" and the \"embodiment of the American Dream.\"", "Often described as a triple threat performer, She was one of the few actors to successfully cross over into music, and has been called \"the blueprint for how to be a successful actress and singer\".", "Rachel Sklar of ''The Huffington Post'' described Lopez as a \"trailblazer\", writing: \"Beyoncé, Miley, Gaga, any actress who's ever released an album — they are all standing on the shoulders of J.Lo.", "She was a true triple threat — actress, singer, dancer ... and packaged it sometimes outrageously but always sexily.\"", "Lopez is the highest-paid Latina actress in history, making up to US$15 million per film during the 2000s.", "''The Record'' newspaper observed that she was responsible for bringing a Latina presence to the film industry, which was historically a \"whites-only preserve\".", "Her film career, particularly her performance in ''Selena'', has been credited with paving the way for greater representation of Latino Americans in Hollywood.", "With her role in ''Out of Sight'', where her character's ethnicity is a mere sidenote, scholar Frances Negrón-Muntaner wrote in 2004 that Lopez had \"achieved what generations of Hollywood Latino actors continue to dream about: ethnic 'blind' casting.\"", "As Lopez transitioned away from \"sexualized or stereotypical Latina roles\", author Mary Beltrán noted her to be an \"anomaly in the traditionally white space of the Hollywood mainstream\" at the time.", "Lopez failing to receive an Academy Award nomination for ''Hustlers'' (2019) led to \"renewed focus on the academy’s predominantly white acting nominees\", with Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti referencing the perceived snub while announcing a new initiative for Latino representation in Hollywood.Upon launching her music career, Lopez contributed to the \"Latin explosion\" occurring in entertainment during the late 1990s.", "Brian Haack of The Recording Academy called her the \"breakout female star\" of the Latin pop movement in American music.", "Considered \"one of the most important Latina pop stars\", ''Rolling Stone'' stated that she paved \"the way for other American-born Latina pop stars to flourish,\" including Selena Gomez and Becky G. Academic Aida Hurtado stated that Lopez's \"transnational focus\" influenced Latin American pop artists to \"venture into U.S. markets by recording in English\", including Shakira, Thalía and Paulina Rubio.", "Following her debut, ''Billboard'' wrote that Lopez \"isn't too far behind Ricky Martin as the leading light of Latin music in Asia\", where she was noted to have \"pushed the envelope for international female artists in the region.", "\"Dee Lockett of the ''St.", "Louis Post-Dispatch'' wrote that songs like \"Let's Get Loud\" and \"Waiting for Tonight\" made Lopez \"arguably the leading artist in the dance-pop movement at the time.\"", "''Billboard'' credited her with \"influencing the Latin dance music boom of the 2000s\", and named her the \"Greatest Pop Star\" of the year 2001.MTV's Yasmine Shemesh described the ''J.Lo'' album as \"contributing to the trajectory of early 2000s music\", with journalists observing that Lopez's collaboration with Ja Rule would influence future pop rap collaborations.", "Scholar Miriam Jiménez Román noted that Lopez, who \"represents an often-suppressed history of hip hop culture that in its inception was as much Jamaican and Puerto Rican as African American\", was \"able to traverse the difficult racial boundaries\".", "In 2011, following her return to prominence, Lopez was deemed the \"world's greatest musical comeback act\", based on a study by digital search agency AccuraCast, which analysed over one billion Google searches since 2004.Lopez is considered a pop icon, with VH1 ranking her at number 15 on their list of 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons, number 16 on 100 Greatest Women In Music, and number 21 on 50 Greatest Women of the Video Era.", "Lopez has been cited as an influence or inspiration by a range of entertainers, including Jessica Alba, Adrienne Bailon, Camila Cabello, Sofia Carson, Kat DeLuna, Mike Doughty, Fifth Harmony, Becky G, Selena Gomez, Ryan Guzman, Jessie James Decker, Kelly Key, Q'orianka Kilcher, Brie Larson, Demi Lovato, Maluma, Tate McRae, Camila Mendes, Normani, Rita Ora, Pitbull, Princess Nokia, Keke Palmer, Francia Raisa, Naya Rivera, Bebe Rexha, Rosa Salazar, Britney Spears, Gwen Stefani, Taylor Swift, and Kerry Washington.", "Larson stated that seeing Lopez in ''Selena'' made her want to be an actor.", "Stefani studied Lopez's Vegas residency while developing her own, saying that she \"always looked up to her\".", "Actress Eva Longoria credited Lopez with breaking barriers for Latin actors, stating that she \"broke down so many doors so that we could walk through them.\"", "America Ferrera said there was \"no roadmap\" for succeeding in Hollywood as a Latin actress before Lopez.===Cultural influence===Lopez was named one of ''Time''s 100 most influential people in the world in 2018.Previously, ''Time'' listed her as one of the most influential Hispanics in America, remarking: \"Why?", "Because over a decade ago, she was an anonymous background dancer on the second-rated sketch-comedy show.", "Today she's known by two syllables.\"", "In 2012, business magazine ''Forbes'' ranked her as the world's most powerful celebrity in its annual Celebrity 100 list, suggesting that she \"may be the most powerful entertainer on the planet.\"", "''Latina'' magazine founder Christy Haubegger attributed Lopez's influence to her being \"the first icon that generationally fits\" young Latino Americans who followed celebrity culture.", "Lopez was featured on the first cover of ''Latina'' in 1996, with editor Galina Espinoza writing in 2011 that there is \"no recounting of modern Latina history without Jennifer\".", "Jonathan Van Meter of ''Vogue'' described Lopez as having changed the face of modern celebrity.", "She has been noted for her ability to start trends, which has prompted the usage of the phrase \"the J.Lo effect\" in popular culture.", "Academics have observed the phrase's application to a phenomenon that resembles mate choice copying.", "The ratings success of Lopez's casting on ''American Idol'' led to a trend of networks hiring \"big name\" judges for similar shows, which ''The Hollywood Reporter'' branded \"the J.Lo effect\".", "With her moniker J.Lo, Lopez started a trend of celebrities being given abbreviated nicknames.", "Her highly publicized relationship with Affleck (\"Bennifer\") also began the convention of celebrity couple name blending.", "The 6.1-carat pink diamond ring from the couple's first engagement (2002) has been described as \"the most talked about engagement ring\" in modern times, prompting a surge in the popularity of colored diamonds and increasing the value of pink diamonds.", "Her first fragrance, Glow by JLo, has been credited with influencing the rise of celebrity fragrances in the 2000s, with perfume critic Chandler Burr writing: \"Elizabeth Taylor was one of the first to have her own scent, but Glow kicked the whole thing into overdrive.\"", "Her fragrance line became the most successful celebrity line in the world, with sales exceeding $2 billion .Around the time her career began to burgeon, public emphasis on Lopez's curvaceous figure grew, sometimes overshadowing her career achievements.", "Scholar Sean Redmond wrote that this was a sign of her role and social power in the cultural changes occurring in the United States.", "Jillian Báez suggested that \"Lopez and her body functions as a site of struggle as a contestation for debating larger issues concerning the everyday lives of Latinas in the U.S.\" The surge in popularity of buttock augmentation surgery in the early 2000s was attributed to Lopez.", "In 2014, scientists named a species of aquatic mite found in Puerto Rico, ''Litarachna lopezae'', after Lopez.", "In Tok Pisin, a language spoken in Papua New Guinea, the term palopa is used to describe non-heteronormative people whose identities may correlate with western definitions of homosexual men or trans women; its etymology is derived from the name Jennifer Lopez.", "In 2019, she was presented with keys to the city of Miami Beach, with July 24 being declared \"Jennifer Lopez Day\".===Fashion===green Versace dress, and Donatella Versace (''right'') in 2019Recognized for her influence on fashion, the Council of Fashion Designers of America presented Lopez with its Fashion Icon Award in 2019 for her \"long-standing and global impact on fashion\".", "Her green Versace \"Jungle Dress\", voted the fifth most iconic red carpet dress of all time in a poll run by ''The Daily Telegraph'', had a significant impact on the fashion industry and evolution of red carpet fashion.", "The images of Lopez wearing the dress became the most popular search query of all time at that point, and subsequently led to the creation of Google's image search.", "Donatella Versace credited Lopez wearing the dress with reviving the Versace brand.", "Lopez has been in demand as a fashion brand ambassador.", "In 2021, she was identified as one of 10 celebrities whose personal style choices drive the greatest spikes in searches and news coverage for fashion brands.", "''The Daily Telegraph'' called her the \"world's most powerful\" middle aged celebrity in fashion.", "Her appearance at Milan Fashion Week in September 2019, wearing an updated version of green Versace dress, generated over $31.8 million in total media impact value.", "After she wore a white Chanel coat at the 2021 presidential inauguration, searches for \"long white coats\" grew by 119%.A range of celebrities have cited Lopez as their style icon, including Kim Kardashian and Serena Williams.", "Lopez's clothing brand was one of the first celebrity fashion lines, with Hurtado writing that she \"redefined how fashion is produced and entwined with other artistic endeavors\", influencing artists like Beyoncé to adopt a similar approach.", "Fashion trends popularized by Lopez in the 2000s include velour shorts, baby pink coats, Juicy Couture tracksuits, and Newsboy caps.", "She also sparked various beauty trends, including sunless tanning, monochromatic makeup and contouring; her appearance at the 73rd Academy Awards in 2001 \"both invented and popularized\" mink eyelashes.", "In 2004, Lopez inspired a trend of curvier mannequins being manufactured, with mannequin designers such as Ralph Pucci basing their designs on her body.", "This led to a rise in sales for manufacturers and retailers." ], [ "Achievements", ", Lopez has sold more than 80 million records worldwide and her films have grossed a cumulative total of .", "She remains the only female entertainer to have a number one album and film simultaneously in the United States.", "With ''J.Lo'' (2001), Lopez became the first female solo recording artist under Epic Records to achieve a number one album in the United States since its inception in 1953.", "''J to tha L-O!", "The Remixes'' (2002) was acknowledged by the ''Guinness World Records'' as the first number one remix album on the US ''Billboard'' 200.Lopez's single \"On the Floor\" is among the best-selling singles of all time, and its music video was recognized as the \"Highest Viewed Female Music Video of All Time\" by ''Guinness World Records'' in 2012.", "''Billboard'' magazine ranked her as the ninth greatest dance club artist of all time in 2016, having scored 18 number-one songs on its Dance Club Songs chart.In 2010, Lopez was honored by the World Music Awards with the Legend Award for her contribution to the arts.", "In 2013, she was presented with the prestigious landmark 2,500th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her musical contributions, and Univision presented her with the World Icon Award in its Premios Juventud.", "In 2014, she became the first female recipient of the ''Billboard'' Icon Award.", "In 2017, she was awarded the Telemundo Star Award at the ''Billboard'' Latin Music Awards.", "In 2018, Lopez received the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards, making her the first Latin performer to receive the honor since its introduction in 1984.In 2022, she received the Generation Award at the MTV Movie & TV Awards for her contributions to film and television, and the Icon Award at the iHeart Radio Music Awards." ], [ "Discography", "*''On the 6'' (1999)*''J.Lo'' (2001)*''This Is Me... Then'' (2002)*''Rebirth'' (2005)*''Como Ama una Mujer'' (2007)*''Brave'' (2007)*''Love?''", "(2011)*''A.K.A.''", "(2014)*''This Is Me... Now'' (2024)" ], [ "Filmography", "'''Films starred'''*''Nurses on the Line: The Crash of Flight 7'' (1993)*''My Family'' (1995)*''Money Train'' (1995)*''Jack'' (1996)*''Blood and Wine'' (1996)*''Selena'' (1997)*''Anaconda'' (1997)*''U Turn'' (1997)*''Out of Sight'' (1998)*''Antz'' (1998)*''The Cell'' (2000)*''The Wedding Planner'' (2001)*''Angel Eyes'' (2001)*''Enough'' (2002)*''Maid in Manhattan'' (2002)*''Gigli'' (2003)*''Shall We Dance?''", "(2004)*''Monster-in-Law'' (2005)*''An Unfinished Life'' (2005)*''El Cantante'' (2006)*''Bordertown'' (2007)*''The Back-up Plan'' (2010)*''What to Expect When You're Expecting'' (2012)*''Ice Age: Continental Drift'' (2012)*''Parker'' (2013)*''The Boy Next Door'' (2015)*''Lila & Eve'' (2015)*''Home'' (2015)*''Ice Age: Collision Course'' (2016)*''Second Act'' (2018)*''Hustlers'' (2019)*''Marry Me'' (2022)*''Shotgun Wedding'' (2022)*''The Mother'' (2023)*''This Is Me...Now: A Love Story'' (2024)*''Atlas'' (2024)*''Unstoppable'' (2024)" ], [ "Written works", "Lopez has written a memoir and co-written one children's book so far.", "* Lopez, Jennifer.", "''True Love''.", "Celebra, 2014..* Lopez, Jennifer and Jimmy Fallon (authors).", "''Con Pollo: A Bilingual Playtime Adventure''.", "Feiwel & Friends, 2022.." ], [ "Tours and residencies", "'''Headlining tours'''* Dance Again World Tour (2012)* It's My Party Tour (2019)* This Is Me... Now: The Tour (2024)'''Co-headlining tours'''* Jennifer Lopez & Marc Anthony en Concierto (2007)* Enrique Iglesias & Jennifer Lopez Tour (2012)'''Residencies'''* Jennifer Lopez: All I Have (2016–2018)" ], [ "See also", "* History of women in Puerto Rico* List of artists who reached number one in the United States* List of dancers* List of Puerto Ricans* Mami (hip hop)* Nuyorican* List of most-followed Instagram accounts" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "********" ], [ "External links", "* – official site* – official beauty site* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "July 21" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*356 BC – The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, is destroyed by arson.", "* 230 – Pope Pontian succeeds Urban I as the eighteenth pope.", "After being exiled to Sardinia, he became the first pope to resign his office.", "* 285 – Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar and co-ruler.", "*365 – The 365 Crete earthquake affected the Greek island of Crete with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (''Extreme''), causing a destructive tsunami that affects the coasts of Libya and Egypt, especially Alexandria.", "Many thousands are killed.", "* 905 – King Berengar I of Italy and a hired Hungarian army defeats the Frankish forces at Verona.", "King Louis III is captured and blinded for breaking his oath (see 902).", "*1242 – Battle of Taillebourg: Louis IX of France puts an end to the revolt of his vassals Henry III of England and Hugh X of Lusignan.", "*1403 – Battle of Shrewsbury: King Henry IV of England defeats rebels to the north of the county town of Shropshire, England.", "*1545 – The first landing of French troops on the coast of the Isle of Wight during the French invasion of the Isle of Wight.", "*1568 – Eighty Years' War: Battle of Jemmingen: Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva defeats Louis of Nassau.===1601–1900===*1645 – Qing dynasty regent Dorgon issues an edict ordering all Han Chinese men to shave their forehead and braid the rest of their hair into a queue identical to those of the Manchus.", "*1656 – The Raid on Málaga takes place during the Anglo-Spanish War.", "*1674 – A Dutch assault on the French island of Martinique is repulsed against all odds.", "*1718 – The Treaty of Passarowitz between the Ottoman Empire, Austria and the Republic of Venice is signed.", "*1774 – Russo-Turkish War (1768–74): Russia and the Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca ending the war.", "*1798 – French campaign in Egypt and Syria: Napoleon's forces defeat an Ottoman-Mamluk army near Cairo in the Battle of the Pyramids.", "*1831 – Inauguration of Leopold I of Belgium, first king of the Belgians.", "*1861 – American Civil War: First Battle of Bull Run: At Manassas Junction, Virginia, the first major battle of the war begins and ends in a victory for the Confederate army.", "*1865 – In the market square of Springfield, Missouri, Wild Bill Hickok shoots and kills Davis Tutt in what is regarded as the first western showdown.", "*1873 – At Adair, Iowa, Jesse James and the James–Younger Gang pull off the first successful train robbery in the American Old West.", "*1877 – After rioting by Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers and the deaths of nine rail workers at the hands of the Maryland militia, workers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, stage a sympathy strike that is met with an assault by the state militia.===1901–present===*1904 – Louis Rigolly, a Frenchman, becomes the first man to break the barrier on land.", "He drove a 15-liter Gobron-Brillié in Ostend, Belgium.", "*1907 – The passenger steamer SS ''Columbia'' sinks after colliding with the steam schooner ''San Pedro'' off Shelter Cove, California, killing 88 people.", "*1919 – The dirigible ''Wingfoot Air Express'' crashes into the Illinois Trust and Savings Building in Chicago, killing 12 people.", "*1920 – The \"Belfast Pogrom\" begins two years of violence with the expulsion of thousands of Belfast shipyard, factory and linen mill workers from their jobs.", "*1925 – Scopes Trial: In Dayton, Tennessee, high school biology teacher John T. Scopes is found guilty of teaching human evolution in class and fined $100.", "* 1925 – Malcolm Campbell becomes the first man to exceed on land.", "At Pendine Sands in Wales, he drives Sunbeam 350HP built by Sunbeam at a two-way average speed of .", "*1936 – Spanish Civil War: The Central Committee of Antifascist Militias of Catalonia is constituted, establishing an anarcho-syndicalist economy in Catalonia.", "*1944 – World War II: Battle of Guam: American troops land on Guam, starting a battle that will end on August 10.", "* 1944 – World War II: Claus von Stauffenberg and four fellow conspirators are executed for the July 20 plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler.", "*1949 – The United States Senate ratifies the North Atlantic Treaty.", "*1952 – The 7.3 Kern County earthquake strikes Southern California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (''Extreme''), killing 12 and injuring hundreds.", "*1954 – First Indochina War: The Geneva Conference partitions Vietnam into North Vietnam and South Vietnam.", "*1959 – , the first nuclear-powered cargo-passenger ship, is launched as a showcase for Dwight D. Eisenhower's \"Atoms for Peace\" initiative.", "* 1959 – Elijah Jerry \"Pumpsie\" Green becomes the first African-American to play for the Boston Red Sox, the last team to integrate.", "He came in as a pinch runner for Vic Wertz and stayed in as shortstop in a 2–1 loss to the Chicago White Sox.", "*1960 – Sirimavo Bandaranaike is elected Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, becoming the world's first female head of government*1961 – Mercury program: Mercury-Redstone 4 Mission: Gus Grissom piloting'' Liberty Bell 7'' becomes the second American to go into space (in a suborbital mission).", "* 1961 – Alaska Airlines Flight 779 crashes near Shemya Air Force Base in Shemya, Alaska killing six.", "*1964 – A series of racial riots break out in Singapore.", "In the next six weeks, 23 die with 454 others injured.", "*1969 – Apollo program: At 02:56 UTC, astronaut Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the Moon, followed 19 minutes later by Edwin \"Buzz\" Aldrin.", "*1970 – After 11 years of construction, the Aswan High Dam in Egypt is completed.", "*1972 – The Troubles: Bloody Friday: The Provisional IRA detonate 22 bombs in central Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom in the space of 80 minutes, killing nine and injuring 130.", "*1973 – In Lillehammer, Norway, Mossad agents kill a waiter whom they mistakenly thought was involved in the 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre.", "*1976 – Christopher Ewart-Biggs, the British ambassador to the Republic of Ireland, is assassinated by the Provisional IRA.", "*1977 – The start of the four-day-long Libyan–Egyptian War.", "*1979 – Jay Silverheels, a Mohawk actor, becomes the first Native American to have a star commemorated in the Hollywood Walk of Fame.", "*1983 – The world's lowest temperature in an inhabited location is recorded at Vostok Station, Antarctica at .", "*1990 – Taiwan's military police forces mainland Chinese illegal immigrants into sealed holds of a fishing boat ''Min Ping Yu No.", "5540'' for repatriation to Fujian, causing 25 people to die from suffocation.", "*1995 – Third Taiwan Strait Crisis: The People's Liberation Army begins firing missiles into the waters north of Taiwan.", "*2001 – At the conclusion of a fireworks display on Okura Beach in Akashi, Hyōgo, Japan, 11 people are killed and more than 120 are injured when a pedestrian footbridge connecting the beach to JR Asagiri Station becomes overcrowded and people leaving the event fall down in a domino effect.", "*2005 – Four attempted bomb attacks by Islamist extremists disrupt part of London's public transport system.", "*2008 – Ram Baran Yadav is declared the first President of Nepal.", "*2010 – President Barack Obama signs the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act.", "*2011 – NASA's Space Shuttle program ends with the landing of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on mission STS-135 at NASA's Kennedy Space Center.", "*2012 – Erden Eruç completes the first solo human-powered circumnavigation of the world.", "*2019 – Yuen Long attack or \"721 incident\" in Hong Kong.", "Triad members indiscriminately beat civilians returning from protests while police failed to take action.", "*2023 – The Barbenheimer phenomenon begins as two major motion pictures, Greta Gerwig's fantasy comedy ''Barbie'' and Christopher Nolan's epic biographical thriller ''Oppenheimer'', are released in theaters on the same day and audiences, instead of creating a rivalry between the extremely dissimilar films, instead attend and praise both as an informal, surreal double feature." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 541 – Emperor Wen of Sui, emperor of the Sui Dynasty (d. 604)*1030 – Kyansittha, King of Burma (d. 1112)*1414 – Pope Sixtus IV (d. 1484)*1462 – Queen Jeonghyeon, Korean royal consort (d. 1530)*1476 – Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara (d. 1534)* 1476 – Anna Sforza, Italian noble (d. 1497)*1535 – García Hurtado de Mendoza, 5th Marquis of Cañete, Royal Governor of Chile (d. 1609)===1601–1900===*1616 – Anna de' Medici, Archduchess of Austria (d. 1676)*1620 – Jean Picard, French astronomer (d. 1682)*1648 – John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee, Scottish general (d. 1689)*1654 – Pedro Calungsod, Filipino catechist and sacristan; later canonized (d. 1672)*1664 – Matthew Prior, English poet and diplomat, British Ambassador to France (d. 1721)*1693 – Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, English politician, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1768)*1710 – Paul Möhring, German physician, botanist, and zoologist (d. 1792)*1783 – Charles Tristan, marquis de Montholon, French general (d. 1853)*1808 – Simion Bărnuțiu, Romanian historian, academic, and politician (d. 1864)*1810 – Henri Victor Regnault, French chemist and physicist (d. 1878)*1811 – Robert Mackenzie, Scottish-Australian politician, 3rd Premier of Queensland (d. 1873) *1816 – Paul Reuter, German-English journalist, founded Reuters (d. 1899)*1858 – Maria Christina of Austria (d. 1929)* 1858 – Lovis Corinth, German painter (d. 1925)* 1858 – Alfred Henry O'Keeffe, New Zealand painter and educator (d. 1941)*1863 – C. Aubrey Smith, English-American cricketer and actor (d. 1948)*1866 – Carlos Schwabe, Swiss Symbolist painter and printmaker (d. 1926)*1870 – Emil Orlík, Czech painter, etcher, and lithographer (d. 1932)*1875 – Charles Gondouin, French rugby player and tug of war competitor (d. 1947)*1880 – Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Slovak astronomer, general, and politician (d. 1919)*1882 – David Burliuk, Ukrainian author and illustrator (d. 1967)*1885 – Jacques Feyder, Belgian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1948)*1891 – Julius Saaristo, Finnish javelin thrower and soldier (d. 1969)*1893 – Hans Fallada, German author (d. 1947)*1896 – Sophie Bledsoe Aberle, Native American anthropologist, physician and nutritionist (d. 1996)*1898 – Sara Carter, American singer-songwriter (d. 1979)*1899 – Hart Crane, American poet (d. 1932)* 1899 – Ernest Hemingway, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)*1900 – Isadora Bennett, American theatre manager and modern dance publicity agent (d. 1980)===1901–present===*1903 – Russell Lee, American photographer and journalist (d. 1986)* 1903 – Roy Neuberger, American businessman and financier, co-founded Neuberger Berman (d. 2010)*1908 – Jug McSpaden, American golfer and architect (d. 1996)*1911 – Marshall McLuhan, Canadian author and theorist (d. 1980)* 1911 – Umashankar Joshi, Indian author, poet, and scholar (d. 1988)*1914 – Aleksander Kreek, Estonian shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1977)*1917 – Alan B.", "Gold, Canadian lawyer and jurist (d. 2005)*1920 – Constant Nieuwenhuys, Dutch painter, sculptor, and illustrator (d. 2005)* 1920 – Isaac Stern, Russian-American violinist and conductor (d. 2001)* 1920 – Jean Daniel, Algerian-French-Jewish journalist and author (d. 2020)*1921 – James Cooke Brown, American sociologist and author (d. 2000)* 1921 – John Horsley, English actor (d. 2014)* 1921 – Vusamazulu Credo Mutwa, Zulu sangoma (d. 2020)*1922 – Kay Starr, American singer (d. 2016)* 1922 – Mollie Sugden, English actress (d. 2009)*1923 – Rudolph A. Marcus, Canadian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1923 – Queenie Watts, English actress and singer (d. 1980)* 1924 – Don Knotts, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter (d. 2006)*1925 – Johnny Peirson, Canadian hockey player (d. 2021)*1926 – Paul Burke, American actor (d. 2009)* 1926 – Norman Jewison, Canadian actor, director, and producer (d. 2024)* 1926 – Rahimuddin Khan, Pakistani general and politician, 7th Governor of Balochistan (d. 2022)* 1926 – Bill Pertwee, English actor (d. 2013)* 1926 – Karel Reisz, Czech-English director and producer (d. 2002)*1928 – Sky Low Low, Canadian wrestler (d. 1998)*1929 – Bob Orton, American wrestler (d. 2006)*1930 – Anand Bakshi, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 2002)* 1930 – Helen Merrill, American singer*1931 – Sonny Clark, American pianist and composer (d. 1963)* 1931 – Plas Johnson, American saxophonist * 1931 – Leon Schidlowsky, Chilean-Israeli painter and composer*1932 – Kaye Stevens, American singer and actress (d. 2011)*1933 – John Gardner, American novelist, essayist, and critic (d. 1982)*1934 – Chandu Borde, Indian cricketer and manager* 1934 – Jonathan Miller, English actor, director, and author (d. 2019)*1935 – Norbert Blüm, German businessman and politician (d. 2020)* 1935 – Moe Drabowsky, Polish-American baseball player and coach (d. 2006)*1937 – Eduard Streltsov, Soviet footballer (d. 1990)*1938 – Les Aspin, American captain and politician, 18th United States Secretary of Defense (d. 1995)* 1938 – Anton Kuerti, Austrian-Canadian pianist, composer, and conductor* 1938 – Janet Reno, American lawyer and politician, 79th United States Attorney General (d. 2016)*1939 – Jamey Aebersold, American saxophonist and educator* 1939 – Kim Fowley, American singer-songwriter, producer, and manager (d. 2015)* 1939 – John Negroponte, English-American diplomat, 23rd United States Ambassador to the United Nations*1942 – Mallikarjun Kharge, Indian politician, 98th President of the Indian National Congress*1943 – Fritz Glatz, Austrian race car driver (d. 2002)* 1943 – Edward Herrmann, American actor (d. 2014)* 1943 – Henry McCullough, Northern Irish guitarist, singer and songwriter (d. 2016)* 1943 – Robert Shrum, American author and political advisor*1944 – John Atta Mills, Ghanaian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Ghana (d. 2012)* 1944 – Buchi Emecheta, Nigerian author and academic (d. 2017)* 1944 – Paul Wellstone, American academic and politician (d. 2002)*1945 – Wendy Cope, English poet, critic, and educator* 1945 – Geoff Dymock, Australian cricketer* 1945 – Barry Richards, South African cricketer*1946 – Ken Starr, American lawyer and judge, 39th Solicitor General of the United States (d. 2022)* 1946 – Timothy Harris, American author, screenwriter and producer*1947 – Chetan Chauhan, Indian cricketer and politician (d. 2020)*1948 – Art Hindle, Canadian actor and director* 1948 – Cat Stevens (Yusuf Islam), English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1948 – Garry Trudeau, American cartoonist*1949 – Christina Hart, American playwright and actress* 1949 – Hirini Melbourne, New Zealand singer-songwriter and poet (d. 2003)*1950 – Ubaldo Fillol, Argentinian footballer and coach* 1950 – Susan Kramer, Baroness Kramer, English politician, Minister of State for Transport*1951 – Richard Gozney, English politician and diplomat, 30th Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man, 139th Governor of Bermuda* 1951 – Robin Williams, American actor and comedian (d. 2014)*1952 – John Barrasso, American physician and politician* 1952 – Ahmad Husni Hanadzlah, Malaysian economist*1953 – Eric Bazilian, American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, arranger, and producer* 1953 – Jeff Fatt, Australian keyboard player and actor * 1953 – Bernie Fraser, New Zealand rugby player* 1953 – Brian Talbot, English footballer and manager*1955 – Howie Epstein, American bass player, songwriter, and producer (d. 2003) * 1955 – Dannel Malloy, American lawyer and politician, 88th Governor of Connecticut* 1955 – Taco, Indonesian-b.", "Dutch singer and entertainer * 1955 – Béla Tarr, Hungarian director, producer, and screenwriter*1956 – Michael Connelly, American author*1957 – Stefan Löfven, Swedish trade union leader and politician, 33rd Prime Minister of Sweden* 1957 – Jon Lovitz, American comedian, actor, and producer*1958 – Dave Henderson, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2015)*1959 – Gene Miles, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster* 1959 – Reha Muhtar, Turkish journalist* 1959 – Paul Vautin, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster*1960 – Amar Singh Chamkila, Indian singer-songwriter (d. 1988)* 1960 – Veselin Matić, Serbian basketball player and coach* 1960 – Fritz Walter, German footballer*1961 – Morris Iemma, Australian politician, 40th Premier of New South Wales* 1961 – Jim Martin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1962 – Victor Adebowale, Baron Adebowale, English businessman*1963 – Kevin Poole, English footballer and manager* 1963 – Giant Silva, Brazilian basketball player, mixed martial artist, and wrestler*1964 – Steve Collins, Irish boxer and actor* 1964 – Ross Kemp, English actor and producer* 1964 – Jens Weißflog, German ski jumper and journalist*1965 – Guðni Bergsson, Icelandic footballer and lawyer* 1965 – Mike Bordick, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster*1966 – Arija Bareikis, American actress* 1966 – Sarah Waters, Welsh author*1968 – Brandi Chastain, American soccer player and sportscaster* 1968 – Aditya Srivastava, Indian actor* 1968 – Lyle Odelein, Canadian ice hockey player*1969 – Godfrey, American comedian and actor* 1969 – Klaus Graf, German race car driver* 1969 – Emerson Hart, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1969 – Isabell Werth, German equestrian*1970 – Michael Fitzpatrick, American singer-songwriter *1971 – Emmanuel Bangué, French long jumper* 1971 – Charlotte Gainsbourg, English-French actress and singer* 1971 – Nitzan Shirazi, Israeli footballer and manager (d. 2014)*1972 – Kimera Bartee, American baseball player (d. 2021)* 1972 – Korey Cooper, American singer and guitarist* 1972 – Catherine Ndereba, Kenyan marathon runner*1974 – Geoff Jenkins, American baseball player and coach* 1974 – René Reinumägi, Estonian actor, director, and screenwriter*1975 – Christopher Barzak, American author and educator* 1975 – David Dastmalchian, American actor* 1975 – Cara Dillon, Irish singer-songwriter * 1975 – Ravindra Pushpakumara, Sri Lankan cricketer* 1975 – Mike Sellers, American football player*1976 – Cori Bush, American politician* 1976 – Jalmari Helander, Finnish film director and screenwriter* 1976 – Jaime Murray, English actress*1977 – Paul Casey, English golfer*1978 – Justin Bartha, American actor * 1978 – Anderson da Silva Gibin, Brazilian footballer* 1978 – Josh Hartnett, American actor* 1978 – Julian Huppert, English academic and politician* 1978 – Damian Marley, Jamaican singer-songwriter and producer * 1978 – Gary Teale, Scottish footballer*1979 – David Carr, American football player* 1979 – Tamika Catchings, American basketball player* 1979 – Luis Ernesto Michel, Mexican footballer * 1979 – Andriy Voronin, Ukrainian footballer *1980 – Jon Dorenbos, American football player* 1980 – Justin Griffith, American football player* 1980 – Sandra Laoura, French skier * 1980 – CC Sabathia, American baseball player* 1980 – Yvonne Sampson, Australian journalist and sportscaster* 1980 – Heath Scotland, Australian rules footballer*1981 – Paloma Faith, English singer-songwriter and actress* 1981 – Anabelle Langlois, Canadian figure skater* 1981 – Joaquín, Spanish footballer* 1981 – Blake Lewis, American musician, American Idol contestant* 1981 – Romeo Santos, American singer-songwriter* 1981 – Stefan Schumacher, German cyclist*1982 – Jason Cram, Australian swimmer* 1982 – Mao Kobayashi, Japanese newscaster and actress (d. 2017)*1983 – Kellen Winslow II, American football player*1984 – Jurrick Juliana, Dutch footballer* 1984 – Liam Ridgewell, English footballer* 1985 – Mati Lember, Estonian footballer* 1985 – Von Wafer, American basketball player*1986 – Anthony Annan, Ghanaian footballer* 1986 – Rebecca Ferguson, American-English singer-songwriter* 1986 – Jason Thompson, American basketball player *1987 – Peter Doocy, American journalist* 1987 – Bilel Mohsni, French footballer* 1987 – Jesús Zavala, Mexican footballer *1988 – KB, American rapper * 1988 – DeAndre Jordan, American basketball player* 1988 – Chris Mitchell, Scottish footballer (d. 2016)*1989 – Rory Culkin, American actor* 1989 – Marco Fabián, Mexican footballer* 1989 – Juno Temple, English actress* 1989 – Jamie Waylett, British actor*1990 – Franck Elemba, Congolese athlete* 1990 – Chris Martin, English footballer* 1990 – Jason Roy, South African-English cricketer* 1990 – Erislandy Savón, Cuban amateur heavyweight boxer*1991 – Sara Sampaio, Portuguese model*1992 – Jude Adjei-Barimah, Italian-American football player* 1992 – Jessica Barden, English actress* 1992 – Julia Beljajeva, Estonian épée fencer* 1992 – Burak Çelik, Turkish actor and model* 1992 – Da$H, American rapper* 1992 – Giovanni De Gennaro, Italian slalom canoeist* 1992 – Charlotte de Witte, Belgian DJ and record producer* 1992 – Dawid Dryja, Polish volleyball player* 1992 – Rachael Flatt, American figure skater* 1992 – Marcus Harris, Australian cricketer* 1992 – Jonathon Jennings, American Canadian football player* 1992 – Dante Marini, American soccer player* 1992 – Henry Owens, American baseball pitcher* 1992 – Andrew Rayel, Moldovan DJ and producer* 1992 – Yuka Sato, Japanese javelin thrower* 1992 – Miles Ukaoma, American-born Nigerian hurdler*1996 – Mikael Ingebrigtsen, Norwegian footballer*1998 – Marie Bouzkova, Czech tennis player*2000 – Erling Haaland, Norwegian footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 658 – K'an II, Mayan ruler (b.", "588)* 710 – Li Guo'er, princess of the Tang dynasty* 710 – Wei, empress of the Tang Dynasty* 710 – Shangguan Wan'er, Chinese poet (b.", "664)* 987 – Geoffrey I, Count of Anjou*1259 – Gojong of Goryeo*1403 – Henry Percy, English soldier (b.", "1364)* 1403 – Sir Walter Blount, English soldier, standard-bearer of Henry IV* 1403 – Edmund Stafford, 5th Earl of Stafford, English soldier*1425 – Manuel II Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b.", "1350)*1552 – Antonio de Mendoza, Spanish politician, 1st Viceroy of New Spain (b.", "1495)===1601–1900===*1688 – James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b.", "1610)*1793 – Antoine Bruni d'Entrecasteaux, French admiral, explorer, and politician (b.", "1739)*1796 – Robert Burns, Scottish poet and songwriter (b.", "1759)*1798 – François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt, Austrian field marshal (b.", "1733)*1798 – Anthony Perry, Irish rebel leader (b. ca.", "1760)*1868 – William Bland, Australian surgeon and politician (b.", "1789)*1878 – Sam Bass, American outlaw (b.", "1851)*1880 – Hiram Walden, American general and politician (b.", "1800)*1889 – Nelson Dewey, American lawyer and politician, 1st Governor of Wisconsin (b.", "1813)*1899 – Robert G. Ingersoll, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1833)===1901–present===*1920 – Fiammetta Wilson, English astronomer and educator (b.", "1864)*1928 – Ellen Terry, English actress (b.", "1847)*1932 – Bill Gleason, American baseball player (b.", "1858)*1938 – Owen Wister, American lawyer and author (b.", "1860)*1941 – Bohdan Lepky, Ukrainian poet and scholar (b.", "1872)*1943 – Charley Paddock, American runner and actor (b.", "1900)* 1943 – Louis Vauxcelles, French Jewish art critic (b.", "1870)*1944 – Claus von Stauffenberg, German soldier (b.", "1907)*1946 – Gualberto Villarroel, Bolivian soldier and politician, 45th President of Bolivia (b.", "1908)*1948 – Arshile Gorky, Armenian-American painter and illustrator (b.", "1904)*1952 – Pedro Lascuráin, Mexican politician, president for 45 minutes on February 13, 1913.(b.", "1856)*1966 – Philipp Frank, Austrian-American physicist, mathematician, and philosopher, Vienna Circle member (b.", "1884)*1967 – Jimmie Foxx, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1907)* 1967 – Albert Lutuli, South African academic and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1898)* 1967 – Basil Rathbone, South African-American actor and singer (b.", "1892)*1968 – Ruth St. Denis, American dancer and choreographer (b.", "1878)*1970 – Mikhail Mikhaylovich Gerasimov, Russian anthropologist and sculptor (b.", "1907)* 1970 – Bob Kalsu, American football player and lieutenant (b.", "1945)*1972 – Ralph Craig, American sprinter and sailor (b.", "1889)* 1972 – Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, Bhutanese king (b.", "1928)*1977 – Lee Miller, American model and photographer (b.", "1907)*1982 – Dave Garroway, American journalist and actor (b.", "1913)*1991 – Paul Warwick, English race car driver (b.", "1969)*1994 – Marijac, French author and illustrator (b.", "1908)*1997 – Olaf Kopvillem, Estonian-Canadian conductor and composer (b.", "1926)*1998 – Alan Shepard, American admiral, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1923)* 1998 – Robert Young, American actor and singer (b.", "1907)*2000 – Marc Reisner, American environmentalist and author (b.", "1948)*2002 – Esphyr Slobodkina, Russian-American author and illustrator (b.", "1908)*2003 – John Davies, English-New Zealand runner and coach (b.", "1938)*2004 – Jerry Goldsmith, American composer and conductor (b.", "1929)* 2004 – Edward B. Lewis, American geneticist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918)*2005 – Long John Baldry, English-Canadian singer and actor (b.", "1941)* 2005 – Lord Alfred Hayes, English-American wrestler and manager (b.", "1928)*2006 – Mako Iwamatsu, Japanese-American actor and singer (b.", "1933)* 2006 – Ta Mok, Cambodian soldier and monk (b.", "1926)*2007 – Dubravko Škiljan, Croatian linguist and academic (b.", "1949)*2008 – Donald Stokes, English businessman (b.", "1914)*2010 – Luis Corvalán, Chilean educator and politician (b.", "1916)* 2010 – Ralph Houk, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1919)* 2010 – John E. Irving, Canadian businessman (b.", "1932)*2012 – Alexander Cockburn, Scottish-American journalist and author (b.", "1941)* 2012 – Marie Kruckel, American baseball player (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Ali Podrimja, Albanian poet and author (b.", "1942)* 2012 – James D. Ramage, American admiral and pilot (b.", "1916)* 2012 – Angharad Rees, English-b.", "Welsh actress (b.", "1944)* 2012 – Don Wilson, English cricketer and coach (b.", "1937)*2013 – Andrea Antonelli, Italian motorcycle racer (b.", "1988)* 2013 – Lourembam Brojeshori Devi, Indian martial artist (b.", "1981)* 2013 – Det de Beus, Dutch field hockey player (b.", "1958)* 2013 – Luis Fernando Rizo-Salom, Colombian-French composer and educator (b.", "1971)* 2013 – Fred Taylor, American football player and coach (b.", "1920)*2014 – Louise Abeita, Isleta Pueblo (Native American) writer, poet, and educator (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Dan Borislow, American businessman, invented the magicJack (b.", "1961)* 2014 – Lettice Curtis, English engineer and pilot (b.", "1915)* 2014 – Hans-Peter Kaul, German lawyer and judge (b.", "1943)* 2014 – Rilwanu Lukman, Nigerian engineer and politician (b.", "1938)* 2014 – Kevin Skinner, New Zealand rugby player and boxer (b.", "1927)*2015 – Robert Broberg, Swedish singer-songwriter (b.", "1940)* 2015 – E. L. Doctorow, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (b.", "1931)* 2015 – Nicholas Gonzalez, American physician (b.", "1947)* 2015 – Czesław Marchaj, Polish-English sailor and academic (b.", "1918)* 2015 – Dick Nanninga, Dutch footballer (b.", "1949)*2016 – Dennis Green, American football player and coach (b.", "1949)*2017 – John Heard, American film and television actor (b.", "1946)*2018 – Alene Duerk, U.S. Navy first female admiral (b.", "1920)*2020 – Annie Ross, Scottish-American singer and actress (b.", "1930)* 2020 – Andrew Mlangeni, South African political activist (b.", "1925) * 2023 – Tony Bennett, American singer (b.", "1926)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Albert John Luthuli (Episcopal Church)** Arbogast** Barhadbesciabas** Carlos of Brazil (Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church)** Daniel (Catholic Church)** Lawrence of Brindisi** Praxedes ** Victor of Marseilles** July 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Liberation Day in 1944 (Guam)* Belgian National Day (Belgium)* Racial Harmony Day (Singapore)* Summer Kazanskaya (Russia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "July 23" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 811 – Byzantine emperor Nikephoros I plunders the Bulgarian capital of Pliska and captures Khan Krum's treasury.", "*1319 – A Knights Hospitaller fleet scores a crushing victory over an Aydinid fleet off Chios.===1601–1900===*1632 – Three hundred colonists bound for New France depart from Dieppe, France.", "*1677 – Scanian War: Denmark–Norway captures the harbor town of Marstrand from Sweden.", "*1793 – Kingdom of Prussia re-conquers Mainz from France.", "*1813 – Sir Thomas Maitland is appointed as the first Governor of Malta, transforming the island from a British protectorate to a ''de facto'' colony.", "*1821 – While the Mora Rebellion continues, Greeks capture Monemvasia Castle.", "Turkish troops and citizens are transferred to Asia Minor's coasts.", "*1829 – In the United States, William Austin Burt patents the typographer, a precursor to the typewriter.", "*1840 – The Province of Canada is created by the Act of Union.", "*1862 – American Civil War: Henry Halleck becomes general-in-chief of the Union Army.", "*1874 – Aires de Ornelas e Vasconcelos is appointed the Archbishop of the Portuguese colonial enclave of Goa, India.", "*1881 – The Boundary Treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina is signed in Buenos Aires.", "*1900 – Pressed by expanding immigration, Canada closes its doors to paupers and criminals.===1901–present===*1903 – The Ford Motor Company sells its first car.", "*1908 – The Second Constitution accepted by the Ottomans.", "*1914 – Austria-Hungary issues a series of demands in an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia demanding Serbia to allow the Austrians to determine who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand.", "Serbia accepts all but one of those demands and Austria declares war on July 28.", "*1919 – Prince Regent Aleksander Karađorđević signs the decree establishing the University of Ljubljana*1921 – The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is established at the founding National Congress.", "*1926 – Fox Film buys the patents of the Movietone sound system for recording sound onto film.", "*1927 – The first station of the Indian Broadcasting Company goes on the air in Bombay.", "*1936 – In Catalonia, Spain, the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia is founded through the merger of Socialist and Communist parties.", "*1940 – The United States' Under Secretary of State Sumner Welles issues a declaration on the U.S. non-recognition policy of the Soviet annexation and incorporation of three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.", "*1942 – World War II: The German offensives Operation Edelweiss and Operation Braunschweig begin.", "* 1942 – Bulgarian poet and Communist leader Nikola Vaptsarov is executed by firing squad.", "*1943 – The Rayleigh bath chair murder occurred in Rayleigh, Essex, England.", "* 1943 – World War II: The British destroyers and sink the in the Mediterranean after she torpedoes the cruiser .", "*1945 – The post-war legal processes against Philippe Pétain begin.", "* 1952 – General Muhammad Naguib leads the Free Officers Movement (formed by Gamal Abdel Nasser, the real power behind the coup) in overthrowing King Farouk of Egypt.", "*1961 – The Sandinista National Liberation Front is founded in Nicaragua.", "*1962 – Telstar relays the first publicly transmitted, live trans-Atlantic television program, featuring Walter Cronkite.", "* 1962 – The International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos is signed.", "* 1962 – Jackie Robinson becomes the first African American to be inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame.", "*1967 – Detroit Riots: In Detroit, one of the worst riots in United States history begins on 12th Street in the predominantly African American inner city.", "It ultimately kills 43 people, injures 342 and burns about 1,400 buildings.", "*1968 – Glenville shootout: In Cleveland, Ohio, a violent shootout between a Black Militant organization and the Cleveland Police Department occurs.", "During the shootout, a riot begins and lasts for five days.", "* 1968 – The only successful hijacking of an El Al aircraft takes place when a Boeing 707 carrying ten crew and 38 passengers is taken over by three members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine.", "The aircraft was en route from Rome, to Lod, Israel.", "*1970 – Qaboos bin Said al Said becomes Sultan of Oman after overthrowing his father, Said bin Taimur initiating massive reforms, modernization programs and end to a decade long civil war.", "*1972 – The United States launches ''Landsat 1'', the first Earth-resources satellite.", "*1974 – The Greek military junta collapses, and former Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis is invited to lead the new government, beginning Greece's metapolitefsi era.", "*1980 – Phạm Tuân becomes the first Vietnamese citizen and the first Asian in space when he flies aboard the Soyuz 37 mission as an Intercosmos Research Cosmonaut.", "*1982 – Outside Santa Clarita, California, actor Vic Morrow and two children are killed when a helicopter crashes onto them while shooting a scene from ''Twilight Zone: The Movie''.", "*1983 – Thirteen Sri Lanka Army soldiers are killed after a deadly ambush by the militant Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.", "* 1983 – Gimli Glider: Air Canada Flight 143 runs out of fuel and makes a deadstick landing at Gimli, Manitoba.", "*1988 – General Ne Win, effective ruler of Burma since 1962, resigns after pro-democracy protests.", "*1992 – A Vatican commission, led by Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, establishes that limiting certain rights of homosexual people and non-married couples is not equivalent to discrimination on grounds of race or gender.", "* 1992 – Abkhazia declares independence from Georgia.", "*1993 – China Northwest Airlines Flight 2119 crashes during takeoff from Yinchuan Xihuayuan Airport in Yinchuan, Ningxia, China, killing 55 people.", "*1995 – Comet Hale–Bopp is discovered; it becomes visible to the naked eye on Earth nearly a year later.", "*1997 – Digital Equipment Corporation files antitrust charges against chipmaker Intel.", "*1999 – ANA Flight 61 is hijacked in Tokyo, Japan by Yuji Nishizawa.", "* 1999 – Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' launches on STS-93, with Eileen Collins becoming the first female space shuttle commander.", "The shuttle also carried and deployed the Chandra X-ray Observatory.", "*2005 – Three bombs explode in the Naama Bay area of Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, killing 88 people.", "*2011 – A high-speed train rear-ends another on a viaduct on the Yongtaiwen railway line in Wenzhou, Zhejiang province, China, resulting in 40 deaths.", "*2012 – The Solar storm of 2012 was an unusually large coronal mass ejection that was emitted by the Sun which barely missed the Earth by nine days.", "If it hit, it would have caused up to US$2.6 trillion in damages to electrical equipment worldwide.", "*2014 – TransAsia Airways Flight 222 crashes in Xixi village near Huxi, Penghu, during approach to Penghu Airport.", "Forty-eight of the 58 people on board are killed and five more people on the ground are injured.", "*2015 – NASA announces discovery of Kepler-452b by ''Kepler''.", "*2016 – Kabul twin bombing occurred in the vicinity of Deh Mazang when protesters, mostly from the Shiite Hazara minority, were marching against route changing of the TUTAP power project.", "At least 80 people were killed and 260 were injured.", "*2018 – A wildfire in East Attica, Greece caused the death of 102 people.", "It was the deadliest wildfire in the history of Greece and the second-deadliest in the world, in the 21st century, after the 2009 bushfires in Australia that killed 180." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1301 – Otto, Duke of Austria (d. 1339)*1339 – Louis I, Duke of Anjou (d. 1384)*1370 – Pier Paolo Vergerio the Elder, humanist (d. 1444 or 1445)*1401 – Francesco I Sforza, Italian husband of Bianca Maria Visconti (d. 1466)*1441 – Danjong of Joseon, King of Joseon (d. 1457)*1503 – Anne of Bohemia and Hungary (d. 1547)===1601–1900===*1614 – Bonaventura Peeters the Elder, Flemish painter (d. 1652)*1635 – Adam Dollard des Ormeaux, New France garrison commander (d. 1660)*1649 – Pope Clement XI (d. 1721)*1705 – Francis Blomefield, English historian and author (d. 1752)*1713 – Luís António Verney, Portuguese philosopher and pedagogue (d. 1792)*1773 – Thomas Brisbane, Scottish general and politician, 6th Governor of New South Wales (d. 1860)* 1773 – Abraham Colles, Irish anatomist (d. 1841) *1775 – Étienne-Louis Malus, French physicist and mathematician (d. 1812)*1777 – Philipp Otto Runge, German painter and illustrator (d. 1810)*1796 – Franz Berwald, Swedish surgeon and composer (d. 1868)*1802 – Manuel María Lombardini, Mexican general and president (d. 1853)*1823 – Alexandre-Antonin Taché, Canadian archbishop and missionary (d. 1894)*1838 – Édouard Colonne, French violinist and conductor (d. 1910)*1851 – Peder Severin Krøyer, Norwegian-Danish painter (d. 1909)*1854 – Ernest Belfort Bax, English barrister, journalist, philosopher, men's rights advocate, socialist and historian (d. 1926)*1856 – Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Indian lawyer and journalist (d. 1920)*1864 – Apolinario Mabini, Filipino lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Philippines (d. 1903)*1865 – Henry Norris, English businessman and politician (d. 1934)*1866 – Francesco Cilea, Italian composer and academic (d. 1950)*1878 – James Thomas Milton Anderson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 5th Premier of Saskatchewan (d. 1946)*1882 – Kâzım Karabekir, Turkish general and politician, 5th Speaker of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (b.", "1948)*1883 – Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke, French-English field marshal and politician, Lord Lieutenant of the County of London (d. 1963)*1884 – Emil Jannings, Swiss-German actor (d. 1950)*1885 – Izaak Killam, Canadian financier and philanthropist (d. 1955)* 1885 – Georges V. Matchabelli, Georgian-American businessman, created Prince Matchabelli perfume (d. 1935)*1886 – Salvador de Madariaga, Spanish historian and diplomat (d. 1978)* 1886 – Walter H. Schottky, Swiss-German physicist and engineer (d. 1976)*1888 – Raymond Chandler, American crime novelist and screenwriter (d. 1959)*1891 – Louis T. Wright, American surgeon and civil rights activist (d. 1952)*1892 – Haile Selassie, Ethiopian emperor (d. 1975)*1894 – Arthur Treacher, English-American actor and television personality (d. 1975)*1895 – Aileen Pringle, American actress (d. 1989)*1898 – Daniel Cosío Villegas, Mexican historian, economist (d. 1976)* 1898 – Bengt Djurberg, Swedish actor and singer (d. 1941)* 1898 – Red Dutton, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1987)* 1898 – Herman Kruusenberg, Estonian wrestler (d. 1970)* 1898 – Jacob Marschak, Ukrainian-American economist, journalist, and author (d. 1977)*1899 – Gustav Heinemann, German lawyer and politician, 3rd President of West Germany (d. 1976)*1900 – Julia Davis Adams, American author and journalist (d. 1993)* 1900 – John Babcock, Canadian-American sergeant (d. 2010)* 1900 – Inger Margrethe Boberg, Danish folklore researcher and writer (d. 1957)===1901–present===*1901 – Hank Worden, American actor and singer (d. 1992)* 1901 – Isabel Luberza Oppenheimer, Puerto Rican brothel owner and madam in barrio Maragüez, Ponce, Puerto Rico (d. 1974)*1905 – Leopold Engleitner, Austrian author and educator (d. 2013)*1906 – Vladimir Prelog, Croatian-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)* 1906 – Chandra Shekhar Azad, Indian activist (d. 1931)*1912 – M. H. Abrams, American author, critic, and academic (d. 2015)* 1912 – Michael Wilding, English actor (d. 1979)*1913 – Michael Foot, English journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Employment (d. 2010)*1914 – Nassos Daphnis, Greek-American painter (d. 2010)* 1914 – Virgil Finlay, American illustrator (d. 1971)* 1914 – Elly Annie Schneider, German-American actress (d. 2004)*1916 – Laurel Martyn, Australian ballerina and choreographer (d. 2013)*1918 – Abraham Bueno de Mesquita, Dutch comedian and actor (d. 2005)* 1918 – Ruth Duccini, American actress (d. 2014)* 1918 – Pee Wee Reese, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1999)*1921 – Calvert DeForest, American actor (d. 2007)*1922 – Damiano Damiani, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2013)* 1922 – Jenny Pike, Canadian WWII servicewoman and photographer (d. 2004)*1923 – Luis Aloma, Cuban-American baseball player (d. 1997)* 1923 – Morris Halle, Latvian-American linguist and academic (d. 2018)* 1923 – Amalia Mendoza, Mexican singer and actress (d. 2001)*1924 – Gavin Lambert, English-American screenwriter and author (d. 2005)* 1924 – Gazanfer Bilge, Turkish wrestler (d. 2008)*1925 – Tajuddin Ahmad, Bangladeshi politician, 1st Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 1975)* 1925 – Quett Masire, Botswana politician, the former Vice-President of Botswana (d. 2017)* 1925 – Alain Decaux, French historian and author (d. 2016)* 1925 – Gloria DeHaven, American actress and singer (d. 2016)*1926 – Ludvík Vaculík, Czech journalist and author (d. 2015)*1927 – Gérard Brach, French director and screenwriter (d. 2006)*1928 – Leon Fleisher, American pianist and conductor (d. 2020)* 1928 – Vera Rubin, American astronomer and academic (d. 2016)* 1928 – Hubert Selby, Jr., American author and screenwriter (d. 2004)*1929 – Danny Barcelona, American drummer (d. 2007)* 1929 – Lateef Jakande, Nigerian journalist and politician, 5th Governor of Lagos State (d. 2021)*1931 – Te Atairangikaahu, Māori queen (d. 2006)* 1931 – Claude Fournier, Canadian director, screenwriter, and cinematographer (d. 2023)* 1931 – Guy Fournier, Canadian author and screenwriter*1933 – Raimund Abraham, Austrian architect, designed the Austrian Cultural Forum (d. 2010)* 1933 – Bert Convy, American actor, singer, and game show host (d. 1991)* 1933 – Benedict Groeschel, American priest, psychologist, and talk show host (d. 2014)* 1933 – Richard Rogers, Italian-English architect, designed the Millennium Dome and Lloyd's building (d. 2021)*1935 – Jim Hall, American race car driver*1936 – Don Drysdale, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1993)* 1936 – Anthony Kennedy, American lawyer and jurist*1937 – Dave Webster, American football player and engineer (d. 2006)*1938 – Juliet Anderson, American porn actress and producer (d. 2010)* 1938 – Ronny Cox, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor* 1938 – Charles Harrelson, American murderer (d. 2007)* 1938 – Bert Newton, Australian actor and television host (d. 2021)*1940 – Danielle Collobert, French author, poet, and journalist (d. 1978)* 1940 – Don Imus, American radio host (d. 2019)* 1940 – John Nichols, American novelist (d. 2023)* 1940 – Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa, Italian economist and politician, Italian Minister of Finance (d. 2010)*1941 – Christopher Andrew, English historian and academic* 1941 – Richie Evans, American race car driver (d. 1985)* 1941 – Sergio Mattarella, Italian lawyer, judge, and politician, 12th President of Italy*1942 – Sallyanne Atkinson, Australian journalist and politician, Lord Mayor of Brisbane* 1942 – Madeline Bell, American singer-songwriter * 1942 – Richard E. Dauch, American businessman, co-founded American Axle (d. 2013)* 1942 – Dimitris Liantinis, Greek philosopher and author (d. 1998)*1943 – Randall Forsberg, American scientist (d. 2007)* 1943 – Tony Joe White, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2018)*1944 – Dino Danelli, American drummer * 1944 – Maria João Pires, Portuguese pianist*1945 – Edward Gregson, English composer and educator* 1945 – Jon Sammels, English footballer*1946 – Andy Mackay, English oboe player and composer * 1946 – René Ricard, American poet, painter, and critic (d. 2014)*1947 – Gardner Dozois, American journalist and author (d. 2018)* 1947 – David Essex, English singer-songwriter, and actor* 1947 – Torsten Palm, Swedish race car driver* 1947 – Robin Simon, English historian, critic, and academic*1948 – Ross Cranston, Australian-English lawyer, judge, and politician, Solicitor General for England and Wales* 1948 – John Cushnahan, Northern Irish educator and politician* 1948 – John Hall, American politician* 1948 – Stanisław Targosz, Polish general (d. 2013)*1949 – Clive Rice, South African cricketer and coach (d. 2015)*1950 – Alex Kozinski, Romanian-born American lawyer and judge* 1950 – Ian Thomas, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1950 – Blair Thornton, Canadian guitarist and songwriter * 1950 – Alan Turner, Australian cricketer*1952 – Paul Hibbert, Australian cricketer and coach (d. 2008)* 1952 – Bill Nyrop, American ice hockey player and coach (d. 1995)* 1952 – John Rutsey, Canadian drummer (d. 2008)* 1952 – Janis Siegel, American jazz singer*1953 – Graham Gooch, English cricketer and coach* 1953 – Najib Razak, Malaysian politician, 6th Prime Minister of Malaysia *1957 – Jo Brand, English comedian, actress, and screenwriter* 1957 – Nikos Galis, American basketball player* 1957 – Theo van Gogh, Dutch actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004)* 1957 – Quentin Willson, English TV presenter, Top Gear*1958 – Ken Green, American golfer* 1958 – Tomy Winata, Indonesian businessman and philanthropist, founded the Artha Graha Peduli Foundation*1959 – Nancy Savoca, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1960 – Gary Ella, Australian rugby player* 1960 – Susan Graham, American soprano and educator* 1960 – Al Perez, American wrestler*1961 – André Ducharme, Canadian comedian and author* 1961 – Michael Durant, American pilot and author* 1961 – Martin Gore, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1961 – Woody Harrelson, American actor and activist* 1961 – Milind Gunaji, Indian actor, model, television show host, and author*1962 – Eriq La Salle, American actor, director, and producer* 1962 – Mark Laurie, Australian rugby league player* 1962 – Alain Lefèvre, Canadian pianist and composer*1963 – Slobodan Zivojinovic, Serbian tennis player*1964 – Uwe Barth, German politician* 1964 – Nick Menza, German drummer and songwriter (d. 2016)*1965 – Rob Dickinson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1965 – Slash, English-American guitarist, songwriter, and producer *1967 – Philip Seymour Hoffman, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2014)*1968 – Elden Campbell, American basketball player* 1968 – Gary Payton, American basketball player and actor* 1968 – Stephanie Seymour, American model and actress*1969 – Andrew Cassels, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1969 – Raphael Warnock, American politician and minister*1970 – Charisma Carpenter, American actress* 1970 – Thea Dorn, German author and playwright* 1970 – Sam Watters, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1970 – Saulius Skvernelis, 13th Prime Minister of Lithuania*1971 – Dalvin DeGrate, American rapper and producer * 1971 – Alison Krauss, American singer-songwriter and fiddler* 1971 – Joel Stein, American journalist*1972 – Suat Kılıç, Turkish journalist, lawyer, and politician, former Turkish Minister of Youth and Sports* 1972 – Floyd Reifer, Barbadian cricketer and coach* 1972 – Marlon Wayans, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1973 – Nomar Garciaparra, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1973 – Kathryn Hahn, American actress* 1973 – Fran Healy, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1973 – Monica Lewinsky, American activist and former White House intern* 1973 – Himesh Reshammiya, Indian singer-songwriter, producer, actor, and director* 1973 – Andrea Scanavacca, Italian rugby player and manager*1974 – Terry Glenn, American football player and coach (d. 2017)* 1974 – Maurice Greene, American sprinter* 1974 – Rik Verbrugghe, Belgian cyclist*1975 – Dan Rogerson, Cornish politician*1976 – Judit Polgár, Hungarian chess player*1977 – Scott Clemmensen, American ice hockey player and coach* 1977 – Gail Emms, English badminton player* 1977 – Néicer Reasco, Ecuadorian footballer* 1977 – Shawn Thornton, Canadian ice hockey player*1978 – Stuart Elliott, Northern Irish footballer* 1978 – Stefanie Sun, Singaporean singer-songwriter and pianist* 1978 – Lauren Groff, American novelist and short story writer*1979 – Perro Aguayo Jr., Mexican wrestler and promoter (d. 2015)* 1979 – Sotirios Kyrgiakos, Greek footballer* 1979 – Richard Sims, Zimbabwean cricketer* 1979 – Ricardo Sperafico, Brazilian race car driver* 1979 – Cathleen Tschirch, German sprinter* 1979 – Michelle Williams, American singer-songwriter and actress*1980 – Sandeep Parikh, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1981 – Steve Jocz, Canadian singer-songwriter, drummer, and director * 1981 – Dmitriy Karpov, Kazakhstani decathlete* 1981 – Aleksandr Kulik, Estonian footballer* 1981 – Jarkko Nieminen, Finnish tennis player*1982 – Ömer Aysan Barış, Turkish footballer* 1982 – Joe Mather, American baseball player* 1982 – Gökhan Ünal, Turkish footballer* 1982 – Gerald Wallace, American basketball player* 1982 – Paul Wesley, American actor, director, and producer*1983 – Bec Hewitt, Australian actress* 1983 – Aaron Peirsol, American swimmer* 1983 – David Strettle, English rugby player*1984 – Walter Gargano, Uruguayan footballer* 1984 – Matthew Murphy, English singer and guitarist * 1984 – Brandon Roy, American basketball player* 1984 – Celeste Thorson, American actress, producer, and screenwriter*1985 – Luis Ángel Landín, Mexican footballer*1986 – Aya Uchida, Japanese voice actress and singer* 1986 – Nelson Philippe, French race car driver* 1986 – Yelena Sokolova, Russian long jumper*1987 – Alessio Cerci, Italian footballer* 1987 – Felipe Dylon, Brazilian singer* 1987 – Serdar Kurtuluş, Turkish footballer*1989 – Daniel Radcliffe, English actor* 1989 – Donald Young, American tennis player*1990 – Kevin Reynolds, Canadian figure skater*1991 – Lauren Mitchell, Australian gymnast* 1991 – Jarrod Wallace, Australian rugby league footballer*1992 – Danny Ings, English footballer*1996 – Alexandra Andresen, Norwegian heiress and equestrian* 1996 – David Dobrik, Slovak YouTube personality*2002 – Séléna Janicijevic, French tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 955 – He Ning, Chinese chancellor (b.", "898)* 997 – Nuh II, Samanid emir (b.", "963)*1065 – Gunter of Bamberg, bishop of Bamberg (c. 1025/1030) *1100 – Warner of Grez, French nobleman, relative of Godfrey of Bouillon*1227 – Qiu Chuji, Chinese religious leader, founded the Dragon Gate Taoism (b.", "1148)*1298 – Thoros III, Armenian king (b. c. 1271)*1373 – Bridget of Sweden, Swedish mystic and saint, founded the Bridgettine Order (b.", "1303)*1403 – Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester, English rebel (b.", "1343)*1531 – Louis de Brézé, French husband of Diane de Poitiers*1536 – Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b.", "1519)*1562 – Götz von Berlichingen, German knight and poet (b.", "1480)*1584 – John Day, English printer (b.", "1522)*1596 – Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon (b.", "1526)===1601–1900===*1645 – Michael I, Russian tsar (b.", "1596)*1692 – Gilles Ménage, French lawyer, philologist, and scholar (b.", "1613)*1727 – Simon Harcourt, 1st Viscount Harcourt, English politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b.", "1661)*1757 – Domenico Scarlatti, Italian harpsichord player and composer (b.", "1685)*1773 – George Edwards, English biologist and ornithologist (b.", "1693)*1781 – John Joachim Zubly, Swiss-American pastor and politician (b.", "1724)*1793 – Roger Sherman, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1721)*1833 – Anselmo de la Cruz, Chilean politician, Chilean Minister of Finance (b.", "1777)*1853 – Andries Pretorius, South African general (b.", "1798)*1875 – Isaac Singer, American businessman, founded the Singer Corporation (b.", "1811)*1878 – Carl von Rokitansky, Bohemian physician, pathologist, and politician (b.", "1804)*1885 – Ulysses S. Grant, American general and politician, 18th President of the United States (b.", "1822)===1901–present===*1904 – John Douglas, English-Australian politician, 7th Premier of Queensland (b.", "1828)*1909 – Frederick Holder, Australian politician, 19th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1850)*1916 – William Ramsay, Scottish chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1852)*1919 – Spyridon Lambros, Greek historian and politician, 100th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1851)*1920 – Conrad Kohrs, German-American rancher and politician (b.", "1835)*1924 – Frank Frost Abbott, American author and scholar (b.", "1850)*1926 – Viktor Vasnetsov, Russian painter (b.", "1848)*1927 – Reginald Dyer, British brigadier general (b.", "1864)*1930 – Glenn Curtiss, American pilot and engineer (b.", "1878)*1932 – Tenby Davies, Welsh runner (b.", "1884)*1936 – Anna Abrikosova, Russian linguist (b.", "1882)*1941 – George Lyman Kittredge, American scholar and educator (b.", "1860)* 1941 – José Quiñones Gonzales, Peruvian soldier and pilot (b.", "1914)*1942 – Adam Czerniaków, Polish engineer and politician (b.", "1880)* 1942 – Andy Ducat, English cricketer and footballer (b.", "1886)*1948 – D. W. Griffith, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1875)*1950 – Shigenori Tōgō, Japanese politician and diplomat, Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1882)*1951 – Robert J. Flaherty, American director and producer (b.", "1884)* 1951 – Philippe Pétain, French general and politician, 119th Prime Minister of France (b.", "1856)*1954 – Herman Groman, American runner (b.", "1882)*1955 – Cordell Hull, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 47th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1871)*1957 – Bob Shiring, American football player and coach (b.", "1870)*1966 – Montgomery Clift, American actor (b.", "1920)*1968 – Henry Hallett Dale, English pharmacologist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1875)*1970 – Eino Tainio, Finnish politician (b.", "1905)*1971 – Van Heflin, American actor (b.", "1910)*1972 – Esther Applin, American geologist and paleontologist (b.", "1895)*1973 – Eddie Rickenbacker, American pilot and race car driver, founded Rickenbacker Motors (b.", "1890)*1978 – Kamil Tolon, Turkish industrialist (b.", "1912)*1979 – Joseph Kessel, French journalist and author (b.", "1898)*1980 – Sarto Fournier, Canadian lawyer and politician, 38th Mayor of Montreal (b.", "1908)* 1980 – Keith Godchaux, American keyboard player and songwriter (b.", "1948)* 1980 – Mollie Steimer, Ukrainian activist (b.", "1897)*1982 – Vic Morrow, American actor (b.", "1929)*1983 – Georges Auric, French composer (b.", "1899)*1985 – Johnny Wardle, English cricketer and manager (b.", "1923)*1989 – Donald Barthelme, American short story writer and novelist (b.", "1931)*1990 – Kenjiro Takayanagi, Japanese engineer (b.", "1899)*1996 – Jean Muir, American actress (b.", "1911)*1997 – Chūhei Nambu, Japanese jumper and journalist (b.", "1904)*1999 – Hassan II of Morocco (b.", "1929)*2001 – Eudora Welty, American novelist and short story writer (b.", "1909)*2002 – Leo McKern, Australian-English actor (b.", "1920)* 2002 – William Luther Pierce, American activist and author (b.", "1933)* 2002 – Chaim Potok, American novelist and rabbi (b.", "1929)* 2002 – Clark Gesner, American author and composer (b.", "1938)*2003 – James E. Davis, American police officer and politician (b.", "1962)*2004 – Mehmood Ali, Indian actor, director, and producer (b.", "1932)* 2004 – Carlos Paredes, Portuguese guitarist and composer (b.", "1925)* 2004 – Piero Piccioni, Italian pianist, conductor, and composer (b.", "1921)*2005 – Ted Greene, American guitarist and journalist (b.", "1946)*2006 – Jean-Paul Desbiens, Canadian journalist and academic (b.", "1927)*2007 – Ron Miller, American songwriter and producer (b.", "1933)* 2007 – Mohammed Zahir Shah, Afghan king (b.", "1914)*2008 – Kurt Furgler, Swiss lawyer and politician, 70th President of the Swiss Confederation (b.", "1924)*2009 – E. Lynn Harris, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1955)*2010 – Daniel Schorr, American journalist and author (b.", "1916)*2011 – Amy Winehouse, English singer-songwriter (b.", "1983)*2012 – Margaret Mahy, New Zealand author (b.", "1936)* 2012 – Sally Ride, American physicist and astronaut (b.", "1951)* 2012 – Lakshmi Sahgal, Indian soldier and politician (b.", "1914)* 2012 – Esther Tusquets, Spanish publisher and author (b.", "1936)* 2012 – José Luis Uribarri, Spanish television host and director (b.", "1936)*2013 – Rona Anderson, Scottish actress (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Pauline Clarke, English author (b.", "1921)* 2013 – Arthur J. Collingsworth, American diplomat (b.", "1944)* 2013 – Dominguinhos, Brazilian singer-songwriter and accordion player (b.", "1941)* 2013 – Emile Griffith, American boxer and trainer (b.", "1938)* 2013 – Kim Jong-hak, South Korean director and producer (b.", "1951)* 2013 – Djalma Santos, Brazilian footballer (b.", "1929)*2014 – Dora Bryan, English actress and restaurateur (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Norman Leyden, American composer and conductor (b.", "1917)* 2014 – Ariano Suassuna, Brazilian author and playwright (b.", "1927)* 2014 – Jordan Tabor, English footballer (b.", "1990)*2015 – Shigeko Kubota, Japanese-American sculptor and director (b.", "1937)* 2015 – Don Oberdorfer, American journalist, author, and academic (b.", "1931)* 2015 – William Wakefield Baum, American cardinal (b.", "1926)*2017 – John Kundla, American basketball coach (b.", "1916)*2022 – Zayar Thaw, Burmese politician and rapper (b.", "1981)* 2022 – Kyaw Min Yu, Burmese political activist (b.", "1969)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Birthday of Haile Selassie (Rastafari)* Children's Day (Indonesia)* Christian feast day:** Bridget of Sweden** Heiromartyr Phocas (Eastern Orthodox)** John Cassian (Western Christianity)** Liborius of Le Mans** Margarita María** Mercè Prat i Prat** Rasyphus and Ravennus** July 23 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* National Remembrance Day (Papua New Guinea)* Renaissance Day (Oman)* Revolution Day (Egypt)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jock Taylor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jock Taylor''' (9 March 1954 – 15 August 1982) was a Scottish World Champion motorcycle sidecar racer.John Robert (Jock) Taylor was born in Pencaitland, East Lothian, and entered his first sidecar race at the age of 19, as the passenger to Kenny Andrews (1974).", "The following year he took part in his first race as a driver.", "Taylor died in Finland as a consequence of a racing incident in 1982." ], [ "Racing career", "Taylor was the Scottish Sidecar Champion with passenger Lewis Ward in 1977.He won races at East Fortune near Haddington, Beveridge Park in Kirkcaldy and at Knockhill near Dunfermline as well events in England with some success.", "In 1978 he decided to tackle the odd Grand Prix race and the British Championships and parted company with Ward and teamed up with a new passenger from nearby Haddington called Jimmy Neil.", "It took some time for the new partnership to gel but by the end of the season they were regularly winning races in England.", "In 1979 Taylor acquired a Seymaz hub steering type outfit and found it not to his liking after two accidents that left Jimmy Neil with a fractured wrist and caused the death of stand-in passenger Dave Powell at Oulton Park in a high-speed crash.", "With Neil still injured, Taylor used veteran passenger Jimmy Law for the German GP at Hockenheim on his old Windle framed Yamaha where they finished fifth.", "Although Neil returned at Assen in Holland, it was when he teamed up with former Swedish 125 cc rider Benga Johansson that Taylor took his first Grand Prix victory at the Swedish TT at Karlskoga shortly after.", "There were further successes towards the end of 1979 in Britain where he finished runner-up in the British Championship behind Dick Greasley.", "In 1980, Taylor and Benga Johansson won 4 Grand Prix races, and finished on the podium in all seven events they finished.", "He won the British Championship and won the Isle of Man Sidecar B race to win the Sidecar TT overall.", "In 1981 he retained his British title and he went on to become a four-time TT race winner.", "In 1982 Taylor and Johansson raised the sidecar lap record at the Isle of Man TT to 108.29 mph (ca.", "175 km/h), a lap record which stood for 7 years." ], [ "Death", "In the 1982 Finnish Grand Prix, held in Imatra under very wet conditions, Taylor and Johansson's bike began to aquaplane and slid off the road, colliding with a telephone pole.", "Emergency services attempted to remove him from the wreckage until a second sidecar team slid off into them, killing Taylor.", "He was buried in the local cemetery at Pencaitland, and a memorial to him was erected in the village in December 2006.A memorial also stands in Beveridge Park, Kirkcaldy, overlooking Railway Bend on the old motorcycle racing circuit.", "Jock Taylor has also a memorial in Imatra, near the paddock of Finnish championship racetrack." ], [ "Restoration", "Jock's World championship, and TT 108.29 mph lap record-winning sidecar was bought by friend and fellow competitor Jack Muldoon from Jock's sponsor Dennis Trollope.", "Jack rescued Jock's outfit from the 5-man consortium who were supposed to restore the bike to its original condition and display it in a museum in Alford, Aberdeenshire.", "That never happened in the four years that it lay up in Alford in bits in a shed.Jack Muldoon and family bought Jock's bike in March 2012 and started the restoration work immediately.", "The sidecar was completely stripped to a bare chassis, with months spent with emery cleaning and polishing the chassis.", "Due to the 26 years it lay at Donington in the museum and then 4 years up in Aberdeen, the chassis and all components were covered in rust and everything was seized: every component on the bike had to be stripped and cleaned, all bearings in all parts of the chassis were replaced, and the engine was completely rebuilt.", "It was done with the help of Bill Howarth and Dennis Trollope for all the Yamaha TZ700 parts required in the engine rebuild; Terry Windle, Stuart Mellor, Lockheed, HEL Performance Brake Pipes, Paul Drake Koni Shockers, Yolst Silkoline Oils.", "By August the restoration was 90% complete – it was the first time in 30 years that the TZ700 engine had run, and it was paraded at the Jock Taylor Memorial race weekend at East Fortune near Edinburgh in August 2012, a few miles from where Jock was born and brought up." ], [ "Annual Jock Taylor Memorial Race", "In the year following his death an annual end of season race was established at Knockhill called the Jock Taylor Trophy and it has always attracted the very best crews.", "Every year sidecar racers travel from all over the UK to race in what has become a prestigious race.", "In 2012, the race was held at East Fortune where Taylor started his racing career nearly 40 years ago." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Taylor's Rider Profile on the official Isle of Man TT website* BBC News article on unveiling of memorial, December 2006" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jewish views on homosexuality" ], [ "Introduction", "The subject of homosexuality and Judaism dates back to the Torah.", "The book of Vayikra (Leviticus) is traditionally regarded as classifying sexual intercourse between males as a ''to'eivah'' (something abhorred or detested) that can be subject to capital punishment by the current Sanhedrin under ''halakha'' (Jewish law).The issue has been a subject of contention within modern Jewish denominations, and has led to debate and division.", "Traditionally, Judaism has seen that homosexual male ''intercourse'', and not homosexuality in-and-of-itself, as contrary to Judaism, and this opinion is often still maintained by Orthodox Judaism.Conservative Judaism's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, which until December 2006 held the same position as Orthodoxy, has since issued multiple opinions under its philosophy of pluralism; one opinion continues to follow the Orthodox position while another opinion substantially liberalizes the view of homosexual sex and relationships (while continuing to regard certain sexual acts as prohibited).Theologically liberal branches such as Reconstructionist, Humanistic, and Reform Judaism have all openly accepted homosexuality, homosexual intercourse, and same-sex marriage." ], [ "Homosexuality in the Torah", "The Book of Leviticus refers to male homosexual sexual practices twice (JPS translation)::.וְאֶת-זָכָר, לֹא תִשְׁכַּב מִשְׁכְּבֵי אִשָּׁה — תּוֹעֵבָה הִוא:\"Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind; it is detestable.", "\":.וְאִישׁ אֲשֶׁר יִשְׁכַּב אֶת-זָכָר מִשְׁכְּבֵי אִשָּׁה — תּוֹעֵבָה עָשׂוּ שְׁנֵיהֶם.", "מוֹת יוּמָתוּ; דְּמֵיהֶם בָּם:\"And if a man lie with mankind, as with womankind, both of them have committed a detestable act: They shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them.", "\"Several commentators believe that the verses specifically condemn the practice of sodomy (i.e.", "anal intercourse between two males).", "Rabbinic thought supports this view, condemning homosexuality as an example of \"unnatural intercourse\" compared to the \"natural intercourse\" between non-related men and women.", "Intercourse in both scenarios only occur if penetration exists.Deuteronomy 23:18 tells followers: \"None of the daughters of Israel shall be a kedeshah, nor shall any of the sons of Israel be a Kadesh.\"", "This has been interpreted as prohibiting the \"sons of Israel\" from serving as a homosexual temple prostitute in a pagan cult." ], [ "Rabbinic Jewish application and interpretation of these verses", "===Prohibitions for homosocial interaction===The laws of ''negiah'' prohibit affectionate touch between an unmarried man and woman (except close relatives), because this touch is considered \"approaching\" a forbidden relationship.", "As gay male sex is included in the category of ''arayot'' along with other sexual prohibitions, the prohibition of ''negiah'' would seem to also apply between two gay men.", "Nevertheless, some sources raise the possibility that the law may be more lenient for two men than for a man and a woman.", "The consensus seems to be that touch between gay men which involves sexual desire is rabbinically forbidden, while touch which does not involve sexual desire is permitted.Another issue is the prohibition of ''yichud'' (seclusion of two individuals together in a manner that would allow them to have sex).", "The Talmud records a debate over whether ''yichud'' applies to any two men.", "Maimonides, Tur, and Shulchan Aruch rule leniently, that ''yichud'' of two men is permitted, because \"Jews are not suspected of homosexual sex\".", "Nevertheless, the Shulchan Aruch recommended to avoid such ''yichud'', \"in these generations where promiscuous people are common\" (possibly a reference to the use of Köçek dancer-prostitutes in the Ottoman Empire at the time).", "However, this recommendation was not repeated by later authorities.Based on the above precedents that ''yichud'' can apply to two men in a circumstance where homosexual behavior is a concern, a modern halakhic authority rules that two men cannot be alone together if both of them are homosexual.", "Opinions also exist that the prohibition only applies to two men who are in a relationship with each other, or that there is no technical prohibition at all if they are confident they can avoid forbidden touch (but they should still avoid sharing a bedroom).===Applicability of Biblical death penalty===Like many similar commandments, the stated punishment for willful violation was the death penalty, though minors under 13 years of age were exempt from this, as from any other penalty.", "However, even in Biblical times, it was very difficult to get a conviction that would lead to this prescribed punishment.", "The Jewish Oral Law states that capital punishment would be applicable only if two men were caught in the act of anal sex, if there were two witnesses to the act, if the men involved were warned that they committed a capital offense, and the two men—or the willing party, in case of rape—subsequently acknowledged the warning but continued to engage in the prohibited act anyway.", "In fact, there is no account of capital punishment, in regards to this law, in Jewish history.", "Rabbinic tradition understands the Torah's system of capital punishment to not be in effect for the past approximately 2,000 years, in the absence of a Sanhedrin and Temple.", "The relative absence of anti-homosexual prosecutions is also linked to the Jewish belief that homosexuality did not exist in the community.", "Classical rabbinic Jewish sources do not specifically mention that homosexual ''attraction'' is inherently sinful.", "In fact, the mental and emotional feelings two men experience when they engage in intimate relations are not condemned.", "However, they are condemned if ''intercourse'', commonly interpreted as penetrative sex, occurs.", "If he does teshuva (repentance), i. e., he ceases his forbidden actions, regrets what he has done, apologizes to God, and makes a binding resolution never to repeat those actions, he is seen to be forgiven by God.===Lesbian sexual activity===Although lesbianism is not explicitly prohibited in the Hebrew Bible, sexual liaisons between women are forbidden by Orthodox rabbinical literature.", "The Talmud discusses tribadism (women rubbing genitals together, or \"nashim mesolelot\") without explicitly prohibiting it; the main concern was whether or not this activity removed their status as a virgin, making them ineligible to marry a member of the priesthood.", "However, the Sifra condemned marriage between two women, considering it within the category of licentious foreign behavior which is forbidden to Jews.", "Following this lead, later halakhic codes prohibited tribadism on the same grounds.", "The penalty for lesbian acts was flagellation, rather than the death penalty.", "Two reasons that explain the latter include lesbianism not being explicitly prohibited in the Torah and the belief that it did not constitute intercourse.==== Article for more Jewish views on marriage Jewish views on marriage =======Same-sex marriage in Midrash===Sifra states: \"'Like the deeds of the land of Egypt where you dwelt, you shall not do' - What would they do?", "A man would marry a man, a woman would marry a woman...\"Nonetheless, some contemporary scholars believe that same-sex marriage is theoretically permissible because kiddushin sanctifies the relationship between the spouses rather than the \"sexual intimacies\" they commit.", "The permissibility of same-sex marriage is also compared to the permissibility of marriage between a divorcee and a male descendant of a ''kohen'' (priest).", "The latter is accepted by adherents of Conservative Judaism because they believe the ethical components of Judaism, exemplified by justice and compassion, trump the legal components.=== Reasons for the prohibition ===Reasons suggested by the rabbis for the prohibition on gay male sex include the following:* The rationale for abstaining homosexuality extends beyond not emulating the Canaanites* It is considered a defiance of sexual anatomy, which is unlike God's intention of procreation and sexual activity* The sexual arousal involved results in a vain emission of semen* It may lead a man to abandon his family to pursue a homosexual relationship* It is non-procreative* It is inherently non-consensual* It blurs the lines between masculinity and femininity" ], [ "Orthodox Jewish views", "Orthodox Jewish protesters holding Anti-LGBT Protest signs during the Gay Pride parade in Haifa, Israel (2010)While a variety of views regarding homosexuality as an inclination or status exist within the Orthodox Jewish community, Orthodox Judaism generally prohibits homosexual conduct.", "While there is some disagreement about which male homosexual acts come under core prohibitions, the majority of Orthodox Judaism puts male-male anal sex in the category of ''yehareg ve'al ya'avor'', \"die rather than transgress\", the small category of Biblically-prohibited acts (also including murder, idolatry, adultery, and incest) which an Orthodox Jew is obligated under the laws of Self-sacrifice under Jewish Law to die rather than do.", "According to the Talmud, homosexual acts are forbidden between non-Jews as well, and this is included among the sexual restrictions of the Noachide laws.", "The archetypal model in Judaism is marital heterosexuality with fornication, celibacy, adultery, homosexuality, incest and bestiality seen to be part of a continuous prism of wrong.In a speech given in 1986, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, discussed \"individuals who express an inclination towards a particular form of physical relationship in which the libidinal gratification is sought with members of one's own gender\".", "He wrote that \"society and government must be to offer a helping hand to those who are afflicted with this problem\".In a 2008 open letter distributed to Orthodox community leaders, the Hod organization appealed to the Orthodox community to recognize them as part of the religious society.", "Up to 2013, 163 Orthodox rabbis from Israel and abroad signed this statement, including Yuval Cherlow, Binyamin Lau, Haim Navon, Daniel Sperber, Eliezer Melamed, Shai Piron, and Yehuda Gilad.", "In 2010, TorahWeb.org published a brief position statement entitled \"Torah View on Homosexuality\", co-authored by Rav Hershel Schachter, Rav Mordechai Willig, Rav Michael Rosensweig, and Rav Mayer Twersky.On July 22, 2010, a \"Statement of Principles on the Place of Jews with a Homosexual Orientation in Our Community\" was released.", "It was written primarily by Nathaniel Helfgot, Aryeh Klapper, and Yitzchak Blau.", "Signatories include more than a hundred rabbis and laypeople.", "Some of the statement's more notable supporters are Rabbi Marc Angel, co-founder of The Rabbinic Fellowship; Rabbi Shlomo Riskin, founder of Lincoln Square Synagogue, Efrat, and Ohr Torah Stone Institutions; and Rabbi Avi Weiss, head of the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale, founder of Yeshivat Chovevei Torah and Yeshivat Maharat, and co-founder of The Rabbinic Fellowship.An edict signed by dozens of Israeli Orthodox rabbis and published in 2016 by the Israeli Modern Orthodox rabbinic group Beit Hillel, a group which promotes inclusiveness in Orthodox Judaism, stated, in part, \"According to the Torah and halacha, the same-sex sexual acts are forbidden, but not the proclivities, and therefore, people with same-sex tendencies, men and women, have no invalidation in halacha or tradition.", "They are obligated by the commandments of the Torah, they can fulfill a ritual obligation on behalf of the public, and carry out all of the community functions just like any member.\"", "It also stated, in part, \"Just as it is inconceivable to mock someone for being physically, behaviorally, or mentally different, so too those with same-sex tendencies should not be mocked.", "On the contrary, those around them—family and community—should show special feeling for them, and apply to them the Torah commandment of 'Love thy neighbor as thyself' and to be diligent in avoiding the prohibition of insulting another.", "\"Rabbi Dr. Immanuel Jakobovits describes the traditional opinion on homosexuality as follows: \"Jewish law ... rejects the view that homosexuality is to be regarded merely as a disease or as morally neutral... Jewish law holds that no hedonistic ethic, even if called \"love\", can justify the morality of homosexuality any more than it can legitimize adultery or incest, however genuinely such acts may be performed out of love and by mutual consent.\"", "Rabbi Norman Lamm argued that some (although not all) homosexuals should be viewed as diseased and in need of compassion and treatment, rather than willful rebels who should be ostracized.", "He distinguishes between six varieties of homosexuals, including \"genuine homosexuals\" who have \"strong preferential erotic feelings for members of the same sex\", \"transitory\" and \"situational\" homosexuals who would prefer heterosexual intercourse but are denied it or seek gain in homosexuality, and heterosexuals who are merely curious.===Prominent Gay Orthodox Jews===When Steven Greenberg, who received Orthodox rabbinic ordination, publicly announced in 1999 that he was homosexual, there was a significant response from rabbis of all denominations reported in the Jewish newspapers.", "Rabbi Moshe Tendler, a leading rabbi at Yeshiva University, stated, \"It is very sad that an individual who attended our yeshiva sunk to the depths of what we consider a depraved society.\"", "As Greenberg has a rabbinic ordination from the Orthodox rabbinical seminary of Yeshiva University (RIETS), he is generally described as the first openly gay Orthodox Jewish rabbi.", "However, some Orthodox Jews, including many rabbis, dispute his being an Orthodox rabbi.Orthodox Israeli rabbi Ron Yosef became in 2009 the first Israeli Orthodox Rabbi to come out, by appearing in (\"Fact\"), Israel's leading investigative television program, in an episode regarding conversion therapies in Israel.", "Yosef remains in his position as a pulpit Rabbi.", "Yosef testified that his Yemenite congregation did not accept him being a homosexual very easily and it took them a while to accept it.", "Yosef received death threats in the year leading up to the 2009 Tel Aviv gay centre shooting.", "In 2013, he stated he is in a relationship with a man.", "Yosef has stated his approach to the issue of homosexuality in Judaism as follows: \"It is clear to me that lying with another man is forbidden, and our starting point is commitment to halacha and Torah.", "The goal is not to seek permission.", "But you need to give us a shoulder and support.", "\"In 2019 Daniel Atwood became the first openly gay Orthodox person to be ordained as a rabbi; he was ordained by the rabbi Daniel Landes, in Jerusalem.", "In October 2023, ''The Forward'' reported about Shua Brick, “experts say that Brick is the first openly gay rabbi to serve on the clergy of an Orthodox synagogue in the U.S.”, explaining that Brick “runs the youth program, leads Torah study for adults, and fills in when the senior rabbi is out of town” at Beth Jacob Congregation in Oakland, California, where he started coming out as gay to members of the congregation over a year prior to October 2023.He was ordained by Yeshiva University.===Ex-gay organizations===JONAH was a Jewish ex-gay organization that focuses on \"prevention, intervention, and healing of the underlying issues causing same-sex attractions\".", "In 2012, four former clients of JONAH sued the organization for fraud, claiming that it sold them therapies that were ineffective and counterproductive.", "Soon after in that same year, the Rabbinical Council of America (RCA), a professional association of more than 1,000 Orthodox rabbis around the world, sent an open email to its members that it no longer supported conversion therapy generally, or JONAH specifically.", "In 2015, a New Jersey jury found JONAH guilty of consumer fraud for promising to be able to change its clients' sexual urges and determined its commercial practices to be unconscionable.", "As part of the sentence, JONAH was required to cease all operations, but continues to operate under the name JIFGA as of 2018.===Other viewpoints===Jiří Mordechai Langer, who studied in the Hasidic community of Belz, arrived in the land of Israel in 1940.", "\"His reconciliation of homosexuality and Judaism involved ...a homosexual Jewish theology; ...a sociology of Jewish homosexuality in Hasidism\".Haredi Rabbi Avigdor Miller defended the assassination of Harvey Milk, saying \"A decent gentile got up and shot him because of his spreading homosexuality\".The late UK Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks wrote the foreword to Rabbi Chaim Rapoport's book ''Judaism and Homosexuality: An Authentic Orthodox View''.", "In the foreword, Rabbi Sacks has written: \"Compassion, sympathy, empathy, understanding - these are essential elements of Judaism.", "They are what homosexual Jews who care about Judaism need from us today.", "\"Modern Orthodox leader Rabbi Aharon Lichtenstein is reported to have said that the intensity of Orthodox community's condemnation of homosexuality goes beyond what its status as a religious transgression warrants, and that he feels toward homosexual people \"criticism, disapproval, but tempered with an element of sympathy\".", "Rabbi Steven Greenberg, for example, argues that there are many sins considered to be abominations in the Torah, homosexual men are disproportionately censured.", "While some Modern Orthodox congregations may still invite a person up for an aliyah who is known not to keep kosher, the same is not always true of a man known to engage in same-sex sexual activity.In both the United States and in Israel several groups have sprung up in the last few years that seek to support those who identify as both Orthodox and homosexual; support Orthodox parents of LGBT children; and promote understanding of homosexuality within Orthodox communities and among Orthodox rabbis.", "These include an umbrella organization called Eshel, the Gay and Lesbian Yeshiva Day School Alumni Association, the women's group OrthoDykes, the youth group JQYouth, the American-Israeli group headquartered in Jerusalem Bat Kol and the Israeli group Hod (\"Majesty\").", "In 2012, Hod held an advertising campaign against conversion therapies and for self-acceptance of the religious homosexual community in Israel.", "Online blogs and support groups have enabled many to find other Orthodox LGBT people with whom to share the conflict between Orthodox religious and social norms and LGBT self-identification.Orthodox Rabbis Shmuley Boteach and Zev Farber have questioned the opposition of Orthodox groups to government recognition of same-sex civil marriages (or in Boteach's case, to state-sanctioned civil unions), arguing that although Judaism does not condone homosexuality, governments should not enforce any particular religion's view of marriage, and that conferring civil benefits to committed homosexual couples should be viewed as promoting family values.", "In October 2010, Boteach wrote an op-ed column in ''The Wall Street Journal'' on homosexuality, arguing that he does not deny that there is a biblical prohibition on male same-sex relationships and a commandment for men and women to marry and have children.", "Still, he understands those in context.", "\"There are 613 commandments in the Torah...", "So when Jewish gay couples tell me they have never been attracted to members of the opposite sex and are desperate alone, I tell them \"You have 611 commandments left.", "That should keep you busy.", "Now, go create a kosher home ... you are His beloved children.\"", "Five years later he wrote that he believed in the equality of all of God's children, and has seen too much homophobia in his life.", "He believes that the biggest threat to marriage does not come from gay marriage, but heterosexual divorce, which he says afflicts half of marriages.", "He opposes government involvement at all in recognizing marriage, but supports state-sanctioned \"civil unions\" for all.", "Open Orthodox Rabbi Shmuly Yanklowitz declared that the Jewish values of justice, equality, and dignity lead him to support the cause of gay rights and advocate for same-sex civil marriage.In November 2016, dozens of LGBT activists protested in Jerusalem against comments reportedly made by the city's chief rabbi Rabbi Shlomo Amar, who reportedly told an Israeli newspaper that gay people were an \"abomination\", and homosexuality a \"cult\".In 2017, the Senior Rabbi of the Spanish & Portuguese Sephardi Community Joseph Dweck gave a class describing \"the entire revolution of feminism and even homosexuality in our society ... is a fantastic development for humanity\".", "These words were condemned by Rabbi Aaron Bassous as \"false and misguided ... corrupt from beginning to end\".", "This affair caused Dweck to step down from the Sephardic Beth Din but not as a communal leader.In 2019, Rabbi Daniel Landes wrote, \"Leviticus 18:22 ... has not been erased from the Torah.", "But that biblical commandment does not give us license to ignore or abuse the significant number of carefully observant Jews who are LGBTQ.", "\"Film documentaries made about Orthodox homosexuals in recent years include ''Trembling Before G-d'', ''Keep Not Silent'', and ''Say Amen''." ], [ "Conservative Judaism", "As a matter of both Jewish law and institutional policy, Conservative (\"Masorti\") Judaism has wrestled with homosexuality issues since the 1980s.Conservative Jewish writer Herschell Matt initially argued that homosexuals may be excused because Judaism does recognise 'constraint' as a valid excuse to disobey the law.", "However, Matt later shifted to outright support for homosexuality, viewing it as part of the natural order.", "Conservative Rabbi Robert Kirshchner states that Jews have historically adapted their laws to new circumstances, indicating accommodation for homosexuality.Jewish Theological Seminary of America, the main rabbinical seminary of Conservative JudaismIn Conservative Judaism, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) of the Rabbinical Assembly makes the movement's decisions concerning Jewish law.", "In 1992, the CJLS action affirmed its traditional prohibition on homosexual conduct, blessing same-sex unions, and ordaining openly gay/lesbian/bisexual clergy.", "However, these prohibitions grew increasingly controversial within the Conservative movement.In 2006, the CJLS shifted its position and paved the way for significant changes regarding the Conservative movement's policies toward homosexuality.", "On December 6, 2006, The CJLS adopted three distinct responsa reflecting very different approaches to the subject.", "One responsum substantially liberalized Conservative Judaism's approach including lifting most (but not all) classical prohibitions on homosexual conduct and permitted the blessing of homosexual unions and the ordination of openly gay/lesbian/bisexual clergy.", "Two others completely retained traditional prohibitions.", "Under the rules of the Conservative movement, the adoption of multiple opinions permits individual Conservative rabbis, congregations, and rabbinical schools to select which opinion to accept, and hence to choose individually whether to maintain a traditional prohibition on homosexual conduct or to permit openly gay/lesbian/bisexual unions and clergy.The liberalizing responsum, adopted as a majority opinion by 13 of 25 votes, was authored by Rabbis Elliot N. Dorff, Daniel Nevins, and Avram Reisner.", "It lifted most restrictions on homosexual conduct and opened the way to the ordination of openly gay/lesbian/bisexual rabbis and cantors and acceptance of homosexual unions, but stopped short of religiously recognizing same-sex marriage.", "The responsum invoked the Talmudic principle of ''kavod habriyot'', which the authors translated as \"human dignity\", as authority for this approach.", "The responsum maintained a prohibition on male-male anal sex, which it described as the sole Biblically prohibited homosexual act.", "This act remains a ''yehareg ve'al ya'avor'' (\"die rather than transgress\" offense) under the decision.Two traditionalist responsa were adopted.", "A responsum by Rabbi Joel Roth, adopted as a majority opinion by 13 votes, reaffirmed a general complete prohibition on homosexual conduct.", "A second responsum by Rabbi Leonard Levy, adopted as a minority opinion by 6 votes, delineated ways in which to ensure that gays and lesbians would be accorded human dignity and a respected place in Conservative communities and institutions while maintaining the authority of the traditional prohibitions against same-sex sexual activity.The Committee rejected the third paper by Gordon Tucker which would have lifted all restrictions on homosexual sexual practices.The consequences of the decision have been mixed.", "On the one hand, four members of the Committee—Rabbis Joel Roth, Leonard Levy, Mayer Rabinowitz, and Joseph Prouser—resigned from the CJLS following adoption of the change.", "On the other hand, the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies of the University of Judaism (now the American Jewish University) in Los Angeles had previously stated that it will immediately begin admitting gay/lesbian/bisexual students as soon as the law committee passes a policy that sanctions such ordination.", "On March 26, 2007, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York followed suit and began accepting openly gay/lesbian/bisexual candidates for admission for their Rabbinical program.In June 2012, the American branch of Conservative Judaism formally approved same-sex marriage ceremonies in a 13–0 vote.", "In 2021, two Conservative Rabbis became the first known example of two Rabbis of the same sex marrying each other.Although the American example was initially an outlier in the global Conservative movement, it is now the case that \"all Masorti seminaries, except for the one inArgentina, now accept openly gay students\".", "Since 2014 in the United Kingdom the Masorti movement offers a ''Shutafut'' (\"partnership\") ceremony to same-gender couples wishing to marry in a Conservative religious ceremony.", "The ''Shutafut'' contains many of the iconic elements of a traditional Jewish wedding service - the ''chupah'', the seven blessings, the wine, the glass breaking, but without the symbolic act of acquisition in a traditional Jewish wedding.In Israel, the head of the Masorti's Vaad Halakha (equivalent to the CJLS), Rabbi David Golinkin, wrote to the CJLS protesting its reconsideration of the traditional ban on homosexual conduct.", "Despite the contention within the Israeli movement however in the same year, Israel's Schechter Rabbinical Seminary sanctioned the training of openly gay Rabbis.Hungary's Neolog movement - distinct from but seen as a fraternal counterpart and in some ways spiritual ancestor of the modern Masorti movement - has been more divided.", "Although not embracing and providing for same-gender marriage or full inclusion in Jewish life, Mazsihisz, the main representative umbrella body for Neolog Judaism, has affirmed its opposition to exclusion by homophobia and in 2013 dismissed the director of its youth movement for making comments about excluding gay people from all religious life for their sexual orientation.", "In 2021 the President of Mazsihisz was made to apologise for signing a ''Joint Declaration of the Churches on the Holiness of Marriage'' that held \"the sanctification of the woman-man relationship by marriage is the foundation of human dignity\".", "His critics included Mazsihisz's Chief Rabbi and earlier that same year the movement made a statement widely seen as condemning new Hungarian laws limiting the exposure of children to content referencing homosexuality.Rabbi Bradley Artson, Dean of the Rabbinic School at American Jewish University, claims to have studied every reference he could find to homosexual activity mentioned in ancient Greek and Latin writers.", "Every citation he found described an encounter between males where one party, the master, physically abused another, the slave.", "Rabbi Artson could not find a single example where one partner was not subservient to the other.", "\"Homosexual relationships today\", Rabbi Artson says, \"should not be compared to the ancient world.", "I know too many homosexual individuals, including close friends and relatives, who are committed to one another in loving long-term monogamous relationships.", "I know too many same-sex couples that are loving parents raising good descent ethical children.", "Who's to say their family relationships are less sanctified in the eyes of God than mine is with my wife and our children?\"" ], [ "Reform Judaism", "The Reform Judaism movement, the largest branch of Judaism in North America, has rejected the traditional view of Jewish Law on homosexuality and bisexuality.", "As such, they do not prohibit the ordination of openly gay, lesbian, and bisexual people as rabbis and cantors.", "They view Levitical laws as sometimes seen to be referring to prostitution, making it a stand against Jews adopting the idolatrous fertility cults and practices of the neighbouring Canaanite nations, rather than a blanket condemnation of same-sex intercourse, homosexuality, or bisexuality.", "Reform authorities consider that, in light of what is seen as current scientific evidence about the nature of homosexuality and bisexuality as inborn sexual orientations, a new interpretation of the law is required.In 1972, Beth Chayim Chadashim, the world's first explicitly-gay-and-lesbian-centered synagogue recognized by the Reform Jewish community, was established in West Los Angeles, resulting in a slew of non-Orthodox congregations being established along similar lines.", "Beth Chayim Chadashim now focuses on the entire LGBT community, rather than just gays and lesbians.In 1977, the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR), which is the Union for Reform Judaism's principal body, adopted a resolution calling for legislation decriminalizing homosexual acts between consenting adults, and calling for an end to discrimination against gays and lesbians.", "The resolution called on Reform Jewish organizations to develop programs to implement this stand.Reform rabbi Lionel Blue was the first British rabbi to publicly declare himself as gay, which he did in 1980.In the late 1980s, the primary seminary of the Reform movement, Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, changed its admission requirements to allow openly gay and lesbian people to join the student body.In 1990, the Union for Reform Judaism announced a national policy declaring lesbian and gay Jews to be full and equal members of the religious community.", "Also in 1990, the CCAR officially endorsed a report of their own Ad Hoc Committee on Homosexuality and the Rabbinate.", "This position paper urged that \"all rabbis, regardless of sexual orientation, be accorded the opportunity to fulfill the sacred vocation that they have chosen\".", "The committee endorsed the view that \"all Jews are religiously equal, regardless of their sexual orientation\".In 1995, Reform Rabbi Margaret Wenig's essay \"Truly Welcoming Lesbian and Gay Jews\" was published in ''The Jewish Condition: Essays on Contemporary Judaism Honoring Reform Rabbi Alexander M. Schindler''; it was the first published argument to the Jewish community on behalf of civil marriage for gay couples.In 1996, the CCAR passed a resolution approving the same-sex civil marriage.", "However, this same resolution made a distinction between civil marriages and religious marriages; this resolution thus stated::However we may understand homosexuality, whether as an illness, as a genetically based dysfunction or as a sexual preference and lifestyle—we cannot accommodate the relationship of two homosexuals as a \"marriage\" within the context of Judaism, for none of the elements of qiddushin (sanctification) normally associated with marriage can be invoked for this relationship.", ":The Central Conference of American Rabbis support the right of gay and lesbian couples to share fully and equally in the rights of civil marriage, and:That the CCAR oppose governmental efforts to ban gay and lesbian marriage.", ":That this is a matter of civil law, and is separate from the question of rabbinic officiation at such marriages.In 1998, an ad hoc CCAR committee on Human Sexuality issued its majority report (11 to 1, 1 abstention) which stated that the holiness within a Jewish marriage \"may be present in committed same-gender relationships between two Jews and that these relationships can serve as the foundation of stable Jewish families, thus adding strength to the Jewish community\".", "The report called for the CCAR to support rabbis in officiating at same-sex marriages.", "Also in 1998, the Responsa Committee of the CCAR issued a lengthy ''teshuvah'' (rabbinical opinion) that offered detailed argumentation in support of both sides of the question whether a rabbi may officiate at a commitment ceremony for a same-sex couple.In March 2000, the CCAR issued a new resolution stating that \"We do hereby resolve that the relationship of a Jewish, same-gender couple is worthy of affirmation through appropriate Jewish ritual and further resolve, that we recognize the diversity of opinions within our ranks on this issue.", "We support the decision of those who choose to officiate at rituals of union for same-sex couples, and we support the decision of those who do not.", "\"Also in 2000, Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion established the Institute for Judaism, Sexual Orientation & Gender Identity to \"educate HUC-JIR students on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender issues to help them challenge and eliminate homophobia and heterosexism; and to learn tools to be able to transform the communities they encounter into ones that are inclusive and welcoming of LGBT Jews\".", "It is the first and only institute of its kind in the Jewish world.In 2003, the Union for Reform Judaism retroactively applied its pro-rights policy on gays and lesbians to the bisexual and transgender communities, issuing a resolution titled, \"Support for the Inclusion and Acceptance of the Transgender and Bisexual Communities\".Also in 2003, Women of Reform Judaism issued a statement describing their support for human and civil rights and the struggles of the bisexual and transgender communities, and saying, \"Women of Reform Judaism accordingly: Calls for civil rights protections from all forms of discrimination against bisexual and transgender individuals; Urges that such legislation allows transgender individuals to be seen under the law as the gender by which they identify; andCalls upon sisterhoods to hold informative programs about the transgender and bisexual communities.", "\"In 2009, ''Siddur Sha'ar Zahav'', a prayer book written to address the lives and needs of LGBTQ as well as heterosexual and cisgender Jews, was published.In 2014, the CCAR joined a lawsuit challenging North Carolina's ban on same-sex marriage, which is America's first faith-based challenge to same-sex marriage bans.In 2015, Rabbi Denise Eger became the first openly gay president of the CCAR.Also in 2015, the High Holy Days Reform Jewish prayer book Mishkan HaNefesh was released; it is intended as a companion to Mishkan T'filah.", "Mishkan HaNefesh can be translated as \"sanctuary of the soul\".", "It replaces a line from the Reform movement's earlier prayerbook, \"Gates of Repentance\", that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line \"rejoicing with couples under the chuppah wedding canopy\", and adds a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering \"mibeit\", Hebrew for \"from the house of\", in addition to the traditional \"son of\" or \"daughter of\".", "The Mishkan HaNefesh includes several sets of translations for the traditional prayers.", "Psalm 23 includes the familiar \"traditional\" translation, an adaptation that is considered \"gender-sensitive\" but remains faithful to the traditional version, a feminist adaption from Phyllis Appell Bass, and the fourth was published in 1978 by a contemporary rabbi." ], [ "Reconstructionist Judaism", "The Reconstructionist movement sees homosexuality and bisexuality as normal expressions of sexuality and welcomes gays, bisexuals, and lesbians into Reconstructionist communities to participate fully in every aspect of community life.", "Since 1985, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College has admitted openly gay, bisexual, and lesbian candidates to their rabbinical and cantorial programs.", "In 1993, a movement Commission issued: ''Homosexuality and Judaism: The Reconstructionist Position''.", "The Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association (RRA) encourages its members to officiate at same-sex marriages/commitment ceremonies, though the RRA does not require its members to officiate at them.", "In 2007, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association elected as president Rabbi Toba Spitzer, the first openly LGBT person chosen to head a rabbinical association in the United States.", "In 2011 Sandra Lawson became the first openly homosexual African-American and first African-American admitted to the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College; she was ordained in June 2018, which made her the first openly homosexual, female, black rabbi in the world.", "In 2013, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association elected as president Rabbi Jason Klein, the first openly gay man chosen to head a national rabbinical association of one of the major Jewish denominations in the United States.", "Also in 2013, Rabbi Deborah Waxman was elected as the president of the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College.", "As the President, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary." ], [ "Jewish Renewal", "Jewish Renewal is a recent movement in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with Kabbalistic, Hasidic, musical and meditative practices; it describes itself as \"a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism's prophetic and mystical traditions\".", "The Jewish Renewal movement ordains people of all sexual orientations as rabbis and cantors.", "In 2005, Eli Cohen became the first openly gay rabbi ordained by the Jewish Renewal Movement, followed by Chaya Gusfield and Rabbi Lori Klein in 2006, who became the two first openly lesbian rabbis ordained by the Jewish Renewal movement.", "In 2007, Jalda Rebling, born in Amsterdam and now living in Germany, became the first openly lesbian cantor ordained by the Jewish Renewal movement.", "In 2011, the bisexual rights activist Debra Kolodny was ordained as a rabbi by the Jewish Renewal movement and hired as the rabbi for congregation P'nai Or of Portland.", "The Statement of Principles of ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal (and OHALAH and the Rabbinic Pastors Association) states in part, \"We welcome and recognize the sanctity of every individual regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity.", "We recognize respectful and mutual expressions of adult human sexuality as potentially sacred expressions of love, and therefore, we strive to welcome a variety of constellations of intimate relationships and family forms including gay, lesbian, and heterosexual relationships as well as people choosing to be single.\"" ], [ "Humanistic Judaism", "Humanistic Judaism is a movement in Judaism that offers a non-theistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life.", "In 2004, the Society for Humanistic Judaism issued a resolution supporting \"the legal recognition of marriage and divorce between adults of the same sex\", and affirming \"the value of marriage between any two committed adults with the sense of obligations, responsibilities, and consequences thereof\".", "In 2010 they pledged to speak out against homophobic bullying.", "The Association of Humanistic Rabbis has also issued a pro-LGBT statement titled \"In Support of Diverse Sexualities and Gender Identities\".", "It was adopted in 2003 and issued in 2004." ], [ "LGBT-affirmative activities", "A halachic egalitarian Pride minyan in Tel Aviv on the second Shabbat of Hanukkah.Marchers at San Francisco Pride 2014A Pride participant wears a rainbow kippah at the 2015 ''Marcha Gay'' of Mexico CityJewish LGBT rights advocates and sympathetic clergy have created various institutions within Jewish life to accommodate gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender parishioners.", "Beth Chayim Chadashim, established in 1972 in West Los Angeles, was the world's first explicitly-gay-and-lesbian-centered synagogue recognized by the Reform Jewish community, resulting in a slew of non-Orthodox congregations being established along similar lines, including Congregation Beit Simchat Torah in New York City, Bet Mishpachah in Washington, D.C., and Congregation Or Chadash in Chicago.", "Beth Chayim Chadashim now focuses on the entire LGBT community, rather than just gays and lesbians.LGBT-inclusive services and ceremonies specific to Jewish religious culture have also been created, ranging from LGBT-affirmative haggadot for Passover to a \"Stonewall Shabbat Seder\".In October 2012 Rainbow Jews, an oral history project showcasing the lives of Jewish bisexual, lesbian, gay, and transgender people in the United Kingdom from the 1950s until the present, was launched.", "It is the United Kingdom's first archive of Jewish bisexual, lesbian, gay, and transgender history.The ONE National Gay and Lesbian Archives has, among other things, the Twice Blessed Collection, circa 1966-2000; this collection \"consists of materials documenting the Jewish lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender experience, circa 1966-2000, collected by the Jewish Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Archives, founded and operated by Johnny Abush\".Recent research by the sociocultural psychologist, Chana Etengoff, has highlighted the therapeutic benefits of LGBTQ petitions to religious leaders, including meaning-making, social action, agency and empowerment." ], [ "See also", "* Bat Kol Religious lesbian community in Israel* Eshel* Havruta Religious gay community in Israel* Judaism and sexuality* Keshet Rabbis* LGBT-affirming denominations in Judaism* LGBT clergy in Judaism* LGBT matters and religion* LGBT rights in Israel* List of LGBT Jews* Same-sex marriage and Judaism* Timeline of LGBT Jewish history* Transgender people and religion* Abomination (Judaism)" ], [ "References", "===Notes======References======Sources===* Alpert, Rebecca, ''Like Bread on a Seder Plate: Jewish Lesbians and the Transformation of Tradition'', Columbia University Press, New York, 1998.", "* Alpert, Rebecca, Sue Levi Elwell and Shirley Idelson (editors), ''Lesbian Rabbis: The First Generation'', Rutgers University Press, New Jersey, 2001.", "* * Marc Angel, Hillel Goldberg, and Pinchas Stolper, \"Homosexuality and the Orthodox Jewish Community\" ''Jewish Action'' 53:2 p. 54 (1992).", "** Balka, Christie and Rose, Andy, ''Twice Blessed: on Being Lesbian or Gay and Jewish'' Boston: Beacon Press, 1989.", "* J. David Bleich.", "\"Homosexuality\" in ''Judaism and Healing'' KTAV, 1981* * Boyarin, Itzkovitz, Pellegrini, eds.", "''Queer theory and the Jewish question'', Columbia Univ Press, 2003* * * Michael Broyde, \"Jews, Public Policy and Civil Rights: A Religious Jewish Perspective\" at jlaw.com* Cohen, Uri C. \" Bibliography of Contemporary Orthodox Jewish Responses to Homosexuality\" ATID, Jerusalem.", "(PDF also available.", ")* * * Dworkin, Sara H. Jewish, Bisexual, Feminist in a Christian Heterosexual World: Oy Vey!", "* Moshe Feinstein.", "''Igrot Moshe'' OH 4:115, 1 Adar I, 5736** Gorlin, Rebecca.", "\"The Voice of a Wandering Jewish Bisexual\", in ''Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out'', Alyson Publications, 1991, edited by Loraine Hutchins and Lani Kaʻahumanu* Gorlin, Rebecca.", "\"The Voice of a Wandering Jewish Bisexual: An Update\" in ''Kulanu = (all of us) : a resource book for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (glbt) inclusion'', URJ Press, 2007, edited by Richard F. Address, Joel L. Kushner, and Geoffrey Mitelman* Greenberg, Steven, Wrestling with God and Men: Homosexuality in the Jewish Tradition.", "University of Wisconsin Press, 2004.", "** _______.", "(Under pseudonym Yaakov Levado).", "Gayness and God, Tikkun magazine, 1993.", "* Kahn, Yoel H. \"Judaism and Homosexuality: The Traditionalist/Progressive Debate\" in ''Homosexuality and Religion'', Richard Hasbany, ed.", "Haworth Press, 1989* Kolodny, Debra and Rosenthol, Gilly, \"Hear, I Pray You, This Dream Which I Have Dreamed\" and \"I Can Love All The Faces of G-d\" in ''Blessed Bi Spirit: Bisexual People of Faith'', Continuum, 2000, edited by Kolodny, Debra* * * * * Jewish Reconstruction Federation & RRA, ''Homosexuality and Judaism: The Reconstructionist Position'', The Reconstructionist Press, 1993* Unterman, Alan.", "\"Judaism and Homosexuality: Some Orthodox Perspectives\" in ''Jewish Explorations of Sexuality'', Jonathan Magonet, ed.", "* Also available" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"The Oxford Handbook of Theology, Sexuality, and Gender\" (Judaism, Chapter 25) by Ronit Irshai (2015).", "* \"Being Gay and Jewish: Negotiating Intersecting Identities\" by Randal Schnoor (2006).", "* \"Israel Actually Ranks Low in Tolerance of LGBT People, Survey Says\" by Ilan Lior (2015).", "* \"'Let Us Bless the Twilight': Intersectionality of Traditional Jewish Ritual and Queer Pride in a Reform Congregation in Israel\" by Elazar Ben-Lulu (2019).", "* ''Found Tribe: Jewish Coming Out Stories'', edited by Lawrence Schimel (May 1, 2004)* ''A Gay Synagogue in New York'' by Moshe Shokeid (Nov 1, 2002)* ''Judaism and Homosexuality: An Authentic Orthodox View'' by Rabbi Chaim Rapoport (Apr 1, 2004)* \"Hear, I Pray You, This Dream Which I Have Dreamed\" by Debra Kolodny and \"I Can Love All The Faces of G-d\" by Gilly Rosenthol, both in ''Blessed Bi Spirit: Bisexual People of Faith'', edited by Debra Kolodny (2000) * \"Lesbianism\", by Rebecca Alpert, part of ''Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia''* ''Lesbian Rabbis: The First Generation'' by Rebecca Alpert, Sue Levi Elwell and Shirley Idelson (Aug 15, 2001)* ''Like Bread on the Seder Plate: Jewish Lesbians and the Transformation of Tradition'' by Rebecca Alpert (Nov 15, 1998)* \"Judaism, Post-Biblical\" by Warren Johansson, in '' Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'' (1990)* \"Judaism, Sephardic\" by Daniel Eisenberg, in '' Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'' (1990)* \"Judeo-Christian Tradition\" by Warren Johansson, in '' Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'' (1990)* ''Nice Jewish Girls: A Lesbian Anthology'' edited by Evelyn Torton Beck (Dec 1989)* ''Twice Blessed: On Being Lesbian or Gay and Jewish'', edited by Christie Balka and Andy Rose (Apr 2, 1991)* \"The Voice of a Wandering Jewish Bisexual\" by Rebecca Gorlin, in ''Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out'', Alyson Publications, 1991, edited by Loraine Hutchins and Lani Kaʻahumanu* \"The Voice of a Wandering Jewish Bisexual: An Update\" by Rebecca Gorlin, in ''Kulanu = (all of us) : a resource book for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (glbt) inclusion'', URJ Press, 2007, edited by Richard F. Address, Joel L. Kushner, and Geoffrey Mitelman* \"Judaism\" at glbtq.com*'''Research References:'''* Yaron Ben Naeh: Homosexuality in Jewish medieval society, comparison with the Islam, at \"Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World\", 13 sqq* Pdf.", "* * * * * Halbertal, T. H., & Koren, I.", "(2006).", "Between \"being\" and \"doing\": Conflict and coherence in the identity formation of gay and lesbian Orthodox Jews.", "In D. P. McAdams, R. Josselson, and A. Lieblich (Eds.", "), ''Identity and story: Creating self in narrative'' (p. 37–61).", "Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association Press.", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Dewey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Dewey''' (; October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer.", "He was one of the most prominent American scholars in the first half of the twentieth century.The overriding theme of Dewey's works was his profound belief in democracy, be it in politics, education, or communication and journalism.", "As Dewey himself stated in 1888, while still at the University of Michigan, \"Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of humanity are to my mind synonymous.\"", "Dewey considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—to be major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality.", "He asserted that complete democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists a fully formed public opinion, accomplished by communication among citizens, experts and politicians.Dewey was one of the primary figures associated with the philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the founding thinkers of functional psychology.", "His paper \"The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology\", published in 1896, is regarded as the first major work in the (Chicago) functionalist school of psychology.", "A ''Review of General Psychology'' survey, published in 2002, ranked Dewey as the 93rd-most-cited psychologist of the 20th century.Dewey was also a major educational reformer for the 20th century.", "A well-known public intellectual, he was a major voice of progressive education and liberalism.", "While a professor at the University of Chicago, he founded the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, where he was able to apply and test his progressive ideas on pedagogical method.", "Although Dewey is known best for his publications about education, he also wrote about many other topics, including epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, art, logic, social theory, and ethics." ], [ "Life", "=== Early life and education ===John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont, to a family of modest means.", "He was one of four boys born to Archibald Sprague Dewey and Lucina Artemisia Rich Dewey.", "Their first son was also named John, but he died in an accident on January 17, 1859.The second John Dewey was born October 20, 1859, forty weeks after the death of his older brother.", "Like his older, surviving brother, Davis Rich Dewey, he attended the University of Vermont, where he was initiated into Delta Psi, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1879.A significant professor of Dewey's at the University of Vermont was Henry Augustus Pearson Torrey (H. A. P. Torrey), the son-in-law and nephew of former University of Vermont president Joseph Torrey.", "Dewey studied privately with Torrey between his graduation from Vermont and his enrollment at Johns Hopkins University.=== Career ===John Dewey at the University of Chicago in 1902After two years as a high-school teacher in Oil City, Pennsylvania, and one year as an elementary school teacher in the small town of Charlotte, Vermont, Dewey decided that he was unsuited for teaching primary or secondary school.", "After studying with George Sylvester Morris, Charles Sanders Peirce, Herbert Baxter Adams, and G. Stanley Hall, Dewey received his Ph.D. from the School of Arts & Sciences at Johns Hopkins University.", "In 1884, he accepted a faculty position at the University of Michigan (1884–88 and 1889–94) with the help of George Sylvester Morris.", "His unpublished and now lost dissertation was titled \"The Psychology of Kant\".In 1894 Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago (1894–1904) where he developed his belief in Rational Empiricism, becoming associated with the newly emerging Pragmatic philosophy.", "His time at the University of Chicago resulted in four essays collectively entitled ''Thought and its Subject-Matter'', which was published with collected works from his colleagues at Chicago under the collective title ''Studies in Logical Theory'' (1904).During that time Dewey also initiated the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, where he was able to actualize the pedagogical beliefs that provided material for his first major work on education, ''The School and Society'' (1899).", "Disagreements with the administration ultimately caused his resignation from the university, and soon thereafter he relocated near the East Coast.", "In 1899, Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association (A.P.A.).", "From 1904 until his retirement in 1930 he was professor of philosophy at Teachers College at Columbia University and influenced Carl Rogers.In 1905 he became president of the American Philosophical Association.", "He was a longtime member of the American Federation of Teachers.", "Along with the historians Charles A.", "Beard and James Harvey Robinson, and the economist Thorstein Veblen, Dewey is one of the founders of The New School.Dewey published more than 700 articles in 140 journals, and approximately 40 books.", "His most significant writings were \"The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology\" (1896), a critique of a standard psychological concept and the basis of all his further work; ''Democracy and Education'' (1916), his celebrated work on progressive education; ''Human Nature and Conduct'' (1922), a study of the function of habit in human behavior; ''The Public and its Problems'' (1927), a defense of democracy written in response to Walter Lippmann's ''The Phantom Public'' (1925); ''Experience and Nature'' (1925), Dewey's most \"metaphysical\" statement; ''Impressions of Soviet Russia and the Revolutionary World'' (1929), a glowing travelogue from the nascent USSR.", "''Art as Experience'' (1934), was Dewey's major work on aesthetics; ''A Common Faith'' (1934), a humanistic study of religion originally delivered as the Dwight H. Terry Lectureship at Yale; ''Logic: The Theory of Inquiry'' (1938), a statement of Dewey's unusual conception of logic; ''Freedom and Culture'' (1939), a political work examining the roots of fascism; and ''Knowing and the Known'' (1949), a book written in conjunction with Arthur F. Bentley that systematically outlines the concept of trans-action, which is central to his other works (see Transactionalism).While each of these works focuses on one particular philosophical theme, Dewey included his major themes in ''Experience and Nature''.", "However, dissatisfied with the response to the first (1925) edition, for the second (1929) edition he rewrote the first chapter and added a Preface in which he stated that the book presented what we would now call a new (Kuhnian) paradigm: '''I have not striven in this volume for a reconciliation between the new and the old' E&N:4'' ''.''", "and he asserts Kuhnian incommensurability:'''To many the associating of the two words 'experience' and 'nature' will seem like talking of a round square' but 'I know of no route by which dialectical argument can answer such objections.", "They arise from association with words and cannot be dealt with argumentatively'.''", "The following can be interpreted now as describing a Kuhnian conversion process: '''One can only hope in the course of the whole discussion to disclose the new meanings which are attached to \"experience\" and \"nature,\" and thus insensibly produce, if one is fortunate, a change in the significations previously attached to them' all E&N:10.", "''Reflecting his immense influence on 20th-century thought, Hilda Neatby wrote \"Dewey has been to our age what Aristotle was to the later Middle Ages, not a philosopher, but ''the'' philosopher.", "\"=== Visits to China and Japan ===John Dewey and Hu Shih, –1942In 1919, Dewey and his wife traveled to Japan on sabbatical leave.", "Though Dewey and his wife were well received by the people of Japan during this trip, Dewey was also critical of the nation's governing system and claimed that the nation's path towards democracy was \"ambitious but weak in many respects in which her competitors are strong\".", "He also warned that \"the real test has not yet come.", "But if the nominally democratic world should go back on the professions so profusely uttered during war days, the shock will be enormous, and bureaucracy and militarism might come back.", "\"During his trip to Japan, Dewey was invited by Peking University to visit China, probably at the behest of his former students, Hu Shih and Chiang Monlin.", "Dewey and his wife Alice arrived in Shanghai on April 30, 1919, just days before student demonstrators took to the streets of Peking to protest the decision of the Allies in Paris to cede the German-held territories in Shandong province to Japan.", "Their demonstrations on May Fourth excited and energized Dewey, and he ended up staying in China for two years, leaving in July 1921.John Dewey in China in 1920In these two years, Dewey gave nearly 200 lectures to Chinese audiences and wrote nearly monthly articles for Americans in ''The New Republic'' and other magazines.", "Well aware of both Japanese expansionism into China and the attraction of Bolshevism to some Chinese, Dewey advocated that Americans support China's transformation and that Chinese base this transformation in education and social reforms, not revolution.", "Hundreds and sometimes thousands of people attended the lectures, which were interpreted by Hu Shih.", "For these audiences, Dewey represented \"Mr. Democracy\" and \"Mr. Science,\" the two personifications which they thought of representing modern values and hailed him as \"the American Confucius\".", "His lectures were lost at the time but have been rediscovered and published in 2015.Zhixin Su states: :Dewey was, for those Chinese educators who had studied under him, the great apostle of philosophic liberalism and experimental methodology, the advocate of complete freedom of thought, and the man who, above all other teachers, equated education to the practical problems of civic cooperation and useful living.", "Dewey urged the Chinese to not import any Western educational model.", "He recommended to educators such as Tao Xingzhi, that they use pragmatism to devise their own model school system at the national level.", "However, the national government was weak, and the provinces largely controlled by warlords, so his suggestions were praised at the national level but not implemented.", "However, there were a few implementations locally.", "Dewey's ideas did have influence in Hong Kong, and in Taiwan after the nationalist government fled there.", "In most of China, Confucian scholars controlled the local educational system before 1949 and they simply ignored Dewey and Western ideas.", "In Marxist and Maoist China, Dewey's ideas were systematically denounced.=== Visit to Southern Africa ===Dewey and his daughter Jane went to South Africa in July 1934, at the invitation of the World Conference of New Education Fellowship in Cape Town and Johannesburg, where he delivered several talks.", "The conference was opened by the South African Minister of Education Jan Hofmeyr, and Deputy Prime Minister Jan Smuts.", "Other speakers at the conference included Max Eiselen and Hendrik Verwoerd, who would later become prime minister of the Nationalist government that introduced apartheid.Dewey's expenses were paid by the Carnegie Foundation.", "He also traveled to Durban, Pretoria and Victoria Falls in what was then Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and looked at schools, talked to pupils, and gave lectures to the administrators and teachers.", "In August 1934, Dewey accepted an honorary degree from the University of the Witwatersrand.", "The white-only governments rejected Dewey's ideas as too secular.", "However black people and their white supporters were more receptive.=== Personal life ===Dewey married Alice Chipman in 1886 shortly after Chipman graduated with her Ph.D. from the University of Michigan.", "The two had six children: Frederick Archibald Dewey, Evelyn Riggs Dewey, Morris (who died young), Gordon Chipman Dewey, Lucy Alice Chipman Dewey, and Jane Mary Dewey.", "Alice Chipman died in 1927 at the age of 68; weakened by a case of malaria contracted during a trip to Turkey in 1924 and a heart attack during a trip to Mexico City in 1926, she died from cerebral thrombosis on July 13, 1927.Dewey married Estelle Roberta Lowitz Grant, \"a longtime friend and companion for several years before their marriage\" on December 11, 1946.At Roberta's behest, the couple adopted two siblings, Lewis (changed to John Jr.) and Shirley.Dewey's interests and writings included many topics, and according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, \"a substantial part of his published output consisted of commentary on current domestic and international politics, and public statements on behalf of many causes.", "(He is probably the only philosopher in this encyclopedia to have published both on the Treaty of Versailles and on the value of displaying art in post offices.", ")\"In 1917, Dewey met F. M. Alexander in New York City and later wrote introductions to Alexander's ''Man's Supreme Inheritance'' (1918), ''Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual'' (1923) and ''The Use of the Self'' (1932).", "Alexander's influence is referenced in \"Human Nature and Conduct\" and \"Experience and Nature.\"", "As well as his contacts with people mentioned elsewhere in the article, he also maintained correspondence with Henri Bergson, William M. Brown, Martin Buber, George S. Counts, William Rainey Harper, Sidney Hook, and George Santayana.=== Death ===John Dewey died of pneumonia on June 1, 1952, at his home in New York City after years of ill-health and was cremated the next day." ], [ "Functional psychology", "At the University of Michigan, Dewey published his first two books, ''Psychology'' (1887), and ''Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding'' (1888), both of which expressed Dewey's early commitment to British neo-Hegelianism.", "In ''Psychology'', Dewey attempted a synthesis between idealism and experimental science.While still professor of philosophy at Michigan, Dewey and his junior colleagues, James Hayden Tufts and George Herbert Mead, together with his student James Rowland Angell, all influenced strongly by the recent publication of William James' ''Principles of Psychology'' (1890), began to reformulate psychology, emphasizing the social environment on the activity of mind and behavior rather than the physiological psychology of Wilhelm Wundt and his followers.By 1894, Dewey had joined Tufts, with whom he would later write ''Ethics'' (1908) at the recently founded University of Chicago and invited Mead and Angell to follow him, the four men forming the basis of the so-called \"Chicago group\" of psychology.Their new style of psychology, later dubbed functional psychology, had a practical emphasis on action and application.", "In Dewey's article \"The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology\" which appeared in ''Psychological Review'' in 1896, he reasons against the traditional stimulus-response understanding of the reflex arc in favor of a \"circular\" account in which what serves as \"stimulus\" and what as \"response\" depends on how one considers the situation and defends the unitary nature of the sensory motor circuit.", "While he does not deny the existence of stimulus, sensation, and response, he disagreed that they were separate, juxtaposed events happening like links in a chain.", "He developed the idea that there is a coordination by which the stimulation is enriched by the results of previous experiences.", "The response is modulated by sensorial experience.Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1899.Dewey also expressed interest in work in the psychology of visual perception performed by Dartmouth research professor Adelbert Ames Jr.", "He had great trouble with listening, however, because it is known Dewey could not distinguish musical pitches—in other words was an amusic." ], [ "Views", "=== Education and teacher education ===Dewey's educational theories were presented in ''My Pedagogic Creed'' (1897), ''The Primary-Education Fetich'' (1898), ''The School and Society'' (1900), ''The Child and the Curriculum'' (1902), ''Democracy and Education'' (1916), ''Schools of To-morrow'' (1915) with Evelyn Dewey, and ''Experience and Education'' (1938).", "Several themes recur throughout these writings.", "Dewey continually argues that education and learning are social and interactive processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which social reform can and should take place.", "In addition, he believed that students thrive in an environment where they are allowed to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should have the opportunity to take part in their own learning.The ideas of democracy and social reform are continually discussed in Dewey's writings on education.", "Dewey makes a strong case for the importance of education not only as a place to gain content knowledge, but also as a place to learn how to live.", "In his eyes, the purpose of education should not revolve around the acquisition of a pre-determined set of skills, but rather the realization of one's full potential and the ability to use those skills for the greater good.", "He notes that \"to prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities\" (''My Pedagogic Creed'', Dewey, 1897).In addition to helping students realize their full potential, Dewey goes on to acknowledge that education and schooling are instrumental in creating social change and reform.", "He notes that \"education is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social consciousness; and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of this social consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction\".In addition to his ideas regarding what education is and what effect it should have on society, Dewey also had specific notions regarding how education should take place within the classroom.", "In ''The Child and the Curriculum'' (1902), Dewey discusses two major conflicting schools of thought regarding educational pedagogy.", "The first is centered on the curriculum and focuses almost solely on the subject matter to be taught.", "Dewey argues that the major flaw in this methodology is the inactivity of the student; within this particular framework, \"the child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial being who is to be deepened\" (1902, p. 13).", "He argues that in order for education to be most effective, content must be presented in a way that allows the student to relate the information to prior experiences, thus deepening the connection with this new knowledge.At the same time, Dewey was alarmed by many of the \"child-centered\" excesses of educational-school pedagogues who claimed to be his followers, and he argued that too much reliance on the child could be equally detrimental to the learning process.", "In this second school of thought, \"we must take our stand with the child and our departure from him.", "It is he and not the subject-matter which determines both quality and quantity of learning\" (Dewey, 1902, pp. 13–14).", "According to Dewey, the potential flaw in this line of thinking is that it minimizes the importance of the content as well as the role of the teacher.In order to rectify this dilemma, Dewey advocated an educational structure that strikes a balance between delivering knowledge while also taking into account the interests and experiences of the student.", "He notes that \"the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process.", "Just as two points define a straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define instruction\" (Dewey, 1902, p. 16).It is through this reasoning that Dewey became one of the most famous proponents of hands-on learning or experiential education, which is related to, but not synonymous with experiential learning.", "He argued that \"if knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind\" (Dewey, 1916/2009, pp. 217–18).", "Dewey's ideas went on to influence many other influential experiential models and advocates.", "Problem-Based Learning (PBL), for example, a method used widely in education today, incorporates Dewey's ideas pertaining to learning through active inquiry.Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place, but also the role that the teacher should play within that process.", "Throughout the history of American schooling, education's purpose has been to train students for work by providing the student with a limited set of skills and information to do a particular job.", "The works of John Dewey provide the most prolific examples of how this limited vocational view of education has been applied to both the K–12 public education system and to the teacher training schools that attempted to quickly produce proficient and practical teachers with a limited set of instructional and discipline-specific skills needed to meet the needs of the employer and demands of the workforce.uprightIn ''The School and Society'' (Dewey, 1899) and ''Democracy of Education'' (Dewey, 1916), Dewey claims that rather than preparing citizens for ethical participation in society, schools cultivate passive pupils via insistence upon mastery of facts and disciplining of bodies.", "Rather than preparing students to be reflective, autonomous and ethical beings capable of arriving at social truths through critical and intersubjective discourse, schools prepare students for docile compliance with authoritarian work and political structures, discourage the pursuit of individual and communal inquiry, and perceive higher learning as a monopoly of the institution of education (Dewey, 1899; 1916).For Dewey and his philosophical followers, education stifles individual autonomy when learners are taught that knowledge is transmitted in one direction, from the expert to the learner.", "Dewey not only re-imagined the way that the learning process should take place, but also the role that the teacher should play within that process.", "For Dewey, \"The thing needful is improvement of education, not simply by turning out teachers who can do better the things that are not necessary to do, but rather by changing the conception of what constitutes education\" (Dewey, 1904, p. 18).Dewey's qualifications for teaching—a natural love for working with young children, a natural propensity to inquire about the subjects, methods and other social issues related to the profession, and a desire to share this acquired knowledge with others—are not a set of outwardly displayed mechanical skills.", "Rather, they may be viewed as internalized principles or habits which \"work automatically, unconsciously\" (Dewey, 1904, p. 15).", "Turning to Dewey's essays and public addresses regarding the teaching profession, followed by his analysis of the teacher as a person and a professional, as well as his beliefs regarding the responsibilities of teacher education programs to cultivate the attributes addressed, teacher educators can begin to reimagine the successful classroom teacher Dewey envisioned.==== Professionalization of teaching as a social service ====For many, education's purpose is to train students for work by providing the student with a limited set of skills and information to do a particular job.", "As Dewey notes, this limited vocational view is also applied to teacher training schools who attempt to quickly produce proficient and practical teachers with a limited set of instructional and discipline skills needed to meet the needs of the employer and demands of the workforce (Dewey, 1904).", "For Dewey, the school and the classroom teacher, as a workforce and provider of social service, have a unique responsibility to produce psychological and social goods that will lead to both present and future social progress.As Dewey notes, \"The business of the teacher is to produce a higher standard of intelligence in the community, and the object of the public school system is to make as large as possible the number of those who possess this intelligence.", "Skill, the ability to act wisely and effectively in a great variety of occupations and situations, is a sign and a criterion of the degree of civilization that a society has reached.", "It is the business of teachers to help in producing the many kinds of skills needed in contemporary life.", "If teachers are up to their work, they also aid in the production of character.", "\"(Dewey, TAP, 2010, pp.", "241–42).According to Dewey, the emphasis is placed on producing these attributes in children for use in their contemporary life because it is \"impossible to foretell definitely just what civilization will be twenty years from now\" (Dewey, MPC, 2010, p. 25).", "However, although Dewey is steadfast in his beliefs that education serves an immediate purpose (Dewey, DRT, 2010; Dewey, MPC, 2010; Dewey, TTP, 2010), he is not ignorant of the impact imparting these qualities of intelligence, skill, and character on young children in their present life will have on the future society.", "While addressing the state of educative and economic affairs during a 1935 radio broadcast, Dewey linked the ensuing economic depression to a \"lack of sufficient production of intelligence, skill, and character\" (Dewey, TAP, 2010, p. 242) of the nation's workforce.As Dewey notes, there is a lack of these goods in the present society and teachers have a responsibility to create them in their students, who, we can assume, will grow into the adults who will ultimately go on to participate in whatever industrial or economic civilization awaits them.", "According to Dewey, the profession of the classroom teacher is to produce the intelligence, skill, and character within each student so that the democratic community is composed of citizens who can think, do and act intelligently and morally.==== A teacher's knowledge ====uprightDewey believed that successful classroom teacher possesses a passion for knowledge and intellectual curiosity in the materials and methods they teach.", "For Dewey, this propensity is an inherent curiosity and love for learning that differs from one's ability to acquire, recite and reproduce textbook knowledge.", "\"No one,\" according to Dewey, \"can be really successful in performing the duties and meeting these demands of teaching who does not retain their intellectual curiosity intact throughout their entire career\" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 34).According to Dewey, it is not that the \"teacher ought to strive to be a high-class scholar in all the subjects he or she has to teach,\" rather, \"a teacher ought to have an unusual love and aptitude in some one subject: history, mathematics, literature, science, a fine art, or whatever\" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 35).", "The classroom teacher does not have to be a scholar in all subjects; rather, genuine love in one will elicit a feel for genuine information and insight in all subjects taught.In addition to this propensity for study into the subjects taught, the classroom teacher \"is possessed by a recognition of the responsibility for the constant study of school room work, the constant study of children, of methods, of subject matter in its various adaptations to pupils\" (Dewey, PST, 2010, p. 37).", "For Dewey, this desire for the lifelong pursuit of learning is inherent in other professions (e.g., the architectural, legal and medical fields; Dewey, 1904 & Dewey, PST, 2010), and has particular importance for the field of teaching.", "As Dewey notes, \"this further study is not a sideline but something which fits directly into the demands and opportunities of the vocation\" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 34).According to Dewey, this propensity and passion for intellectual growth in the profession must be accompanied by a natural desire to communicate one's knowledge with others.", "\"There are scholars who have the knowledge in a marked degree but who lack enthusiasm for imparting it.", "To the 'natural born' teacher learning is incomplete unless it is shared\" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 35).", "For Dewey, it is not enough for the classroom teacher to be a lifelong learner of the techniques and subject-matter of education; she must aspire to share what she knows with others in her learning community.==== A teacher's skill ====The best indicator of teacher quality, according to Dewey, is the ability to watch and respond to the movement of the mind with keen awareness of the signs and quality of the responses his or her students exhibit with regard to the subject-matter presented (Dewey, APT, 2010; Dewey, 1904).", "As Dewey notes, \"I have often been asked how it was that some teachers who have never studied the art of teaching are still extraordinarily good teachers.", "The explanation is simple.", "They have a quick, sure and unflagging sympathy with the operations and process of the minds they are in contact with.", "Their own minds move in harmony with those of others, appreciating their difficulties, entering into their problems, sharing their intellectual victories\" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 36).Such a teacher is genuinely aware of the complexities of this mind-to-mind transfer, and she has the intellectual fortitude to identify the successes and failures of this process, as well as how to appropriately reproduce or correct it in the future.==== A teacher's disposition ====As a result of the direct influence teachers have in shaping the mental, moral and spiritual lives of children during their most formative years, Dewey holds the profession of teaching in high esteem, often equating its social value to that of the ministry and to parenting (Dewey, APT, 2010; Dewey, DRT, 2010; Dewey, MPC, 2010; Dewey, PST, 2010; Dewey, TTC, 2010; Dewey, TTP, 2010).", "Perhaps the most important attributes, according to Dewey, are those personal inherent qualities that the teacher brings to the classroom.", "As Dewey notes, \"no amount of learning or even of acquired pedagogical skill makes up for the deficiency\" (Dewey, TLS, p. 25) of the personal traits needed to be most successful in the profession.According to Dewey, the successful classroom teacher occupies an indispensable passion for promoting the intellectual growth of young children.", "In addition, they know that their career, in comparison to other professions, entails stressful situations, long hours, and limited financial reward; all of which have the potential to overcome their genuine love and sympathy for their students.For Dewey, \"One of the most depressing phases of the vocation is the number of careworn teachers one sees, with anxiety depicted on the lines of their faces, reflected in their strained high pitched voices and sharp manners.", "While contact with the young is a privilege for some temperaments, it is a tax on others and a tax which they do not bear up under very well.", "And in some schools, there are too many pupils to a teacher, too many subjects to teach, and adjustments to pupils are made in a mechanical rather than a human way.", "Human nature reacts against such unnatural conditions\" (Dewey, APT, 2010, p. 35).It is essential, according to Dewey, that the classroom teacher has the mental propensity to overcome the demands and stressors placed on them because the students can sense when their teacher is not genuinely invested in promoting their learning (Dewey, PST, 2010).", "Such negative demeanors, according to Dewey, prevent children from pursuing their own propensities for learning and intellectual growth.", "It can therefore be assumed that if teachers want their students to engage with the educational process and employ their natural curiosities for knowledge, teachers must be aware of how their reactions to young children and the stresses of teaching influence this process.==== The role of teacher education to cultivate the professional classroom teacher ====Dewey's passions for teaching—a natural love for working with young children, a natural propensity to inquire about the subjects, methods and other social issues related to the profession, and a desire to share this acquired knowledge with others—are not a set of outwardly displayed mechanical skills.", "Rather, they may be viewed as internalized principles or habits which \"work automatically, unconsciously\" (Dewey, 1904, p. 15).", "According to Dewey, teacher-education programs must turn away from focusing on producing proficient practitioners because such practical skills related to instruction and discipline (e.g., creating and delivering lesson plans, classroom management, implementation of an assortment of content-specific methods) can be learned over time during their everyday schoolwork with their students (Dewey, PST, 2010).As Dewey notes, \"The teacher who leaves the professional school with power in managing a class of children may appear to superior advantage the first day, the first week, the first month, or even the first year, as compared with some other teacher who has a much more vital command of the psychology, logic and ethics of development.", "But later 'progress' may consist only in perfecting and refining skill already possessed.", "Such persons seem to know how to teach, but they are not students of teaching.", "Even though they go on studying books of pedagogy, reading teachers' journals, attending teachers' institutes, etc., yet the root of the matter is not in them, unless they continue to be students of subject-matter, and students of mind-activity.", "Unless a teacher is such a student, he may continue to improve in the mechanics of school management, but he cannot grow as a teacher, an inspirer and director of soul-life\" (Dewey, 1904, p. 15).For Dewey, teacher education should focus not on producing persons who know how to teach as soon as they leave the program; rather, teacher education should be concerned with producing professional students of education who have the propensity to inquire about the subjects they teach, the methods used, and the activity of the mind as it gives and receives knowledge.", "According to Dewey, such a student is not superficially engaging with these materials, rather, the professional student of education has a genuine passion to inquire about the subjects of education, knowing that doing so ultimately leads to acquisitions of the skills related to teaching.", "Such students of education aspire for the intellectual growth within the profession that can only be achieved by immersing oneself in the lifelong pursuit of the intelligence, skills and character Dewey linked to the profession.As Dewey notes, other professional fields, such as law and medicine cultivate a professional spirit in their fields to constantly study their work, their methods of their work, and a perpetual need for intellectual growth and concern for issues related to their profession.", "Teacher education, as a profession, has these same obligations (Dewey, 1904; Dewey, PST, 2010).As Dewey notes, \"An intellectual responsibility has got to be distributed to every human being who is concerned in carrying out the work in question, and to attempt to concentrate intellectual responsibility for a work that has to be done, with their brains and their hearts, by hundreds or thousands of people in a dozen or so at the top, no matter how wise and skillful they are, is not to concentrate responsibility—it is to diffuse irresponsibility\" (Dewey, PST, 2010, p. 39).", "For Dewey, the professional spirit of teacher education requires of its students a constant study of school room work, constant study of children, of methods, of subject matter in its various adaptations to pupils.", "Such study will lead to professional enlightenment with regard to the daily operations of classroom teaching.As well as his very active and direct involvement in setting up educational institutions such as the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools (1896) and The New School for Social Research (1919), many of Dewey's ideas influenced the founding of Bennington College and Goddard College in Vermont, where he served on the board of trustees.", "Dewey's works and philosophy also held great influence in the creation of the short-lived Black Mountain College in North Carolina, an experimental college focused on interdisciplinary study, and whose faculty included Buckminster Fuller, Willem de Kooning, Charles Olson, Franz Kline, Robert Duncan, Robert Creeley, and Paul Goodman, among others.", "Black Mountain College was the locus of the \"Black Mountain Poets\" a group of avant-garde poets closely linked with the Beat Generation and the San Francisco Renaissance.=== Journalism ===uprightDewey's definition of \"public,\" as described in ''The Public and its Problems'', has profound implications for the significance of journalism in society.", "As suggested by the title of the book, his concern was of the transactional relationship between publics and problems.", "Also implicit in its name, public journalism seeks to orient communication away from elite, corporate hegemony toward a civic public sphere.", "\"The 'public' of public journalists is Dewey's public.\"", "Citation requiredDewey gives a concrete definition to the formation of a public.", "Publics are spontaneous groups of citizens who share the indirect effects of a particular action.", "Anyone affected by the indirect consequences of a specific action will automatically share a common interest in controlling those consequences, i.e., solving a common problem.Since every action generates unintended consequences, publics continuously emerge, overlap, and disintegrate.In ''The Public and its Problems'', Dewey presents a rebuttal to Walter Lippmann's treatise on the role of journalism in democracy.", "Lippmann's model was a basic transmission model in which journalists took information given to them by experts and elites, repackaged that information in simple terms, and transmitted the information to the public, whose role was to react emotionally to the news.", "In his model, Lippmann supposed that the public was incapable of thought or action, and that all thought and action should be left to the experts and elites.Dewey refutes this model by assuming that politics is the work and duty of each individual in the course of his daily routine.", "The knowledge needed to be involved in politics, in this model, was to be generated by the interaction of citizens, elites, experts, through the mediation and facilitation of journalism.", "In this model, not just the government is accountable, but the citizens, experts, and other actors as well.A caricature of Dewey by André Koehne, 2006Dewey also said that journalism should conform to this ideal by changing its emphasis from actions or happenings (choosing a winner of a given situation) to alternatives, choices, consequences, and conditions, in order to foster conversation and improve the generation of knowledge.", "Journalism would not just produce a static product that told what had already happened, but the news would be in a constant state of evolution as the public added value by generating knowledge.", "The \"audience\" would end, to be replaced by citizens and collaborators who would essentially be users, doing more with the news than simply reading it.", "Concerning his effort to change journalism, he wrote in ''The Public and Its Problems'': \"Till the Great Society is converted in to a Great Community, the Public will remain in eclipse.", "Communication can alone create a great community\" (Dewey, p. 142).Dewey believed that communication creates a great community, and citizens who participate actively with public life contribute to that community.", "\"The clear consciousness of a communal life, in all its implications, constitutes the idea of democracy.\"", "(''The Public and its Problems'', p. 149).", "This Great Community can only occur with \"free and full intercommunication.\"", "(p. 211) Communication can be understood as journalism.=== Logic and method ===Dewey sees paradox in contemporary logical theory.", "Proximate subject matter garners general agreement and advancement, while the ultimate subject matter of logic generates unremitting controversy.", "In other words, he challenges confident logicians to answer the question of the truth of logical operators.", "Do they function merely as abstractions (e.g., pure mathematics) or do they connect in some essential way with their objects, and therefore alter or bring them to light?Logical positivism also figured in Dewey's thought.", "About the movement he wrote that it \"eschews the use of 'propositions' and 'terms', substituting 'sentences' and 'words'.\"", "(\"General Theory of Propositions\", in ''Logic: The Theory of Inquiry'') He welcomes this changing of referents \"in as far as it fixes attention upon the symbolic structure and content of propositions.\"", "However, he registers a small complaint against the use of \"sentence\" and \"words\" in that without careful interpretation the act or process of transposition \"narrows unduly the scope of symbols and language, since it is not customary to treat gestures and diagrams (maps, blueprints, etc.)", "as words or sentences.\"", "In other words, sentences and words, considered in isolation, do not disclose intent, which may be inferred or \"adjudged only by means of context.", "\"Yet Dewey was not entirely opposed to modern logical trends; indeed, the deficiencies in traditional logic he expressed hope for the trends to solve occupies the whole first part of same book.", "Concerning traditional logic, he states there:Louis Menand argues in ''The Metaphysical Club'' that Jane Addams had been critical of Dewey's emphasis on antagonism in the context of a discussion of the Pullman Strike of 1894.In a later letter to his wife, Dewey confessed that Addams' argument was:He went on to add:In a letter to Addams, clearly influenced by his conversation with her, Dewey wrote:==== Aesthetics ====''Art as Experience'' (1934) is Dewey's major writing on aesthetics.It is, in accordance with his place in the Pragmatist tradition that emphasizes community, a study of the individual art object as embedded in (and inextricable from) the experiences of a local culture.", "In the original illustrated edition, Dewey drew on the modern art and world cultures collection assembled by Albert C. Barnes at the Barnes Foundation, whose own ideas on the application of art to one's way of life was influenced by Dewey's writing.", "Dewey made art through writing poetry, but he considered himself deeply unmusical: one of his students described Dewey as \"allergic to music.\"", "Barnes was particularly influenced by ''Democracy and Education'' (1916) and then attended Dewey's seminar on political philosophy at Columbia University in the fall semester of 1918.=== Philanthropy, women and democracy ===Dewey with his Iraqi friend and student, Nuri Ja'far, 1949Dewey founded the University of Chicago laboratory school, supported educational organizations, and supported settlement houses especially Jane Addams' Hull House.John Dewey and Jane Addams influenced each other's expansive theory of democracy.Through his work at the Hull House serving on its first board of trustees, Dewey was not only an activist for the cause but also a partner working to serve the large immigrant community of Chicago and women's suffrage.", "Dewey experienced the lack of children's education while contributing in the classroom at the Hull House.", "There he also experienced the lack of education and skills of immigrant women.", "Stengel argues:His leading views on democracy included: First, Dewey believed that democracy is an ethical ideal rather than merely a political arrangement.", "Second, he considered participation, not representation, the essence of democracy.", "Third, he insisted on the harmony between democracy and the scientific method: ever-expanding and self-critical communities of inquiry, operating on pragmatic principles and constantly revising their beliefs in light of new evidence, provided Dewey with a model for democratic decision making ...", "Finally, Dewey called for extending democracy, conceived as an ethical project, from politics to industry and society.", "This helped to shape his understanding of human action and the unity of human experience.Dewey believed that a woman's place in society was determined by her environment and not just her biology.", "On women he says, \"You think too much of women in terms of sex.", "Think of them as human individuals for a while, dropping out the sex qualification, and you won't be so sure of some of your generalizations about what they should and shouldn't do\".", "John Dewey's support helped to increase the support and popularity of Jane Addams' Hull House and other settlement houses as well.", "With growing support, involvement of the community grew as well as the support for the women's suffrage movement.As commonly argued by Dewey's greatest critics, he was not able to come up with strategies in order to fulfill his ideas that would lead to a successful democracy, educational system, and a successful women's suffrage movement.", "While knowing that traditional beliefs, customs, and practices needed to be examined in order to find out what worked and what needed improved upon, it was never done in a systematic way.", "\"Dewey became increasingly aware of the obstacles presented by entrenched power and alert to the intricacy of the problems facing modern cultures\".", "With the complex of society at the time, Dewey was criticized for his lack of effort in fixing the problems.With respect to technological developments in a democracy:His work on democracy influenced B.R.", "Ambedkar, one of his students, who later served as a Law and Justice Minister of India.=== Religion ===John DeweyHistorians have examined his religious beliefs.", "Biographer Steven Clark Rockefeller traced Dewey's democratic convictions to his childhood attendance at the Congregational Church, with its strong proclamation of social ideals and the Social Gospel.", "Historian Edward A.", "White suggested in ''Science and Religion in American Thought'' (1952) that Dewey's work led to the 20th-century rift between religion and science.Dewey went through an \"evangelical\" development as a child.", "As an adult he was negative, or at most neutral, about theology in education.", "He instead took a meliorist position with the goal of scientific humanism and educational and social reform without recourse to religion.As an atheist and a secular humanist in his later life, Dewey participated with a variety of humanistic activities from the 1930s into the 1950s, which included sitting on the advisory board of Charles Francis Potter's First Humanist Society of New York (1929); being one of the original 34 signatories of the first ''Humanist Manifesto'' (1933) and being elected an honorary member of the Humanist Press Association (1936).His opinion of humanism is summarized in his own words from an article titled \"What Humanism Means to Me\", published in the June 1930 edition of ''Thinker 2'':=== Pragmatism, instrumentalism, consequentialism ===Dewey sometimes referred to his philosophy as instrumentalism rather than pragmatism and would have recognized the similarity of these two schools to the newer school named consequentialism.", "In some phrases introducing a book he wrote later in life meant to help forestay a wandering kind of criticism of the work based on the controversies due to the differences in the schools that he sometimes invoked, he defined at the same time with precise brevity the criterion of validity common to these three schools, which lack agreed-upon definitions:His concern for precise definition led him to detailed analysis of careless word usage, reported in ''Knowing and the Known'' in 1949.==== Epistemology ====The terminology problem in the fields of epistemology and logic is partially due, according to Dewey and Bentley, to inefficient and imprecise use of words and concepts that reflect three historic levels of organization and presentation.", "In the order of chronological appearance, these are:* Self-Action: Prescientific concepts regarded humans, animals, and things as possessing powers of their own which initiated or caused their actions.", "* Interaction: as described by Newton, where things, living and inorganic, are balanced against something in a system of interaction, for example, the third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.", "* Transaction: where modern systems of descriptions and naming are employed to deal with multiple aspects and phases of action without any attribution to ultimate, final, or independent entities, essences, or realities.A series of characterizations of Transactions indicate the wide range of considerations involved." ], [ "Social and political activism", "===1894 Pullman Strike===While Dewey was at the University of Chicago, his letters to his wife Alice and his colleague Jane Addams reveal that he closely followed the 1894 Pullman Strike, in which the employees of the Pullman Palace Car Factory in Chicago decided to go on strike after industrialist George Pullman refused to lower rents in his company town after cutting his workers' wages by nearly 30 percent.", "On May 11, 1894, the strike became official, later gaining the support of the members of the American Railway Union, whose leader Eugene V. Debs called for a nationwide boycott of all trains including Pullman sleeping cars.Considering most trains had Pullman cars, the main 24 lines out of Chicago were halted and the mail was stopped as the workers destroyed trains all over the United States.", "President Grover Cleveland used the mail as a justification to send in the National Guard, and ARU leader Eugene Debs was arrested.Dewey wrote to Alice: \"The only wonder is that when the 'higher classes' – damn them – take such views there aren't more downright socialists.", "... That a representative journal of the upper classes – damn them again – can take the attitude of that harper's weekly\", referring to headlines such as \"Monopoly\" and \"Repress the Rebellion\", which claimed, in Dewey's words, to support the sensational belief that Debs was a \"criminal\" inspiring hate and violence in the equally \"criminal\" working classes.", "He concluded: \"It shows what it is to be a higher class.", "And I fear Chicago Univ.", "is a capitalistic institution – that is, it too belongs to the higher classes\".===Pro-war stance in First World War===Dewey was an advocate of US participation in the First World War.", "For this he was criticised by Randolph Bourne, a former student whose essay \"Twilight of Idols\", was published in the literary journal ''Seven Arts'' in October 1917.Bourne criticised Dewey's instrumental pragmatist philosophy.===International League for Academic Freedom===The grave of Dewey and his wife in an alcove on the north side of the Ira Allen Chapel in Burlington, Vermont.", "The only grave on the University of Vermont campusAs a major advocate of academic freedom, in 1935 Dewey, together with Albert Einstein and Alvin Johnson, became a member of the United States section of the International League for Academic Freedom, and in 1940, together with Horace M Kallen, edited a series of articles related to the Bertrand Russell Case.===Dewey Commission===He directed the famous Dewey Commission held in Mexico in 1937, which cleared Leon Trotsky of the charges made against him by Joseph Stalin, and marched for women's rights, among many other causes.===League for Industrial Democracy===In 1939, Dewey was elected President of the League for Industrial Democracy, an organization with the goal of educating college students about the labor movement.", "The Student Branch of the L.I.D.", "would later become Students for a Democratic Society.As well as defending the independence of teachers and opposing a communist takeover of the New York Teachers' Union, Dewey was involved in the organization that eventually became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, sitting as an executive on the NAACP's early executive board.He was an avid supporter of Henry George's proposal for taxing land values.", "Of George, he wrote, \"No man, no graduate of a higher educational institution, has a right to regard himself as an educated man in social thought unless he has some first-hand acquaintance with the theoretical contribution of this great American thinker.\"", "As honorary president of the Henry George School of Social Science, he wrote a letter to Henry Ford urging him to support the school." ], [ "Academic Awards and Honors", "* Elected member of the United States National Academy of Sciences (1910)* Elected member of the American Philosophical Society (1911)* Copernican Citation (1943)* Doctor \"honoris causa\" – University of Oslo (1946); University of Pennsylvania (1946); Yale University (1951); University of Rome (1951)" ], [ "Honors", "John Dewey featured on a United States 30-cents stamp (21 October 21, 1968)* John Dewey High School in Brooklyn, New York is named after him.", "* John Dewey Academy of Learning in Green Bay, Wisconsin is a charter school named after him.", "* The John Dewey Academy in Great Barrington, MA is a college preparatory therapeutic boarding school for troubled adolescents.", "* John Dewey Elementary School in Warrensville Hts., Ohio, an Eastern Suburb of Cleveland, Ohio, is named after him.", "* John Dewey Middle School in Adams County in Denver, Colorado is a junior high school named after him.", "* Dewey Hall, a building on the campus of the University of Vermont is named after him.", "* The United States Postal Service honored Dewey with a Prominent Americans series 30¢ postage stamp in 1968." ], [ "Publications", "Besides publishing prolifically himself, Dewey also sat on the boards of scientific publications such as ''Sociometry'' (advisory board, 1942) and ''Journal of Social Psychology'' (editorial board, 1942), as well as having posts at other publications such as ''New Leader'' (contributing editor, 1949).The following publications by John Dewey are referenced or mentioned in this article.", "A more complete list of his publications may be found at John Dewey bibliography.", "* \" The New Psychology\", ''Andover Review'', 2, 278–89 (1884)* ''Psychology'' (1887)* ''Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding'' (1888)* \" The Ego as Cause\" ''Philosophical Review'', 3, 337–41 (June 24, 1894)* \"The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology\" (1896)* \"My Pedagogic Creed\" (1897)* ''The School and Society'' (1899)* ''The Child and the Curriculum '' (1902)* ''The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education'' (1904)* \"The Postulate of Immediate Empiricism\" (1905)* ''Moral Principles in Education'' (1909), The Riverside Press Cambridge, Project Gutenberg* ''How We Think'' (1910)* '' German Philosophy and Politics'' (1915)* ''Democracy and Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education'' (1916)* '' Reconstruction in Philosophy'' (1919)* ''Letters from China and Japan'' (1920) online* ''China, Japan and the U.S.A.'' (1921) online* , An Introduction to Social Psychology (1922) Parts 1–4* '' Experience and Nature'' (1925)* ''The Public and its Problems'' (1927)* ''The Quest for Certainty'', Gifford Lectures (1929)* The Sources of a Science of Education (1929), The Kappa Delta Pi Lecture Series* ''Individualism Old and New'' (1930)* ''Philosophy and Civilization'' (1931)* Ethics, second edition (with James Hayden Tufts) (1932)* ''Art as Experience'' (1934)* ''A Common Faith'' (1934)* ''Liberalism and Social Action'' (1935)* ''Experience and Education'' (1938)* ''Logic: The Theory of Inquiry'' (1938)* ''Freedom and Culture'' (1939)* ''Theory of Valuation'' (1939).", "* ''Knowing and the Known'' (1949)* ''Unmodern Philosophy and Modern Philosophy'' (Lost in 1947, finally published in 2012)* ''Lectures in China, 1919-1920'' lost; finally published 1973; online'''See also'''* ''The Philosophy of John Dewey'', Edited by John J. McDermott.", "University of Chicago Press, 1981.", "* ''The Essential Dewey: Volumes 1 and 2''.", "Edited by Larry Hickman and Thomas Alexander.", "Indiana University Press, 1998.", "* \"To those who aspire to the profession of teaching\" (APT).", "In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F.", "(eds.", "), ''Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey'' (33–36).", "Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.", "* \"The classroom teacher\" (CRT).", "In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F.", "(eds.", "), ''Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey'' (153–60).", "Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.", "* \"The duties and responsibilities of the teaching profession\" (DRT).", "In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F.", "(eds.", "), ''Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey'' (245–48).", "Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.", "* \"The educational balance, efficiency and thinking\" (EET).", "In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F.", "(eds.", "), ''Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey'' (41–45).", "Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.", "* \"My pedagogic creed\" (MPC).", "In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F.", "(eds.", "), ''Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey'' (24–32).", "Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.", "* \"Professional spirit among teachers\" (PST).", "In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F.", "(eds.", "), ''Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey'' (37–40).", "Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.", "* \"The teacher and the public\" (TAP).", "In Simpson, D.J., & Stack, S.F.", "(eds.", "), ''Teachers, leaders and schools: Essays by John Dewey'' (214–44).", "Carbonale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010.", "'''Dewey's Complete Writings''' is available in four multi-volume sets (38 volumes in all) from Southern Illinois University Press:* ''The Early Works: 1892–1898'' (5 volumes)* ''The Middle Works: 1899–1924'' (15 volumes)* ''The Later Works: 1925–1953'' (17 volumes)* ''Supplementary Volume 1: 1884–1951'''' The Collected Works of John Dewey: 1882–1953'', '' The Correspondence of John Dewey 1871–1952'', and '' The Lectures of John Dewey'' are available online via monographic purchase to academic institutions and via subscription to individuals, and also in TEI format for university servers in the Past Masters series.", "(The CD-ROM has been discontinued.)" ], [ "See also", "* Center for Dewey Studies* Democratic education* Dewey Commission* Inquiry-based learning* Instrumental and value-rational action* John Dewey bibliography* John Dewey Society* League for Independent Political Action* Malting House School* Pragmatic ethics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Caspary, William R. ''Dewey on Democracy'' (2000).", "Cornell University Press.", "* Martin, Jay.", "''The Education of John Dewey.''", "(2003).", "Columbia University Press* Rockefeller, Stephen.", "''John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism.''", "(1994).", "Columbia University Press* Rud, A. G., Garrison, Jim, and Stone, Lynda (eds.)", "''John Dewey at 150: Reflections for a New Century.''", "West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2009.", "* Ryan, Alan.", "''John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism.''", "(1995).", "W.W.", "Norton.", "* Westbrook, Robert B.", "''John Dewey and American Democracy.''", "(1993).", "Cornell University Press." ], [ "Further reading", "* Alexander, Thomas.", "''John Dewey's Theory of Art, Experience, and Nature'' (1987).", "SUNY Press.", "* Bernstein, Richard J.", "''John Dewey'' (1966), Washington Square Press.", "* Boisvert, Raymond.", "''John Dewey: Rethinking Our Time''.", "(1997).", "SUNY Press.", "* Campbell, James.", "''Understanding John Dewey: Nature and Cooperative Intelligence'' (1995).", "Open Court Publishing Company.", "* Crick, Nathan.", "''Democracy & Rhetoric: John Dewey on the Arts of Becoming'' (2010).", "University of South Carolina Press.", "* Fishman, Stephen M. and Lucille McCarthy.", "''John Dewey and the Philosophy and Practice of Hope'' (2007).", "University of Illinois Press.", "* Garrison, Jim.", "''Dewey and Eros: Wisdom and Desire in the Art of Teaching''.", "Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, 2010.Original published 1997 by Teachers College Press.", "* * Hickman, Larry A.", "''John Dewey's Pragmatic Technology'' (1992).", "Indiana University Press.", "* Hickman, Larry A., Flamm, Matthew C., Skowroński, Krzysztof P., and Rea Jennifer A., eds.", "(2011), '' The Continuing Relevance of John Dewey'', Rodopi / Brill.", "* Hook, Sidney.", "''John Dewey: An Intellectual Portrait'' (1939).", "* Howlett, Charles F., and Audrey Cohan, eds.", "''John Dewey: America's Peace-Minded Educator'' (Southern Illinois UP, 2016), pp.", "305.", "* Kannegiesser, H. J.", "\"Knowledge and Science\" (1977).", "The Macmillan Company of Australia PTY Ltd.* * Knoll, Michael (2022).", "''Beyond Rhetoric: New Perspectives von John Dewey's Pedagogy'' (Bern: Peter Lang).", "pp.", "410.", "* Knoll, Michael (2009), From Kidd to Dewey: The Origin and Meaning of \"Social Efficiency\".", "''Journal of Curriculum Studies'' 41 (June), 3, pp. 361–91.", "* Knoll, Michael (2014), Laboratory School, University of Chicago.", "D. C. Phillips (ed), ''Encyclopaedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy'', Vol.", "2 (London: Sage), pp. 455–58.", "* Knoll, Michael (2014), John Dewey as Administrator: The Inglorious End of the Laboratory School in Chicago.", "''Journal of Curriculum Studies'', 47 (April), 2, pp. 203–52.", "* Lamont, Corliss (1959), (ed., with the assistance of Mary Redmer).", "''Dialogue on John Dewey''.", "Horizon Press.", "* Morse, Donald J.", "''Faith in Life: John Dewey's Early Philosophy.''", "(2011).", "Fordham University Press.", "* Pappas, Gregory.", "''John Dewey's Ethics: Democracy as Experience'' (2008), Indiana University Press.", "* * Popkewitz, Thomas S. (ed).", "''Inventing the Modern Self and John Dewey: Modernities and the Traveling of Pragmatism in Education'' (2005), New York: Palgrave Macmillan.", "* Putnam, Hilary.", "\"Dewey's ''Logic'': Epistemology as Hypothesis\".", "In ''Words and Life'', ed.", "James Conant.", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994.", "* Ralston, Shane.", "''John Dewey's Great Debates-Reconstructed''.", "(2011).", "Information Age Publishing.", "* * Rogers, Melvin.", "''The Undiscovered Dewey: Religion, Morality, and the Ethos of Democracy'' (2008).", "Columbia University Press.", "* Roth, Robert J.", "''John Dewey and Self-Realization.''", "(1962).", "Prentice Hall.", "* Rorty, Richard.", "\"Dewey's Metaphysics\".", "In ''The Consequences of Pragmatism: Essays 1972–1980''.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982.", "* Seigfried, Charlene Haddock, (ed.).", "''Feminist Interpretations of John Dewey'' (2001).", "Pennsylvania State University Press.", "* Shook, John.", "''Dewey's Empirical Theory of Knowledge and Reality.''", "(2000).", "The Vanderbilt Library of American Philosophy.", "* Sleeper, R.W.", "''The Necessity of Pragmatism: John Dewey's Conception of Philosophy''.", "Introduction by Tom Burke.", "(2001).", "University of Illinois Press.", "* Talisse, Robert B.", "''A Pragmatist Philosophy of Democracy'' (2007).", "Routledge.", "* Waks, Leonard J. and Andrea R. English, eds.", "''John Dewey's Democracy and Education: A Centennial Handbook'' (2017), excerpt.", "* White, Morton.", "''The Origin of Dewey's Instrumentalism'' (1943).", "Columbia University Press." ], [ "External links", "* Center for Dewey Studies** John Dewey Papers, 1858–1970 at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Special Collections Research Center** John Dewey Chronology at Southern Illinois University* * * * * Dewey in German education – a bibliography" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jackal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jackals''' are medium-sized canids native to Africa and Eurasia.", "While the word \"jackal\" has historically been used for many canines of the subtribe canina, in modern use it most commonly refers to three species: the closely related black-backed jackal (''Lupulella mesomelas'') and side-striped jackal (''Lupulella adusta'') of sub-Saharan Africa, and the golden jackal (''Canis aureus'') of south-central Europe and Asia.", "The African golden wolf (''Canis lupaster'') was also formerly considered as a jackal.While they do not form a monophyletic clade, all jackals are opportunistic omnivores, predators of small to medium-sized animals and proficient scavengers.", "Their long legs and curved canine teeth are adapted for hunting small mammals, birds, and reptiles, and their large feet and fused leg bones give them a physique well-suited for long-distance running, capable of maintaining speeds of for extended periods of time.", "Jackals are crepuscular, most active at dawn and dusk.Their most common social unit is a monogamous pair, which defends its territory from other pairs by vigorously chasing intruders and marking landmarks around the territory with their urine and feces.", "The territory may be large enough to hold some young adults, which stay with their parents until they establish their own territories.", "Jackals may occasionally assemble in small packs, for example, to scavenge a carcass, but they normally hunt either alone or in pairs." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word \"jackal\" dates back to 1600 and derives from the French ''chacal'', from Turkish çakal, derived from the Persian '''', which is in turn derived from the Sanskrit शृगाल ''śṛgāla'' meaning \"the howler\"." ], [ "Taxonomy and relationships", "Similarities between jackals and coyotes led Lorenz Oken, in the third volume of his ''Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte'' (1815), to place these species into a new separate genus, ''Thos'', named after the classical Greek word \"jackal\", but his theory had little immediate impact on taxonomy at the time.", "Angel Cabrera, in his 1932 monograph on the mammals of Morocco, questioned whether or not the presence of a cingulum on the upper molars of the jackals and its corresponding absence in the rest of ''Canis'' could justify a subdivision of that genus.", "In practice, Cabrera chose the undivided-genus alternative and referred to the jackals as ''Canis'' instead of ''Thos''.Oken's ''Thos'' theory was revived in 1914 by Edmund Heller, who embraced the separate genus theory.", "Heller's names and the designations he gave to various jackal species and subspecies live on in current taxonomy, although the genus has been changed from ''Thos'' to ''Canis''.The wolf-like canids are a group of large carnivores that are genetically closely related because they all have 78 chromosomes.", "The group includes genus ''Canis'', ''Cuon'', and ''Lycaon''.", "The members are the dog ''(C. lupus familiaris)'', gray wolf (''C.", "lupus''), coyote (''C.", "latrans''), golden jackal (''C.", "aureus''), Ethiopian wolf (''C.", "simensis''), black-backed jackal (''C.", "mesomelas''), side-striped jackal (''C.", "adustus''), dhole (''Cuon alpinus''), and African wild dog (''Lycaon pictus'').", "The latest recognized member is the African wolf (''C.", "lupaster''), which was once thought to be an African branch of the golden jackal.", "As they possess 78 chromosomes, all members of the genus ''Canis'' are karyologically indistinguishable from each other, and from the dhole and the African hunting dog.", "The two African jackals are shown to be the most basal members of this clade, indicating the clade's origin from Africa.", "''Canis arnensis'' arrived in Mediterranean Europe 1.9 million years ago and is probably the ancestor of modern jackals.The paraphyletic nature of ''Canis'' with respect to ''Lycaon'' and ''Cuon'' has led to suggestions that the two African jackals should be assigned to different genera, ''Schaeffia'' for the side-striped jackal and ''Lupulella'' for the black-backed jackal or ''Lupulella'' for both.The intermediate size and shape of the Ethiopian wolf has at times led it to be regarded as a jackal, thus it has also been called the \"red jackal\" or the \"Simien jackal\"." ], [ "Species", "SpeciesBinomial authorityDescriptionRange'''Black-backed jackal'''''Lupulella mesomelas''150 pxSchreber, 1775The most lightly built jackal, once considered to be the oldest living member of the genus ''Canis'', it is now placed in the genus ''Lupulella''.", "It is the most aggressive of the jackals, being known to attack animal prey many times its own weight, and it has more quarrelsome intrapack relationships.Southern Africa and eastern coast of Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia'''Side-striped jackal'''''Lupulella adustus''150 pxSundevall, 1847 It primarily resides in wooded areas, unlike other jackal species.", "It is the least aggressive of the jackals, rarely preying on large mammals.Central and southern Africa'''Golden jackal'''''Canis aureus''150 pxLinnaeus, 1758The largest and most widespread of the jackals, it is more closely related to wolves than to African jackal species.Southeastern Europe, Middle East, western Asia, and South Asia" ], [ "Folklore and literature", "Like foxes and coyotes, jackals are often depicted as clever sorcerers in the myths and legends of their regions.", "They are mentioned roughly 14 times in the Bible.", "It is frequently used as a literary device to illustrate desolation, loneliness, and abandonment, with reference to its habit of living in the ruins of former cities and other areas abandoned by humans.", "It is called \"wild dog\" in several translations of the Bible.", "In the King James Bible, Isaiah 13:21 refers to 'doleful creatures', which some commentators suggest are either jackals or hyenas.In the Indian ''Panchatantra'' stories, the jackal is mentioned as wily and wise.", "In Bengali tantrik tradition, they represent the goddess Kali.", "It is said she appears as jackals when meat is offered to her.The Serer religion and creation myth posits jackals were among the first animals created by Roog, the supreme deity of the Serer people." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''The New Encyclopedia of Mammals'' edited by David Macdonald, Oxford University Press, 2001; * ''Cry of the Kalahari'', by Mark and Delia Owens, Mariner Books, 1992.", "* ''The Velvet Claw: A Natural History of the Carnivores'', by David MacDonald, BBC Books, 1992.", "* ''Foxes, Wolves, and Wild Dogs of the World'', by David Alderton, Facts on File, 2004." ], [ "External links", "* Jackal at the African Wildlife Foundation* Jackals at A-Z Animals* ''Jackals of the African Crater'' at PBS.org" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jumping the broom" ], [ "Introduction", "\"Marrying over the Broomstick\", 1822 illustration of a \"broomstick-wedding\" by James Catnach'''Jumping the broom''' (or '''jumping the besom''') is a phrase and custom relating to a wedding ceremony in which the couple jumps over a broom.", "It is most widespread among African Americans and Black Canadians, popularized during the 1970s by the novel and miniseries ''Roots'', and originated in mid-19th-century antebellum slavery in the United States.", "The custom is also attested in Irish weddings.Possibly based on an 18th-century idiomatic synonym for a sham marriage (a marriage of doubtful validity), it was popularized with the introduction of civil marriage in Britain by the Marriage Act 1836.The expression may also derive from the custom of jumping over a besom (\"broom\" refers to the plant from which the household implement is made) associated with the Romanichal Travellers of the United Kingdom, especially those in Wales." ], [ "{{anchor|As an expression for \"irregular marriage\"}}Euphemism for irregular marriage", "References to \"broomstick marriages\" emerged in England during the mid-to-late 18th century to describe a wedding ceremony of doubtful validity.", "The earliest use of the phrase is in the 1764 English edition of a French work.", "The French text, describing an elopement, refers to the runaway couple hastily embarking on \"''un mariage sur la croix de l'épée''\" (literally \"marriage on the cross of the sword\"); this was freely translated as \"performed the marriage ceremony by leaping over a broomstick\".A 1774 use in the ''Westminster Magazine'' also describes an elopement.", "A man brought his underage fiancée to France and discovered that it was as difficult to arrange a legal marriage there as in England, but declined a suggestion that a French sexton might simply read the marriage service before the couple because \"He had no inclination for a Broomstick-marriage\".", "In 1789, the rumoured clandestine marriage between the Prince Regent and Maria Fitzherbert is cited in a satirical song in ''The Times'': \"Their way to consummation was by hopping o'er a broom, sir\".Despite these allusions, research by legal historian Rebecca Probert of Warwick University has failed to find evidence of an actual contemporary practice of jumping over a broomstick as a sign of informal union.", "Probert says that the word ''broomstick'' was used in the mid-18th century in several contexts to mean \"something ersatz, or lacking the authority its true equivalent might possess\"; because the expression ''broomstick marriage'' (a sham marriage) was in circulation, folk etymology led to a belief that people once signified an irregular marriage by jumping over a broom.", "American historian Tyler D. Parry, however, contests the claim that no part of the British custom involved jumping.", "In his book, ''Jumping the Broom: The Surprising Multicultural Origins of a Black Wedding Ritual'', Parry writes that African Americans and British Americans had a number of cultural exchanges during the 18th and 19th centuries.", "He describes correlations between the ceremonies of enslaved African Americans and those of the rural British, saying that it is not coincidental that two groups separated by an ocean used similar matrimonial forms revolving around a broomstick.", "If British practitioners never used a physical leap, Parry wonders how European-Americans and enslaved African Americans in the American South and rural North America learned about the custom.Later examples of the term ''broomstick marriage'' were used in Britain, with the similar implication that the ceremony did not create a legally-binding union.", "This meaning survived into the early 19th century; during an 1824 case in London about the legal validity of a marriage ceremony consisting of the groom placing a ring on the bride's finger before witnesses, a court official said that the ceremony \"amounted to nothing more than a broomstick marriage, which the parties had it in their power to dissolve at will.", "\"The Marriage Act 1836, which introduced civil marriage, was contemptuously called the \"Broomstick Marriage Act\" by those who felt that a marriage outside the Anglican church did not deserve legal recognition.", "The phrase began to refer to non-marital unions; a man interviewed in Mayhew's ''London Labour and the London Poor'' said, \"I never had a wife, but I have had two or three broomstick matches, though they never turned out happy.\"", "Tinkers reportedly had a similar marriage custom, \"jumping the budget\", with the bride and groom jumping over a string or other symbolic obstacle.Charles Dickens' novel, ''Great Expectations'' (first published in serial form in ''All the Year Round'' from 1 December 1860 to August 1861), contains a reference in chapter 48 to a couple's marriage \"over the broomstick.\"", "The ceremony is not described, but the reference indicates that readers would have recognized this as an informal (not legally valid) agreement.Although it has been assumed that \"jumping (or, sometimes, 'walking') over the broom\" always indicated an irregular or non-church union in England (as in the expressions \"Married over the besom\" and \"living over the brush\"), examples of the phrase exist in the context of legal religious and civil weddings.", "Other sources cite stepping over a broom as a test of chastity, and putting out a broom was said to be a sign \"that the housewife's place is vacant\" as a way of advertising for a wife.", "The phrase was also used colloquially in the US and Canada as a synonym for getting married legally." ], [ "British Romani customs", "Romani couples in Wales would elope, when they would \"jump the broom\", or jump over a branch of flowering common broom or a besom made of broom.", "Welsh Kale and Romanichals in England and Scotland practiced the ritual into the 1900s.", "According to Alan Dundes (1996), the custom originated among the Welsh Kale and English Romanichals.C.W.", "Sullivan III (1997) replied to Dundes that the custom originated among the Welsh people, and was known as a ''priodas coes ysgub'' (\"besom wedding\").", "Sullivan's source is Welsh folklorist Gwenith Gwynn (also known as W. Rhys Jones), who assumed that the custom had existed on the basis of conversations with elderly Welsh people during the 1920s (none of whom, however, had seen it).", "One said, \"It must have disappeared before I was born, and I am seventy-three\".Gwynn's dating of the custom to the 18th century rested on the assumption that it must have disappeared before the elderly interviewees were born, and on his misreading of the Llansantffraid Glyn Ceiriog parish baptismal register.", "Local variations of the custom developed in portions of England and Wales.", "Instead of placing the broom on the ground and jumping together, the broom was placed at an angle by the doorway; the groom jumped first, followed by the bride.", "In southwest England, Wales and the border areas between Scotland and England, \"while some couples ... agreed to marry verbally, without exchanging legal contracts, ... others jumped over broomsticks placed across their thresholds to officialize their union and create new households\"; this indicated that contract-less weddings and jumping a broomstick were different kinds of marriage." ], [ "{{anchor|African American and Black Canadian custom}}African-American and Black-Canadian custom", "A 2011 wedding in CaliforniaIn some African-American and Black-Canadian communities, couples end their wedding ceremony by jumping over a broomstick together or separately.", "The practice is documented as a marriage ceremony for enslaved people in the Southern United States during the 1840s and 1850s, who were often not permitted to marry legally.", "Its revival in 20th-century African-American and Black-Canadian culture is due to the novel and miniseries ''Roots'' (1976, 1977).", "Alan Dundes (1996) notes how \"a custom which slaves were ''forced'' to observe by their white masters has been revived a century later by African Americans as a treasured tradition\".It has been speculated that the custom may have originated in West Africa.", "Although there is no direct evidence of this, Dundes cites a Ghanaian custom of waving brooms over the heads of newlyweds and their parents.", "Among southern Africanswho were largely not a part of the Atlantic slave tradeit represented a wife's commitment (or willingness) to clean the courtyard of her new home.", "Historian Tyler D. Parry, in ''Jumping the Broom: The Surprising Multicultural Origins of a Black Wedding Ritual'', considers the Ghanaian connection weak; the ritual used by enslaved people has many more similarities to the custom in the British Isles.", "Parry writes that despite the racial animus which characterized the US South during the nineteenth century, poor white Southerners (many of whom were descendants of people who had irregular forms of matrimony in Britain) and enslaved African Americans had more cultural exchange than is commonly acknowledged.Slaveholders had a dilemma about committed relationships between enslaved people.", "Although family stability might be desirable to keep enslaved people tractable and pacified, legal marriage was not; marriage gave a couple rights over each other which conflicted with slaveholderer claims.", "Most marriages between enslaved black people were not legally recognized during the American slavery era; marriage was a legal civil contract, and civil contracts required the consent of free persons.", "In the absence of legal recognition, the enslaved community developed its own methods of distinguishing committed unions from casual ones.", "The ceremonial jumping of the broom was an open declaration of settling down in a marriage relationship.", "Jumping the broom was done before witnesses as a public, ceremonial announcement that a couple chose to become as nearly married as was then allowed.", "There are records of African Americans jumping the broom in slave narratives.", "An ex-slave from Georgia, George Eason, said how enslaved people jumped the broom to get married.Jumping the broom fell out of practice when Black people were free to marry legally.", "The practice survived in some communities, and the phrase \"jumping the broom\" was synonymous with \"getting married\" even if the couple did not literally do so.", "After its smaller-scale continuity in rural areas of the United States (in Black and white communities), the custom was revivied among African Americans after the publication of Alex Haley's ''Roots.''", "Danita Rountree Green describes the African-American custom during the early 1990s in her book, ''Broom Jumping: A Celebration of Love'' (1992)." ], [ "In popular culture", "American singer-songwriter Brenda Lee released the rockabilly song \"Let's Jump the Broomstick\" on Decca Records in 1959.Via its association with Wales and the association of the broom with witches, the custom has been adopted by some Wiccans.", "''Jumping the Broom'', a film starring Paula Patton and Laz Alonso and directed by Salim Akil, was released on 6 May 2011.In the 1977 TV miniseries ''Roots'', Kunta Kinte/\"Toby\" (John Amos as the adult Kunta Kinte) had a marriage ceremony in which he and Belle (Madge Sinclair) jumped the broom.", "It also appears in episode two of the 2016 miniseries remake, when Kunta Kinte questions its African origins.", "An engaged couple jumps a broom in the 2016 film, ''The Birth of a Nation''.", "Lance (Morris Chestnut) and Mia (Monica Calhoun) jump over the broom after they get married in ''The Best Man'' (1999).In \"R & B\", an episode of ''This Is Us'', Randal and Beth jump the broom while walking down the aisle after their wedding ceremony in a flashback.", "In \"Things We Said Today\", an episode of ''Grey's Anatomy'', Miranda Bailey and Ben Warren jump over a broom at the end of their wedding ceremony.", "Amani and Woody jump the broom at the end of their wedding in a 2020 episode of ''Married at First Sight''.", "In the first act of August Wilson's play, ''The Piano Lesson'', Doaker says: \"See that?", "That's when him and Mama Berniece got married.", "They called it jumping the broom.", "That's how you got married in them days.\"", "Jarette and Iyanna jump the broom at the end of their wedding in a 2022 episode of ''Love Is Blind''." ], [ "See also", "* Marriage of enslaved people (United States)*Culture" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Happy is the Bride the Sun Shines on at Googlebooks" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "January 13" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*27 BC – Octavian transfers the state to the free disposal of the Roman Senate and the people.", "He receives Spain, Gaul, and Syria as his province for ten years.", "* 532 – The Nika riots break out, during the racing season at the Hippodrome in Constantinople, as a result of discontent with the rule of the Emperor Justinian I.", "*1435 – ''Sicut Dudum'', forbidding the enslavement by the Spanish of the Guanche natives in Canary Islands who had converted, or were converting to, Christianity, is promulgated by Pope Eugene IV.", "*1547 – Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, is sentenced to death for treason, on the grounds of having quartered his arms to make them similar to those of the King, Henry VIII of England.===1601–1900===*1793 – Nicolas Jean Hugon de Bassville, representative of Revolutionary France, is lynched by a mob in Rome.", "*1797 – French Revolutionary Wars: A naval battle between a French ship of the line and two British frigates off the coast of Brittany ends with the French vessel running aground, resulting in over 900 deaths.", "*1815 – War of 1812: British troops capture Fort Peter in St. Marys, Georgia, the only battle of the war to take place in the state.", "*1822 – The design of the Greek flag is adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus.", "*1833 – United States President Andrew Jackson writes to Vice President elect Martin Van Buren expressing his opposition to South Carolina's defiance of federal authority in the Nullification Crisis.", "*1840 – The steamship ''Lexington'' burns and sinks four miles off the coast of Long Island with the loss of 139 lives.", "*1842 – Dr. William Brydon, an assistant surgeon in the British East India Company Army during the First Anglo-Afghan War, becomes famous for being the sole survivor of an army of 4,500 men and 12,000 camp followers when he reaches the safety of a garrison in Jalalabad, Afghanistan.", "*1847 – The Treaty of Cahuenga ends the Mexican–American War in California.", "*1849 – Establishment of the Colony of Vancouver Island.", "* 1849 – Second Anglo-Sikh War: Battle of Chillianwala: British forces retreat from the Sikhs.", "*1888 – The National Geographic Society is founded in Washington, D.C.*1893 – The Independent Labour Party of the United Kingdom holds its first meeting.", "* 1893 – U.S. Marines land in Honolulu, Hawaii from the to prevent the queen from abrogating the Bayonet Constitution.", "*1895 – First Italo-Ethiopian War: The war's opening battle, the Battle of Coatit, occurs; it is an Italian victory.", "*1898 – Émile Zola's ''J'accuse…!''", "exposes the Dreyfus affair.", "*1900 – To combat Czech nationalism, Emperor Franz Joseph decrees German will be language of the Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces.===1901–present===*1908 – The Rhoads Opera House fire in Boyertown, Pennsylvania kills 171 people.", "*1915 – The 6.7 Avezzano earthquake shakes the Province of L'Aquila in Italy with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (''Extreme''), killing between 29,978 and 32,610.", "*1920 – The Reichstag Bloodbath of January 13, 1920, the bloodiest demonstration in German history.", "*1935 – A plebiscite in Saarland shows that 90.3% of those voting wish to join Nazi Germany.", "*1939 – The Black Friday bushfires burn of land in Australia, claiming the lives of 71 people.", "*1942 – Henry Ford patents a soybean car, which is 30% lighter than a regular car.", "* 1942 – World War II: First use of an aircraft ejection seat by a German test pilot in a Heinkel He 280 jet fighter.", "*1950 – British submarine collides with an oil tanker in the Thames Estuary, killing 64 men.", "* 1950 – Finland forms diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.", "*1951 – First Indochina War: The Battle of Vĩnh Yên begins.", "*1953 – An article appears in ''Pravda'' accusing some of the most prestigious and prominent doctors, mostly Jews, in the Soviet Union of taking part in a vast plot to poison members of the top Soviet political and military leadership.", "*1958 – The Moroccan Army of Liberation ambushes a Spanish patrol in the Battle of Edchera.", "*1963 – Coup d'état in Togo results in the assassination of president Sylvanus Olympio.", "*1964 – Anti-Muslim riots break out in Calcutta, in response to anti-Hindu riots in East Pakistan.", "About one hundred people are killed.", "* 1964 – In Manchester, New Hampshire, fourteen-year-old Pamela Mason is murdered.", "Edward Coolidge is tried and convicted of the crime, but the conviction is set aside by the landmark Fourth Amendment case Coolidge v. New Hampshire (1971).", "*1966 – Robert C. Weaver becomes the first African American Cabinet member when he is appointed United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development.", "*1968 – Johnny Cash performs live at Folsom State Prison.", "*1972 – Prime Minister Kofi Abrefa Busia and President Edward Akufo-Addo of Ghana are ousted in a bloodless military coup by Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong.", "*1977 – Japan Air Lines Cargo Flight 1045, a Douglas DC-8 jet, crashes onto the runway during takeoff from Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, killing five.", "*1978 – United States Food and Drug Administration requires all blood donations to be labeled \"paid\" or \"volunteer\" donors.", "*1982 – Shortly after takeoff, Air Florida Flight 90, a Boeing 737 jet, crashes into Washington, D.C.'s 14th Street Bridge and falls into the Potomac River, killing 78 including four motorists.", "*1985 – A passenger train plunges into a ravine in Ethiopia, killing 428 in the worst railroad disaster in Africa.", "*1986 – A month-long violent struggle begins in Aden, South Yemen between supporters of Ali Nasir Muhammad and Abdul Fattah Ismail, resulting in thousands of casualties.", "*1988 – Lee Teng-hui becomes the first native Taiwanese President of the Republic of China.", "*1990 – Douglas Wilder becomes the first elected African American governor as he takes office as Governor of Virginia in Richmond, Virginia.", "*1991 – Soviet Union troops attack Lithuanian independence supporters in Vilnius, killing 14 people and wounding around 1,000 others.", "*1993 – Space Shuttle program: ''Endeavour'' heads for space for the third time as STS-54 launches from the Kennedy Space Center.", "* 1993 – The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is signed.", "* 1993 – Operation Southern Watch: U.S.A.F., U.S.N., R.A.F.", "and French Air Force jets attack AAA and SAM sites in Southern Iraq.", "*1998 – Alfredo Ormando sets himself on fire in St. Peter's Square, protesting against homophobia.", "*2000 – A Short 360 aircraft chartered by the Sirte Oil Company crashes off the coast of Brega, Libya, killing 21.", "*2001 – An earthquake hits El Salvador, killing more than 800.", "*2012 – The passenger cruise ship ''Costa Concordia'' sinks off the coast of Italy due to the captain Francesco Schettino's negligence and irresponsibility.", "There are 32 confirmed deaths.", "*2018 – A false emergency alert warning of an impending missile strike in Hawaii causes widespread panic in the state.", "*2020 – The Thai Ministry of Public Health confirms the first case of COVID-19 outside China.", "*2021 – Outgoing U.S. President Donald Trump is impeached for a second time on a charge of incitement of insurrection following the January 6 United States Capitol attack one week prior." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*5 BC – Guangwu of Han, Chinese emperor (d. 57)*101 – Lucius Aelius, Roman adopted son of Hadrian (d. 138)* 915 – Al-Hakam II, Umayyad caliph (d. 976)*1334 – Henry II, king of Castile and León (d. 1379)*1338 – Jeong Mong-ju, Korean civil minister, diplomat and scholar (d. 1392)*1381 – Colette of Corbie, French abbess and saint in the Catholic Church (d. 1447)*1400 – Infante John, Constable of Portugal (d. 1442)*1477 – Henry Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland (d. 1527)*1505 – Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1571)*1562 – Mark Alexander Boyd, Scottish poet and soldier (d. 1601)*1596 – Jan van Goyen, Dutch painter and illustrator (d. 1656)===1601–1900===*1610 – Maria Anna of Bavaria, archduchess of Austria (d. 1665)*1616 – Antoinette Bourignon, French-Flemish mystic and author (d. 1680)*1651 – Henry Booth, 1st Earl of Warrington, English soldier and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1694)*1672 – Lucy Filippini, Italian teacher and saint (d. 1732)*1683 – Christoph Graupner, German harpsichord player and composer (d. 1760)*1720 – Richard Hurd, English bishop (d. 1808)*1749 – Maler Müller, German poet, painter, and playwright (d. 1825)*1787 – John Davis, American lawyer and politician, 14th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1854)*1804 – Paul Gavarni, French illustrator (d. 1866)*1805 – Thomas Dyer, American lawyer and politician, 18th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1862)*1808 – Salmon P. Chase, American jurist and politician, 6th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1873)*1810 – Ernestine Rose, American suffragist, abolitionist, and freethinker (d. 1892) *1812 – Victor de Laprade, French poet and critic (d. 1883)*1832 – Horatio Alger, Jr., American novelist and journalist (d. 1899)*1845 – Félix Tisserand, French astronomer and academic (d. 1896)*1858 – Oskar Minkowski, Lithuanian-German biologist and academic (d. 1931)*1859 – Kostis Palamas, Greek poet and playwright (d. 1943)*1861 – Max Nonne, German neurologist and academic (d. 1959)*1864 – Wilhelm Wien, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1928)*1865 – Princess Marie of Orléans (d. 1908)*1866 – Vasily Kalinnikov, Russian bassoon player and composer (d. 1901)*1869 – Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta (d. 1931)*1870 – Ross Granville Harrison, American biologist and anatomist (d. 1959)*1878 – Lionel Groulx, Canadian priest and historian (d. 1967)*1881 – Essington Lewis, Australian engineer and businessman (d. 1961)*1883 – Nathaniel Cartmell, American runner and coach (d. 1967)*1885 – Alfred Fuller, Canadian-American businessman, founded the Fuller Brush Company (d. 1973)*1886 – Art Ross, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 1964)* 1886 – Sophie Tucker, Russian-born American singer and actress (d. 1966)*1890 – Jüri Uluots, Estonian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Estonia (d. 1945)*1892 – Ermanno Aebi, Italian-Swiss footballer (d. 1976)*1893 – Charles Arnison, English lieutenant and pilot (d. 1974)* 1893 – Roy Cazaly, Australian footballer and coach (d. 1963)* 1893 – Clark Ashton Smith, American poet, sculptor, painter, and author (d. 1961)* 1893 – Chaïm Soutine, Belarusian-French painter (d. 1943)*1900 – Shimizugawa Motokichi, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1967)* 1900 – Gertrude Mary Cox, American mathematician (d. 1978)===1901–present===*1901 – A.", "B. Guthrie, Jr., American novelist, screenwriter, historian (d. 1991)* 1901 – Mieczysław Żywczyński, Polish priest and historian (d. 1978)*1902 – Karl Menger, Austrian-American mathematician from the Vienna Circle (d. 1985)*1904 – Richard Addinsell, English composer (d. 1977)* 1904 – Nathan Milstein, Ukrainian-American violinist and composer (d. 1992)* 1904 – Dick Rowley, Irish footballer (d. 1984)*1905 – Kay Francis, American actress (d. 1968)* 1905 – Jack London, English sprinter and pianist (d. 1966)*1906 – Zhou Youguang, Chinese linguist, sinologist, and academic (d. 2017)*1909 – Helm Glöckler, German race car driver (d. 1993)*1910 – Yannis Tsarouchis, Greek painter and illustrator (d. 1989)*1911 – Joh Bjelke-Petersen, New Zealand-Australian farmer and politician, 31st Premier of Queensland (d. 2005)*1914 – Osa Massen, Danish-American actress (d. 2006) * 1914 – Ted Willis, Baron Willis, English author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1992)*1919 – Robert Stack, American actor (d. 2003)*1921 – Necati Cumalı, Greek-Turkish author and poet (d. 2001)* 1921 – Dachine Rainer, American-English author and poet (d. 2000)* 1921 – Arthur Stevens, English footballer (d. 2007)*1922 – Albert Lamorisse, French director and producer (d. 1970)*1923 – Daniil Shafran, Russian cellist (d. 1997)* 1923 – Willem Slijkhuis, Dutch runner (d. 2003)* 1923 – Jack Watling, English actor (d. 2001)*1924 – Paul Feyerabend, Austrian-Swiss philosopher and academic (d. 1994)* 1924 – Roland Petit, French dancer and choreographer (d. 2011)*1925 – Rosemary Murphy, American actress (d. 2014)* 1925 – Vanita Smythe, American singer and actress (d. 1994)* 1925 – Ron Tauranac, Australian engineer and businessman (d. 2020)* 1925 – Gwen Verdon, American actress and dancer (d. 2000)*1926 – Michael Bond, English author, created Paddington Bear (d. 2017)* 1926 – Carolyn Gold Heilbrun, American author and academic (d. 2003)* 1926 – Melba Liston, American trombonist and composer (d. 1999)*1927 – Brock Adams, American lawyer and politician, 5th United States Secretary of Transportation (d. 2004)* 1927 – Liz Anderson, American singer-songwriter (d. 2011)* 1927 – Sydney Brenner, South African biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019)*1929 – Joe Pass, American guitarist and composer (d. 1994)*1930 – Frances Sternhagen, American actress (d. 2023)*1931 – Ian Hendry, English actor (d. 1984)* 1931 – Charles Nelson Reilly, American actor, comedian, director, game show panelist, and television personality (d. 2007)* 1931 – Rip Taylor, American actor and comedian (d. 2019)* 1931 – Chris Wiggins, English-born Canadian actor (d. 2017)*1932 – Barry Bishop, American mountaineer, photographer, and scholar (d. 1994)*1933 – Tom Gola, American basketball player, coach, and politician (d. 2014) *1936 – Renato Bruson, Italian opera singer*1937 – Guy Dodson, New Zealand-English biochemist and academic (d. 2012)*1938 – Daevid Allen, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015)* 1938 – Richard Anthony, Egyptian-French singer-songwriter (d. 2015)* 1938 – Charlie Brill, American actor, voice artist, and comedian* 1938 – Cabu, French cartoonist (d. 2015)* 1938 – Dave Edwards, American captain and politician (d. 2013)* 1938 – Billy Gray, American actor, competitive motorcycle racer and inventor* 1938 – Tord Grip, Swedish footballer and manager* 1938 – Anna Home, English children's television executive and producer*1939 – Edgardo Cozarinsky, Argentinian author, screenwriter, and director* 1939 – Jacek Gmoch, Polish footballer and coach* 1939 – Cesare Maniago, Canadian ice hockey player*1940 – Edmund White, American novelist, memoirist, and essayist*1941 – Pasqual Maragall, Spanish academic and politician, 127th President of the Generalitat de Catalunya* 1941 – Meinhard Nehmer, German bobsledder*1943 – William Duckworth, American composer and author (d. 2012)* 1943 – Richard Moll, American actor (d. 2023)*1945 – Gordon McVie, English oncologist and author (d. 2021)* 1945 – Peter Simpson, English footballer*1946 – Ordal Demokan, Turkish physicist and academic (d. 2004)* 1946 – Eero Koivistoinen, Finnish saxophonist, composer, and conductor*1947 – Jacek Majchrowski, Polish historian, lawyer, and politician* 1947 – Carles Rexach, Spanish footballer and coach*1948 – Gaj Singh, Indian lawyer and politician*1949 – Rakesh Sharma, Indian commander, pilot, and cosmonaut* 1949 – Brandon Tartikoff, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1997)*1950 – Clive Betts, English economist and politician* 1950 – Bob Forsch, American baseball player (d. 2011)* 1950 – Gholam Hossein Mazloumi, Iranian footballer and manager (d. 2014)*1952 – Stephen Glover, English journalist, co-founded ''The Independent''*1953 – Silvana Gallardo, American actress and producer (d. 2012)*1954 – Richard Blackford, English composer* 1954 – Trevor Rabin, South African-American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer*1955 – Paul Kelly, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1955 – Jay McInerney, American novelist and critic* 1955 – Anne Pringle, English diplomat, British Ambassador to Russia*1957 – Claudia Emerson, American poet and academic (d. 2014)* 1957 – Mary Glindon, English lawyer and politician* 1957 – Lorrie Moore, American author* 1957 – Mark O'Meara, American golfer*1958 – Francisco Buyo, Spanish footballer and manager* 1958 – Juan Pedro de Miguel, Spanish handball player (d. 2016)*1959 – Winnie Byanyima, Ugandan engineer, politician, and diplomat*1960 – Kevin Anderson, American actor* 1960 – Eric Betzig, American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate* 1960 – Matthew Bourne, English choreographer and director*1961 – Wayne Coyne, American singer-songwriter and musician* 1961 – Kelly Hrudey, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster* 1961 – Julia Louis-Dreyfus, American actress, comedian, and producer* 1961 – Suggs, English singer-songwriter, musician, and actor*1962 – Trace Adkins, American singer-songwriter and actor* 1962 – Paul Higgins, Canadian ice hockey player* 1962 – Kevin Mitchell, American baseball player*1964 – Penelope Ann Miller, American actress*1965 – Bill Bailey, English musician and comedian*1966 – Patrick Dempsey, American actor and race car driver* 1966 – Leo Visser, Dutch speed skater and pilot*1967 – Suzanne Cryer, American actress*1968 – Traci Bingham, American actress, model, and television personality* 1968 – Mike Whitlow, English footballer and coach*1969 – Stefania Belmondo, Italian skier* 1969 – Stephen Hendry, Scottish snooker player and journalist*1970 – Keith Coogan, American actor* 1970 – Frank Kooiman, Dutch footballer* 1970 – Marco Pantani, Italian cyclist (d. 2004)* 1970 – Shonda Rhimes, American actress, director, producer, and screenwriter*1972 – Mark Bosnich, Australian footballer and sportscaster* 1972 – Nicole Eggert, American actress* 1972 – Vitaly Scherbo, Belarusian gymnast*1973 – Gigi Galli, Italian race driver* 1973 – Nikolai Khabibulin, Russian ice hockey player*1974 – Sergei Brylin, Russian ice hockey player and coach* 1974 – Jason Sasser, American basketball player*1975 – Rune Eriksen, Norwegian guitarist and composer * 1975 – Mailis Reps, Estonian academic and politician, 31st Estonian Minister of Education and Research* 1975 – Andrew Yang, American entrepreneur, founder of Venture for America, and 2020 Democratic presidential candidate*1976 – Ross McCall, Scottish actor* 1976 – Michael Peña, American actor* 1976 – Mario Yepes, Colombian footballer*1977 – Orlando Bloom, English actor* 1977 – Mi-Hyun Kim, South Korean golfer* 1977 – Elliot Mason, English trombonist and keyboard player* 1977 – James Posey, American basketball player and coach*1978 – Mohit Sharma, Indian soldier (d. 2009)* 1978 – Nate Silver, American journalist and statistician, developed PECOTA*1979 – Katy Brand, English actress and screenwriter*1980 – Krzysztof Czerwiński, Polish organist and conductor* 1980 – Nils-Eric Johansson, Swedish footballer* 1980 – Akira Kaji, Japanese footballer* 1980 – Wolfgang Loitzl, Austrian ski jumper* 1980 – Mirko Soltau, German footballer*1981 – Shad Gaspard, American wrestler and actor (d. 2020)*1982 – Kamran Akmal, Pakistani cricketer* 1982 – Guillermo Coria, Argentinian tennis player* 1982 – Constantinos Makrides, Cypriot footballer* 1982 – Ruth Wilson, English actress*1983 – Ender Arslan, Turkish basketball player* 1983 – Sebastian Kneißl, German footballer* 1983 – Julian Morris, English actor* 1983 – Mauricio Romero, Argentinian footballer* 1983 – Ronny Turiaf, French basketball player*1984 – Matteo Cavagna, Italian footballer* 1984 – Kamghe Gaba, German sprinter* 1984 – Nick Mangold, American football player*1986 – Joannie Rochette, Canadian figure skater*1987 – Stefano Del Sante, Italian footballer* 1987 – Jack Johnson, American ice hockey player* 1987 – Florica Leonida, Romanian gymnast* 1987 – Steven Michaels, Australian rugby league player* 1987 – Daniel Oss, Italian cyclist* 1987 – Marc Staal, Canadian ice hockey player*1988 – Josh Freeman, American football player*1989 – Morgan Burnett, American football player* 1989 – Heath Hembree, American baseball player* 1989 – Doug Martin, American football player* 1989 – Beau Mirchoff, Canadian-American actor*1990 – Vincenzo Fiorillo, Italian footballer* 1990 – Liam Hemsworth, Australian actor*1991 – Rob Kiernan, English-Irish footballer*1992 – Adam Matthews, Welsh footballer* 1992 – Dinah Pfizenmaier, German tennis player* 1992 – Austin Watson, American ice hockey player*1993 – Max Whitlock, English artistic gymnast*1994 – Vasilije Micić, Serbian basketball player*1995 – Natalia Dyer, American actress* 1995 – Maxim Mamin, Russian ice hockey player* 1995 – Eros Vlahos, English actor and comedian*1997 – Douglas Augusto, Brazilian footballer* 1997 – Egan Bernal, Colombian cyclist* 1997 – Luis Díaz, Colombian footballer* 1997 – Henry Ellenson, American basketball player* 1997 – Connor McDavid, Canadian ice hockey player* 1997 – Ivan Provorov, Russian ice hockey player*2003 – Oksana Selekhmeteva, Russian tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*86 BC – Gaius Marius, Roman general and politician (b.", "157 BC)* 533 – Remigius, French bishop and saint (b.", "437)* 614 – Mungo, English-Scottish bishop and saint* 703 – Jitō, Japanese empress (b.", "645)* 858 – Æthelwulf, king of Wessex*888 – Charles the Fat, Frankish king and emperor (b.", "839)* 927 – Berno of Cluny, Frankish monk and abbot*1001 – Fujiwara no Teishi, Japanese empress (b.", "977)*1147 – Robert de Craon, Grand Master of the Knights Templar*1151 – Suger, French historian and politician (b.", "1081)*1177 – Henry II, count palatine and duke of Austria (b.", "1107)*1321 – Bonacossa Borri, Italian noblewoman (b.", "1254)*1330 – Frederick I, duke and king of Germany*1363 – Meinhard III, German nobleman (b.", "1344)*1400 – Thomas le Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester, English politician (b.", "1373)*1599 – Edmund Spenser, English poet, Chief Secretary for Ireland (b.", "1552)===1601–1900===*1612 – Jane Dormer, English lady-in-waiting (b.", "1538)*1625 – Jan Brueghel the Elder, Flemish painter (b.", "1568)*1684 – Henry Howard, 6th Duke of Norfolk, English nobleman (b.", "1628)*1691 – George Fox, English religious leader, founded the Religious Society of Friends (b.", "1624)*1717 – Maria Sibylla Merian, German entomologist and illustrator (b.", "1647)*1775 – Johann Georg Walch, German theologian and author (b.", "1693)*1790 – Luc Urbain de Bouëxic, French admiral (b.", "1712)*1796 – John Anderson, Scottish philosopher and educator (b.", "1726)*1832 – Thomas Lord, English cricketer, founded Lord's Cricket Ground (b.", "1755)*1838 – Ferdinand Ries, German pianist and composer (b.", "1784)*1860 – William Mason, American surgeon and politician (b.", "1786)*1864 – Stephen Foster, American composer and songwriter (b.", "1826)*1872 – William Scamp, English architect and engineer (b.", "1801)*1882 – Wilhelm Mauser, German engineer and businessman, co-founded the Mauser Company (b.", "1834)*1885 – Schuyler Colfax, American journalist and politician, 17th Vice President of the United States (b.", "1823)*1889 – Solomon Bundy, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1823)===1901–present===*1906 – Alexander Stepanovich Popov, Russian physicist and academic (b.", "1859)*1907 – Jakob Hurt, Estonian theologist and linguist (b.", "1839)*1915 – Mary Slessor, Scottish-Nigerian missionary (b.", "1848)*1916 – Victoriano Huerta, Mexican military officer and president, 1913–1914 (b.", "1850)*1923 – Alexandre Ribot, French academic and politician, Prime Minister of France (b.", "1842)*1924 – Georg Hermann Quincke, German physicist and academic (b.", "1834)*1928 – Earle Nelson, American serial killer*1929 – Wyatt Earp, American police officer (b.", "1848)* 1929 – H. B. Higgins, Irish-Australian judge and politician, 3rd Attorney-General for Australia (b.", "1851)*1934 – Paul Ulrich Villard, French physicist and chemist (b.", "1860)*1941 – James Joyce, Irish novelist, short story writer, and poet (b.", "1882)*1943 – Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Swiss painter and sculptor (b.", "1889)*1949 – Aino Aalto, Finnish architect and designer (b.", "1894)*1956 – Lyonel Feininger, German-American painter and illustrator (b.", "1871)*1957 – A. E. Coppard English poet and short story writer (b.", "1878)*1958 – Jesse L. Lasky, American film producer, co-founded Paramount Pictures (b.", "1880) * 1958 – Edna Purviance, American actress (b.", "1895)*1962 – Ernie Kovacs, American actor and game show host (b.", "1919)*1963 – Sylvanus Olympio, Togolese businessman and politician, President of Togo (b.", "1902)*1967 – Anatole de Grunwald, Russian-English screenwriter and producer (b.", "1910)*1971 – Robert Still, English composer and educator (b.", "1910)*1973 – Sabahattin Eyüboğlu, Turkish screenwriter and producer (b.", "1908)*1974 – Raoul Jobin, Canadian tenor and educator (b.", "1906)* 1974 – Salvador Novo, Mexican playwright and poet (b.", "1904)*1976 – Margaret Leighton, English actress (b.", "1922)*1977 – Henri Langlois, Turkish-French historian, co-founded the Cinémathèque Française (b.", "1914)*1978 – Hubert Humphrey, American pharmacist, academic, and politician, 38th Vice President of the United States (b.", "1911)* 1978 – Joe McCarthy, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1887)*1979 – Donny Hathaway, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (b.", "1945)* 1979 – Marjorie Lawrence, Australian-American soprano (b.", "1907)*1980 – Andre Kostelanetz, Russian-American conductor (b.", "1901)*1982 – Marcel Camus, French director and screenwriter (b.", "1912)*1983 – René Bonnet, French race car driver and engineer (b.", "1904)*1986 – Abdul Fattah Ismail, Yemeni educator and politician, 4th President of South Yemen (b.", "1939)* 1986 – Kevin Longbottom, Australian rugby league player (b.", "1940)*1988 – Chiang Ching-kuo, Chinese politician, President of the Republic of China (b.", "1910)*1993 – Camargo Guarnieri, Brazilian composer and conductor (b.", "1907)*1995 – Max Harris, Australian journalist, poet, and author (b.", "1921)*2002 – Frank Shuster, Canadian actor, comedian, and screenwriter (b.", "1916)*2003 – Norman Panama, American director and screenwriter (b.", "1914)*2004 – Arne Næss, Jr., Norwegian businessman and mountaineer (b.", "1937)*2005 – Earl Cameron, Canadian journalist (b.", "1915)* 2005 – Nell Rankin, American soprano and actress (b.", "1924)*2006 – Frank Fixaris, American journalist and sportscaster (b.", "1934)* 2006 – Marc Potvin, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1967)*2007 – Michael Brecker, American saxophonist and composer (b.", "1949)* 2007 – Danny Oakes, American race car driver (b.", "1911)*2008 – Johnny Podres, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1932)*2009 – Dai Llewellyn, Welsh socialite and politician (b.", "1946)* 2009 – Patrick McGoohan, Irish-American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1928)* 2009 – Mansour Rahbani, Lebanese poet, composer, and producer (b.", "1925)* 2009 – W. D. Snodgrass, American poet (b.", "1926)* 2009 – Nancy Bird Walton, Australian pilot (b.", "1915)*2010 – Teddy Pendergrass, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1950)*2011 – Albert Heijn, Dutch businessman (b.", "1927)*2012 – Rauf Denktaş, Turkish-Cypriot lawyer and politician, 1st President of Northern Cyprus (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Guido Dessauer, German physicist and engineer (b.", "1915)* 2012 – Miljan Miljanić, Serbian footballer and manager (b.", "1930)*2013 – Diogenes Allen, American philosopher and theologian (b.", "1932)* 2013 – Rodney Mims Cook, Sr., American lieutenant and politician (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Chia-Chiao Lin, Chinese-American mathematician and academic (b.", "1916)*2014 – Bobby Collins, Scottish footballer and manager (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Randal Tye Thomas, American journalist and politician (b.", "1978)* 2014 – Waldemar von Gazen, German general and lawyer (b.", "1917)*2015 – Mark Juddery, Australian journalist and author (b.", "1971)* 2015 – Robert White, American diplomat, United States Ambassador to Paraguay (b.", "1926)*2016 – Brian Bedford, English-American actor and director (b.", "1935)* 2016 – Giorgio Gomelsky, Georgian-American director, producer, songwriter, and manager (b.", "1934)* 2016 – Lawrence Phillips, American football player (b.", "1975)*2017 – Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon, English photographer and a former member of the British royal family (b.", "1930)* 2017 – Dick Gautier, American actor (b.", "1931)* 2017 – Magic Alex, Greek electronics engineer (b.", "1942)*2019 – Phil Masinga, South African footballer (b.", "1969)*2020 – Bryan Monroe, American journalist and educator, (b.", "1965)* 2020 – Philip Tartaglia, Scottish prelate, Catholic archbishop of Glasgow (b.", "1951)*2024 – Joyce Randolph, American actress (b.", "1924)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Blessed Veronica of Milan**Elian**Hilary of Poitiers**Mungo**St. Knut's Day or ''Tjugondag Knut'', the last day of Christmas.", "(Sweden and Finland)**January 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Constitution Day (Mongolia) *Democracy Day (Cape Verde)*Liberation Day (Togo)*Old New Year's Eve (Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Serbia, Montenegro, Republic of Srpska, North Macedonia), and its related observances:**Malanka (Ukraine, Russia, Belarus)*Sidereal winter solstice's eve celebrations in South and Southeast Asian cultures; the last day of the six-month Dakshinayana period ''(see January 14)'':**Bhogi (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu)**Lohri (Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh)**Uruka (Assam)*Stephen Foster Memorial Day (United States)*Yennayer (Berbers)" ], [ "References", "* - Total pages: 687** - Total pages: 252 *" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 13" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "January 14" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1236 – King Henry III of England marries Eleanor of Provence.", "*1301 – Andrew III of Hungary dies, ending the Árpád dynasty in Hungary.===1601–1900===*1761 – The Third Battle of Panipat is fought in India between the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Durrani and the Marathas.", "*1784 – American Revolutionary War: Ratification Day, United States - Congress ratifies the Treaty of Paris with Great Britain.", "*1814 – Treaty of Kiel: Frederick VI of Denmark cedes the Kingdom of Norway to Charles XIII of Sweden in return for Pomerania.", "*1858 – Napoleon III of France escapes an assassination attempt made by Felice Orsini and his accomplices in Paris.", "*1899 – , the largest ship afloat since , is launched.", "*1900 – Giacomo Puccini's ''Tosca'' opens in Rome.===1901–present===*1907 – An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000 people.", "*1911 – Roald Amundsen's South Pole expedition makes landfall on the eastern edge of the Ross Ice Shelf.", "*1939 – Norway claims Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.", "*1943 – World War II: Japan begins Operation Ke, the successful operation to evacuate its forces from Guadalcanal during the Guadalcanal Campaign.", "* 1943 – World War II: Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill begin the Casablanca Conference to discuss strategy and study the next phase of the war.", "* 1951 – National Airlines Flight 83 crashes during landing at Philadelphia International Airport, killing seven passengers and crew.", "*1952 – NBC's long-running morning news program ''Today'' debuts, with host Dave Garroway.", "*1953 – Josip Broz Tito is elected the first President of Yugoslavia.", "*1954 – The Hudson Motor Car Company merges with Nash-Kelvinator Corporation forming the American Motors Corporation.", "*1957 – Kripalu Maharaj is named fifth Jagadguru (world teacher) after giving seven days of speeches before 500 Hindu scholars.", "*1960 – The Reserve Bank of Australia, the country's central bank and banknote issuing authority authorized by the 1959 Reserve Bank Act, is established.", "*1967 – Counterculture of the 1960s: The Human Be-In takes place in San Francisco, California's Golden Gate Park, launching the Summer of Love.", "*1969 – USS ''Enterprise'' fire: An accidental explosion aboard the near Hawaii kills 28 people.", "*1972 – Queen Margrethe II of Denmark ascends the throne, the first Queen of Denmark since 1412 and the first Danish monarch not named Frederik or Christian since 1513.", "*1973 – Elvis Presley's concert ''Aloha from Hawaii'' is broadcast live via satellite, and sets the record as the most watched broadcast by an individual entertainer in television history.", "*1993 – In Poland's worst peacetime maritime disaster, ferry MS ''Jan Heweliusz'' sinks off the coast of Rügen, drowning 55 passengers and crew; nine crew-members are saved.", "*2004 – The national flag of the Republic of Georgia, the so-called \"five cross flag\", is restored to official use after a hiatus of some 500 years.", "*2010 – Yemen declares an open war against the terrorist group al-Qaeda.", "*2011 – President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia seeks refuge in Saudi Arabia after a series of demonstrations against his regime, considered to be the birth of the Arab Spring.", "*2016 – Multiple explosions reported near the Sarinah Building, Jakarta, followed by shootout between perpetrators and the Police, killing seven people.", "The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant claimed responsibility.", "*2019 – A Saha Airlines Boeing 707 crashes at Fath Air Base near Karaj in Alborz Province, Iran, killing 15 people.", "*2024 – Queen Margrethe II abdicates as Queen of Denmark and is succeeded by her son, Frederik X." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*83 BC – Mark Antony, Roman general and politician (d. 30 BCE)*1131 – Valdemar I of Denmark (d. 1182)*1273 – Joan I of Navarre, queen regnant of Navarre, queen consort of France (d. 1305)*1451 – Franchinus Gaffurius, Italian composer and theorist (d. 1522)*1477 – Hermann of Wied, German archbishop (d. 1552)*1476 – Anne St Leger, Baroness de Ros, English baroness (d. 1526)*1507 – Catherine of Austria, Queen of Portugal (d. 1578)* 1507 – Luca Longhi, Italian painter (d. 1580)*1551 – Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, Grand vizier of emperor Akbar (d. 1602)*1552 – Alberico Gentili, Italian-English academic and jurist (d. 1608)===1601–1900===*1683 – Gottfried Silbermann, German instrument maker (d. 1753)*1684 – Johann Matthias Hase, German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (d. 1742)* 1684 – Jean-Baptiste van Loo, French painter (d. 1745)*1699 – Jakob Adlung, German organist, historian, and theorist (d. 1762)*1700 – Picander, German poet and playwright (d. 1764)*1702 – Emperor Nakamikado of Japan (d. 1737)*1705 – Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier, French sailor, explorer, and politician (d. 1786)*1741 – Benedict Arnold, American-British general (d. 1801)*1749 – James Garrard, American farmer, Baptist minister and politician (d. 1822) *1767 – Maria Theresa of Austria (d. 1827)*1780 – Henry Baldwin, American judge and politician (d. 1844)*1792 – Christian de Meza, Danish general (d. 1865)*1793 – John C. Clark, American lawyer and politician (d. 1852)*1798 – Johan Rudolph Thorbecke, Dutch historian, jurist, and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1872)*1800 – Ludwig Ritter von Köchel, Austrian composer, botanist, and publisher (d. 1877)*1806 – Charles Hotham, English-Australian soldier and politician, 1st Governor of Victoria (d. 1855)* 1806 – Matthew Fontaine Maury, American astronomer, oceanographer, and historian (d. 1873)*1818 – Zachris Topelius, Finnish author and journalist (d. 1898)*1819 – Dimitrie Bolintineanu, Romanian poet and politician (d. 1872)*1824 – Vladimir Stasov, Russian critic (d. 1906)*1834 – Duncan Gillies, Scottish-Australian politician, 14th Premier of Victoria (d. 1903)*1836 – Henri Fantin-Latour, French painter and lithographer (d. 1904)*1841 – Berthe Morisot, French painter (d. 1895)*1845 – Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne, English politician, 34th Governor-General of India (d. 1927)*1849 – Frank Cowper, English yachtsman, author and illustrator (d. 1930)*1850 – Pierre Loti, French captain and author (d. 1923)*1856 – J. F. Archibald, Australian journalist and publisher, co-founded ''The Bulletin'' (d. 1919)*1861 – Mehmed VI, Ottoman sultan (d. 1926)*1862 – Carrie Derick, Canadian botanist and geneticist (d. 1941)*1863 – Manuel de Oliveira Gomes da Costa, Portuguese general and politician, 10th President of Portugal (d. 1929)* 1863 – Richard F. Outcault, American author and illustrator (d. 1928)*1869 – Robert Fournier-Sarlovèze, French polo player and politician (d. 1937)*1870 – George Pearce, Australian carpenter and politician (d. 1952)*1875 – Albert Schweitzer, French-German physician and philosopher, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)*1882 – Hendrik Willem van Loon, Dutch-American historian and journalist (d. 1944)*1883 – Nina Ricci, Italian-French fashion designer (d. 1970)*1886 – Hugh Lofting, English author and poet, created ''Doctor Dolittle'' (d. 1947)*1887 – Hugo Steinhaus, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1972)*1892 – Martin Niemöller, German pastor and theologian (d. 1984)* 1892 – Hal Roach, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1992)* 1892 – George Wilson, English footballer (d. 1961)*1894 – Ecaterina Teodoroiu, Romanian soldier and nurse (d. 1917)*1896 – John Dos Passos, American novelist, poet, and playwright (d. 1970)*1897 – Hasso von Manteuffel, German general and politician (d. 1978)*1899 – Carlos P. Romulo, Filipino soldier and politician, President of the United Nations General Assembly (d. 1985)===1901–present===*1901 – Bebe Daniels, American actress (d. 1971)* 1901 – Alfred Tarski, Polish-American mathematician and philosopher (d. 1983)*1904 – Cecil Beaton, English photographer, painter, and costume designer (d. 1980)* 1904 – Emily Hahn, American journalist and author (d. 1997)* 1904 – Babe Siebert, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1939)*1905 – Mildred Albert, American fashion commentator, TV and radio personality, and fashion show producer (d. 1991)* 1905 – Takeo Fukuda, Japanese politician, 67th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1995)*1905 – Sterling Holloway, American actor (d. 1992)*1906 – William Bendix, American actor (d. 1964)*1907 – Georges-Émile Lapalme, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1985)*1908 – Russ Columbo, American singer, violinist, and actor (d. 1934)*1909 – Brenda Forbes, English-American actress (d. 1996)* 1909 – Joseph Losey, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1984)*1911 – Anatoly Rybakov, Russian-American author (d. 1998)*1912 – Tillie Olsen, American short story writer (d. 2007)*1914 – Harold Russell, Canadian-American soldier and actor (d. 2002)* 1914 – Selahattin Ülkümen, Turkish diplomat (d. 2003)*1915 – Mark Goodson, American game show producer, created ''Family Feud'' and ''The Price Is Right'' (d. 1992) *1919 – Giulio Andreotti, Italian journalist and politician, 41st Prime Minister of Italy (d. 2013)* 1919 – Andy Rooney, American soldier, journalist, critic, and television personality (d. 2011)*1920 – Bertus de Harder, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 1982)*1921 – Murray Bookchin, American author and philosopher (d. 2006)* 1921 – Kenneth Bulmer, American author (d. 2005)* 1921 – Ken Sailors, American basketball player (d. 2016)*1922 – Hank Biasatti, Italian-Canadian baseball and basketball player (d. 1996)* 1922 – Diana Wellesley, Duchess of Wellington (d. 2010)*1923 – Gerald Arpino, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2008)* 1923 – Fred Beckey, American mountaineer and author (d. 2017)*1924 – Carole Cook, American actress and singer (d. 2023)* 1924 – Guy Williams, American actor (d. 1989)*1925 – Jean-Claude Beton, Algerian-French engineer and businessman, founded Orangina (d. 2013)* 1925 – Moscelyne Larkin, American ballerina (d. 2012)* 1925 – Yukio Mishima, Japanese author, poet, and playwright (d. 1970)*1926 – Frank Aletter, American actor (d. 2009)* 1926 – Warren Mitchell, English actor and screenwriter (d. 2015)* 1926 – Tom Tryon, American actor and author (d. 1991)*1927 – Zuzana Růžičková, Czech harpsichord player (d. 2017)*1928 – Lars Forssell, Swedish author, poet, and songwriter (d. 2007)* 1928 – Hans Kornberg, German-English biologist and academic (d. 2019)* 1928 – Garry Winogrand, American photographer and author (d. 1984)*1929 – Peter Barkworth, English actor (d. 2006)*1930 – Johnny Grande, American pianist and accordion player (d. 2006)* 1930 – Kenny Wheeler, Canadian-English trumpet player and composer (d. 2014)*1931 – Frank Costigan, Australian lawyer and politician (d. 2009)* 1931 – Martin Holdgate, English biologist and academic*1932 – Don Garlits, American race car driver and engineer*1933 – Stan Brakhage, American director and producer (d. 2003)*1934 – Richard Briers, English actor (d. 2013)* 1934 – Pierre Darmon, French tennis player* 1934 – Alberto Rodriguez Larreta, Argentinian race car driver (d. 1977)*1936 – Clarence Carter, American blues and soul singer-songwriter, musician, and record producer*1937 – J. Bernlef, Dutch author and poet (d. 2012)* 1937 – Ken Higgs, English cricketer and coach (d. 2016)* 1937 – Leo Kadanoff, American physicist and academic (d. 2015)* 1937 – Rao Gopal Rao, Indian actor, producer, and politician (d. 1994)* 1937 – Sonny Siebert, American baseball player* 1937 – Billie Jo Spears, American country singer (d. 2011)*1938 – Morihiro Hosokawa, Japanese journalist and politician, 79th Prime Minister of Japan* 1938 – Jack Jones, American singer and actor* 1938 – Allen Toussaint, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (d. 2015)*1939 – Kurt Moylan, Guamanian businessman and politician, 1st Lieutenant Governor of Guam*1940 – Julian Bond, American academic and politician (d. 2015)* 1940 – Ron Kostelnik, American football player (d. 1993)* 1940 – Siegmund Nimsgern, German opera singer* 1940 – Trevor Nunn, English director and composer* 1940 – Vasilka Stoeva, Bulgarian discus thrower*1941 – Nicholas Brooks, English historian (d. 2014)* 1941 – Faye Dunaway, American actress and producer* 1941 – Gibby Gilbert, American golfer* 1941 – Barry Jenner, American actor (d. 2016) * 1941 – Milan Kučan, Slovenian politician, 1st President of Slovenia*1942 – Dave Campbell, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1942 – Gerben Karstens, Dutch cyclist (d. 2022)*1943 – Angelo Bagnasco, Italian cardinal* 1943 – Mariss Jansons, Latvian conductor (d. 2019)* 1943 – Shannon Lucid, American biochemist and astronaut* 1943 – Holland Taylor, American actress and playwright*1944 – Marjoe Gortner, American actor and evangelist* 1944 – Graham Marsh, Australian golfer and architect* 1944 – Nina Totenberg, American journalist*1945 – Kathleen Chalfant, American actress* 1945 – Maina Gielgud, English ballerina and director*1947 – Taylor Branch, American historian and author * 1947 – Bev Perdue, American educator and politician, 73rd Governor of North Carolina* 1947 – Bill Werbeniuk, Canadian snooker player (d. 2003)*1948 – T Bone Burnett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1948 – Muhriz of Negeri Sembilan, Yamtuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan* 1948 – Carl Weathers, American football player and actor (d. 2024)*1949 – Lawrence Kasdan, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1949 – Mary Robison, American short story writer and novelist* 1949 – İlyas Salman, Turkish actor, director, and screenwriter* 1949 – Lamar Williams, American bass player (d. 1983)*1950 – Arthur Byron Cover, American author and screenwriter* 1950 – Swen Nater, Dutch-American basketball player* 1950 – Rambhadracharya, Indian religious leader, scholar, and author*1951 – Ron Behagen, American basketball player* 1951 – O. Panneerselvam, Indian politician, 7th Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu*1952 – Sydney Biddle Barrows, American businesswoman and author* 1952 – Maureen Dowd, American journalist and author* 1952 – Konstantinos Iosifidis, Greek footballer and manager* 1952 – Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu, Romanian engineer and politician, 60th Prime Minister of Romania*1953 – David Clary, English chemist and academic* 1953 – Denzil Douglas, Caribbean educator and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis* 1953 – Hans Westerhoff, Dutch biologist and academic*1954 – Jim Duggan, American professional wrestler*1956 – Étienne Daho, Algerian-French singer-songwriter and producer*1957 – Anchee Min, Chinese-American painter, photographer, and author*1959 – Geoff Tate, German-American singer-songwriter and musician*1961 – Rob Hall, New Zealand mountaineer (d. 1996)*1963 – Steven Soderbergh, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1964 – Beverly Kinch, English long jumper and sprinter* 1964 – Sergei Nemchinov, Russian ice hockey player* 1964 – Shepard Smith, American television journalist*1965 – Mark Addy, English actor* 1965 – Marc Delissen, Dutch field hockey player, coach, and lawyer* 1965 – Bob Essensa, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1965 – Jemma Redgrave, English actress* 1965 – Slick Rick, English-American rapper and producer*1966 – Terry Angus, English footballer* 1966 – Marko Hietala, Finnish singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer* 1966 – Nadia Maftouni, Iranian philosopher* 1966 – Dan Schneider, American TV producer*1967 – Leonardo Ortolani, Italian author and illustrator, created ''Rat-Man''* 1967 – Emily Watson, English actress* 1967 – Zakk Wylde, American guitarist and singer*1968 – Ruel Fox, English-Montserratian footballer, manager and chairman* 1968 – LL Cool J, American rapper and actor*1969 – Jason Bateman, American actor, director, and producer* 1969 – Martin Bicknell, English cricketer* 1969 – Dave Grohl, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer*1971 – Lasse Kjus, Norwegian skier* 1971 – Bert Konterman, Dutch footballer and manager* 1971 – Antonios Nikopolidis, Greek footballer and manager*1972 – Kyle Brady, American football player and sportscaster* 1972 – Dion Forster, South African minister, theologian, and author* 1972 – James Key, English engineer*1973 – Giancarlo Fisichella, Italian race car driver* 1973 – Paul Tisdale, English footballer and manager*1974 – Kevin Durand, Canadian actor* 1974 – David Flitcroft, English footballer and manager*1975 – Georgina Cates, English actress* 1975 – Jordan Ladd, American actress*1976 – Vincenzo Chianese, Italian footballer*1977 – Narain Karthikeyan, Indian race car driver * 1977 – Terry Ryan, Canadian ice hockey player*1978 – Shawn Crawford, American sprinter*1979 – Karen Elson, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and model* 1979 – Evans Soligo, Italian footballer*1980 – Clive Clarke, Irish footballer* 1980 – Cory Gibbs, American soccer player* 1980 – Byron Leftwich, American football player and coach*1981 – Abdelmalek Cherrad, Algerian footballer* 1981 – Jadranka Đokić, Croatian actress* 1981 – Hyleas Fountain, American heptathlete* 1981 – Concepción Montaner, Spanish long jumper*1982 – Marc Broussard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1982 – Zach Gilford, American actor* 1982 – Léo Lima, Brazilian footballer* 1982 – Thomas Longosiwa, Kenyan runner* 1982 – Víctor Valdés, Spanish footballer*1983 – Cesare Bovo, Italian footballer* 1983 – Vincent Jackson, American football player (d. 2021)* 1983 – Jason Krejza, Australian cricketer*1984 – Erick Aybar, American baseball player* 1984 – Erika Matsuo, Japanese violinist* 1984 – Mike Pelfrey, American baseball player*1985 – Aaron Brooks, American basketball player* 1985 – Jake Choi, American actor* 1985 – Joel Rosario, Dominican-American jockey* 1985 – Shawn Sawyer, Canadian figure skater*1986 – Yohan Cabaye, French footballer* 1986 – Alessio Cossu, Italian footballer* 1986 – Matt Riddle, American mixed martial artist and wrestler*1987 – Jess Fishlock, Welsh footballer* 1987 – Atsushi Hashimoto, Japanese actor*1988 – Kacey Barnfield, English actress* 1988 – Hakeem Nicks, American football player* 1988 – Jack P. Shepherd, English actor*1989 – Frankie Bridge, English singer-songwriter and dancer * 1989 – Emma Greenwell, American-English actress*1990 – Kacy Catanzaro, American athlete and wrestler* 1990 – Lelisa Desisa, Ethiopian runner* 1990 – Grant Gustin, American actor and singer* 1990 – Áron Szilágyi, Hungarian fencer*1992 – Robbie Brady, Irish footballer* 1992 – Chieh-Yu Hsu, American tennis player* 1992 – Qiang Wang, Chinese tennis player*1993 – Daniel Bessa, Brazilian footballer* 1993 – David Nwaba, American basketball player*1994 – Kai, South Korean singer, model, actor and dancer*1997 – Francesco Bagnaia, Italian motorcycle racer*1998 – Maddison Inglis, Australian tennis player*1999 – Declan Rice, English footballer* 1999 – Emerson Royal, Brazilian footballer* 1999 – D'Andre Swift, American football player*2000 – Jonathan David, Canadian footballer*2001 – Cora Jade, American wrestler" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 769 – Cui Huan, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty * 927 – Wang Yanhan, king of Min (Ten Kingdoms)* 937 – Zhang Yanlang, Chinese official* 973 – Ekkehard I, Frankish monk and poet*1092 – Vratislaus II of Bohemia*1163 – Ladislaus II of Hungary (b.", "1131)*1236 – Saint Sava, Serbian archbishop and saint (b.", "1175)*1301 – Andrew III of Hungary (b.", "1265)*1331 – Odoric of Pordenone, Italian priest and explorer (b.", "1286)*1465 – Thomas Beckington, English statesman and prelate*1476 – John de Mowbray, 4th Duke of Norfolk (b.", "1444)*1555 – Jacques Dubois, French anatomist (b.", "1478)===1601–1900===*1640 – Thomas Coventry, 1st Baron Coventry, English lawyer, judge, and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (b.", "1578)*1648 – Caspar Barlaeus, Dutch historian, poet, and theologian (b.", "1584)*1676 – Francesco Cavalli, Italian organist and composer (b.", "1602)*1679 – Jacques de Billy, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1602)*1701 – Tokugawa Mitsukuni, Japanese daimyō (b.", "1628)*1753 – George Berkeley, Anglo-Irish philosopher and author (b.", "1685)*1766 – Frederick V of Denmark (b.", "1723)*1776 – Edward Cornwallis, English general and politician, Governor of Gibraltar (b.", "1713)*1786 – Michael Arne, English organist and composer (b.", "1741)* 1786 – Meshech Weare, American lawyer and politician, 1st Governor of New Hampshire (b.", "1713)*1823 – Athanasios Kanakaris, Greek politician (b.", "1760)*1825 – George Dance the Younger, English architect and surveyor (b.", "1741)*1833 – Seraphim of Sarov, Russian monk and saint (b.", "1759)*1867 – Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, French painter and illustrator (b.", "1780) *1874 – Johann Philipp Reis, German physicist and academic, invented the Reis telephone (b.", "1834)*1883 – Napoléon Coste, French guitarist and composer (b.", "1806)*1888 – Stephen Heller, Hungarian pianist and composer (b.", "1813)*1889 – Ema Pukšec, Croatian soprano (b.", "1834)*1892 – Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale (b.", "1864)* 1892 – Alexander J. Davis, American architect (b.", "1803)*1898 – Lewis Carroll, English novelist, poet, and mathematician (b.", "1832)===1901–present===*1901 – Mandell Creighton, English bishop and historian (b.", "1843)* 1901 – Charles Hermite, French mathematician and theorist (b.", "1822)*1905 – Ernst Abbe, German physicist and engineer (b.", "1840)*1907 – Sir James Fergusson, 6th Baronet, Scottish soldier and politician, 6th Governor of New Zealand (b.", "1832)*1908 – Holger Drachmann, Danish poet and playwright (b.", "1846)*1915 – Richard Meux Benson, English priest and saint, founded the Society of St. John the Evangelist (b.", "1824)*1919 – Platon, Estonian bishop and saint (b.", "1869)*1920 – John Francis Dodge, American businessman, co-founded the Dodge Automobile Company (b.", "1864)*1926 – August Sedláček, Czech historian and author (b.", "1843)*1934 – Ioan Cantacuzino, Romanian physician and bacteriologist (b.", "1863)*1937 – Jaishankar Prasad, Indian poet, author, and playwright (b.", "1889)*1938 – Jaakko Mäki, Finnish politician (b.", "1878)*1942 – Porfirio Barba-Jacob, Colombian poet and author (b.", "1883)*1943 – Laura E. Richards, American author and poet (b.", "1850)*1944 – Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, Turkish author and politician (b.", "1869)*1949 – Harry Stack Sullivan, American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst (b.", "1892)*1951 – Gregorios Xenopoulos, Greek author, journalist, and playwright (b.", "1867)*1952 – Artur Kapp, Estonian composer and conductor (b.", "1878)*1957 – Humphrey Bogart, American actor (b.", "1899)*1959 – Eivind Berggrav, Norwegian bishop and translator (b.", "1884)*1961 – Barry Fitzgerald, Irish actor (b.", "1888)*1962 – M. Visvesvaraya, Indian engineer, scholar, and politician (b.", "1860)*1965 – Jeanette MacDonald, American actress and singer (b.", "1903)*1966 – Sergei Korolev, Ukrainian-Russian engineer and academic (b.", "1906)*1968 – Dorothea Mackellar, Australian poet and author (b.", "1885)*1970 – William Feller, Croatian-American mathematician and academic (b.", "1906)* 1970 – Asım Gündüz, Turkish general (b.", "1880)*1972 – Horst Assmy, German footballer (b.", "1933)* 1972 – Frederik IX of Denmark (b.", "1899)*1976 – Abdul Razak Hussein, Malaysian lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Malaysia (b.", "1922)*1977 – Anthony Eden, English soldier and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1897)* 1977 – Peter Finch, English-Australian actor (b.", "1916)* 1977 – Anaïs Nin, French-American essayist and memoirist (b.", "1903)*1978 – Harold Abrahams, English sprinter, lawyer, and journalist (b.", "1899)* 1978 – Kurt Gödel, Austrian-American mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1906)* 1978 – Robert Heger, German conductor and composer (b.", "1886)* 1978 – Blossom Rock, American actress (b.", "1895)*1980 – Robert Ardrey, American-South African author, playwright, and screenwriter (b.", "1908)* 1981 – G. Lloyd Spencer, American lieutenant and politician (b.", "1893)*1984 – Ray Kroc, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1902)*1986 – Donna Reed, American actress (b.", "1921)*1987 – Turgut Demirağ, Turkish director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1921)* 1987 – Douglas Sirk, German-Swiss director and screenwriter (b.", "1900)*1988 – Georgy Malenkov, Russian engineer and politician, 5th Premier of the Soviet Union (b.", "1902)*1991 – Gordon Bryant, Australian educator and politician (b.", "1914)*1995 – Alexander Gibson, Scottish conductor (b.", "1926)*1996 – Onno Tunç, Armenian-Turkish composer (b.", "1948)*1997 – Dollard Ménard, Canadian general (b.", "1913)*2000 – Leonard Weisgard, American author and illustrator (b.", "1916)*2004 – Uta Hagen, German-American actress (b.", "1919)* 2004 – Ron O'Neal, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1937)*2005 – Charlotte MacLeod, Canadian-American author (b.", "1922)* 2005 – Conroy Maddox, English painter and educator (b.", "1912)* 2005 – Rudolph Moshammer, German fashion designer (b.", "1940)* 2005 – Jesús Rafael Soto, Venezuelan sculptor and painter (b.", "1923)*2006 – Henri Colpi, French director and screenwriter (b.", "1921)* 2006 – Jim Gary, American sculptor (b.", "1939)* 2006 – Shelley Winters, American actress (b.", "1920)*2007 – Vassilis Photopoulos, Greek painter, director, and set designer (b.", "1934)*2008 – Judah Folkman, American physician, biologist, and academic (b.", "1933)*2009 – Jan Kaplický, Czech architect, designed the Selfridges Building (b.", "1937)* 2009 – Ricardo Montalbán, Mexican actor (b.", "1920)*2010 – Antonio Fontán, Spanish journalist and academic (b.", "1923)*2011 – Georgia Carroll, American singer, model and actress (b.", "1919)*2012 – Txillardegi, Spanish linguist and politician (b.", "1929)* 2012 – Dan Evins, American businessman, founded Cracker Barrel Old Country Store (b.", "1935)* 2012 – Arfa Karim, Pakistani student and computer prodigy, youngest Microsoft Certified Professional in 2004 (b.", "1995)* 2012 – Giampiero Moretti, Italian entrepreneur and race car driver (b.", "1940)* 2012 – Rosy Varte, Armenian-French actress (b.", "1923)*2013 – Conrad Bain, Canadian-American actor (b.", "1923)*2014 – Jon Bing, Norwegian author, scholar, and academic (b.", "1944)* 2014 – Juan Gelman, Argentinian poet and author (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Flavio Testi, Italian composer and musicologist (b.", "1923)*2015 – Bob Boyd, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1930)* 2015 – Zhang Wannian, Chinese general (b.", "1928)*2016 – René Angélil, Canadian music producer, talent manager, and singer (b.", "1942)* 2016 – Alan Rickman, English actor (b.", "1946)*2017 – Zhou Youguang, Chinese sociologist, (b.", "1906)*2018 – Spanky Manikan, Filipino veteran actor (b.", "1942) * 2018 – Cyrille Regis, French Guianan-English footballer (b.", "1958) *2021 – Joel Robert, Belgian motorcycle racer (b.", "1943)*2023 – Mukarram Jah, 8th Nizam of Hyderabad (b.", "1933)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Barba'shmin** Devasahayam Pillai (Catholic Church)** Divina Pastora (Barquisimeto)** Eivind Berggrav (Lutheran)** Felix of Nola** Macrina the Elder** Odoric of Pordenone** January 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Defender of the Motherland Day (Uzbekistan) * Feast of the Ass (Medieval Christianity)* Flag Day (Georgia) * National Forest Conservation Day (Thailand) * Old New Year, and its related observance:**Azhyrnykhua (Abkhazia)**Yennayer (Berbers)* Ratification Day (United States)* Sidereal winter solstice celebrations in South and Southeast Asian cultures; marking the transition of the Sun to Capricorn, and the first day of the six months Uttarayana period.", "''(see April 14)'':**Magh Bihu (Assam)** Maghe Sankranti (Nepal)** Maghi (Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh)** Makar Sankranti (India)** The first day of Pongal (Tamil Nadu)** Uttarayan (Uttarakhand, Gujarat and Rajasthan)* World Logic Day (UNESCO)" ], [ "Notes", "In the 20th and 21st centuries the Julian calendar is 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar, thus January 14 is sometimes celebrated as New Year's Day (Old New Year) by religious groups who use the Julian calendar." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 14" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jackie Robinson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jack Roosevelt Robinson''' (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American professional baseball player who became the first African American to play in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era.", "Robinson broke the color line when he started at first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15, 1947.The Dodgers signing Robinson heralded the end of racial segregation in professional baseball that had relegated black players to the Negro leagues since the 1880s.", "Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.Born in Cairo, Georgia, Robinson was raised in Pasadena, California.", "A four-sport student athlete at Pasadena Junior College and the University of California, Los Angeles, he was better known for football than he was for baseball, becoming a star college player with the UCLA Bruins football team.", "Following his college career, Robinson was drafted for service during World War II but was court martialed for refusing to sit at the back of a segregated Army bus, eventually being honorably discharged.", "Afterwards, he signed with the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro leagues from where he caught the eye of Branch Rickey, general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, who thought he would be the perfect candidate for breaking the color line in Major League Baseball.During his 10-year MLB career, Robinson won the inaugural Rookie of the Year Award in 1947, was an All-Star for six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won the National League (NL) Most Valuable Player Award in 1949—the first black player so honored.", "Robinson played in six World Series and contributed to the Dodgers' 1955 World Series championship.", "In 1997, Major League Baseball retired his uniform No.", "42 across all major league teams; he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored.", "MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, \"Jackie Robinson Day\", for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears No.", "42.Robinson's character, his use of nonviolence, and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life.", "He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to the civil rights movement.", "Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation, Chock full o'Nuts.", "In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based in Harlem, New York.", "After his death in 1972, Robinson was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of his achievements on and off the field." ], [ "Early life", "===Family and personal life===Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family of sharecroppers in Cairo, Georgia.", "He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie (née McGriff) and Jerry Robinson, after siblings Edgar, Frank, Matthew (nicknamed \"Mack\"), and Willa Mae.", "His middle name honored former President Theodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born.", "After Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved to Pasadena, California.The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena.", "Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family.", "Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities.", "As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it.===John Muir High School===In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled at John Muir Technical High School.", "Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers, Frank and Mack (himself an accomplished track and field athlete and silver medalist behind Jesse Owens in the 200 meters at the Berlin 1936 Summer Olympics) inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports.At Muir Tech, Robinson played numerous sports at the varsity level and lettered in four of them: football, basketball, track and field, and baseball.", "He played shortstop and catcher on the baseball team, quarterback on the football team, and guard on the basketball team.", "With the track and field squad, he won awards in the broad jump.", "He was also a member of the tennis team.In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on the Pomona annual baseball tournament all-star team, which included future Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon.", "In late January 1937, the ''Pasadena Star-News'' newspaper reported that Robinson \"for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball, and tennis.", "\"===Pasadena Junior College===After Muir, Robinson attended Pasadena Junior College (PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track.", "On the football team, he played quarterback and safety.", "He was a shortstop and leadoff hitter for the baseball team, and he broke an American junior college broad-jump record held by his brother Mack with a jump of 25 ft. in.", "on May 7, 1938.As at Muir High School, most of Jackie's teammates were white.", "While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military.", "In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player.That year, Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (''Omicron Mu Delta''), awarded to students performing \"outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition.\"", "Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities.An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived as racist—a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life.", "On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police.", "Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident—along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police—gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism.", "While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev.", "Karl Downs) to attend church on a regular basis, and Downs became a confidant for Robinson, a Christian.", "Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident.", "The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearby University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family.===UCLA and afterward===UCLAAfter graduating from PJC in spring 1939, Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track.He was one of four black players on the Bruins' 1939 football team; the others were Woody Strode, Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett.", "Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players.", "At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football's most They went undefeated with four ties at Robinson finished the season with 12.2 yards per attempt on 42 carries, which is the school football record for highest rushing yards per carry in a season as of 2022.Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons.In track and field, Robinson won the 1940 NCAA championship in the long jump at .", "Baseball was Robinson's \"worst sport\" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twice stole home.While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum (b.1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic career He played football as a senior, but the 1940 Bruins won only one game.", "In the spring, Robinson left college just shy of graduation, despite the reservations of his mother and Isum.", "He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government's National Youth Administration (NYA) After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled to Honolulu in the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated Honolulu After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League.", "By that time, however, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place, which drew the United States into World War II and ended Robinson's nascent football career." ], [ "Military career", "In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit at Fort Riley (in Kansas).", "Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to an Officer Candidate School (OCS) then located at Fort Riley.Although the Army's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race-neutral, few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership.", "The applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months.", "After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis (then stationed at Fort Riley) and with the help of Truman Gibson (then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War), the men were accepted into OCS.", "The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis.", "Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943.Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged.After receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned to Fort Hood, Texas, where he joined the 761st \"Black Panthers\" Tank Battalion.", "While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev.", "Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (now Huston–Tillotson University) in nearby Austin, Texas; in California, Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC.An event on July 6, 1944, derailed Robinson's military career.", "While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus.", "Robinson refused.", "The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned the military police, who took Robinson into custody.", "When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson be court-martialed.After Robinson's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalion—where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink.By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning.", "Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers.Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas, and he was never in combat.After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving an honorable discharge in November 1944.While there, Robinson met a former player for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout.", "Robinson took the former player's advice and wrote to Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird." ], [ "Post-military", "After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs.", "Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev.", "Karl Downs to be the athletic director at Samuel Huston College in Austin, then of the Southwestern Athletic Conference.", "The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season.", "As it was a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games.", "Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach, and drew the admiration of, among others, Langston University basketball player Marques Haynes, a future member of the Harlem Globetrotters." ], [ "Playing career", "===Negro leagues and major league prospects===Robinson during his stint in the Negro leagues with the Kansas City MonarchsIn early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, the Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues.", "Robinson accepted a contract for $400 per month.", "Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience.", "He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him.", "The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter.", "In all, Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs, hitting .387 with five home runs, and registering 13 stolen bases.", "He also appeared in the 1945 East–West All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats.During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests.", "No black man had played in the major leagues since Moses Fleetwood Walker in 1884, but the Boston Red Sox nevertheless held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16.The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City Councilman Isadore H. Y. Muchnick.", "Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets.", "He left the tryout humiliated, and more than 14 years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster.Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer.", "In the mid-1940s, Branch Rickey, club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster.", "Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals.", "Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him.", "In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily—a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military.", "Robinson was aghast: \"Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?\"", "Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player \"with guts enough not to fight back.\"", "After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to \"turn the other cheek\" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month, equal to $ today.", "Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a reserve clause.", "Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects was Wendell Smith, writer for the black weekly ''Pittsburgh Courier'', who, according to Cleveland Indians owner and team president Bill Veeck, \"influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he's never completely gotten credit.", "\"Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945.On October 23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season.", "On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals.", "In what was later referred to as \"The Noble Experiment\", Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s.", "He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues, and black talents Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first.", "Larry Doby, who broke the color line in the American League the same year as Robinson, said, \"One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player.", "The best was Josh Gibson.", "I think that's one of the reasons why Josh died so early—he was heartbroken.", "\"Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena.", "That September, he signed with Chet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-season barnstorming team in the California Winter League.", "Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City.", "On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev.", "Karl Downs.===Minor leagues===In 1946, Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach, Florida, for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League.", "Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate, but Rickey refused.Robinson with the alt=A black man in a baseball uniform with the words \"Royals\" and a baseball cap with the letter \"M\".Robinson's presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida.", "He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activist Mary McLeod Bethune.", "Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility, scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January.", "In Sanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach.", "In Jacksonville, the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director.", "In DeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium's electrical lighting.After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach.", "Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers.", "Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major league team since the ''de facto'' baseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s.alt=Two white men in baseball uniform with back to camera watch a black baseball player take batting practiceLater in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop to second base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base.", "Robinson's performance soon rebounded.", "On April 18, 1946, Roosevelt Stadium hosted the Jersey City Giants' season opener against the Montreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs.", "Pitching against Robinson was Warren Sandel who had played against him when they both lived in California.", "During Robinson's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused.", "Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his five at bats; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's third inning.", "He also scored four runs, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory.", "Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player.", "Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour, for example), the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson.", "Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards.", "In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-lived Los Angeles Red Devils.===Major leagues=======Breaking the color barrier (1947)====In 1947, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season.", "With Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as a first baseman.", "Robinson made his debut as a Dodger wearing uniform number 42 on April 11, 1947, in a preseason exhibition game against the New York Yankees at Ebbets Field with 24,237 in attendance.", "On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black.", "Although he failed to get a base hit, he walked and scored a run in the Dodgers' 5–3 victory.", "Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line.", "Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams.Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players.", "However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse.", "Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson.", "The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson.", "Manager Leo Durocher informed the team, \"I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra.", "I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays.", "What's more, I say he can make us all rich.", "And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded.", "\"Robinson was also derided by opposing teams.", "According to a press report, the St. Louis Cardinals threatened to strike if Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League.", "Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, the ''New York Herald Tribune''s Rutherford \"Rud\" Rennie.", "The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to his ''Tribune'' colleague and editor, Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland.", "The Woodward article made national headlines.", "After it was published, National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended.", "\"You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts,\" Frick was quoted as saying.", "\"I do not care if half the league strikes.", "Those who do it will encounter quick retribution.", "All will be suspended and I don't care if it wrecks the National League for five years.", "This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another.\"", "Woodward's article received the E. P. Dutton Award in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting.", "The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike, and Woodward later told author Roger Kahn that Frick was his true source; writer Warren Corbett said that Frick's speech \"never happened\".", "Regardless, the report led to Robinson receiving increased support from the sports media.", "Even ''The Sporting News'', a publication that had backed the color line, came out against the idea of a strike.Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals).", "At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg from Enos Slaughter.", "On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players and manager Ben Chapman called Robinson a \"nigger\" from their dugout and yelled that he should \"go back to the cotton fields\".", "Rickey later recalled that Chapman \"did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers.", "When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men.", "\"However, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players.", "Robinson named Lee \"Jeep\" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well.", "Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, \"You can hate a man for many reasons.", "Color is not one of them.\"", "In 1947 or 1948, Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati.", "A statue by sculptor William Behrends, unveiled at KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson.", "Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson.", "Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he \"whispered a few words into Robinson's ear\", which Robinson later characterized as \"words of encouragement\".", "Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games.", "Robinson also talked frequently with Larry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in the American League with the Cleveland Indians, as the two spoke to each other via telephone throughout the season.Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for the Dodgers, with a batting average of .297, an on-base percentage of .383, and a .427 slugging percentage.", "He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31 doubles, 5 triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year.", "Robinson led the league in sacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29.His cumulative performance earned him the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).That year, the Brooklyn Dodgers won the National League pennant and went on to face the Yankees in the 1947 World Series.", "Robinson became the first black player to play in the World Series.", "He appeared in all seven games, with the Dodgers ultimately losing in Game 7.====MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (1948–1950)====Following Stanky's trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980 fielding percentage that year (second in the National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky).", "Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season.", "In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he hit for the cycle—a home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game.", "The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the pennant and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series.alt=A black man in a Brooklyn Dodgers uniform and a cap with the letter \"B\", smiling at the camera.Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues.", "Larry Doby (who broke the color barrier in the American League on July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson.", "In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $ today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from a vaudeville tour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South.", "Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle.", "Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp overweight.", "He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate.", "In 1948, Wendell Smith's book, ''Jackie Robinson: My Own Story'', was released.In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help.", "At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field.", "Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball.", "Robinson also noted that \"Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second\".", "The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949.In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124 runs batted in with 122 runs scored.", "For the performance Robinson earned the Most Valuable Player Award for the National League.", "Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All-Star Game — the first All-Star Game to include black players.That year, a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson, \"Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?", "\", reached number 13 on the charts; Count Basie recorded a famous version.", "Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series.Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson.", "In July, he was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actor Paul Robeson.", "Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined.Lobby card for ''The Jackie Robinson Story'', 1950, with Minor Watson (left, playing Dodgers president Branch Rickey) and RobinsonIn 1950, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman with 133.His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($ in dollars).", "He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases.", "The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life, ''The Jackie Robinson Story'', in which Robinson played himself, and actress Ruby Dee played Rachel \"Rae\" (Isum) Robinson.", "The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man.", "''The New York Times'' wrote that Robinson, \"doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star.", "\"Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner Walter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as \"Rickey's prima donna\".", "In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired.", "Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise.", "Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates.", "Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, \"Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it.", "\"====Pennant races and outside interests (1951–1953)====Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career.", "O'Malley was quoted in the ''Montreal Standard'' as saying, \"Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post\"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered.During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137.He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant.", "During the last game of the regular season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game and then hit a home run in the 14th inning, which proved to be the winning margin.", "This forced a best-of-three playoff series against the crosstown rival New York Giants.alt=A comic book cover titled \"Jackie Robinson\" depicts a black man in a Brooklyn Dodgers cap; inset image on the cover shows a black baseball player covering a slide at second base.Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, on October 3, 1951, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson's famous home run, known as the Shot Heard 'Round the World.", "Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases.", "Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed \"how much of a competitor Robinson was.\"", "He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases.Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952.He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases.", "He did, however, record a career-high on-base percentage of .436.The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games.", "That year, on the television show ''Youth Wants to Know'', Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager, George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player.", "Sportswriter Dick Young, whom Robinson had described as a \"bigot\", said, \"If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one.", "He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness.\"", "The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base.", "Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the outfield, with Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties.", "Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team.", "He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League, but according to the ''New York Post'', Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request.In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games).", "Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats.", "He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly.", "That year, he served as editor for ''Our Sports'' magazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friend Joe Louis.", "Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-star Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.====World Championship and retirement (1954–1956)====In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals.", "His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles.", "The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers defeated the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series.", "Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career.", "He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases.", "The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base.", "Robinson, then 36 years old, missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series.", "He missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base.", "That season, the Dodgers' Don Newcombe became the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year.In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals.", "By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects of diabetes and to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball.", "Robinson ended his major league career when he struck out to end Game 7 of the 1956 World Series.", "After the season, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch-rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash (equal to $ today).", "The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company.", "Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to ''Look'' magazine two years previously, his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization." ], [ "Legacy", "March on Washington, August 28, 1963.|alt=A black man with his arm around a black boy speaks into a microphone held by a person out of view.Robinson's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as the baseball color line.", "After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks, including their accelerated migration to the North, where their political clout grew, and President Harry Truman's desegregation of the military in 1948.Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter.", "Civil rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. said that he was \"a legend and a symbol in his own time\", and that he \"challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration.\"", "According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's \"efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... His accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities.", "\"Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers.", "During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games.", "In 1999, he was one of 30 players named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–\"long ball\" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning.", "Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era.", "He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially more walks than strikeouts (740 to 291).", "Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñoso was the other).", "He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total, including 19 steals of home.", "None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time).", "Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as \"the father of modern base-stealing\".Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played.", "After playing his rookie season at first base, Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman.", "He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951.Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both.Assessing himself, Robinson said, \"I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being.\"", "Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field, Leo Durocher said, \"Ya want a guy that comes to play.", "This guy didn't just come to play.", "He come to beat ya.", "He come to stuff the goddamn bat right up your ass.", "\"===Portrayals on stage, film and television===Depiction of Robinson in lobby card for the 1950 film ''alt=A black man in a baseball uniform, standing in front of a yellow screen and looking away from the camera, in a promotional poster for a film.Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion picture ''The Jackie Robinson Story''.Other portrayals include:* John Lafayette, in the 1978 ABC television special \"A Home Run for Love\" (broadcast as an ''ABC Afterschool Special'').", "* David Alan Grier, in the 1981 Broadway production of the musical ''The First''.", "* Michael-David Gordon, in the 1989 Off-Broadway production of the musical ''Play to Win''.", "* Sterling Macer Jr. in the 1989 Edward Schmidt play ''Mr.", "Rickey Calls a Meeting'', a fictionalized version of the meeting in which Branch Rickey offered Robinson a major-league contract.", "* Andre Braugher, in the 1990 TNT television movie ''The Court-Martial of Jackie Robinson''.", "* Blair Underwood, in the 1996 HBO television movie ''Soul of the Game''.", "* Antonio Todd in \"Colors\", a 2005 episode of the CBS television series ''Cold Case''.", "* Chadwick Boseman, in the 2013 motion picture ''42''.", "* Robert Hamilton in \"Sundown\", a 2020 episode of the HBO television series ''Lovecraft Country''.Robinson was also the subject of a 2016 PBS documentary, ''Jackie Robinson'', which was directed by Ken Burns and features Jamie Foxx doing voice-over as Robinson." ], [ "Post-baseball life", "Robinson once told future Hall of Fame inductee Hank Aaron that \"the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over.\"", "Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957.Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, he was diagnosed with diabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers.", "Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease.In October 1959, Robinson entered the Greenville Municipal Airport's whites-only waiting room.", "Airport police asked Robinson to leave, but he refused.", "At a National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) speech in Greenville, South Carolina, Robinson urged \"complete freedom\" and encouraged black citizens to vote and to protest their second-class citizenship.", "The following January, approximately 1,000 people marched on New Year's Day to the airport, which was desegregated shortly thereafter.In his first year of eligibility for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962, Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game.", "He was elected on the first ballot, becoming the first black player inducted into the Cooperstown museum.alt=An aging black man in front of a microphoneIn 1965, Robinson served as an analyst for ABC's ''Major League Baseball Game of the Week'' telecasts, the first black person to do so.", "In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short-lived Brooklyn Dodgers of the Continental Football League.", "In 1972, he served as a part-time commentator on Montreal Expos telecasts.On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired his uniform number, 42, alongside those of Roy Campanella (39) and Sandy Koufax (32).", "From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel at Chock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation.", "Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause of black people in commerce and industry.", "He also chaired the NAACP's million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization's board until 1967.In 1964, he helped found, with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin, Freedom National Bank—a black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem.", "He also served as the bank's first chairman of the board.", "In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families.Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life.", "He identified himself as a political independent, although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including the Vietnam War (he once wrote to Martin Luther King Jr. to defend the Johnson Administration's military policy).", "After supporting Richard Nixon in his 1960 presidential race against John F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights.", "Robinson was angered by the 1964 presidential election candidacy of conservative Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, who had opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964.He became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the election.", "After the party nominated Goldwater instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had \"a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany\".", "He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966 and in 1971 was appointed to the New York State Athletic Commission by Rockefeller.", "In 1968, he broke with the Republican party and supported Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in that year's presidential election.alt=An aging black man in semi-profileRobinson protested against the major leagues' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, and he turned down an invitation to appear in an old-timers' game at Yankee Stadium in 1969.He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, nine days before his death, throwing the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2 of the World Series at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati.", "He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, \"I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball.\"", "This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson (no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams.", "Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s." ], [ "Family life and death", "After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wife Rachel Robinson pursued a career in academic nursing.", "She became an assistant professor at the Yale School of Nursing and director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center.", "She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990.She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (1946–1971), Sharon Robinson (b.", "1950), and David Robinson (b.", "1952).Robinson's family gravesite in Cypress Hills Cemetery.", "Robinson is buried alongside his mother-in-law Zellee Isum and his son Jackie Robinson Jr.Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age.", "He enlisted in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in the Vietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965.After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems.", "Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution.", "On June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24.The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life.Robinson did not outlive his son by very long.", "In 1968, he suffered a heart attack.", "Complications from heart disease and diabetes weakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age.", "On October 24, 1972, Robinson died of a heart attack at his home at 95 Cascade Road in North Stamford, Connecticut; he was 53 years old.", "Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, at Upper Manhattan's Riverside Church in Morningside Heights, attracted 2,500 mourners.", "Many of his former teammates, other famous baseball players, and basketball star Bill Russell served as pallbearers, and the Rev.", "Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy.", "Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum.", "Twenty-five years after Robinson's death, the Interboro Parkway was renamed the Jackie Robinson Parkway in his memory.", "This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson's gravesite.After Robinson's death, his widow founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation, and she remains an officer as of 2021.On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan.", "Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father.", "His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist in Tanzania." ], [ "Awards and recognition", "According to a poll conducted in 1947, Robinson was the second most popular man in the country, behind Bing Crosby.", "In 1999, he was named by ''Time'' on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.Robinson was ranked No.", "44 on ''The Sporting News'' list of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\" in 1999.That same year, he was one of 30 players elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.", "In 2020, ''The Athletic'' ranked Robinson at number 42 on its \"Baseball 100\" list, complied by sportswriter Joe Posnanski.Baseball writer Bill James, in ''The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract'', ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career.", "Robinson was among the 25 charter members of UCLA's Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984.In 2002, Molefi Kete Asante included Robinson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.", "Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000.The City of Pasadena has recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field in Brookside Park next to the Rose Bowl, and with the Jackie Robinson Center (a community outreach center providing health services).", "In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $ today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family.Jackie Robinson Stadium, with the No.", "42 on the center field wall|alt=A college baseball field.Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death.", "In 1987, both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the \"Jackie Robinson Award\" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues).", "On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of the four major American sports leagues.", "Under the terms of the retirement, a grandfather clause allowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers.", "This affected players such as the Mets' Butch Huskey and Boston's Mo Vaughn.", "The Yankees' Mariano Rivera, who retired at the end of the 2013 season, was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis.", "Since 1997, only Wayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by the NHL in 2000, and Bill Russell's number 6, retired by the NBA in 2022, have been retired league-wide in any of the four major sports.", "There have also been calls for MLB to retire number 21 league-wide in honor of Roberto Clemente, a sentiment opposed by the Robinson family.As an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15, Jackie Robinson Day, which is an annual observance that started in 2004.For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007.The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey Jr., who sought Rachel Robinson's permission to wear the number.", "After Griffey received her permission, Commissioner Bud Selig not only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same.", "Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates.", "The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson's number 42.On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics.", "In 2009, all of MLB's uniformed personnel (including players) wore number 42 on April 15; this tradition has continued every year since on that date.alt=A greyish building with large glass doors.At the November 2006 groundbreaking for Citi Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda.", "The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009.It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself.", "Mets owner Fred Wilpon announced that the Mets—in conjunction with Citigroup and the Jackie Robinson Foundation—would create the Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center, located at the headquarters of the Jackie Robinson Foundation at One Hudson Square, along Canal Street in lower Manhattan.", "Along with the museum, scholarships will be awarded to \"young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals.\"", "The museum opened in 2022.At Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, a statue of Robinson was introduced in 2017.The New York Yankees honor Robinson with a plaque in Monument Park.Since 2004, the Aflac National High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the \"Jackie Robinson Award\".Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball.", "In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with the Spingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American.", "President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Robinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom on March 26, 1984, and on March 2, 2005, President George W. Bush gave Robinson's widow the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, after Roberto Clemente.", "On August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife, Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.Rachel Robinson (holding the award) accepts the posthumous Congressional Gold Medal for her husband from President George W. Bush in a March 2, 2005, ceremony in the Capitol Rotunda.", "Also pictured are Nancy Pelosi and Dennis Hastert.|alt=Black woman holding aloft award presented by President George W. Bush and two other dignitariesA number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor.", "The UCLA Bruins baseball team plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium, which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis.", "The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14, 2013.City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark.", "His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15.1990.A number of facilities at Pasadena City College (successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack.", "The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson, and Dorsey High School plays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him.", "His home in Brooklyn, the Jackie Robinson House, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976, and Brooklyn residents sought to turn his home into a city landmark.", "In 1978, Colonial Park in Harlem was renamed after Robinson.", "Robinson also has an asteroid named after him, 4319 Jackierobinson.", "In 1997, the United States Mint issued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five-dollar gold coin.", "That same year, New York City renamed the Interboro Parkway in his honor.", "A statue of Robinson at Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City, New Jersey, was dedicated in 1998.Statue of Robinson (1998) at Journal Square, Jersey City|alt=A statue of a baseball player with his arms in the air.In 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball.", "The house, at 8232 avenue de Gaspé near Jarry Park, was Robinson's residence when he played for the Montreal Royals during 1946.In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: \"I remember Montreal and that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city.", "Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida.", "In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for him to get his start.", "We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there.", "The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man.", "\"On November 22, 2014, UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports, effective immediately.", "While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career, the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him.", "The only sport this did not affect was men's basketball, which had previously retired the number for Walt Hazzard (although Kevin Love was actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard's blessing).", "In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number, UCLA allowed three athletes (in women's soccer, softball, and football) who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers.", "The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues.A jersey that Robinson brought home with him after his rookie season ended in 1947 was sold at an auction for $2.05 million on November 19, 2017.The price was the highest ever paid for a post-World War II jersey." ], [ "See also", "* Civil Rights Game (including MLB Beacon Awards)* DHL Hometown Heroes* List of African-American firsts* List of sports desegregation firsts* List of first black Major League Baseball players* List of Major League Baseball batting champions* List of Major League Baseball annual stolen base leaders* List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders* List of Major League Baseball career batting average leaders* List of Major League Baseball career on-base percentage leaders* List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise* List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle* List of Major League Baseball retired numbers* List of NCAA major college football yearly rushing leaders* List of NCAA major college yearly punt and kickoff return leaders* List of Negro league baseball players who played in Major League Baseball* List of Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients" ], [ "References", "===Book sources===* (2002 CASEY Award winner).", "* * * (2007 CASEY Award nominee).", "* * * * * * * * * * * (1997 CASEY Award nominee).", "* * * (1996 CASEY Award nominee).", "* * * (1983 CASEY Award nominee).", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "===Books===* * * ===Articles===* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* , or Retrosheet, or Seamheads* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "JPEG Network Graphics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''JPEG Network Graphics''' ('''JNG''', ) is a JPEG-based graphics file format which is closely related to PNG: it uses the PNG file structure (with a different signature) as a container format to wrap JPEG-encoded image data.JNG was created as an adjunct to the MNG animation format, but may be used as a stand-alone format.", "JNG files embed an 8-bit or 12-bit JPEG datastream in order to store color data, and may embed another datastream (1, 2, 4, 8, 16-bit PNG, or 8-bit JPEG grayscale image) for transparency information.", "However, a JNG may contain two separate JPEG datastreams for color information (one 8-bit '''and''' one 12-bit) to permit decoders that are unable to (or do not wish to) handle 12-bit datastreams to display the 8-bit datastream instead, if one is present.Version 1.0 of the JNG specification was released on January 31, 2001 (initially as part of the MNG specification).", "Usually, all the applications supporting the MNG file format can handle JNG files too.", "For example, Konqueror has native MNG/JNG support, and MNG/JNG plugins are available for Opera, Internet Explorer, and Mozilla Firefox.", "The Mozilla Application Suite (and hence Netscape) originally supported MNG/JNG, but native support was removed in Mozilla 1.5a by developers, and Mozilla has not supported the format since, despite requests from its users.", "Safari does not support MNG/JNG.JNG enhances the capabilities of the JFIF format (the usual JPEG file format) by supporting transparency, two consecutive color streams (one 8-bit and the other 12-bit), and other useful PNG features like color correction, gamma correction, embedded color profiles, PNG-style metadata, checksums, etc.", "The transparency information inside a JNG file (as an alpha channel) can be saved either in lossless PNG format or in lossy JPEG format.", "This way, users can benefit from the power of JPEG compression while preserving lossless (PNG-compressed) transparency information.The chunk-based structure of JNG files is essentially the same as that of PNG files, differing only in the slightly different signature and the use of different chunks.+ Network Graphics signatures Name Signature hexadecimal ASCII + C0, C1 PNG 89 50 4E 47 0D 0A 1A 0A 0x80␉PNG␍␊␚ ␊ MNG 8A 4D 4E 47 0D 0A 1A 0A 0x80␊MNG␍␊␚␊ JNG 8B 4A 4E 47 0D 0A 1A 0A 0x80␋JNG␍␊␚␊JNG does not have a registered Internet media type, but image/x-jng can be used." ], [ "Alternatives", "Due to the lack of wide adoption of both the JNG and MNG format, it has fallen in disuse in favor of other formats that are in active development with similar qualities:* JPEG XR: Supporting wide color space and a lossy format with transparency (JNG contender, standardized)* WebP: Supporting a lossy format with transparency and animation (JNG/MNG contender, not yet standardized)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* JNG 1.0 specification* Original JNG specification as part of the MNG specification* Photoshop Plugin (for Photoshop7.0 or greater)* Amiga Datatype (for AmigaOS 4.0 or greater)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jane Shore" ], [ "Introduction", "Portrait of a woman called Jane Shore, wearing a red silk non-boned bodice and a pearl hennin.", "1590's details may have been added later to an existing portrait or incorporated into copy created in the 1590s, in the manner of as seen in certain portraits of Anne Boleyn and Jane Seymour.", "Inscribed: ''BAKERS WİFE AND MİSTRİS TO A KİNG''.", "The portrait bears a remarkable resemblance to the one undisputed likeness of Jane Shore that exists, that of her parents’ memorial brass in Hinxworth, Hertfordshire.", "'''Elizabeth''' \"'''Jane'''\" '''Shore''' (née '''Lambert'''; c. 1445 – c. 1527) was one of the many mistresses of King Edward IV of England.", "She became the best-known to history through being later accused of conspiracy by the future King Richard III, and compelled to do public penance.", "She was also a sometime mistress of other noblemen, including Edward's stepson, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, and William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings but ended her life in bourgeois respectability." ], [ "Early life and first marriage", "Born in London in about 1445, Elizabeth Lambert was the daughter of a prosperous merchant, John Lambert (d.1487), and his wife Amy (d.1488), who was the daughter of a well-off grocer named Robert Marshall.", "The name \"Jane\", which has sometimes been attached to her, was the invention of a 17th-century playwright (Heywood), because during the course of the sixteenth century, her real first name was omitted, then forgotten by authors.", "The tradition must go further back, however, as on 28 August 1599 was licensed the ''History of the Life and Death of Master Shore and Jane Shore his Wife''.Spending time in her father's shop at a young age may have brought the young Elizabeth into contact with ladies of high rank.", "C.J.S.", "Thompson's highly romanticised biography, ''The Witchery of Jane Shore, the Rose of London: The Romance of a Royal Mistress'' (1933) claimed that she was able to observe their behaviour and gain an understanding of the manners of those higher ranking than herself.", "She was thought to have been highly intelligent, and as a result received an education that was not usually associated with a person of her class.", "Thompson also claimed that her beauty earned her the title of \"The Rose of London\" – although this is not mentioned in contemporary sources.", "According to Thomas More, writing when Shore was elderly, she had been fair of body though not tall; she was attractive to men more through her personality than her physical beauty, being intelligent, literate, merry and playful.She attracted many suitors, among them William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings, friend and confidant of Edward IV.", "It is likely Hastings fell in love with Elizabeth Lambert before her marriage; his affection for her is apparent later in life by his continual protection of her.Such extreme attention made John Lambert desirous of finding his daughter a suitable husband.", "Such an opportunity presented itself with William Shore (d. 1494), a goldsmith and banker and common visitor to the Lambert home.", "He was approximately 14 or 15 years older than Jane.", "Though handsome and well-to-do, he never really won her affections.", "Their marriage was annulled in March 1476 after she petitioned for the annulment of her marriage on the grounds that her husband was impotent, which prevented her from fulfilling her desire to have children.", "Pope Sixtus IV commissioned three bishops to decide the case, and they granted the annulment." ], [ "Royal mistress", "According to the Patent Rolls for 4 December 1476, it was during this same year that Shore began her liaison with Edward IV, after his return from France.", "Edward did not discard her as he did many of his mistresses, and was completely devoted to her.", "She had a large amount of influence over the king, but would not use it for her own personal gain.", "This was exemplified by her practice of bringing those out of favour before the king to help them gain pardon.", "Shore, according to the official records, was not showered with gifts, unlike many of Edward's previous mistresses.", "Their relationship lasted until Edward's death in 1483.It is reputed that her advocacy saved Eton College, and the society for the ladies at Eton College is to this day called the Jane Shore Society in her memory." ], [ "Open penance and prison", "Shore's two other lovers were Edward IV's eldest stepson, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, and William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings.", "Grey's wife was the wealthy heiress Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington, who also happened to be Hastings' stepdaughter.", "Shore was instrumental in bringing about the alliance between Hastings and the Woodvilles, which was formed while Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was Protector, before he took the throne as King Richard III.", "She was accused of carrying messages between Hastings and Edward IV's widow, Elizabeth Woodville.", "It was because of her role in this alliance that Shore was charged with conspiracy, along with Hastings and the Woodvilles, against the Protector's government.Simon Stallworth wrote to Sir William Stonor on 21 June 1483 that:''Mastres Chore is in prisone: what schall happyne hyr I knowe nott.", "''Shore's punishment included open penance at Paul's Cross for her promiscuous behaviour by Richard.", "The Great Chronicle of London records the event of Richard III's coronation on 6 July 1483 and that:''The Penance of Jane Shore'' by left''The Shaming of Jane Shore'' by Stephen Reid (1873–1948)''shortly afftyr was a woman namyd – Shoore that before days, after the common ffame, the lord Chambyrlain held, contrary his honour, called to a Reconnyng ffor part of his goodys & othyr thyngs, In soo much alle hyr movablys were attached by þe Shyrevys of London, and she lastly as a common harlot put to opyn penaunce, ffor the lyfe that she ledd wt þe said lord hastyngys & othir grete astatys.", "''But it may have been motivated by the suspicion that she had harboured Grey when he was a fugitive or as a result of Richard's antagonism towards any person who represented his older brother's court.", "A clash of personalities between the lighthearted Shore and stern Richard also generated a mutual dislike between the two.", "Shore accordingly went in her chemise through the streets one Sunday with a taper (thin candle) in her hand, attracting a lot of male attention along the way.After her public penitence, Shore resided in Ludgate prison." ], [ "Second marriage and later life", "While in Ludgate prison, she captivated the King's Solicitor General, Thomas Lynom.", "After he expressed an interest in Shore to Richard, the king tried to dissuade him for his own good.", "This is evinced by a letter to John Russell from Richard where the King asked the chancellor to try to prevent the marriage, but if Lynom were determined on the marriage, to release Shore from prison and put her in the charge of her father until Richard's next arrival in London when the marriage could take place.", "By the ''King''''Right Reverend fadre in God, &c. Signifying unto you that it is shewed unto us that our Servant and Sollicitor Thomas Lynom merveillously blynded and abused with the late wife of William Shore nowe being in Ludgate by our commandement hathe made contract of matrymony with hir, as it is said, and entendethe to our full grete mervaile to procede to theffect of the same.", "We for many causes wold be sory that hee soo shuld be disposed.", "Pray you therefore to sende for him.", "And in that ye goodly may exhorte and sture hyme to the contrary.", "And if ye find him utterly set forto marye hur and noon otherwise wolbe advertised, than if it may stande with the lawe of the churche we be content, the tyme of marriage be deferred to ourcommyng next to London, that upon sufficient suertie founde for hure good abering ye doo sende hure keper and discharge hym of our saidcommaundement by warrant of thise, committing hure to the Rule and guyding of hur fader or any other by your discrecion in the meane season.''", "Given, &c.''RIC.''", "Rex.To the Righte Reverend fadre in God &c. The Bisshop of Lincolne, our ChancellorThey were married and had one daughter.", "It is believed that Shore lived the remainder of her life in bourgeois respectability.", "Lynom lost his position as King's Solicitor when Henry VII defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in August 1485, but he was able to stay on as a mid-level bureaucrat in the new reign, becoming a gentleman who sat on the commissions in the Welsh Marches and clerk controller to Arthur, Prince of Wales, at Ludlow Castle.", "Thomas More attested that even in old age an attentive observer might discern in her shriveled countenance traces of her former beauty.Portrait type called Jane Shore, based on an earlier portrait of left" ], [ "Descriptions", "Publicity cover for Jane Shore printed 1915Thomas More's description remains to this day the most famous:This woman was born in London, worshipfully frended, honestly brought vp, & very wel maryed, sauing somewhat to sone, her husbande an honest citezen, yonge & goodly & of good substance.", "But forasmuche as they were coupled ere she wer wel ripe, she not very feruently loued, for whom she neuer longed.", "Which was happely the thinge, that the more easily made her encline vnto the kings appetite when he required her.", "Howbeit the respect of his royaltie, the hope of gay apparel, ease, plesure & other wanton welth, was hable soone to perse a softe tender hearte.", "But when the king had abused her, anon her husband (as he was an honest man & one that could his good, not presuming to touch a kinges concubine) left her vp to him al togither.", "When the king died, the lord Chamberlen toke her.", "Which in the kinges daise, albeit he was sore ennamored vpon her, yet he forbare her, either for reuerence, or for a certain frendly faithfulnes.", "Proper she was & faire: nothing in her body that you would haue changed, but if you would haue wished her somewhat higher.", "Thus say thei that knew her in her youthe.", "Albeit some that now se her (for yet she liueth) deme her neuer to haue ben wel visaged.", "Whose iugement semeth me somwhat like, as though men should gesse the bewty of one longe before departed, by her scalpe taken out of the charnel house: for now is she old lene, withered & dried vp, nothing left but ryuilde skin & hard bone.", "An yet being euen such: whoso wel aduise her visage, might gesse & deuise which partes how filled, wold make it a faire face.", "Yet she delited not men so much in her bewty, as in her plesant behauiour.", "For a proper wit had she, & could both rede wel & write, mery in company, redy & quick of aunswer, neither mute nor ful of bable, sometime taunting without displeasure not without disport.", "The king would say that he had .iii.", "concubines, which in three diuers properties diuersly exceled.", "One the meriest, an other the wiliest, the thirde the holiest harlot in his realme, as one whom no man could get out of the church lightly to any place, but it wer to his bed.", "The other two were somwhat greter parsonages, & Natheles of their humilitie content to be nameles, & to forbere the praise of those properties.", "But the meriest was this Shoris wife, in whom the king therfore toke speciall pleasure.", "For many he had, but her he loued.", "Whose fauour, to sai the trouth, (for sinne it wer to belie the deuil) she neuer abused to any mans hurt, but to many a mans comfort & relief: where the king toke displeasure, she wolud mitigate & appease his mind: where men were out of fauour, she wold bring them in his grace.", "For many that had highly offended, shee obtained pardon.", "Of great forfetures she gate men remission.", "And finally in many weighty sutes, she stode many men in gret stede, either for none, or very smal rewardes, & those rather gay then rich: either for that she was content with the dede selfe well done, or for that she delited to be suid vnto, & to show what she was able to do wyth the king, or for that wanton women and welthy be not alway couetouse.", "I doubt not some shal think this woman to sleight a thing, to be written of & set amonge the remembraunces of great matters: which thei shal specially think, that happely shal esteme her only by that thei now see her.", "But me semeth the chaunce so much the more worthy to be remembred, in how much she is now in the more beggerly condicion, vnfrended & worne out of acquantance, after good substance, after as gret fauour with the prince, after as gret sute & seking to with al those that those days had busynes to spede, as many other men were in their times, which be now famouse, only by the infamy of their il dedes.", "Her doinges were not much lesse, albeit thei be muche lesse remembered, because thei were not so euil.", "For men vse if they haue an euil turne, to write it in marble: & whoso doth vs a good tourne, we write it in duste which is not worst proued by her: for at this daye shee beggeth of many at this daye liuing, that at this day had begged if she had not bene.These words of Sir Thomas More probably suggested to Shakespeare that proverbial reflection in ''Hen.", "VIII.''", "act iv.", "sc.", "2.: \"Men's evill manners live in brass: their virtues We write in water.", "\"According to Michael Drayton, who had seen a purported portrait of her, \"her hair was of a dark yellow, her face round and full, her eye gray, delicate harmony\"." ], [ "Children", "Blue plaque erected in March 2017 at 30 Priestgate, Peterborough, PE1 1WG by Peterborough Civic Society.", "Replaced an earlier stainless steel rectangular plaque at the same address.‘Julyan Lyneham’ is given 40 shillings in John Lambert's will of 1487.It was recently discovered, 2021 a quoted inscription in an old book which may throw some further light on the matter.", "On the north wall of the chancel of St. Mary's, Whittlesea, is a marble mural monument to Thomas Hake, 1590.Its two panels are now blank, but it is probable that they had figures.", "The text, however, is still extant and perfectly readable:''Celastia seqvor terrestria sperno | Here Lyeth Bvried the Bodye of Thomas Hake, Esqvier | sonne and heire of Symon Hake of Depinge in | the countie of Lyncolne Esqvier and of Alice | his wife dovghter of Thomas Lynham Esqvier | somtyme President of Walles which Thomas | Hake died the first of March An° Dni 1590.| Who married Anne Dovghter of Roger Wylson of Govsner in the covntie of Lancaster Gent.", "| and of Jane his wife Dovghter of John Wallis which | Thomas and Anne had yssve 5 sonnes and 3 dovgh- | ters which died all yonge Bvt William Hake the | yongest ther only sonne and heire now livinge'' Thomas Lynham, Esquire, referred to as sometime \"President of Wales\" (although in reality he was probably just a member of the Council of Wales and the Marches, not its president), had a daughter named Alice who married Simon Hake (or Hacke).", "They had at least one son, Thomas (d. 1 March 1590), and he had many children, though only one surviving, William, who erected the memorial.William Hake (d.1625) of Peterborough married Lucy, daughter of Henry Gates of Gosberton, Lincolnshire, on 14 June 1596 at Gosberton, Lincoln, England and they had the children Henry, Fane, Thomas, Anthony, Symon, William (b.1601), Elizabeth, Anne, Lucy, Frances, Grace and Mary.Yorkshire House, 28 and 30, Peterborough.", "The Priestgate property seems to have been purchased by Alice Lyneham's husband Simon HakeTheir eldest daughter was called Elizabeth.Both William Hake and his father Thomas were members of Parliament.", "The Hake family were Royalists during the Civil War, a sundial on a south-facing wall-end overlooking the garden then running down to the river's flood plain, but not now publicly accessible triumphantly declares VIVAL CAROLUS SECUNDUS 1663.Of the same place, Whittlesea, Cambridge, in 1544–1551, we find Thomas Lynon or Lynom, executor of Richard, son of Thomas Lynon.", "In 1538 Thomas Lyname, yeoman, is granted a demise, indented, for 80 years, of the manor-place or lordship of Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire by Thorney Abbey.", "Simon Hake, Alice Lyneham's husband, had been a tenant of Thorney Abbey." ], [ "Fiction", "=== Bibliography ===For a bibliography see James L. Harner, \"Jane Shore in Literature: A Checklist\" in ''Notes and Queries'', v. 226, December 1981, p. 496.A scene from Act II, ''Jane Shore'' by John Atkinson Grimshaw, 1876.This play, by W.G.", "Wills, was produced at the Leeds Amphitheatre in 1875 and 1876.The parts of Jane Shore and her husband were played by Wilson Barrett and his wife Caroline Heath, who is seen in this painting.", "The artist's daughter Enid wrote to her brother-in-law in a letter from about 1917 that the room set from the play had been re-created in the Barretts' own home in Beech Grove, Leeds|center|660x660px===Drama===Theatre poster for Jane Shore at Royal Princess' Theatre, Edinburgh, 14 December 1885*She is a significant character in ''The True Tragedy of Richard III'', an anonymous play written shortly before William Shakespeare's ''Richard III''.", "In the play, she is reduced to destitution on the streets, ignored by both former lovers and people she had helped after Richard frightens citizens with severe punishments if she is supported in any way.", "*\"Mistress Shore\" is frequently mentioned in Shakespeare's play, ''Richard III''.", "(She actually appears in Laurence Olivier's 1955 film version, played by Pamela Brown – she has only one line: \"Good morrow, my Lord\", which is interpolated into the film.", "The film shows her as attending to Edward IV, but afterwards having a passionate affair with Lord Hastings.)", "Edward IV, Thomas Grey, and Lord Hastings are all characters in the play.", "*The story of Jane Shore's wooing by Edward IV, her influence in court, and her tragic death in the arms of Matthew Shore is the main plot in a play by Thomas Heywood, ''Edward IV'' (printed 1600).", "The play shows her struggling with the morality of accepting the king's offers, using her influence to grant pardons to those wrongfully punished, and expressing regret for her relationship with Edward.", "In this version, her first marriage is never annulled, but the two are reconciled right before dying and being buried together in \"Shores Ditch, as in the memory of them\".", "This is supposed to be the origin of the name Shoreditch.", "*''The Tragedy of Jane Shore'' is a 1714 play by Nicholas Rowe.", "Rowe portrays her as a kind woman who encourages her lover Hastings to oppose Richard's usurpation of power.", "In revenge Richard forces her to do penance and to become an outcast.", "As in Heywood's version, her husband seeks her out and they are reconciled before she dies.", "*A performance of ''Jane Shore'' was given on Saturday 30 July 1796 at a theatre in Sydney.", "The pamphlet for the play was printed by a convict in the settlement, George Hughes, who was the operator of Australia's first printing press.", "The pamphlet for the play is the earliest surviving document printed in Australia.", "It was presented as a gift to Australia by the Canadian Government and is held at the National Library of Australia in the National Treasures collection in Canberra.", "*''Jane Shore''.", "The play by W.G.", "Wills was produced at the Leeds Amphitheatre in 1875 and 1876, starring Wilson Barrett as 'Henry' Shore and his wife Caroline Heath as 'Henry's' errant wife Jane Shore===Poetry===*Thomas Churchyard (d. 1604) published a poem about her in ''Mirror for Magistrates''.", "*Anthony Chute's 1593 poem \"Beauty Dishonoured, written under the title of Shore's wife\" is supposed to be the lament of Jane Shore, whose ghost tells her life story and makes moral reflections.", "*Michael Drayton wrote a poem about her in his ''Heroical Epistles''.", "*Andrew Marvell refers to her in \"The King's Vows\", a satire on Charles II, in which the king says, \"But what ever it cost I will have a fine Whore, /As bold as Alce Pierce and as faire as Jane Shore.", "\"===Novels===* ''The Goldsmith's Wife'' (1950) by Jean Plaidy* She appears in ''Anne, The Rose of Hever'' (1969) by Maureen Peters* She appears in ''Elizabeth, the Beloved'' (1972) by Maureen Peters* ''Figures in Silk'' (2008) by Vanora Bennett is told from her (fictional) sister Isabel's perspective as well as Jane's* She is the main character in Isolde Martyn's ''Mistress to the Crown'' (2013)* She is the main character in ''Royal Mistress'' (2013) by Anne Easter Smith.", "* She is mentioned several times and modern translation of the Thomas Lynom letter concerning her is published in Josephine Tey's novel \"The Daughter of Time\" (1956).", "* She appears as a minor character in ''The Sunne in Splendour'' (1982) by Sharon Kay Penman* Shore appears in Philippa Gregory's ''The White Queen'' (2009), a novel about Elizabeth Woodville, Queen Consort to Edward IV, under her real name, Elizabeth.", "In the television adaptation, she is referred to by her more familiar name of Jane Shore.", "* A character in George R.R.", "Martin's ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series is forced to perform a penance walk modelled very loosely after Shore's.===Film===The IMDb lists three films titled ''Jane Shore'': *''Jane Shore'' (1911)*''Jane Shore'' (1915) (played by Blanche Forsyth)*''Jane Shore'' (1922) (played by Sybil Thorndike)===Television===* Shore is portrayed by Emily Berrington in ''The White Queen'', the 2013 TV adaptation of Gregory's novel.=== Graphical artwork ===* A number of romanticised graphical artwork representations of Mistress Shore can be dated to the late 18th century, see the National Portrait Gallery collection." ], [ "See also", "*English royal mistress" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*****" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jack Kemp" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jack French Kemp''' (July 13, 1935 – May 2, 2009) was an American politician and a professional football player.", "A member of the Republican Party from New York, he served as Housing Secretary in the administration of President George H. W. Bush from 1989 to 1993, having previously served nine terms in the United States House of Representatives from 1971 to 1989.He was the Republican Party's vice presidential nominee in the 1996 election, as the running mate of Bob Dole; they lost to incumbent president Bill Clinton and vice president Al Gore.", "Kemp had previously contended for the presidential nomination in the 1988 Republican primaries.Before entering politics, Kemp was a professional quarterback for 13 years.", "He played briefly in the National Football League (NFL) and the Canadian Football League (CFL), but became a star in the American Football League (AFL).", "He served as captain of both the San Diego Chargers and Buffalo Bills and earned the AFL Most Valuable Player award in 1965 after leading the Bills to a second consecutive championship.", "He played in the AFL for all 10 years of its existence, appeared in its All-Star game seven times, played in its championship game five times, and set many of the league's career passing records.", "Kemp also co-founded the AFL Players Association, for which he served five terms as president.", "During the early part of his football career, he served in the United States Army Reserve.As an economic conservative, Kemp advocated low taxes and supply-side policies during his political career.", "His positions spanned the social spectrum, ranging from his conservative opposition to abortion to his more libertarian stances advocating immigration reform.", "As a proponent of both Chicago school and supply-side economics, he is notable as an influence upon the Reagan agenda and the architect of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, which is known as the Kemp–Roth tax cut.After his days in political office, Kemp remained active as a political advocate and commentator; he served on corporate and nonprofit organization boards.", "He also authored, co-authored, and edited several books.", "He promoted American football and advocated for retired professional football players.", "Kemp was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009 by President Barack Obama." ], [ "Early life", "===Youth===Born, raised, and educated in Los Angeles, Kemp was the third of four sons of Frances Elizabeth (née Pope) and Paul Robert Kemp Sr. Paul turned his motorcycle messenger service into a trucking company that grew from one to 14 trucks.", "Frances was a well-educated social worker and Spanish teacher.", "Kemp grew up in the heavily Jewish Wilshire district of West Los Angeles, but his tight-knit middle-class family attended the Church of Christ, Scientist.", "In his youth, sports consumed Kemp, who once chose the forward pass as the subject of a school essay on important inventions, although his mother attempted to broaden his horizons with piano lessons and trips to the Hollywood Bowl.Kemp attended Melrose Avenue's Fairfax High School, which was, at the time, known for its high concentration of both Jewish students and children of celebrities.", "Over 95% of Kemp's classmates were Jewish, and he later became a supporter of Jewish causes.", "His classmates included musician Herb Alpert, baseball pitcher Larry Sherry, and academic Judith A. Reisman.", "During his years in high school, Kemp worked with his brothers at his father's trucking company in downtown Los Angeles.", "In his spare time, he was a rigorous reader, preferring history and philosophy books.===College===After graduating from high school in 1953, he attended Occidental College, a founding member of the NCAA Division III Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference.", "Kemp selected Occidental because its football team used professional formations and plays, which he hoped would help him to become a professional quarterback.", "At and , he considered himself too small to play for the USC Trojans or UCLA Bruins, the major Southern California college football programs.At Occidental, Kemp was a record-setting javelin hurler and played several positions on the football team: quarterback, defensive back, place kicker, and punter.", "Although he was near-sighted, Kemp was tenacious on the field.", "During his years as starting quarterback, the 1955 and 1956 Occidental teams posted 6–2 and 3–6 records.", "Kemp was named a Little All-America player one year in which he threw for over 1,100 yards.", "That year, he led the nation's small colleges in passing.", "He and close friend Jim Mora, who later became an NFL head coach, were members of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity.", "Another teammate in college was Ron Botchan, who was an NFL referee for years (record five Super Bowls).", "Kemp declined to become involved in student government.", "After graduating from Occidental with a degree in physical education, he pursued postgraduate studies in economics at Long Beach State University and California Western University in San Diego, and served in the military from 1958 to 1962." ], [ "Marriage, family, and faith", "Kemp graduated from Occidental in 1957 and married Joanne Main, his college sweetheart, after she graduated from Occidental in 1958.Main had grown up in Fillmore, California, and attended Fillmore High School in Ventura County.", "Kemp's Biblical Literature professor, Keith Beebe, presided over the wedding.", "The Kemps had two sons.", "Both were professional football quarterbacks: Jeff Kemp (born in 1959) played in the NFL from 1981 to 1991, and Jimmy Kemp (born in 1971) played in the CFL from 1994 to 2002.Significantly for a man with his demanding schedule, Jack never missed one of their games as children or in college.", "They also had two daughters: Jennifer Kemp Andrews (born in 1961) and Judith Kemp (born in 1963).In 1976, C. Everett Koop wrote ''The Right to Live, The Right to Die'', setting down his own concerns about abortion, infanticide, and euthanasia.", "Koop also took some time off from his surgical practice to make a series of films with Christian apologists Frank Schaeffer and his father Francis Schaeffer in 1978, entitled ''Whatever Happened to the Human Race?''", "based on the book of the same title that had been previously written by the elder Schaeffer.", "Frank Schaeffer and his associate, Jim Buchfuehrer provided a private, five-hour screening of ''Whatever Happened to the Human Race?''", "to Jack Kemp and wife Joanne in their home that, according to Frank Schaeffer's account of the late evening and early morning event in his book ''Crazy for God'', led to both the Schaeffers and Koop obtaining \"...access to everyone in the Republican Party\".Joanne Kemp once suffered a miscarriage, which Kemp later said made him re-evaluate the sanctity of human life and affirmed his opposition to abortion.Following his wedding, Kemp converted to his wife's Presbyterian faith.", "He identified as a born-again Christian.Kemp was a 33rd degree Freemason in the Northern Masonic Jurisdiction." ], [ "Football career", "Kemp in 1961After being selected by the Detroit Lions in the 17th round of the 1957 NFL draft, Kemp was cut from the team before the 1957 NFL season began.", "He spent 1957 with the Pittsburgh Steelers and 1958 on the taxi squads of the San Francisco 49ers and New York Giants.", "The Giants hosted the NFL championship game, known as the \"Greatest Game Ever Played\" and the first overtime NFL playoff game, but, as a third-string quarterback member of the taxi squad, Kemp did not take the field.In 1958, Kemp joined the United States Army Reserve and he served a year on active duty as a private to complete his initial training.", "He was a member of the San Diego-based 977th Transportation Company from 1958 to 1962.When his unit was activated for the Berlin Crisis of 1961, Kemp received a medical exemption for his chronically separated left shoulder.", "The injury led to his discharge from the Reserve in July 1962.In 1959, Kemp played one game for the Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League, which made him ineligible for the NFL, in 1959.According to his older brother Tom, his parents drove him from California to Calgary, Alberta, only to see him cut.", "By this time, Kemp had been cut from five professional teams (Lions, Steelers, Giants, 49ers, and Stampeders) and his family encouraged him to get on with his life.", "On February 9 and 11, 1960, the newly formed AFL agreed to \"no tampering\" policies with the NFL and CFL respectively, protecting each league's players.", "Players like Kemp, with modest NFL experience, were often signed by the AFL at the time.", "Kemp signed as a free agent with the AFL's Los Angeles Chargers.===Sid Gillman era (1960–1962)===In 1960, Kemp led the Chargers to a Western Division Championship with a 10–4 record.", "He finished second in the league to Frank Tripucka in passing attempts, completions, and yards (making him and Tripucka the league's first 3,000-yard passers), led the AFL in yards per completion and times sacked, and finished one rushing touchdown short of the league lead.", "Under Kemp, the Chargers' offense averaged 46 points over its last four games and scored more than 41 points in five of its last nine games.", "In the AFL championship game, he led the team to field goals on its first two possessions, but after the Houston Oilers posted a touchdown in the second quarter for a 7–6 lead, the Chargers never recovered.In 1961, ''San Diego Union'' editor Jack Murphy convinced Barron Hilton to move the Chargers from Los Angeles to San Diego.", "Kemp led the relocated team to a 12–2 record and a repeat Western Division Championship.", "He again finished second in passing yards (this time to George Blanda).", "The Chargers earned an AFL championship game rematch against the Oilers.", "However, this time the Chargers were unable to score until a fourth-quarter field goal in a 10–3 loss.In 1962, Kemp broke his middle finger when he struck a helmet against the New York Titans in the second game of the season and was unable to play.", "He persuaded his doctors to set his broken finger around a football, so that his grip would not be affected once the finger healed.", "Chargers coach Sid Gillman put Kemp on waivers to try to \"hide\" him.", "Buffalo Bills coach Lou Saban noticed that Kemp was available and claimed him for a $100 waiver fee on September 25, 1962, in what sportswriter Randy Schultz has called one of the biggest bargains in professional football history.", "The Dallas Texans and Denver Broncos also attempted to claim Kemp, but he was awarded to Buffalo by AFL commissioner Joe Foss.===Lou Saban era (1962–1965)===According to Billy Shaw, Kemp's acquisition solved the Bills' quarterback problem, but Kemp was not excited about coming to Buffalo.", "According to Van Miller, \"Jack's a skier, and he wanted to go to Denver and play for the Broncos.", "He hated the thought of coming to Buffalo.\"", "In Buffalo, he would become known for his love of reading a broad range of books including those by Henry Thoreau, which led to chidings from Saban.Injuries, including the broken finger, kept Kemp from playing for most of 1962.That season, Kemp received a military draft notice for service in the Vietnam War but was granted a draft waiver because of a knee problem.", "The injuries healed, and Kemp debuted for Buffalo on November 18, 1962, by directing the only touchdown drive in a 10–6 win over the Oakland Raiders.", "He played only four games for Buffalo in 1962, but made the AFL All-Star team.", "The Bills won three of their last four games to finish 7–6–1.On December 14, 1962, the Bills outbid the Green Bay Packers for Notre Dame quarterback Daryle Lamonica.", "In 1963, a four-season starting quarterback battle began that continued until Lamonica left for the Raiders.", "Lamonica felt he \"... learned a lot from Jack about quarterbacking.", "And I truly believe that we were a great one-two punch at the position for the Bills.\"", "In 1963, Kemp led the Bills from a slow start to a tie for the AFL Eastern Division lead with a 7–6–1 record.", "Kemp again placed second in passing attempts, completions, and yards, and he also finished second to teammate Cookie Gilchrist in rushing touchdowns.", "The Bills played the Boston Patriots in an Eastern Division playoff game to determine the division title on December 28 at War Memorial Stadium in Buffalo, New York, in weather.", "During the game, Buffalo replaced Kemp with Lamonica after falling behind 16–0, but still lost 26–8.Kemp was said to be the \"clubhouse lawyer\" for the Bills because of his role in mediating conflicts.", "In 1964, he managed personalities such as Gilchrist, who walked off the field when plays were not being called for him, and Saban, whom he kept from cutting Gilchrist the following week.", "He also managed the politics of his quarterback battle with Lamonica, who engineered four winning touchdown drives in the Bills' first seven games.", "Kemp was the first and only Professional Football player to pass for three touchdowns in the first quarter of a season-opening game, against the Kansas City Chiefs in 1964, until the record was tied but not broken, 47 years later in 2011 by Aaron Rodgers.", "The 1964 team won its first nine games and went 12–2 for the regular season, winning the Eastern Division with a final game victory over the Patriots at Fenway Park.", "Kemp led the league in yards per attempt and finished one rushing touchdown short of the league lead, which was shared by Gilchrist and Sid Blanks.", "In the AFL championship game, he scored the final touchdown with just over nine minutes left in a 20–7 victory.", "Not long after, Kemp played a key role in an off the field decision.", "Kemp was part of the All-Star Game played three weeks after the Championship Game alongside teammates such as Cookie Gilchrist and Ernie Warlick, with the game scheduled to be played in New Orleans, Louisiana.", "However, Gilchrist led a movement of African American players wanting to boycott the game due to experiencing discrimination by cab drivers and others during their time in New Orleans; Kemp saw this firsthand when Gilchrist, and Warlick were not allowed to share a cab with him.", "Kemp attended a boycott meeting and alongside Ron Mix convinced the white players to go with the idea of a boycott.", "One day after the players left the city, AFL Commissioner Joe Foss moved the game to Houston, Texas.According to Lamonica, the 1965 team had a new emphasis: \"In '64 we had depended a lot on Gilchrist and our running attack to carry us. .", ".But that all changed in '65.The Bills had traded Gilchrist in the off season to the Denver Broncos.", "So we went to a pass-oriented game more that season than we ever had before.", "We not only went to our receivers, but we threw a lot to our running backs.", "And I really think it brought out the best in Jack that year.\"", "In 1965, the Bills finished with a 10–3–1 record.", "Kemp finished the season second in the league in pass completions.", "In the 1965 AFL Championship Game, Buffalo defeated the Chargers 23–0; for Kemp, the victory was special because it came against his former team.", "Kemp's role in leading the Bills to a repeat championship without Gilchrist and with star receiver Elbert Dubenion playing only three games earned him a share of the AFL MVP awards that he split with former Charger teammate, Paul Lowe.", "Kemp also won the Associated Press award and the Championship Game Most Valuable Player award.===Joe Collier and John Rauch eras (1966–1969)===Following the championship game, Saban resigned to coach the University of Maryland and defensive coordinator Joe Collier was promoted to head coach for the 1966 season.", "Kemp led the Bills to their third consecutive division title with a 9–4–1 record.", "However, in the AFL championship game, which was played for the right to represent the AFL in Super Bowl I, the Bills lost to the Kansas City Chiefs 31–7.Kemp was named an AFL All-Star for the sixth consecutive year.", "The 1967 Bills endured a 4–10 1967 AFL season, in which Kemp was not named to the All-Star game for the first time in his AFL career.On August 23, 1968, the Bills suffered a blowout preseason loss to the Houston Oilers.", "On August 26, Collier put the Bills through a 40-play scrimmage.", "During the scrimmage, Ron McDole fell on Kemp's right knee and injured it, forcing Kemp to sit out the entire 1968 season.", "The Bills went 1–12–1 without Kemp.Despite Kemp's return from injury and the arrival of running back O. J. Simpson, the Bills only compiled a 4–10 record during the 1969 season under new coach John Rauch.", "Kemp was named an AFL All-Star in 1969 for the seventh time in the league's 10 years.", "He advocated recognition of the league, and in its last year, 1969, lobbied Pete Rozelle to have AFL teams wear an AFL patch to honor it.", "In 1969, the Erie County Republican Party approached him about running for the United States Congress.", "After the January 17, 1970, AFL All-Star game, Kemp returned home and talked to his wife before deciding to enter politics.", "Kemp said, \"I had a four-year no-cut contract with the Bills at the time.", "...", "I figured that if I lost I could always come back and play.", "But the fans had their say and I was elected to Congress.", "\"===Sports career summary===Kemp led Buffalo to the AFL playoffs four straight years (1963–1966), three consecutive Eastern Division titles (1964–1966) and two straight AFL Championships (1964–1965).", "He led the league in career passes attempted, completions, and yards gained passing.", "He played in five of the AFL's 10 Championship Games, and holds the same career records (passing attempts, completions, and yardage) for championships.", "He is second in many other championship game categories, including career and single-game passer rating.", "He ranks third in rushing touchdowns by an NFL or AFL quarterback with 40, behind Steve Young's 52 and Otto Graham's 44.A ''Sporting News'' All-League selection at quarterback in 1960 and 1965, and the AFL MVP in 1965.He was the only AFL quarterback to be listed as a starter all 10 years of the league's existence and one of only 20 players to serve all 10 of those years.", "His number 15 was retired by the Bills in 1984.In 2012, the Professional Football Researchers Association named Kemp to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2012However, despite his success and important AFL records, he is most prominently listed in the NFL record book for less flattering accomplishments, including his place as a former record holder for most quarterback sacks in a game.", "Despite Kemp's many records, Joe Namath and Len Dawson were selected as the quarterbacks for the All-time AFL team.", "Kemp is a member of the Greater Buffalo Sports Hall of Fame and the Buffalo Bills' Wall of Fame.Kemp co-founded the AFL Players Association with Tom Addison of the Boston Patriots, and was elected its president five times.", "His founding of and involvement in the players' union contributed to his frequent siding with the Democrats on labor issues later in his career.The NCAA's highest honor, the Theodore Roosevelt Award, was presented to Kemp in 1992, and he was named one of the association's 100 most influential student-athletes in 2006." ], [ "Career statistics", " Legend Won the AFL Championship Game Led the league '''Bold''' Career high===Regular season=== Year Team Games Passing Rushing GP GS Record Cmp Att Pct Yds Avg TD Int Rtg Att Yds Avg TD 1957 PIT 4 0 — 8 18 44.4 884.90219.93-1-0.30 1960 LAC 1412 9–3'''211''''''406''''''52.0''''''3,018'''7.4'''20'''25'''67.1''''''54'''2384.4'''8''' 1961 SD 141412–216536445.32,6867.4152259.2431052.46 1962 SD / BUF653–26413946.09286.75662.320844.22 1963 BUF14125–6–119338450.32,9107.6132065.150'''239''''''4.8'''8 1964 BUF141311–211926944.22,285'''8.5'''13'''26'''50.9371243.45 1965 BUF14139–3–117939145.82,3686.1101854.836491.44 1966 BUF14149–4–116638942.72,4516.3111656.2401303.35 1967 BUF14113–816136943.62,5036.814'''26'''50.036581.62 1969 BUF14114–717034449.41,9815.8132253.2371243.40 Career 122 105 65–37–3 1,436 3,073 46.7 21,218 6.9 114 183 57.3 3561,1503.240===Postseason statistics=== Year Team Games Passing Rushing GP GS Record Cmp Att Pct Yds Avg TD Int Rtg Att Yds Avg TD 1960 LAC 1 1 0–1 21 41 51.2 171 4.2 0 2 41.8 3 19 6.3 0 1961 SD 1 1 0–1 17 32 53.1 226 7.1 0 4 36.2 4 5 1.3 0 1963 BUF 1 1 0–1 10 21 47.6 133 6.3 0 1 48.3 2 -4 -2.0 0 1964 BUF 1 1 1–0 10 20 50.0 188 9.4 0 0 82.9 5 16 3.2 1 1965 BUF 1 1 1–0 8 19 42.1 155 8.2 1 1 66.8 0 0 0.0 0 1966 BUF 1 1 0–1 12 27 44.4 253 9.4 1 2 59.6 1 3 3.0 0 Career 6 6 2–4 78 160 48.8 1,126 7.0 2 10 50.2 15 39 2.6 1" ], [ "Political career", "\"Pro football gave me a good perspective.", "When I entered the political arena, I had already been booed, cheered, cut, sold, traded, and hung in effigy.", "\"— Jack KempKemp's political career began long before his 1970 campaign.", "In 1960 and 1961, Kemp was an editorial assistant to ''San Diego Union'' editor and future Richard Nixon aide Herb Klein.", "Subsequently, Kemp became a volunteer in both Barry Goldwater's 1964 presidential campaign and Ronald Reagan's successful 1966 California gubernatorial campaign.", "In the 1967 football off-season, Kemp worked on Reagan's staff in Sacramento.", "In 1969, he was special assistant to the Republican National Committee chairman.Kemp was a voracious reader, and his political beliefs were founded in early readings of Goldwater's ''The Conscience of a Conservative'', Ayn Rand's novels such as ''The Fountainhead'', and Friedrich von Hayek's ''The Constitution of Liberty''.", "He also brought from his football career a belief in racial equality which came from playing football with black teammates.", "As Kemp said, \"I wasn't there with Rosa Parks or Dr. King or John Lewis.", "But I am here now, and I am going to yell from the rooftops about what we need to do.\"", "Kemp's football colleagues confirmed this influence: John Mackey explained that \"the huddle is colorblind.", "\"===House of Representatives (1971–1989)===Congressional Portrait Collection image (c. 1975)Kemp with President Ronald Reagan in 1983As a self-described \"bleeding-heart conservative\", Kemp represented a part of the suburban Buffalo region known as the Southtowns (that traditionally voted Democratic) in the United States House of Representatives from 1971 to 1989.He was described as having the charisma of the earlier John F. Kennedy.", "David Rosenbaum described Kemp as an independent politician who often legislated outside his committees' jurisdictions and often spoke in favor of ideals and principles rather than his party's political platforms.", "As a supply-sider, he was not a proponent of balanced budgeting and trivialized it while speaking of growth as an economic goal.The Erie County, New York Republicans had drafted Kemp after incumbent congressman Richard D. McCarthy decided to run for the United States Senate.", "During his inaugural campaign, his district was in economic malaise, and ''The New York Times'' described him as a John F. Kennedy throwback who campaigned on family values, patriotism, sports, and defense.", "Upon his election to the Congress in a class of sixty-two freshmen, he was one of six newcomers—along with Ronald Dellums, Bella Abzug, Louise Day Hicks, Robert Drinan, and Pete du Pont—discussed in ''Time''.", "The article described him as a football fan like United States President Richard Nixon and as the recipient of advice from White House adviser Robert Finch and former Kemp boss Herb Klein, Nixon's director of communications.", "The Nixon aides encouraged Kemp to endorse the Cambodian invasion and to oppose criticism of Nixon's war policies in order to firm up Kemp's support from military hawks.Kemp championed several Chicago school and supply-side economics issues, including economic growth, free markets, free trade, tax simplification and lower tax rates on both employment and investment income.", "He was a long-time proponent of the flat tax.", "He also defended the use of anti-Communist contra forces in Central America, supported the gold standard, spoke for civil rights legislation, opposed abortion, and was the first lawmaker to popularize enterprise zones, which he supported to foster entrepreneurship and job creation and expand homeownership among public housing tenants.", "During his career, he sometimes sounded like a liberal Democrat; he supported affirmative action and rights for illegal immigrants.", "''The New York Times'' described Kemp as the most proactive combatant in the war on poverty since Robert F. Kennedy.", "He differed from Rockefeller Republicans and earlier combatants such as Lyndon Johnson by supporting incentive-based systems instead of traditional social programs.", "For his commitment to inner city concerns from within the Republican party, David Gergen heralded him as a \"courageous voice in the wilderness.\"", "Although he was liberal on many social issues and supported civil liberties for homosexuals, he opposed certain gay rights such as the right to teach in schools.", "Kemp at times felt his role was that of \"freewheeling, entrepreneurial, wildcatting backbencher.", "\"''Time'' identified 38-year-old second-term congressman Kemp as a future leader in its 1974 \"Faces for the Future\" feature.", "Another early-career notable magazine appearance was in a 1978 issue of ''Esquire''.", "The article explained allegations of homosexual activity among staffers in Ronald Reagan's Sacramento office in 1967; Kemp was not implicated.", "Kemp considered running for the U.S. Senate in 1980 and Hugh Sidey mentioned him as a contender to unseat Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election and was a front runner for the vice presidency at the 1980 Republican National Convention, where he received 43 votes from conservative detractors of George H. W. Bush.", "After he was reelected for a sixth term in 1980, his Republican peers elected him to a party leadership position, and he served seven years as chairman of the House Republican Conference.", "This promotion occurred immediately after Kemp and David Stockman urged Reagan by memorandum to dedicate his first 100 days to working on an economic package with Congress.", "Kemp considered running for Governor of New York in 1982 but ultimately decided to stay in the House.", "By 1984, many viewed Kemp as Reagan's heir apparent.Kemp had his first encounter with supply-side economics in 1976, when ''The Wall Street Journal'''s Jude Wanniski interviewed him at his congressional office.", "Kemp questioned Wanniski all day (until midnight, at Kemp's Bethesda, Maryland home) and was eventually converted to University of Southern California professor Arthur Laffer's supply-side discipline.", "Thereafter, Kemp espoused supply-side economics freely, and in 1978 he and Sen. William Roth of Delaware proposed tax-cutting legislation.", "Kemp has been credited as responsible for supply-side economics' inclusion in President Reagan's economic plan, although at the time of Robert Mundell's Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics recognition some attributed much of the credit to Mundell, Laffer, Robert Bartley, and Wanniski.", "In 1979, Kemp wrote ''An American Renaissance'' (), to deliver his message that \"A rising tide lifts all boats.\"", "Although the realization of early 1980s tax cuts are attributed to Reagan, they were initiated by Kemp and Roth through their 1981 Kemp–Roth Tax Cut legislation.", "Reagan's budget based on this legislation passed over the objection of United States House Committee on Ways and Means Chairman Dan Rostenkowski.During the Reagan years, Kemp and his followers ignored budget balancing while promoting tax cuts and economic growth.", "These tax cuts have been credited by conservatives for the economic growth from 1983 to 1990, which by 1996 had become one of the longest expansions in American history.", "Kemp notes that Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker's success at stemming inflation and the favorable regulatory environment were also major factors.", "Detractors note that the expansion was fueled by undesirable sectors like gaming, prisons, medical treatment, and credit card use.An early Kemp tax reform attempt was an unsuccessful 1979 proposal to index tax brackets for cost of living fluctuations, which was incorporated in Reagan's 1980 package.", "Kemp co-sponsored a legislative attempt at enterprise zones in 1980.One of Kemp's more trying times as a congressman came in 1982 when Reagan decided to reverse the tax cuts and promote tax increases.", "The reversal was controversial and stimulated opposition by Kemp.", "Nonetheless, the revised taxes passed.", "In 1983, Kemp opposed the policies of chairman Volcker on multiple occasions.", "The debates included domestic monetary involvement and roles in funding the International Monetary Fund.Kemp delivered speeches at several Republican National Conventions.", "He addressed the convention on July 15 at the 1980 Republican National Convention in Detroit, Michigan and on August 21 at the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas.", "During the 1984 Convention, with Trent Lott as Republican Party Platform Committee chairman, Congressmen Kemp and Newt Gingrich claimed control of the party platform to the consternation of G.O.P.", "senators Bob Dole and Howard Baker.", "Kemp's official role was as the chairman of the platform subcommittee on foreign policy.", "However, the three platform planks that he proposed involved tax hikes, the gold standard and the role of the Federal Reserve.", "Despite Kemp's official role, his real influence as an author was on the grammatical structure of the plank on tax hikes.", "By 1985, Kemp was a leading contender for the 1988 presidential nomination.", "He also delivered remarks on free enterprise zones at the 1992 Republican National Convention in Houston, Texas.", "Despite efforts and considerations of expanding his political domain, Kemp never held a fundraiser outside of his suburban Western New York district until well into his eighth term in Congress.Kemp was a critic of association football, known as soccer in the United States.", "In 1986, during a House floor debate over whether the United States should host the 1994 FIFA World Cup, Kemp proclaimed: \"I think it is important for all those young out there—who someday hope to play real football, where you throw it and kick it and run with it and put it in your hands—that a distinction should be made that football is democratic capitalism, whereas soccer is a European socialist sport.\"", "Kemp compared his speech to George Carlin's 1984 comedy routine on the differences between baseball and American football and wrote that his \"tongue was firmly planted in cheek\" when making the speech.", "Despite the levity of the speech, it garnered significant backlash.", "However, he continued to insist that soccer's main problem is \"it doesn't have a quarterback\".", "Kemp noted that about half of his grandchildren play or have played organized soccer and claimed to have \"changed\" his position on soccer.", "He even attended the 1994 FIFA World Cup with longtime soccer fan Henry Kissinger, although he wrote during the 2006 FIFA World Cup that soccer can be interesting to watch but is still a \"boring game\".===Presidential bid (1988)===Kemp as he leaves a meet-the-candidates rally for 1988 Republican presidential candidates in County Stadium in Union, South Carolina, on October 3, 1987.William Daroff is standing directly behind Kemp's left shoulder.In 1988, if Kemp had won his campaign for the United States presidency, it would have made him the first person to move from the United States House of Representatives to the White House since James Garfield.", "When he formed his exploratory committee, he signed Ed Rollins, Reagan's 1984 re-election political director, as an advisor.", "From the outset, Kemp had failed to position himself as the primary alternative to Vice President Bush.", "Except for a select few cognoscenti, the general public did not recognize Kemp's leadership ability, although he was a successful man of ideas.", "In fact, most of the Republican electorate found themselves unfamiliar with Kemp early in his campaign.", "Political pundits recognized him, however, as a visionary idea man.", "In addition, he was quickly perceived as a verbose speaker who sometimes lost contact with his audience.", "Although Kemp tried to appeal to conservatives, his libertarian philosophies of tolerance and individual rights and his commitment to supporting minorities, women, blue-collar workers and organized labor clashed with conservative voters' social and religious values.", "To Democrats, Kemp's free-market philosophies were a form of laissez-faire anarchy.", "However, as much as Kemp wanted to minimize government's role, he acknowledged that moves toward a more laissez-faire system should be well-thought out.After the May 1987 Gary Hart–Donna Rice scandal, a questionnaire by ''The New York Times'' requested things such as psychiatric records and access to FBI files from all 14 presidential candidates.", "Candidates from each party expressed opinions on both sides of the personal privacy issue, and Kemp rejected the ''Times'' inquiry as \"beneath the dignity of a presidential candidate\".", "His campaign was on an early positive course with many key early endorsements in New Hampshire, but Bush held the support of much of the Republican establishment in New York.", "Although he had an eclectic mix of supporters, Kemp's campaign began borrowing against anticipated Federal matching funds because it had quickly spent itself into the red, which may have been due to the use of expensive direct mail fundraising techniques.", "To offset his socially moderate stances, Kemp clarified his opposition to abortion, his support of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) and his support for a stronger military than that favored by Secretary of State George Shultz.", "To position himself as Reagan's successor, Kemp called for Shultz's resignation based on claims that Shultz had neglected freedom fighters in Afghanistan and Nicaragua and had waffled on the SDI.", "In an attempt to highlight his stands on key Reagan Era foreign policy initiatives, Kemp traveled in September 1987 to Costa Rica, Honduras and El Salvador to lobby the presidents of those nations against the Arias Peace Plan—a peace accord US conservatives felt too conciliatory to Central American communists.", "He was accompanied on the trip by 50-plus US conservative leaders.Despite a platform covering the full range of political subjects, Kemp's primary campaign weapon was a fiscal policy based on tax cuts.", "As part of his fiscal policy, he opposed a Social Security benefits freeze and endorsed a freeze on government spending.", "Some viewed Kemp's supply-side stance as an attempt to ignore the national budget deficit.", "In late 1987, political pundits saw that Kemp needed to gain support from the far right on non-social issues.", "Kemp was among the majority of Republican candidates in opposition to Reagan's INF Treaty agreement with the Soviet Union's Mikhail Gorbachev despite general Republican voter approval of the treaty.", "With aspirations of support from right-wing voters, all candidates with low levels of poll support for the nomination took this same \"sabre-rattling\" stand.", "By early 1988, the moderates (Bush and Dole) were clearly the front-runners and Kemp was battling with Pat Robertson as the conservative alternative to the moderates.He used a somewhat negative advertising campaign that seemed to have the intended initial effect of boosting him to serious contention.", "His 1988 campaign was based on the platform of supply-side economics and inner-city enterprise zones.", "In ''Bare Knuckles and Back Rooms: My Life in American Politics'', campaign chairman Rollins described Kemp as a candidate with foibles.", "Kemp's campaign managers say he was unmanageable: he ignored timers on his speeches, refused to call contributors, and refused to practice for debates.", "A humbling Super Tuesday, in which his 39 delegate total was fewer than eventual nominee and President Bush and both Dole and Pat Robertson, ended his campaign.", "After withdrawing from the race, he was still considered a contender for the vice presidential nomination.", "In 1989, the Kemps switched their official residence from Hamburg, New York to Bethesda, Maryland, their residence at the time of his death.", "In 1994, Kemp's 1988 campaign reached a settlement with the Federal Election Commission by agreeing to pay $120,000 in civil penalties for 1988 campaign election law violations for, among other things, excessive contributions, improper direct corporate donations, press overbilling, exceeding spending limits in Iowa and New Hampshire, and failure to reimburse corporations for providing air transportation.===Cabinet (1989–1993)===HUD Secretary Kemp with Sybil Mobley, a Florida A&M University Dean.As a so-called \"bleeding-heart conservative\", Kemp was a logical choice for Bush as the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, whose job would be to foster public sector and private sector methods to meet the demands of public housing.", "However, the scandals of Reagan's Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Samuel Pierce and the neglect of the president were obstacles from the start, and Kemp was unsuccessful at either of his major initiatives: enacting enterprise zones and promoting public housing tenant ownership.", "The goal of these two plans was to change public housing into tenant-owned residences and to lure industry and business into inner cities with federal incentives.", "Although Kemp did not affect much policy as HUD's director, he cleaned up HUD's reputation, and developed a plan to salvage the Federal Housing Administration.", "He halted or revamped certain programs and developed an antidrug offensive, which enabled him to collaborate with Director of the National Drug Control Policy Bill Bennett.", "He supported \"Operation Clean Sweep\" and similar movements to prohibit firearm possession in public housing.Although Kemp coaxed Bush to support a $4 billion housing program that encouraged public housing tenants to buy their own apartments, the Democratic Congress allocated only $361 million to the plan.", "In addition to opposition in Congress, Kemp fought White House Budget Director Richard Darman, who opposed Kemp's pet project HOPE (Homeownership and Opportunity for People Everywhere).", "The project involved selling public housing to its tenants.", "Darman also opposed Kemp's proposed welfare adjustment of government offsets.", "HOPE was first proposed to White House chief of staff John Sununu in June 1989 to create enterprise zones, increase subsidies for low-income renters, expand social services for the homeless and elderly, and enact tax changes to help first-time home buyers.", "Sununu opposed it at first as did most of the Cabinet, but in August 1990 Sununu, at the urging of United States Attorney General Dick Thornburgh, encouraged President Bush to endorse Kemp's Economic Empowerment Task Force.", "However, the Persian Gulf War and the budget negotiations overshadowed Kemp's new project.", "Darman battled Kemp and his allies such as Gingrich, James Pinkerton, and Vin Weber.", "The budget left him with $256 million for his plan, which Kemp increased during some appropriations battles.", "Soon after Clayton Yeutter was appointed chief White House domestic policy advisor, Kemp's Economic Empowerment Task Force was abolished.President Bush avoided federal antipoverty issues, and instead used Kemp to speak on the administration's low priority conservative activist agenda.", "Bush's contribution to the urban agenda had been volunteerism through his \"Points of Light\" theme, and Kemp received stronger support for his ideas from presidential candidate Bill Clinton.", "By the time of the Los Angeles riots of 1992, Bush was a bit late in supporting enterprise zones, tenant ownership and welfare reform: Mort Zuckerman compared Bush's vision on racial issues to that of a man riding backwards in a railroad car.", "Nonetheless, the riots made Kemp a focal point of the administration, even though at first, Kemp had been overlooked.", "However, Charles E. Schumer had probably summarized the prospects of Kemp's success in advance best when he said in 1989, \"Good ideas with money can do a whole lot.", "Good ideas without money aren't probably going to do a whole lot,\" and the issue here was the decision not to fund Kemp's ideas.", "Although Kemp was unable to procure money for his visions, he was among the administration's leading users of first class corporate jets.", "He cited lingering effects from a knee injury as the reason he had to fly first class at government expense as the Housing Secretary.Generally, his time as housing secretary was considered unsuccessful.", "However, although he could not get federal funding for empowerment zones passed during his tenure, by 1992 38 states had created empowerment zones, and in 1994 $3.5 billion was approved for them under President Clinton.", "A free market Kemp initiative to allow homeowners to subdivide their houses for the purpose of creating rental units without inordinate bureaucracy did not get executed under the Clinton administration, however.", "In 1992, with H. Ross Perot mounting a formidable campaign, Kemp was again considered a vice presidential candidate.Kemp was partly at fault for not achieving either of his primary goals because he did not get along with the rest of the Cabinet.", "At one point, Kemp told James Baker, White House Chief of Staff, that Bush's best chance to win reelection was to dump his economic advisors in dramatic fashion.", "Before the 1992 Republican National Convention, Kemp and six prominent Republican conservatives prepared a controversial memo urging Bush to revise his economic policy.", "Contemporaneously, conservative Republicans in office and in the media such as William F. Buckley Jr. and George Will felt Dan Quayle should be ousted in favor of Kemp.", "This followed Kemp's reference to parts of the President's economic policy as \"gimmicks\" after the 1992 State of the Union Address.", "Kemp was respected within the party for opposing Bush, and towards the end of Bush's administration insiders recognized his value.", "In late 1991, 81 of the 166 Republican Congressmen signed a letter co-authored by Curt Weldon and Dan Burton requesting that Bush cede some domestic authority to Kemp as a \"domestic policy czar.\"", "The letter, highlighting Kemp's \"energy, enthusiasm and national clout\", insulted Bush.", "Kemp was a bit of a surprise to stay in the Bush Cabinet for the duration of his presidency, and he was described as one of the few Bush administration members who would take tough stands.", "Kemp did not expect to be retained if the Republicans were reelected in 1992, and some pundits agreed with him.===Post-HUD years (1993–1996)===Kemp gave public speeches for $35,000 apiece between his time as Housing Secretary and his vice presidential nomination.", "By 1994, Kemp had embarked on 241 fund-raising dinners to raise $35 million for a 1996 presidential bid and to pay off his 1988 campaign debts.", "After stepping down from his $189,000 Secretary of Housing and Urban Development job, Kemp personally earned $6.9 million in the next three years, primarily for speaking on behalf of local Republican candidates.", "During the Super Bowl XXVIII festivities, Kemp hosted a notable fundraiser series.Kemp was considered the star of the 1992 Republican National Convention.", "In 1992 and 1993, Kemp was considered the favorite or co-favorite for the 1996 presidential nomination.", "At the time of the 1994 mid-term elections, Kemp was widely anticipated to announce his candidacy for 1996, and his supporters wanted a formal announcement by the end of the year.", "In January 1995, Kemp's stated reason for not entering the 1996 Republican Party presidential primaries was that his personal beliefs were out of balance with the contemporary Republican political landscape: Kemp opposed term limits, he always preferred tax cuts to anything resembling a balanced budget amendment and, unlike most Republicans, favored federal incentives to combat urban poverty.", "In 1995, Gloria Borger noted Kemp was not in step with the 1994 Contract with America.", "Kemp also noted a distaste for the vast fundraising necessary for a presidential campaign.", "Gergen stated that by 1996 the selection process had become so expensive, mean and personally invasive that it discouraged several top Republicans from running.", "In 1995, while the world awaited the campaign decision announcement by Colin Powell, Kemp had positive thoughts on the prospect of such a campaign.Senate Majority Leader Dole and Gingrich appointed Kemp to head a tax reform commission, (the Kemp Commission), in response to voter concern that the tax code had become too complicated.", "Kemp championed many issues including the flat tax, which he formally proposed after he was appointed.", "The proposal included some politically popular income tax deductions, such as mortgage interest, but it remained fairly general.", "Among the 1996 Republican Party candidates, both Steve Forbes and Phil Gramm proposed the flat tax.During the campaign, Kemp's endorsement was highly coveted.", "Forbes had tried to get Kemp to run in the 1996 campaign, but Kemp declined and in fact endorsed Forbes just as Dole was closing in on the nomination, and just after Dole gained the endorsements of former contenders Lamar Alexander and Richard Lugar.", "Some feel the primary reason for the endorsement was to keep the flat tax idea and other supply-side views alive.", "Many thought Kemp had destroyed his own political future with the endorsement, and Kemp profusely apologized to Dole's campaign offices.", "After it became clear Dole would be the nominee, Kemp attempted to form a bipartisan seminar with Felix Rohatyn to produce a fiscal plan that could be endorsed by both parties.Kemp was also outspoken on immigration on around this time: according to Kemp's interpretation of a scientific index that he and Bennett support, \"immigrants are a blessing, not a curse.\"", "In 1994, Kemp and Bennett opposed California ballot Proposition 187, a measure to bar illegal immigrants from obtaining public services, in direct opposition to first-term Republican California Governor Pete Wilson, one of its endorsers who was running for re-election.", "Republican Senate candidate Michael Huffington had also endorsed the proposition.", "Kemp supported rights for illegal immigrants, and opposed Lamar Smith and Alan Simpson's proposed restrictions on legal immigration.===Vice presidential nomination (1996)===Bob Dole and Kemp were featured on the cover of ''Time'', but were nearly displaced by a story about Mars (inset on cover)Kemp had a reputation as the highest-profile progressive Republican.", "When Dole declined an invitation to speak to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, he suggested Kemp as a substitute even before Kemp had become the vice presidential nominee.", "On August 5, 1996, Dole announced a 15% across-the-board tax cut in response to both the Forbes campaign and Kemp's tax reform commission.", "Several of Dole's other campaign ideas came from Kemp and Bill Bennett's Empower America, which had Jeane Kirkpatrick, Weber, Forbes and Alexander as principals.", "For example, Dole borrowed Kirkpatrick's tough foreign policy, Bennett's \"right conduct\" and even Alexander's school choice interest.Bennett declined the offer to be Dole's running mate but suggested Kemp, a man described as Dole's antagonist.", "On August 16, 1996, the Republican Party chose Kemp as its vice presidential nominee, running alongside former Senator Dole.", "Kemp was seen as a means to attract conservative and libertarian-minded voters like those of tough nomination-challengers Forbes and Pat Buchanan.", "Kemp was chosen over Connie Mack, John McCain, and Carroll Campbell, and it is assumed that this was partly because Kemp had several former staffers in influential positions as Dole's senior advisors.", "Dole had had a long history of representing the budget-balancing faction of the Party, while Kemp had had a long history of representing the tax-cutting advocates, and Kemp's tax-cutting fiscal track record was seen as the perfect fit for the ticket.", "When Kemp became Dole's running mate in 1996, they appeared on the cover of the August 19, 1996 issue of ''Time'' magazine, but the pair barely edged out a story on the reported discovery of extraterrestrial life on Mars, which was so close to being the cover story that ''Time'' inset it on the cover and wrote about how difficult the decision was.The two politicians had a storied history stemming from alternative perspectives and objectives.", "Dole was a longstanding conservative deficit hawk who had even voted against John F. Kennedy's tax cuts, while Kemp was an outspoken supply-sider.", "In the early 1980s, according to David Stockman, Kemp persuaded Reagan to make a 30% across-the-board tax cut a central 1980 presidential campaign feature.", "Once Reagan was elected, Dole was the Senate Finance Committee chairman who Kemp claims resisted the plan every step of the way.", "Dole concedes he expressed reservations about the 1981 plan.", "The big confrontation came after the tax plan was approved and after Dole subsequently proposed tax increases that he referred to as reforms.", "Kemp was vocal in his opposition to the reforms and even penned an op-ed piece in ''The New York Times,'' which enraged Dole.", "Reagan supported the reforms at Dole's request, causing Kemp to summon allies to meetings to stop the act, which eventually passed in 1982.At the 1984 Republican National Convention, Kemp, along with allies such as Gingrich and Lott, added a plank to the party platform that put President Reagan on record as ruling out tax increases.", "Gingrich called this action \"Dole proofing\" the platform, and the plank passed over Dole's opposition.", "Then, in 1985, Dole proposed an austere budget that barely passed in the Senate with appendectomy patient Pete Wilson casting the tying vote and Vice President Bush casting the deciding vote.", "In meetings with the president that excluded Dole, Kemp reworked the budget to exclude crucial Social Security cutbacks.", "This is said to have been Dole's most crushing political defeat and to have contributed to the Republican loss of control of the Senate.", "During the 1988 presidential election, the two antagonized each other.", "After Bush won and Kemp left Congress for the Cabinet, the two did not really cross paths again until 1996, when Kemp endorsed Dole's opponent Forbes on the eve of the New York Primary in March.Dole despised Kemp's economic theories, but he felt Kemp-like tax cuts offered his best chance at electoral success.", "For his part, Kemp had to make concessions as well: he had to back expelling the children of illegal immigrants from public schools despite his longstanding opposition to Proposition 187 and mute his opposition to abolishing affirmative-action programs in California.", "Some derided Kemp for his compromise and referred to him as a \"con artist\".", "From the outset of their campaign, Dole-Kemp trailed, and they faced skeptics even from within the party.", "However, Kemp was able to use the nomination to promote his opposition to Clinton's partial birth abortion ban veto.", "During the campaign, Kemp and Forbes advocated for a stronger stand on tax cutting than Dole used.", "However, in general, the opinion was that Kemp was helpful to the ticket's chances of catching Bill Clinton, and Kemp's advocacy gave a clear picture of the tax reforms that would likely occur on the condition of a successful campaign.", "Kemp was seen as likely to influence several types of swing voters, especially those of his native state of California, and even the Democrats feared Kemp might lure voters.After receiving the nomination, Kemp became the ticket's spokesman for minorities and the inner-city.", "Due to agreement on the self-help policy that Louis Farrakhan has endorsed in many fora including the Million Man March, Kemp in a sense aligned himself with Farrakhan.", "However, Farrakhan was perceived as being anti-Semitic, and Kemp was considered an ally of Republican Jews.", "This issue necessitated some political sidestepping.", "As the nominee, Kemp at times overshadowed Dole.", "In fact, more than once, Kemp was described as if he was the presidential nominee.", "In addition to having overshadowed Dole, despite the negative ad campaigns that the ticket used, Kemp was a very positive running mate who relied on a pep rally type of campaign tour full of football-related metaphors and hyperbole.", "Although some enjoyed Kemp's style, referring to him as the Good Shepherd, his detractors, such as ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' writer Steven V. Roberts, criticized the extensive use of recounting stories of passing balls relative to the use of recounting stories of passing bills.", "During the campaign, Kemp expressed the opinion that Republican Party leaders did not stand behind the ticket wholeheartedly.", "Despite Kemp's voice on minority issues, Colin Powell's support and polls that showed about 30% of blacks identified themselves as conservatives on issues such as school prayer, school vouchers and criminal justice, the Republicans were unable to improve upon historical support levels from African-American voters.Both Al Gore and Kemp had presidential aspirations, which induced pursuit of debate on a higher plane.", "In addition, Gore and Kemp were long-time friends, unlike Gore and his previous vice presidential opponent Dan Quayle.", "Thus, as debaters they avoided personal attacks.", "However, some felt Kemp failed to counter substantive attacks.", "In the final October 9, 1996 vice presidential debate against Al Gore (held as the Dole–Kemp ticket trailed badly in the national polls), Kemp was soundly beaten, and Al Gore's performance is considered one of the best modern debate performances.", "The debate topics ranged broadly from the usual such as abortion and foreign policy to the unusual such as an incident preceding the then-current baseball playoffs, in which Roberto Alomar, the Baltimore Orioles' second baseman, cursed and spat on an umpire.", "The Mexico policy debate was one of the more interesting topics for critical review.", "The Gore victory was not a surprise since Kemp had been outmatched by Gore in previous encounters, and Gore had a reputation as an experienced and vaunted debater." ], [ "Late career", "Kemp with Sue Myrick, Phil English and Mike Turner (c. May 2004)In 1993, Kemp, Bennett, Kirkpatrick and financial backer Theodore Forstmann co-founded the free market advocacy group Empower America, which later merged with Citizens for a Sound Economy to form Freedom Works.", "Empower America represented the populist wing of the party: while avoiding divisive issues such as abortion and gay rights, it promoted free markets and growth over balancing the budget and cutting the deficit.", "He resigned as co-chairman of Freedom Works in March 2005 after the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) questioned his ties to Samir Vincent, a Northern Virginia oil trader implicated in the U.N. Oil-for-food scandal who pleaded guilty to four criminal charges, including illegally acting as an unregistered lobbyist of the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein.", "Testimony about Kemp became prominent in the trial.", "Also, FBI informant Richard Fino tied Kemp to James Cosentino just weeks before the 1996 election.By 1996, Kemp had been named a director of six corporate boards.", "He was a director for Hawk Corporation, IDT Corporation, CNL Hotels and Resorts, InPhonic, Cyrix Corporation and American Bankers Insurance Group.", "Kemp briefly served on the board of Oracle Corporation, whose CEO was his friend Larry Ellison, in 1996, but resigned when he ran for vice president; he was named to the board of Six Flags, Inc. in December 2005.Kemp opted not to stand for re-election to IDT's board in 2006.He also served on the Habitat for Humanity board of directors, and served on the board of Atlanta-based software maker EzGov Inc. Kemp also served on the board of directors of Election.com, which was the private company that ran the world's first election on the internet (won by Al Gore), the 2000 Arizona Democratic Primary.", "Kemp was also a business partner with Edra and Tim Blixseth promoting membership in the elite private ski and golf Yellowstone Club.", "Kemp also partnered with the Blixseths in a failed anti-terrorism software venture called Blxware which was investigated for \"conning\" the federal government out of $20 million in contracts for software which fraudulently claimed to detect secret messages from Al-Qaeda in television broadcast signals.", "Kemp was the founder and chairman of Kemp Partners, a strategic consulting firm that helps clients achieve both business and public policy goals.In addition to corporate boards of directors, Kemp served on several advisory boards such as the UCLA School of Public Policy Advisory Board, and the Toyota Diversity Advisory Board as well as the Howard University Board of Trustees, on which he served since 1993.On March 25, 2003, Kemp was selected as chairman of the board of Directors of USA Football, a national advocacy group for amateur football created by the National Football League (NFL) and the NFL Players Association.", "The organization supports Pop Warner, American Youth Football, Boys and Girls Clubs of America, National Recreation and Park Association, Police Athletic League, YMCA, and the Amateur Athletic Union.", "He was also vice president of NFL Charities.Kemp, Adrian Fenty, and Eleanor Holmes Norton at DC Vote rally on Capitol HillIn the late 1990s, Kemp remained outspoken on political issues: he was critical of Clinton's International Monetary Fund lax policies toward South Korea.", "In early 1998, he was a serious contender for the 2000 United States presidential election, but his campaign possibilities faltered, and he instead endorsed eventual winner George W. Bush.", "Kemp continued his political advocacy for reform of taxation, Social Security and education.", "When a 1997 budget surplus was earmarked for debt repayment, Kemp opposed the plan in favor of tax cuts.", "Along with John Ashcroft and Alan Krueger, he endorsed reform of payroll taxes to eliminate double taxation.", "In addition to his fiscal and economic policies, Kemp advocated against abortion when Congress was considering a bill banning intact dilation and extractions.", "He also advocated for retired NFL veterans on issues such as cardiovascular screening, assisted living, disability benefits, and the 2007 joint replacement program.", "He argued in support of reforming immigration laws.", "In the late 1990s, Kemp also was a vocal advocate for free market reform in Africa, arguing that the continent had great economic growth potential if it could shed autocratic and statist governmental policies.In 1997, when Gingrich was embroiled in a House ethics controversy, Kemp served as an intermediary between Dole and Gingrich to save the Republican Party leader.", "Later, in 2002, when Lott made caustic remarks about Strom Thurmond, Kemp was upset, and he supported Lott's apology, saying he had encouraged him to \"repudiate segregation in every manifestation.\"", "Kemp was among the prominent leaders who pledged to raise money in 2005 for Scooter Libby's defense when he was charged with perjury and obstruction of justice in a case regarding the release of Central Intelligence Agency information.In June 2004, Kemp rescinded his support of Vernon Robinson for Congress due to the latter's views on immigration laws, citing Robinson's choice to run \"as a Pat Buchanan Republican\".In 2006 Kemp, along with 2004 vice-presidential nominee John Edwards, co-chaired the Council on Foreign Relations task force on Russia, producing a document called \"Russia's Wrong Direction: What the United States Can and Should Do\".", "After their task force roles ended, the pair advocated solutions to poverty in America at various fora.Kemp with then-United States Senator Barack Obama at the Public Internet Channel launch at the National Press Club in 2006.On January 6, 2008, Kemp endorsed McCain in the 2008 Republican presidential primaries shortly before the New Hampshire primary, which surprised conservative Republican tax cutters.", "However, as McCain neared the official nomination, the press associated McCain with Kemp more and more.", "Kemp prepared an open letter to Sean Hannity, Rush Limbaugh, Laura Ingraham and other conservative talk show hosts on McCain's behalf to quell their dissatisfactions.", "In addition, Kemp and Phil Gramm advised McCain on economic policy.He was a syndicated newspaper columnist.In February 2008, Kemp was associated with a group called \"Defense of Democracies\" that was advocating an electronic surveillance bill that failed in the House of Representatives.", "The group's television ad caused such controversy that some of its advisors, including Schumer and Donna Brazile, resigned.He was a member of the advisory council of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation and served as co-chair of the Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission Cabinet.He was a board member for the Lott IMPACT Trophy, which is named after Pro Football Hall of Fame defensive back Ronnie Lott, and is awarded annually to college football's Defensive IMPACT Player of the Year." ], [ "Illness and death", "Kemp in 2007On January 7, 2009, Kemp's office issued a statement announcing that he had cancer; the type of cancer and the anticipated treatment were not announced.", "His diagnosis and prognosis were never publicly disclosed.", "However, he continued to serve as chairman of his Washington-based Kemp Partners consulting firm and continued his involvement in charitable and political work until his death.On May 2, 2009, Kemp died from cancer at his home in Bethesda, Maryland, at the age of 73.President Barack Obama praised Kemp's work on race, adding that Kemp understood that divisions involving race and class stood in the way of the country's common goals, and former President George W. Bush said that Kemp \"will be remembered for his significant contributions to the Reagan Revolution and his steadfast dedication to conservative principles during his long and distinguished career in public service.\"", "It was later revealed that melanoma was the probable type of cancer Kemp died from." ], [ "Legacy", "National Press Club in 2006.Kemp's legacy includes the Kemp–Roth Tax Cut of the 1980s, also known as the first of two \"Reagan tax cuts.\"", "These served as the foundation of supply-side economics, known as Reaganomics.", "Many Republicans have endorsed this Laffer Curve view that tax cuts can spur economic growth and reduce deficits.", "Although George H. W. Bush called this philosophy voodoo economics, George W. Bush and his Treasury Secretary, John W. Snow, were believers.", "Kemp is also remembered alongside George Wallace and William Jennings Bryan for influencing history by changing the direction of presidential elections despite their defeats.In the early 21st century, Kemp continued to be considered along with Reagan as the politician most responsible for the implementation of supply-side tax cuts and along with Steve Forbes as the political figure most responsible for their continued place in the marketplace of political ideas.", "He has been described as a beacon of economic conservatism and a hero for his urban agenda.", "Today, he continues to be described as a hero to fiscal conservatives who believe that free markets and low taxes work better than government bureaucracies.", "Kemp was considered the leader of the progressive conservatives who are socially conservative, but avoid protectionist fiscal and trade policy.In addition to Roth, he has had numerous political allies.", "At times, he collaborated with Gingrich and Lott on deregulation and tax cuts, collaborated with McCain and Phil Gramm on tax cuts and spending restraints, legislated with and campaigned for Joseph Lieberman, and fought poverty with James Pinkerton.", "Pete du Pont was a progressive conservative ally.", "After retiring from Congress and serving in the Cabinet, Kemp remained close to Gingrich, Lott, Weber, and Mack.", "Kemp was a member of the federal committee to promote Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a national holiday.", "As a progressive voter, he had civil rights leaders such as Benjamin Hooks, Andrew Young and Coretta Scott King and conservative black intellectuals like Glenn C. Loury and Robert L. Woodson as supporters and friends.", "He boasted of having Democratic friends such as William H. Gray III, Charles B. Rangel and Robert Garcia.", "Ken Blackwell was a Deputy Secretary under Kemp.", "During the Reagan presidency, when Kemp was able to effect tax cutting, a leading United States Senate tax-cutting proponent was Democrat Bill Bradley, a former basketball star.", "Several American football players have followed Kemp to Congress, including Steve Largent, J. C. Watts, and Heath Shuler.Congressman Paul Ryan cites Kemp as a mentor, and mentioned him in his acceptance speech as the Republican vice-presidential nominee in 2012.", "\"''Growth is obviously what Jack Kemp was about''\" stated Fred Barnes in the opening of the session \"Growth!", "Growth!", "Growth!\"", "of Jack Kemp Foundation's Forum on ''The Future of the American Idea'', in 2014.Kemp didn't believe in limits to growth, a blind spot shared by any politicians of his era and which prompted him to dismiss the 1991 Report of the United Nations Population Fund as \"nonsense\".Senator Arlen Specter in a severe rebuke of federal governmental policy, stated just one day after Kemp died of cancer, that Kemp would still be alive if the federal government had done a better job funding cancer research.Following Kemp's death, his son, Jimmy Kemp, created the Jack Kemp Foundation to continue his father's legacy.", "A 501(c)(3) charitable organization, the foundation's mission statement is to \"develop, engage and recognize exceptional leaders who champion the American Idea\".", "The foundation is located in Washington, D.C., and is committed to advancing the universal values of the American Idea: growth, freedom, democracy and hope.The football stadium at Occidental College is named after him." ], [ "Electoral history" ], [ "Books", "In addition to authoring significant legislation as a congressman, Kemp wrote or co-authored several books:* ''An American Idea: Ending Limits to Growth'', (Washington, DC: American Studies Center, 1984, no ISBN)* ''Tax policy and the economy : a debate between Michael Harrington and Representative Jack Kemp, April 25, 1979.", "'', (New York, N.Y. : Institute for Democratic Socialism, 1979, no ISBN)* ''An American Renaissance: Strategy for the 1980s'', (, Harper & Row, 1979)* ''The IRS v. The People'', (, Heritage Books, 2005) Authored by Ken Blackwell and edited by Kemp* ''Trusting the People : The Dole-Kemp Plan to Free the Economy and Create a Better America'', ( audiobook, ASIN B000OEV5RE HarperCollins, 1996) coauthored with Bob Dole, narrated by Christine Todd Whitman* ''Together We Can Meet the Challenge : Winning the Fight Against Drugs'', (, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1994)* ''Pro Sports: Should the Government Intervene?", "'', (, American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1977)* ''U.S.", "By the Numbers: What's Left, Right & Wrong with America'', (, Capital Books, Incorporated, 2000) with Raymond J. Keating, and Thomas N. Edmonds* ''Our Communities, Our Homes: Pathways to Housing and Homeownership in America's Cities and States'', (, Joint Center for Housing Studies, 2007) with Henry G. Cisneros, Kent W. Colton, and Nicolas P. RetsinasKemp also wrote the foreword to several books:* ''Reaganomics: Supply Side Economics in Action'' (, Westport, Conn.: Arlington House, 1981) by Bruce R Bartlett with Arthur Laffer* ''Raoul Wallenberg: Angel of Rescue'' by Harvey Rosenfeld (, Prometheus Books, 1982)* ''Best Editorial Cartoons of the Year: 1986 Edition'' by Charles Brooks (ed.)", "(, Pelican Publishing Company, Incorporated, 1986)* ''Leadership Is Common Sense'' by Herman Cain (, Tapestry Press, 2001)* ''Whole World's Watching: Decarbonizing the Economy and Saving the World'' by Martyn Turner and Brian O'Connell (, Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 2001)" ], [ "Papers", "* Jack Kemp papers, 1924–2009 (bulk 1963–1996).", "118,500 items.", "Held by the Library of Congress." ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "Explanatory footnotes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* Clinton, Bill (2005).", "''My Life''.", "Vintage.", ".", "* Foer, Franklin (2004).", "''How Soccer Explains the World''.", "Harper.", "* Gruver, Ed (1997).", "''The American Football League: A Year-by-Year History, 1960–1969'', McFarland & Company, .", "* Lodge, George (2000).", "\"The Reagan Plan\".", "Harvard Business School 9–381–173..* Maiorana, Sal (1994).", "''Relentless: The Hard-hitting History of Buffalo Bills Football'', Quality Sports Publications, .", "* Maiorana, Sal (2000).", "''Relentless: The Hard-hitting History of Buffalo Bills Football, Volume II'', Quality Sports Publications, ." ], [ "External links", "* * * Excerpt from October 1996 Kemp-Gore Debate* Remarks from Vice Presidential nomination acceptance* Summary of political positions from his own words* ''New York Times'' obituary* Obituary in ''The Baltimore Sun''* Jack Kemp – ''Daily Telegraph'' obituary* Kemp archive at ''Los Angeles Times''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "January 18" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 474 – Seven-year-old Leo II succeeds his maternal grandfather Leo I as Byzantine emperor.", "He dies ten months later.", "* 532 – Nika riots in Constantinople fail.", "*1126 – Emperor Huizong abdicates the Chinese throne in favour of his son Emperor Qinzong.", "*1486 – King Henry VII of England marries Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV, uniting the House of Lancaster and the House of York.", "*1562 – Pope Pius IV reopens the Council of Trent for its third and final session.", "*1586 – The magnitude 7.9 Tenshō earthquake strikes Honshu, Japan, killing 8,000 people and triggering a tsunami.===1601–1900===*1670 – Henry Morgan captures Panama.", "*1701 – Frederick I crowns himself King in Prussia in Königsberg.", "*1778 – James Cook is the first known European to discover the Hawaiian Islands, which he names the \"Sandwich Islands\".", "*1788 – The first elements of the First Fleet carrying 736 convicts from Great Britain to Australia arrive at Botany Bay.", "*1806 – Jan Willem Janssens surrenders the Dutch Cape Colony to the British.", "*1866 – Wesley College is established in Melbourne, Australia.", "*1871 – Wilhelm I of Germany is proclaimed ''Kaiser Wilhelm'' in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles (France) towards the end of the Franco-Prussian War.", "Wilhelm already had the title of German Emperor since the constitution of 1 January 1871, but he had hesitated to accept the title.", "*1886 – Modern field hockey is born with the formation of The Hockey Association in England.", "*1896 – An X-ray generating machine is exhibited for the first time by H. L. Smith.===1901–present===*1911 – Eugene B. Ely lands on the deck of the anchored in San Francisco Bay, the first time an aircraft landed on a ship.", "*1913 – First Balkan War: A Greek flotilla defeats the Ottoman Navy in the Naval Battle of Lemnos, securing the islands of the Northern Aegean Sea for Greece.", "*1915 – Japan issues the \"Twenty-One Demands\" to the Republic of China in a bid to increase its power in East Asia.", "*1919 – World War I: The Paris Peace Conference opens in Versailles, France.", "* 1919 – Ignacy Jan Paderewski becomes Prime Minister of the newly independent Poland.", "*1941 – World War II: British troops launch a general counter-offensive against Italian East Africa.", "*1943 – Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: The first uprising of Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto.", "*1945 – World War II: Liberation of Kraków, Poland by the Red Army.", "*1958 – Willie O'Ree, the first Black Canadian National Hockey League player, makes his NHL debut with the Boston Bruins.", "*1960 – Capital Airlines Flight 20 crashes into a farm in Charles City County, Virginia, killing all 50 aboard, the third fatal Capital Airlines crash in as many years.", "*1967 – Albert DeSalvo, the \"Boston Strangler\", is convicted of numerous crimes and is sentenced to life imprisonment.", "*1969 – United Airlines Flight 266 crashes into Santa Monica Bay killing all 32 passengers and six crew members.", "*1972 – Members of the Mukti Bahini lay down their arms to the government of the newly independent Bangladesh, a month after winning the war against the occupying Pakistan Army.", "*1974 – A Disengagement of Forces agreement is signed between the Israeli and Egyptian governments, ending conflict on the Egyptian front of the Yom Kippur War.", "*1976 – Lebanese Christian militias kill at least 1,000 in Karantina, Beirut.", "*1977 – Scientists at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention announce they have identified a previously unknown bacterium as the cause of the mysterious Legionnaires' disease.", "* 1977 – Australia's worst rail disaster occurs at Granville, Sydney, killing 83.", "* 1977 – SFR Yugoslavia's Prime minister, Džemal Bijedić, his wife and six others are killed in a plane crash in Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "*1978 – The European Court of Human Rights finds the United Kingdom's government guilty of mistreating prisoners in Northern Ireland, but not guilty of torture.", "*1981 – Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield parachute off a Houston skyscraper, becoming the first two people to BASE jump from objects in all four categories: buildings, antennae, spans (bridges), and earth (cliffs).", "*1983 – The International Olympic Committee restores Jim Thorpe's Olympic medals to his family.", "*1986 – An Aerovías Sud Aviation Caravelle crashes on approach to Mundo Maya International Airport in Flores, Petén, Guatemala, killing all 94 people on board.", "*1988 – China Southwest Airlines Flight 4146 crashes near Chongqing Baishiyi Airport, killing all 98 passengers and 10 crew members.", "*1990 – Washington, D.C., Mayor Marion Barry is arrested for drug possession in an FBI sting.", "*1993 – Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is officially observed for the first time in all 50 US states.", "*2002 – The Sierra Leone Civil War is declared over.", "*2003 – A bushfire kills four people and destroys more than 500 homes in Canberra, Australia.", "*2005 – The Airbus A380, the world's largest commercial jet, is unveiled at a ceremony in Toulouse, France*2007 – The strongest storm in the United Kingdom in 17 years kills 14 people and Germany sees the worst storm since 1999 with 13 deaths.", "Cyclone Kyrill causes at least 44 deaths across 20 countries in Western Europe.", "*2008 – The Euphronios Krater is unveiled in Rome after being returned to Italy by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.", "*2018 – A bus catches fire on the Samara–Shymkent road in Yrgyz District, Aktobe, Kazakhstan.", "The fire kills 52 passengers, with three passengers and two drivers escaping.", "*2019 – An oil pipeline explosion near Tlahuelilpan, Hidalgo, Mexico, kills 137 people.", "*2023 – A helicopter crash in Ukraine leaves 14 people dead, including the country's Interior Minister, Denys Monastyrsky." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1404 – Sir Philip Courtenay, English noble (d. 1463)*1457 – Antonio Trivulzio, seniore, Roman Catholic cardinal (d. 1508)*1519 – Isabella Jagiellon, Queen of Hungary (d. 1559)*1540 – Catherine, Duchess of Braganza (d. 1614)===1601–1900===*1641 – François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, French politician, Secretary of State for War (d. 1691)*1659 – Damaris Cudworth Masham, English philosopher and theologian (d. 1708)*1672 – Antoine Houdar de la Motte, French author (d. 1731)*1688 – Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1765)*1689 – Montesquieu, French lawyer and philosopher (d. 1755)*1701 – Johann Jakob Moser, German jurist (d. 1785)*1734 – Caspar Friedrich Wolff, German physiologist and embryologist (d. 1794)*1743 – Louis Claude de Saint-Martin, French mystic and philosopher (d. 1803)*1751 – Ferdinand Kauer, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1831)*1752 – John Nash, English architect (d. 1835)*1764 – Samuel Whitbread, English politician (d. 1815)*1779 – Peter Mark Roget, English physician, lexicographer, and theologian (d. 1869)*1782 – Daniel Webster, American lawyer and politician, 14th United States Secretary of State (d. 1852)*1793 – Pratap Singh Bhosle, Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire (d. 1847)*1815 – Constantin von Tischendorf, German theologian and scholar (d. 1874)*1835 – César Cui, Russian general, composer, and critic (d. 1918)*1840 – Henry Austin Dobson, English poet and author (d. 1921)*1841 – Emmanuel Chabrier, French pianist and composer (d. 1894)*1842 – A.", "A. Ames, American physician and politician, Mayor of Minneapolis (d. 1911)*1843 – Marthinus Nikolaas Ras, South African farmer, soldier, and gun-maker (d. 1900)*1848 – Ioan Slavici, Romanian journalist and author (d. 1925)*1849 – Edmund Barton, Australian judge and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1920)*1850 – Seth Low, American academic and politician, 92nd Mayor of New York City (d. 1916)*1854 – Thomas A. Watson, American assistant to Alexander Graham Bell (d. 1934)*1856 – Daniel Hale Williams, American surgeon and cardiologist (d. 1931)*1867 – Rubén Darío, Nicaraguan poet, journalist, and diplomat (d. 1916)*1868 – Kantarō Suzuki, Japanese admiral and politician, 42nd Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1948)*1877 – Sam Zemurray, Russian-American businessman, founded the Cuyamel Fruit Company (d. 1961)*1879 – Henri Giraud, French general and politician (d. 1949)*1880 – Paul Ehrenfest, Austrian-Dutch physicist and academic (d. 1933)* 1880 – Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster, Italian cardinal (d. 1954)*1881 – Gaston Gallimard, French publisher, founded ''Éditions Gallimard'' (d. 1975)*1882 – A.", "A. Milne, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1956)*1886 – Clara Nordström, Swedish-German author and translator (d. 1962)*1888 – Thomas Sopwith, English ice hockey player, sailor, and pilot (d. 1989)*1892 – Oliver Hardy, American actor and comedian (d. 1957)* 1892 – Bill Meanix, American hurdler and coach (d. 1957)* 1892 – Paul Rostock, German surgeon and academic (d. 1956)*1893 – Jorge Guillén, Spanish poet, critic, and academic (d. 1984)*1894 – Toots Mondt, American wrestler and promoter (d. 1976)*1896 – C. M. Eddy Jr., American author (d. 1967)* 1896 – Ville Ritola, Finnish-American runner (d. 1982)*1898 – Albert Kivikas, Estonian journalist and author (d. 1978)===1901–present ===*1901 – Ivan Petrovsky, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1973)*1903 – Berthold Goldschmidt, German pianist and composer (d. 1996)*1904 – Anthony Galla-Rini, American accordion player and composer (d. 2006)* 1904 – Cary Grant, English-American actor (d. 1986)*1905 – Joseph Bonanno, Italian-American mob boss (d. 2002)*1907 – János Ferencsik, Hungarian conductor (d. 1984)*1908 – Jacob Bronowski, Polish-English mathematician, historian, and television host (d. 1974)*1910 – Kenneth E. Boulding, English economist and academic (d. 1993)*1911 – José María Arguedas, Peruvian anthropologist, author, and poet (d. 1969)* 1911 – Danny Kaye, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1987)*1913 – Carroll Cloar, American artist (d. 1993)* 1913 – Giannis Papaioannou, Greek composer (d. 1972)*1914 – Arno Schmidt, German author and translator (d. 1979)* 1914 – Vitomil Zupan, Slovene author, poet, and playwright (d. 1987)*1915 – Syl Apps, Canadian pole vaulter, ice hockey player, and politician (d. 1998)* 1915 – Santiago Carrillo, Spanish soldier and politician (d. 2012)* 1915 – Vassilis Tsitsanis, Greek singer-songwriter and bouzouki player (d. 1984)*1917 – Nicholas Oresko, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2013)* 1917 – Wang Yung-ching, Taiwanese-American businessman (d. 2008)*1918 – Gustave Gingras, Canadian-English physician and educator (d. 1996)*1919 – Toni Turek, German footballer (d. 1984)*1921 – Yoichiro Nambu, Japanese-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)*1923 – John Graham, General Officer Commanding (GOC) Wales (d. 2012)* 1923 – Gerrit Voorting, Dutch cyclist (d. 2015)*1925 – Gilles Deleuze, French metaphysician and philosopher (d. 1995)* 1925 – John V. Evans, American soldier and politician, 27th Governor of Idaho (d. 2014)* 1925 – Sol Yurick, American soldier and author (d. 2013)*1926 – Randolph Bromery, American geologist and academic (d. 2013)*1927 – S. Balachander, Indian actor, singer, and veena player (d. 1990)*1928 – Alexander Gomelsky, Soviet and Russian professional basketball coach (d. 2005)*1931 – Chun Doo-hwan, South Korean general and politician, 5th President of South Korea (d. 2021)*1932 – Robert Anton Wilson, American psychologist, author, poet, and playwright (d. 2007)*1933 – Emeka Anyaoku, Nigerian politician, 8th Nigerian Minister of Foreign Affairs* 1933 – David Bellamy, English botanist, author and academic (d. 2019)* 1933 – John Boorman, English director, producer, and screenwriter* 1933 – Ray Dolby, American engineer and businessman, founded Dolby Laboratories (d. 2013)* 1933 – William Goodhart, Baron Goodhart, English lawyer and politician (d. 2017)* 1933 – Frank McMullen, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2004)* 1933 – Jean Vuarnet, French ski racer (d. 2017)*1934 – Raymond Briggs, English author and illustrator (d. 2022)*1935 – Eddie Jones, British illustrator (d. 1999)* 1935 – Albert Millaire, Canadian actor and director (d. 2018)* 1935 – Jon Stallworthy, English poet, critic, and academic (d. 2014)* 1935 – Gad Yaacobi, Israeli academic and diplomat, 10th Israel Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2007)*1936 – Tim Barlow, English actor (d. 2023)* 1936 – David Howell, Baron Howell of Guildford, English journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Transport*1937 – John Hume, Northern Irish educator and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020)*1938 – Curt Flood, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1997)* 1938 – Anthony Giddens, English sociologist and academic* 1938 – Werner Olk, German footballer and manager* 1938 – Hargus \"Pig\" Robbins, American musician (d. 2022)*1940 – Pedro Rodriguez, Mexican race car driver (d. 1971)*1941 – Denise Bombardier, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2023)* 1941 – Bobby Goldsboro, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1941 – David Ruffin, American singer (d. 1991)*1943 – Paul Freeman, English actor* 1943 – Kay Granger, American educator and politician* 1943 – Dave Greenslade, English keyboard player and composer* 1943 – Charlie Wilson, American businessman and politician (d. 2013)*1944 – Paul Keating, Australian economist and politician, 24th Prime Minister of Australia* 1944 – Carl Morton, American baseball player (d. 1983)* 1944 – Kei Ogura, Japanese singer-songwriter and composer* 1944 – Alexander Van der Bellen, President of Austria*1945 – Rocco Forte, English businessman and philanthropist*1946 – Perro Aguayo, Mexican wrestler (d. 2019)* 1946 – Joseph Deiss, Swiss economist and politician, 156th President of the Swiss Confederation* 1946 – Henrique Rosa, Bissau-Guinean politician, President of Guinea-Bissau (d. 2013)*1947 – Sachio Kinugasa, Japanese baseball player and journalist (d. 2018)* 1947 – Takeshi Kitano, Japanese actor and director*1949 – Bill Keller, American journalist* 1949 – Philippe Starck, French interior designer*1950 – Gianfranco Brancatelli, Italian race car driver* 1950 – Gilles Villeneuve, Canadian race car driver (d. 1982)*1951 – Bram Behr, Surinamese journalist and activist (d. 1982)* 1951 – Bob Latchford, English footballer*1952 – Michael Behe, American biochemist, author, and academic* 1952 – R. Stevie Moore, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1953 – Brett Hudson, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1953 – B. K. Misra, Indian neurosurgeon * 1953 – Peter Moon, Australian comedian and actor*1954 – Ted DiBiase, American wrestler*1955 – Kevin Costner, American actor, director, and producer*1956 – Paul Deighton, Baron Deighton, English banker and politician*1960 – Mark Rylance, English actor, director, and playwright*1961 – Peter Beardsley, English footballer and manager* 1961 – Bob Hansen, American basketball player and sportscaster* 1961 – Mark Messier, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster* 1961 – Jeff Yagher, American actor and sculptor*1962 – Alison Arngrim, Canadian-American actress*1963 – Maxime Bernier, Canadian lawyer and politician, 7th Minister of Foreign Affairs for Canada* 1963 – Ian Crook, English footballer and manager* 1963 – Carl McCoy, English singer-songwriter* 1963 – Martin O'Malley, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 61st Governor of Maryland*1964 – Brady Anderson, American baseball player* 1964 – Richard Dunwoody, Northern Irish jockey and sportscaster* 1964 – Virgil Hill, American boxer* 1964 – Jane Horrocks, English actress and singer*1966 – Alexander Khalifman, Russian chess player and author* 1966 – Kazufumi Miyazawa, Japanese singer* 1966 – André Ribeiro, Brazilian race car driver (d. 2021)*1967 – Dean Bailey, Australian footballer and coach (d. 2014)* 1967 – Iván Zamorano, Chilean footballer*1969 – Dave Bautista, American wrestler, mixed martial artist, and actor* 1969 – Jesse L. Martin, American actor and singer* 1969 – Jim O'Rourke, American guitarist and producer*1970 – DJ Quik, American rapper and producer* 1970 – Peter Van Petegem, Belgian cyclist*1971 – Amy Barger, American astronomer* 1971 – Jonathan Davis, American singer-songwriter* 1971 – Christian Fittipaldi, Brazilian race car driver* 1971 – Pep Guardiola, Spanish footballer and manager* 1971 – Binyavanga Wainaina, Kenyan writer (d. 2019)*1972 – Vinod Kambli, Indian cricketer, sportscaster, and actor* 1972 – Mike Lieberthal, American baseball player* 1972 – Kjersti Plätzer, Norwegian race walker*1973 – Burnie Burns, American actor, director, and producer, co-founded Rooster Teeth Productions* 1973 – Luke Goodwin, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1973 – Benjamin Jealous, American civic leader and activist* 1973 – Joe Kehoskie, American baseball executive* 1973 – Anthony Koutoufides, Australian footballer* 1973 – Crispian Mills, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and director* 1973 – Rolando Schiavi, Argentinian footballer and coach*1974 – Christian Burns, English singer-songwriter*1976 – Laurence Courtois, Belgian tennis player* 1976 – Marcelo Gallardo, Argentinian footballer and coach* 1976 – Damien Leith, Irish-Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1976 – Derek Richardson, American actor*1977 – Richard Archer, English singer-songwriter and guitarist*1978 – Brian Falkenborg, American baseball player* 1978 – Thor Hushovd, Norwegian cyclist* 1978 – Bogdan Lobonț, Romanian footballer*1979 – Ruslan Fedotenko, Ukrainian ice hockey player* 1979 – Paulo Ferreira, Portuguese footballer* 1979 – Brian Gionta, American ice hockey player* 1979 – Kenyatta Jones, American football player (d. 2018)* 1979 – Wandy Rodriguez, Dominican baseball player*1980 – Estelle, English singer-songwriter and producer* 1980 – Robert Green, English footballer* 1980 – Kert Haavistu, Estonian footballer and manager* 1980 – Julius Peppers, American football player* 1980 – Jason Segel, American actor and screenwriter*1981 – Gang Dong-won, South Korean actor* 1981 – Olivier Rochus, Belgian tennis player* 1981 – Khari Stephenson, Jamaican footballer*1982 – Quinn Allman, American guitarist and producer* 1982 – Mary Jepkosgei Keitany, Kenyan runner*1983 – Amir Blumenfeld, Israeli-American comedian, actor, director, and screenwriter* 1983 – Samantha Mumba, Irish singer-songwriter and actress*1984 – Seung-Hui Cho, South Korean mass murderer (d. 2007)* 1984 – Kristy Lee Cook, American singer-songwriter* 1984 – Ioannis Drymonakos, Greek swimmer* 1984 – Makoto Hasebe, Japanese footballer* 1984 – Michael Kearney, American biochemist and academic* 1984 – Benji Schwimmer, American dancer and choreographer* 1984 – Viktoria Shklover, Estonian figure skater*1985 – Dale Begg-Smith, Canadian-Australian skier* 1985 – Mark Briscoe, American wrestler* 1985 – Riccardo Montolivo, Italian footballer* 1985 – Hyun Woo, South Korean actor*1986 – Marya Roxx, Estonian-American singer-songwriter* 1986 – Becca Tobin, American actress, singer, and dancer* 1986 – Ikusaburo Yamazaki, Japanese actor and singer* 1986 – Eugene Lee Yang, Korean-American actor, filmmaker, and activist*1987 – Johan Djourou, Swiss footballer* 1987 – Christopher Liebig, German rugby player* 1987 – Grigoris Makos, Greek footballer*1988 – Ronnie Day, American singer-songwriter* 1988 – Angelique Kerber, German tennis player* 1988 – Anastasios Kissas, Greek footballer* 1988 – Ashleigh Murray, American actress and singer* 1988 – Boy van Poppel, Dutch cyclist*1989 – Rubén Miño, Spanish footballer* 1989 – Michael Pineda, Dominican baseball player*1990 – Gorgui Dieng, Senegalese basketball player* 1990 – Hayle Ibrahimov, Ethiopian-Azerbaijani runner* 1990 – Brett Lawrie, Canadian baseball player* 1990 – Nacho, Spanish footballer* 1990 – Gift Ngoepe, South African baseball player* 1990 – Alex Pietrangelo, Canadian ice hockey player* 1990 – Zeeko Zaki, Egyptian-American actor*1992 – Francesco Bardi, Italian footballer*1993 – Sean Keenan, Australian actor* 1993 – Juan Fernando Quintero, Colombian footballer*1994 – Max Fried, American baseball player* 1994 – Kang Ji-young, South Korean singer* 1994 – Ilona Kremen, Belarusian tennis player*1995 – Bryce Alford, American basketball player* 1995 – Leonard Fournette, American football player* 1995 – Samu Castillejo, Spanish footballer*1997 – Denis Malgin, Swiss ice hockey player*1998 – Aitana Bonmatí, Spanish footballer* 1998 – Lisandro Martínez, Argentinian footballer* 1998 – Éder Militão, Brazilian footballer*1999 – Karan Brar, American actor* 1999 – Tee Higgins, American football player* 1999 – Djorkaeff Reasco, Ecuadorian footballer* 1999 – Gary Trent Jr., American basketball player* 1999 – Mateus Ward, American actor*2002 – Anastasia Zakharova, Russian tennis player* 2002 – Ki-Jana Hoever, Dutch footballer* 2002 – Karim Adeyemi, German footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*52 BC – Publius Clodius Pulcher, Roman politician (b.", "93 BC)* 474 – Leo I, Byzantine emperor (b.", "401)* 748 – Odilo, duke of Bavaria* 896 – Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun, ruler of the Tulunids, murdered (b.", "864)*1213 – Tamar of Georgia (b.", "1160)*1253 – King Henry I of Cyprus (b.", "1217)*1271 – Saint Margaret of Hungary (b.", "1242)*1326 – Robert FitzWalter, 1st Baron FitzWalter, English baron (b.", "1247)*1357 – Maria of Portugal, infanta (b.", "1313)*1367 – Peter I of Portugal (b.", "1320)*1411 – Jobst of Moravia, ruler of Moravia, King of the Romans*1425 – Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, English politician (b.", "1391)*1451 – Henry II, Count of Nassau-Siegen (1442–1451) (b.", "1414)*1471 – Emperor Go-Hanazono of Japan (b.", "1419)*1479 – Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria (b.", "1417)*1547 – Pietro Bembo, Italian cardinal and scholar (b.", "1470)*1586 – Margaret of Parma (b.", "1522)*1589 – Magnus Heinason, Faroese naval hero (b.", "1545)===1601–1900===*1677 – Jan van Riebeeck, Dutch politician, founded Cape Town (b.", "1619)*1756 – Francis George of Schönborn-Buchheim, Archbishop-Elector of Trier (b.", "1682)*1783 – Jeanne Quinault, French actress and playwright (b.", "1699)*1803 – Ippolit Bogdanovich, Russian poet and academic (b.", "1743)*1849 – Panoutsos Notaras, Greek politician (b.", "1752)*1862 – John Tyler, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 10th President of the United States (b.", "1790)*1873 – Edward Bulwer-Lytton, English author, poet, playwright, and politician, Secretary of State for the Colonies (b.", "1803)*1878 – Antoine César Becquerel, French physicist and academic (b.", "1788)*1886 – Baldassare Verazzi, Italian painter (b.", "1819)*1892 – Anton Anderledy, Swiss religious leader, 23rd Superior General of the Society of Jesus (b.", "1819)*1896 – Charles Floquet, French lawyer and politician, 55th Prime Minister of France (b.", "1828)===1901–present===*1923 – Wallace Reid, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1891)*1934 – Joseph Devlin, Northern Irish political leader of the Nationalist Party (Northern Ireland) (b.", "1871)*1936 – Hermanus Brockmann, Dutch rower (b.", "1871)* 1936 – Rudyard Kipling, English author and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1865)*1940 – Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer, Polish author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1865)*1951 – Amy Carmichael, Irish missionary and humanitarian (b.", "1867)*1952 – Curly Howard, American actor (b.", "1903)*1954 – Sydney Greenstreet, English-American actor (b.", "1879)*1955 – Saadat Hasan Manto, Pakistani author and screenwriter (b.", "1912)*1956 – Makbule Atadan, Turkish lawyer and politician (b.", "1885)* 1956 – Konstantin Päts, Estonian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 1st President of Estonia (b.", "1874)*1963 – Hugh Gaitskell, English academic and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1906)*1966 – Kathleen Norris, American journalist and author (b.", "1880)*1967 – Goose Tatum, American basketball player and soldier (b.", "1921)*1969 – Hans Freyer, German sociologist and philosopher (b.", "1887)*1970 – David O. McKay, American religious leader, 9th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b.", "1873)*1971 – Virgil Finlay, American illustrator (b.", "1914)*1973 – Irina Nikolaevna Levchenko, Russian tank commander (b.", "1924)*1975 – Gertrude Olmstead, American actress (b.", "1897)*1978 – Hasan Askari, Pakistani philosopher and author (b.", "1919)*1980 – Cecil Beaton, English fashion designer and photographer (b.", "1904)*1984 – Panteleimon Ponomarenko, Belarusian general and politician (b.", "1902)* 1984 – Vassilis Tsitsanis, Greek singer-songwriter and bouzouki player (b.", "1915)*1989 – Bruce Chatwin, English-French author (b.", "1940)*1990 – Melanie Appleby, English singer (b.", "1966)* 1990 – Rusty Hamer, American actor (b.", "1947)*1993 – Dionysios Zakythinos, Greek historian, academic, and politician (b.", "1905)*1995 – Adolf Butenandt, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1903)* 1995 – Ron Luciano, American baseball player and umpire (b.", "1937)*1996 – N. T. Rama Rao, Indian actor, director, producer, and politician, 10th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh (b.", "1923)*1997 – Paul Tsongas, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1941)*1998 – Dan Georgiadis, Greek footballer and manager (b.", "1922)*2000 – Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, Austrian architect (b.", "1897)*2001 – Laurent-Désiré Kabila, President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (b.", "1939)*2003 – Ed Farhat, American wrestler and trainer (b.", "1924)* 2003 – Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Indian poet and author (b.", "1907)*2004 – Galina Gavrilovna Korchuganova, Russian-born Soviet test pilot and aerobatics champion (b.", "1935)*2005 – Lamont Bentley, American actor and rapper (b.", "1973)*2006 – Jan Twardowski, Polish priest and poet (b.", "1915)*2007 – Brent Liles, American bass player (b.", "1963)*2008 – Georgia Frontiere, American businesswoman and philanthropist (b.", "1927)* 2008 – Frank Lewin, American composer and theorist (b.", "1925)* 2008 – Lois Nettleton, American actress (b.", "1927)* 2008 – John Stroger, American politician (b.", "1929)*2009 – Tony Hart, English painter and television host (b.", "1925)* 2009 – Nora Kovach, Hungarian-American ballerina (b.", "1931)* 2009 – Danai Stratigopoulou, Greek singer-songwriter (b.", "1913)* 2009 – Grigore Vieru, Romanian poet and author (b.", "1935)*2010 – Kate McGarrigle, Canadian musician and singer-songwriter (b.", "1946)* 2010 – Robert B. Parker, American author and academic (b.", "1932)*2011 – Sargent Shriver, American politician and diplomat, 21st United States Ambassador to France (b.", "1915)*2012 – Anthony Gonsalves, Indian composer and educator (b.", "1927)* 2012 – Georg Lassen, German captain (b.", "1915)* 2012 – Yuri Rasovsky, American playwright and producer, founded The National Radio Theater of Chicago (b.", "1944)*2013 – Sean Fallon, Irish footballer and manager (b.", "1922)* 2013 – Jim Horning, American computer scientist and academic (b.", "1942)* 2013 – Jon Mannah, Australian rugby league player (b.", "1989)* 2013 – Lewis Marnell, Australian skateboarder (b.", "1982)* 2013 – Ron Nachman, Israeli lawyer and politician (b.", "1942)*2014 – Kathryn Abbe, American photographer and author (b.", "1919)* 2014 – Michael Botmang, Nigerian politician, 17th Governor of Plateau State (b.", "1938)* 2014 – Dennis Frederiksen, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1951)* 2014 – Andy Graver, English footballer (b.", "1927)* 2014 – Sarah Marshall, English actress (b.", "1933)* 2014 – Eugenio Cruz Vargas, Chilean poet and painter (b.", "1923)*2015 – Alberto Nisman, Argentinian lawyer and prosecutor (b.", "1963)* 2015 – Christine Valmy, Romanian cosmetologist and author (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Piet van der Sanden, Dutch journalist and politician (b.", "1924)* 2015 – Tony Verna, American director and producer, invented instant replay (b.", "1933)*2016 – Johnny Bach, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1924)* 2016 – Glenn Frey, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b.", "1948)* 2016 – T. S. Sinnathuray, Judge of the High Court of Singapore (b.", "1930)* 2016 – Michel Tournier, French journalist and author (b.", "1924)*2017 – Peter Abrahams, South African-Jamaican writer (b.", "1919)* 2017 – David P. Buckson, American lawyer and politician, Governor of Delaware (b.", "1920)* 2017 – Rachael Heyhoe Flint, Baroness Heyhoe Flint, English cricketer, businesswoman and philanthropist (b.", "1939)* 2017 – Roberta Peters, American coloratura soprano (b.", "1930)*2019 – John Coughlin, American figure skater (b.", "1985)*2022 – Francisco Gento, Spanish football player (b.", "1933)* 2022 – Yvette Mimieux, American actress (b.", "1942)* 2022 – André Leon Talley, American fashion journalist (b.", "1948) * 2023 – David Crosby, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1941)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Amy Carmichael (Church of England)**Athanasius of Alexandria (Eastern Orthodox Church)**Confession of Peter (Eastern Orthodox, some Anglican and Lutheran Churches)**Cyril of Alexandria**Deicolus**Margaret of Hungary**Prisca**Volusianus of Tours**January 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Royal Thai Armed Forces Day (Thailand)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 18" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jihad" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jihad''' (; ) is an Arabic word which literally means \"striving\" or \"struggling\", especially with a praiseworthy aim.", "In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God's guidance, such as struggle against one's evil inclinations, proselytizing, or efforts toward the moral betterment of the Muslim community (''Ummah''), though it is most frequently associated with armed conflict.", "In classical Islamic law (''sharia''), the term refers to armed struggle against unbelievers, while modernist Islamic scholars generally equate military ''jihad'' with defensive warfare.", "In Sufi circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of ''greater jihad''.", "The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by various insurgent Islamic extremist, militant Islamist, and terrorist individuals and organizations whose ideology is based on the Islamic notion of ''jihad''.The word ''jihad'' appears frequently in the Qur'an with and without military connotations, often in the idiomatic expression \"striving in the path of God ''(al-jihad fi sabil Allah)''\", conveying a sense of self-exertion.", "They developed an elaborate set of rules pertaining to ''jihad'', including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat.In the modern era, the notion of ''jihad'' has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead given rise to an ideological and political discourse.", "While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of ''jihad'', some Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory.Jihad is classified into inner (\"greater\") ''jihad'', which involves a struggle against one's own base impulses, and external (\"lesser\") ''jihad'', which is further subdivided into ''jihad of the pen/tongue'' (debate or persuasion) and ''jihad of the sword''.", "Most Western writers consider external ''jihad'' to have primacy over inner ''jihad'' in the Islamic tradition, while much of contemporary Muslim opinion favors the opposite view.", "Gallup analysis of a large survey reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions of ''jihad'' held by Muslims around the world.The sense of jihad as armed resistance was first used in the context of persecution faced by Muslims, as when Muhammad was at Mecca, when the community had two choices: emigration (hijra) or jihad.", "In Twelver Shi'a Islam, ''jihad'' is one of the Ancillaries of the Faith.", "A person engaged in ''jihad'' is called a ''mujahid'' (plural: ''mujahideen'').", "The term ''jihad'' is often rendered in English as \"Holy War\", although this translation is controversial.", "Today, the word ''jihad'' is often used without religious connotations, like the English ''crusade''." ], [ "Etymology and literary origins", "The term ''jihad'' is derived from the Arabic root ''jahada'', meaning \"to exert strength and effort, to use all means in order to accomplish a task\".", "In its expanded sense, it can be fighting the enemies of Islam, as well as adhering to religious teachings, enjoining good and forbidding evil.", "The peaceful sense of \"efforts towards the moral uplift of society or towards the spread of Islam\" can be known as \"''jihad'' of the tongue\" or \"''jihad'' of the pen\", as opposed to \"''jihad'' of the sword\".", "It is used as a term in ''fiqh'' (Islamic jurisprudence) mostly in the latter sense, while in Sufism mostly in the sense of fighting the ''nafs al-ammara'', which is the psychological state of being consumed by one's own desires.", "Spiritual and moral ''jihad'' is generally emphasized in pious and mystical circles.The Hans Wehr ''Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic'' defines the term as \"fight, battle; jihad, holy war (against the infidels, as a religious duty)\".", "However, given the range of meanings, it is incorrect to equate it simply with \"holy war\".", "The notion of ''jihad'' has its origins in the Islamic idea that the whole humankind will embrace Islam.", "In the Qur'an and in later Muslim usage, jihad is commonly followed by the expression ''fi sabil illah'', \"in the path of God.\"", "Muhammad Abdel-Haleem states that it indicates \"the way of truth and justice, including all the teachings it gives on the justifications and the conditions for the conduct of war and peace.", "\"In Modern Standard Arabic, the term ''jihad'' is used for a struggle for causes, both religious and secular.", "It is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word \"crusade\" (as in \"a crusade against drugs\").", "''Jihad'' is also used quite commonly in Arabic countries, in the neutral sense of \"a struggle for a noble cause\", as a unisex name given to children.", "Nonetheless, ''jihad'' is usually used in the religious sense and its beginnings are traced back to the Qur'an and the words and actions of Muhammad.===Quran===''Jihad'' is mentioned in four places in the Qur'an as a noun, while its derived verb is used in twenty-four places.", "''Mujahid'', the active participle meaning \"jihadist\", is mentioned in two verses.", "In some of these mentions (see At-Tawbah 9/41, 44, 81, 86), it is understood that the word ''jihad'' directly refers to war, and in others, ''jihad'' is used in the sense of \"the effort to live in accordance with Allah's will\".", "Quranic exhortions to jihad have been interpreted by Islamic scholars both in the combative and non-combative sense.", "Ahmed al-Dawoody writes that there seventeen references to or derivatices of ''jihad'' occur altogether forty-one times in eleven Meccan texts and thirty Medinan ones, with 28 mentions related to religious belief or spiritual struggle and 13 mentions related to warfare or physical struggle.===Hadith===There are also many hadiths (records of the teachings, deeds and sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad) about ''jihad'', typically under the headings of ''kitab al-jihad'' (book of jihad) or ''faza'il al-jihad'' (virtues of jihad) in hadith collections or as the subject of independent works.", "Of the 199 hadith references to jihad in the Bukhari collection of hadith, all assume that jihad means warfare.Among reported sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad involving jihad areand Ibn Nuhaas also cited a hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, where Muhammad states that the highest kind of jihad is \"The person who is killed whilst spilling the last of his blood\" (Ahmed 4/144).", "Muhammad also said, “I cannot find anything” as meritorious as jihad; he further likened jihad to “praying ceaselessly and fasting continuously”.", "Muhammad said that “if it were not a hardship for the Muslims, I would never idle behind from a raiding party going out to fight in the path of Allah....", "I would love to raid in the path of Allah and be killed, to raid again and be killed, and to raid again and be killed”.", "Muhammad also said that \"Lining up for battle in the path of Allah jihad is worthier than 60 years of worship\".", "Muhammad claimed that any muslim who refused to fight in Jihad “will be tortured like no other sinful human” in hell with confirmation from Quran 8:15-16.Another hadith has Muhammad saying that “the sword wipes away all sins” and “being killed in the path of Allah washes away impurity”According to another hadith, supporting one's parents is also an example of jihad.", "It has also been reported that Muhammad considered performing hajj well to be the best jihad for Muslim women.The hadith emphasize jihad as one of the means to Paradise.", "All sins (except debt) would be forgiven for the one who dies in it.", "Participation in jihad had to be voluntary and intention must be pure, for jihad is only waged for the sake of God not for material wealth.", "On the contrary, jihad required man to put both his life and wealth at risk.", "Jihad is ranked as one of the highest good deeds; according to one hadith it is the third best deed after prayer and being good to one's parents.", "One hadith exempts military jihad on men whose parents are alive, as serving one's parents is considered a superior jihad." ], [ "Greater and lesser jihad", "Tradition distinguishes the \"greater jihad\" (inner struggle against sinful behavior) from the \"lesser jihad\" (military sense).", "Early Islamic thought considered non-violent interpretations of jihad, especially for those Muslims who could not partake in warfare in distant lands.", "Most classical writings use the term \"jihad\" in the military sense.", "The tradition differentiating between the \"greater and lesser jihad\" is not included in any of the authoritative compilations of Hadith.", "In consequence, some Islamists dismiss it as not authentic.The most commonly cited hadith for \"greater jihad\" is: A number of fighters came to Muhammad and he said \"You have come from the 'lesser jihad' to the 'greater jihad'.\"", "The fighters asked \"what is the greater jihad?\"", "Muhammad replied, \"It is the struggle against one's passions.", "\"This was also cited in ''The History of Baghdad'' by Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an 11th-century Islamic scholar.", "This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two forms of jihad: \"greater\" and \"lesser\".", "Some Islamic scholars, such as Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, consider the hadith to have a weak chain of transmission.The concept has had \"enormous influence\" in Islamic mysticism (Sufism).Ibn Hazm lists four kinds of ''jihad fi sabilillah'' (struggle in the cause of God):* Jihad of the heart ''(jihad bil qalb/nafs)'' is concerned with combatting the devil and in the attempt to escape his persuasion to evil.", "This type of Jihad was regarded as the greater jihad (''al-jihad al-akbar'').", "* Jihad by the tongue ''(jihad bil lisan)'' (also Jihad by the word, ''jihad al-qalam'') is concerned with speaking the truth and spreading the word of Islam with one's tongue.", "* Jihad by the hand ''(jihad bil yad)'' refers to choosing to do what is right and to combat injustice and what is wrong with action.", "* Jihad by the sword ''(jihad bis saif)'' refers to ''qital fi sabilillah'' (armed fighting in the way of God, or holy war), the most common usage by Salafi Muslims and offshoots of the Muslim Brotherhood.A related hadith tradition that has \"found its way into popular Muslim literature\", and which has been said to \"embody the Muslim mindset\" of the Islamic Golden Age (the period from the mid-8th century to mid-13th century following the relocation of the Abbasid capital from Damascus to Baghdad), is: The belief in the veracity of this hadith was a contributing factor in the efforts by successive caliphs to subsidize translations of \"Greek, Hebrew and Syriac science and philosophy texts\", and the saying continues to be heavily emphasised to this day in certain Islamic traditions advocating intellectualism over violence, for example in Timbuktu, where it is central to one of two key lessons in the work ''Tuhfat al-fudala'' by the 16th-century Berber scholar Ahmed Baba.", "In general, however, fewer people today are aware of the hadith, which suffers from \"a general lack of knowledge\", according to Akbar Ahmed.According to classical Islamic scholars like Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Jihad is against four types of enemies: the lower self (''nafs''), Satan, the unbelievers, and the hypocrites.", "The first two types of Jihad are purely peaceful spiritual struggles.", "According to Ibn Qayyim \"Jihad against the lower self precedes jihad against external enemies\".", "Confirming the central importance of the spiritual aspect of Jihad, Ibn Taymiyyah writes:Engaging in the greater jihad need not preclude engaging in the lesser jihad.", "Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani recommended his followers to pursue both the greater and the lesser jihads.At least one important contemporary Twelver Shia figure, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the Iranian Revolution and the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, wrote a treatise on the \"Greater Jihad\" (i.e., internal/personal struggle against sin).Robert W. Schaefer discusses ''jihad'' and ''gazavat'' in the context of the Caucasus: \"''Gazavat'' was the ''jihad'' of its day.", "''Gazavat'' meant putting yourself on the right path (what Muslims refer to as the lesser ''jihad'') as well as expelling the invader (what is referred to as greater ''jihad'').\"" ], [ "Defensive and offensive jihad", "The Historian and Jurist Ibn Khaldun explains how Islamic concept of Jihad was unqiue among all other religions:Classical scholars discussed justifications for jihad, including waging it defensively vs offensively.", "However, classical jurists paid more attention to conduct of war ''jus in bello'' (see next section) than justification of war ''jus ad bellum''.", "The decision of when to wage war was often viewed as a political decision best left to political authorities.Two justifications for jihad were given: defensive war against external aggression, or an offensive or preemptive attack against an enemy state.", "According to the majority of jurists, the ''casus belli'' (justifications for war) are restricted to aggression against Muslims, and ''fitna''—persecution of Muslims because of their religious belief.", "They hold that unbelief in itself is not a justification for war.", "These jurists therefore maintain that only combatants are to be fought; noncombatants such as women, children, clergy, the aged, the insane, farmers, serfs, the blind, and so on are not to be killed in war.", "Thus, the Hanafī Ibn Najīm states: \"the reason for jihād in our the Hanafīs view is ''kawnuhum harbā ‛alaynā'' literally, their being at war against us.\"", "The Hanafī jurists al-Shaybānī state that \"although kufr unbelief in God is one of the greatest sins, it is between the individual and his God the Almighty and the punishment for this sin is to be postponed to the ''dār al-jazā’'', (the abode of reckoning, the Hereafter),\" and al-Sarakhsī says something similar.", "Offensive jihad involved forays into enemy territory either for conquest, and thus enlarging the Muslim political order, or to dissuade the enemy from attacking Muslim lands.Shia and Sunni theories of jihad are similar, except that Shias consider offensive jihad to be valid only under the leadership of the Mahdi, who is currently believed to be in occultation but will return at some point in the future.", "However, defensive jihad is permissible in Shia Islam before the Mahdi's return.", "In fact, Shia scholars emphasized it was a religious duty for Shia to defend all Muslims (including Sunni Muslims) from outside invaders." ], [ "Rules of warfare", "Rules prohibit attacking or molesting non-combatants, which include women, children under the age of puberty, elderly men, people with disabilities and those who are sick.", "Diplomats, merchants and peasants are similarly immune from being attacked.", "Monks are presumed to be non-combatants and thus have immunity too; similarly places of worship should not be attacked.", "Even if the enemy disregarded the immunity of noncombatants, Muslims could not respond in kind.", "However, these categories lose their immunity if they participate in fighting, planning or supplying the enemy.", "Some jurists argued that immunity was more related to noncombatant status than being in a certain demographic class.", "For example, Muhaqqiq al-Hilli opined that only old men are only immune from being killed if they neither fight, nor take a role in military decision making.Up until the Crusades, Muslim jurists disallowed the use of mangonels because the weapon killed indiscriminately with the potential of harming noncombatants.", "But during Crusades this ruling was reversed out of military need.", "Jurists also grappled with the question of attacking an enemy that used women, children or Muslims as human shields.", "Most jurists held that it was permissible to attack the enemy in cases of military necessity, but steps should be taken to direct at the attack towards the combatants and avoiding the human shield.", "Abu Hanifa argued that if Muslims stopped combat for fear of killing noncombatants, then such a rule would make fighting impossible, as every city had civilians.", "Mutilating the dead bodies of the enemy is prohibited.There are two conflicting rulings on destruction of enemy property.", "In one military battle, Prophet Muhammad ordered the destruction of an enemy's palm trees as a means of ending a siege without bloodshed.", "By contrast, Abu Bakr prohibited destruction of trees, buildings and livestock.", "Most jurists did not allow unnecessary destruction of enemy property, but allowed it in cases of military necessity, such as destroying buildings in which the enemy is taking shelter.", "Some jurists also allowed destruction if it would weaken the enemy or win the war.", "Many jurists cautioned against \"unnecessary devastation\", not just out of humanitarian concerns, but practical ones: it is more useful to capture an enemy's property than to destroy it.", "Islamic scholars prohibited killing animals, unless due to military necessity (such as killing horses in battle).", "This is because, unlike other enemy property, animals are capable of feeling pain." ], [ "History of usage and practice", "In pre-Islamic Arabia, Bedouins conducted raids against enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils.", "According to some scholars (such as James Turner Johnson), while Islamic leaders \"instilled into the hearts of the warriors the belief\" in jihad \"holy war\" and ''ghaza'' (raids), the \"fundamental structure\" of this bedouin warfare \"remained, ... raiding to collect booty\".According to Jonathan Berkey, the Quran's statements in support of jihad may have originally been directed against Muhammad's local enemies, the pagans of Mecca or the Jews of Medina, but these same statements could be redirected once new enemies appeared.", "According to another scholar (Majid Khadduri), it was the shift in focus to the conquest and spoils collecting of non-Bedouin unbelievers and away from traditional inter-bedouin tribal raids, that may have made it possible for Islam not only to expand but to avoid self-destruction.===Classical===The primary aim of jihad as warfare is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state.", "In theory, jihad was to continue until \"all mankind either embraced Islam or submitted to the authority of the Muslim state.\"", "There could be truces before this was achieved, but no permanent peace.", "One who died \"on the path of God\" was a martyr (''shahid''), whose sins were remitted and who was secured \"immediate entry to paradise\".According with Bernard Lewis, \"from an early date Muslim law laid down\" jihad in the military sense as \"one of the principal obligations\" of both \"the head of the Muslim state\", who declared the jihad, and the Muslim community.", "According to legal historian Sadakat Kadri, Islamic jurists first developed classical doctrine of jihad \"towards the end of the eighth century\", using the doctrine of ''naskh'' (that God gradually improved His revelations over the course of Muhammed's mission) they subordinated verses in the Quran emphasizing harmony to more the more \"confrontational\" verses of Muhammad's later years and linked verses on exertion (''jihad'') to those of fighting (''qital'').", "Muslims jurists of the eighth century developed a paradigm of international relations that divides the world into three conceptual divisions, dar al-Islam/dar al-‛adl/dar al-salam (house of Islam/house of justice/house of peace), dar al-harb/dar al-jawr (house of war/house of injustice, oppression), and dar al-sulh/dar al-‛ahd/dār al-muwada‛ah (house of peace/house of covenant/house of reconciliation).", "The second/eighth century jurist Sufyan al-Thawri (d. 161/778) headed what Khadduri calls a pacifist school, which maintained that jihad was only a defensive war.", "He also states that the jurists who held this position, among whom he refers to Hanafi jurists al-Awza‛i (d. 157/774) and Malik ibn Anas (d. 179/795), and other early jurists, \"stressed that tolerance should be shown unbelievers, especially scripturaries and advised the Imam to prosecute war only when the inhabitants of the dar al-harb came into conflict with Islam.\"", "The duty of Jihad was a collective one (''fard al-kifaya'').", "It was to be directed only by the caliph who might delayed it when convenient, negotiating truces for up to ten years at a time.", "Within classical Islamic jurisprudence—the development of which is to be dated into—the first few centuries after the prophet's death—jihad consisted of wars against unbelievers, apostates, and was the only form of warfare permissible.", "(Another source—Bernard Lewis—states that fighting rebels and bandits was legitimate though not a form of jihad, and that while the classical perception and presentation of the jihad was warfare in the field against a foreign enemy, internal jihad \"against an infidel renegade, or otherwise illegitimate regime was not unknown.", "\")However, some argue martyrdom is never automatic because it is within God's exclusive province to judge who is worthy of that designation.Classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence often contained a section called ''Book of Jihad'', with rules governing the conduct of war covered at great length.", "Such rules include treatment of nonbelligerents, women, children (also cultivated or residential areas), and division of spoils.", "Such rules offered protection for civilians.", "Spoils include ''Ghanimah'' (spoils obtained by actual fighting), and ''fai'' (obtained without fighting i.e.", "when the enemy surrenders or flees).The first documentation of the law of jihad was written by 'Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i and Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani.", "(It grew out of debates that surfaced following Muhammad's death.", ")Although some Islamic scholars have differed on the implementation of Jihad, there is consensus amongst them that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression.Both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim asserted that Muhammad never initiated any hostilities and that all the wars he engaged in were primarily defensive.", "He never forced non-Muslims to Islam and upheld the truces with non-Muslims so long as they didn't violate them.", "Ibn Taymiyya's views on Jihad are explained in his treatise titled ''Qāʿidah mukhtaṣarah fī qitāl al-kuffār wa muhādanatuhum wa taḥrīm qatlahum li mujarrad kufrihim''.", "(An abridged rule on fighting the unbelievers and making truces with them, and the prohibition of killing them merely because of their unbelief) According to Ibn Taymiyya, every human blood is inviolable by default, except \"by right of justice\".", "Although Ibn Taymiyya authorised offensive Jihad ( ''Jihad al-Talab'') against enemies who threaten Muslims or obstruct their citizens from freely accepting Islam, unbelief (''Kufr'') by itself is not a justification for violence, whether against individuals or states.", "According to Ibn Taymīyah, jihad is a legitimate reaction to military aggression by unbelievers and not merely due to religious differences.", "Ibn Taymiyya writes:\"As for the transgressor who does not fight, there are no texts in which Allah commands him to be fought.", "Rather, the unbelievers are only fought on the condition that they wage war, as is practiced by the majority of scholars and is evident in the Book and Sunnah.", "\"As important as jihad was, it has not been considered one of the \"pillars of Islam\".", "According to one scholar (Majid Khadduri, this is because the five pillars are individual obligations, but jihad is a \"collective obligation\" of the whole Muslim community meant to be carried out by the Islamic state.", "This was the belief of \"all jurists, with almost no exception\", but did not apply to ''defense'' of the Muslim community from a sudden attack, in which case jihad was and \"individual obligation\" of all believers, including women and children.Scholars had previously assumed it was the responsibility of a centralized government to organize jihad.", "But this changed as the authority of the Abbasid caliph weakened.", "Al-Mawardi allowed local governors to wage jihad on the caliph's behalf.", "This decentralization of jihad became especially pressing after the Crusades.", "Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami argued that all Muslims were responsible for waging wars of self-defense.", "Al-Sulami encouraged Muslim rulers from distant lands to assist those Muslims being invaded.Classical Shia doctrine maintained defensive jihad was always permissible, but offensive jihad required the presence of the Imam.", "An exception to this, during medieval times, was when the first Fatimid caliph Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah claimed to be the representative of the Imam and claimed the right to launch offensive jihad.After the Mongol invasions, Shia scholar Muhaqqiq al-Hilli made defensive war not just permissible but praiseworthy, even obligatory.", "If a Muslim could not take part in the defense then he should, at least, send material support.", "This remained the case even if the Muslims were ruled by an unjust ruler.====Early Muslim conquests====Age of the Caliphs In the early era that inspired classical Islam (Rashidun Caliphate) and lasted less than a century, jihad spread the realm of Islam to include millions of subjects, and an area extending \"from the borders of India and China to the Pyrenees and the Atlantic\".", "The role of religion in these early conquests is debated.", "Medieval Arabic authors believed the conquests were commanded by God, and presented them as orderly and disciplined, under the command of the caliph.", "Many modern historians question whether hunger and desertification, rather than jihad, was a motivating force in the conquests.", "The famous historian William Montgomery Watt argued that \"Most of the participants in the early Islamic expeditions probably thought of nothing more than booty ...", "There was no thought of spreading the religion of Islam.\"", "Similarly, Edward J. Jurji argues that the motivations of the Arab conquests were certainly not \"for the propagation of Islam ... Military advantage, economic desires, and the attempt to strengthen the hand of the state and enhance its sovereignty ... are some of the determining factors.\"", "Some recent explanations cite both material and religious causes in the conquests.===Post-Classical usage===According to some authors, the more spiritual definitions of jihad developed sometime after the 150 years of jihad wars and Muslim territorial expansion, and particularly after the Mongol invaders sacked Baghdad and overthrew the Abbasid Caliphate.", "The historian Hamilton Gibb states that \"in the historic Muslim Community the concept of jihad had gradually weakened and at length it had been largely reinterpreted in terms of Sufi ethics.\"", "Johnson notes that \"despite the theoretical importance of the idea of jihad in classical Islamic juristic thought\", by the time of the Abbasids, the concept was no longer central to statecraft.Rudolph Peters also wrote that with the stagnation of Islamic expansionism, the concept of jihad became internalized as a moral or spiritual struggle.", "Earlier classical works on fiqh emphasized jihad as war for God's religion, Peters found.", "Later Islamic scholars like Ibn al-Amir al-San'ani, Muhammad Abduh, Rashid Rida, Ubaidullah Sindhi, Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Shibli Nomani, etc.", "emphasized the defensive aspect of Jihad, distinguishing between defensive Jihad ( ''jihad al-daf'') and offensive Jihad ( ''Jihad al-talab'' or Jihad of choice ).", "They refuted the notion of consensus on ''Jihad al-talab'' being a communal obligation( ''fard kifaya'' ).", "In support of this view, these scholars referred to the works of classical scholars such as Al-Jassas, Ibn Taymiyyah, etc.", "According to Ibn Taymiyya, the reason for Jihad against non-Muslims is not their disbelief, but the threat they pose to Muslims.", "Citing Ibn Taymiyya, scholars like Rashid Rida, Al San'ani, Qaradawi, etc.", "argues that unbelievers need not be fought unless they pose a threat to Muslims.", "Thus, Jihad is obligatory only as a defensive warfare to respond to aggression or \"perfidy\" against the Muslim community, and that the \"normal and desired state\" between Islamic and non-Islamic territories was one of \"peaceful coexistence.\"", "This was similar to the Western concept of a \"Just war\".", "Similarly the 18th-century Islamic scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab defined Jihad as a defensive military action to protect the Muslim community, and emphasized its defensive aspect in synchrony with later 20th century Islamic writers.", "Today, some Muslim authors only recognize wars fought for the purpose of territorial defense as well as wars fought for the defense of religious freedom as legitimate.Ibn Taymiyyah's hallmark themes included the permissibility of overthrowing a ruler who is classified as an unbeliever due to a failure to adhere to Islamic law, the absolute division of the world into ''dar al-kufr'' and ''dar al-Islam'', the labeling of anyone not adhering to one's particular interpretation of Islam as an unbeliever, and the call for blanket warfare against Non-Muslims, particularly Jews and Christians.Ibn Taymiyyah recognized \"the possibility of a jihad against `heretical` and `deviant` Muslims within ''dar al-Islam''.", "He identified as heretical and deviant Muslims anyone who propagated innovations (bida') contrary to the Quran and Sunna ... legitimated jihad against anyone who refused to abide by Islamic law or revolted against the true Muslim authorities.", "\"He used a very \"broad definition\" of what constituted aggression or rebellion against Muslims, which would make jihad \"not only permissible but necessary.\"", "Ibn Taymiyyah also paid careful and lengthy attention to the questions of martyrdom and the benefits of jihad: 'It is in jihad that one can live and die in ultimate happiness, both in this world and in the Hereafter.", "Abandoning it means losing entirely or partially both kinds of happiness.`Bernard Lewis states that while most Islamic theologians in the classical period (750–1258 CE) understood jihad to be a military endeavor, after Islamic conquest stagnated and the caliphate broke up into smaller states the \"irresistible and permanent jihad came to an end\".", "As jihad became unfeasible it was \"postponed from historic to messianic time.\"", "Even when the Ottoman Empire carried on a new holy war of expansion in the seventeenth century, \"the war was not universally pursued\".", "They made no attempt to recover Spain or Sicily.By the 1500s, it had become accepted that the permanent state of relations between ''dar al-Islam'' and ''dar al-harb'' was that of peace.Shah Ismail of the Safavid dynasty tried to claim the right to wage offensive jihad, particularly against the Ottomans.", "However, Shia ulama did not permit that, maintaining the classical position that the true Imam could wage such a war.", "During the Qajar period, Shia ulama adopted the position that the Shah was responsible for national security.", "They authorized the Perso-Russian wars in the 19th century as jihad.In the 18th century, the Durrani Empire under the reigns of Ahmad Shah Durrani and his son and successor, Timur Shah Durrani had issued multiple jihads against Sikh Misls in the Punjab region, often to consolidate territory and continue Afghan rule in the region, efforts under Ahmad Shah failed, while Timur Shah had succeeded.===Colonialism and modernism===Fulani jihad states of West Africa, c. 1830When Europeans began the colonization of the Muslim world, jihad was one of the first responses by local Muslims.", "Emir Abdelkader organized a jihad in Algeria against French domination, tapping into existing Sufi networks.", "Other wars against colonialist powers were often declared to be jihad: the Senussi religious order declared jihad against Italian control of Libya in 1912, and the \"Mahdi\" in the Sudan declared jihad against both the British and the Egyptians in 1881.Rashid Rida and Muhammad Abduh argued that peaceful coexistence should be the normal state between Muslim and non-Muslim states, citing verses in the Qur'an that allowed war only in self-defense.", "However, this view still left open jihad against colonialism, which was seen as an attack on Muslims.Sayyid Ahmad Khan also argued jihad was limited to cases of oppression, and since the British Raj allowed freedom of religion, there was no need to wage jihad against the British.", "Instead, Khan formulated jihad as recovering past Muslim scientific progress to modernize the Muslim world.A concept that played a role in anti-colonial jihad (or lack thereof) was the belief in ''Mahdi''.", "According to Islamic eschatology, a messianic figure named Mahdi will appear and restore justice on earth.", "Such a belief sometimes discouraged Muslims from conducting jihad against the colonial powers, instead inducing them to passively wait for the messiah to come.", "Such messages were circulated in Algeria to undermine Emir Abdelkader's jihad against the French.", "On the other hand, this belief could be a powerful mobilizing force in cases when someone would proclaim himself Mahdi.", "Such mahdist rebellions happened in India (1810), Egypt (1865) and Sudan (1881).Mahdist army during the Battle of Omdurman in 1898With the Islamic revival, a new \"fundamentalist\" movement arose, with some different interpretations of Islam, which often placed an increased emphasis on jihad.", "The Wahhabi movement which spread across the Arabian peninsula starting in the 18th century, emphasized jihad as armed struggle.", "The so-called Fulbe jihad states and a few other jihad states in West Africa were established by a series of offensive wars in the 19th century.", "None of these jihad movements were victorious.", "The most powerful, the Sokoto Caliphate, lasted about a century until being incorporated into Colonial Nigeria in 1903.When the Ottoman caliph called for a \"Great Jihad\" by all Muslims against Allied powers during World War I, there were hopes and fears that non-Turkish Muslims would side with Ottoman Turkey, but the appeal did not \"unite the Muslim world\", and Muslims did not turn on their non-Muslim commanders in the Allied forces.", "(The war led to the end of the caliphate as the Ottoman Empire entered on the side of the war's losers and surrendered by agreeing to \"viciously punitive\" conditions.", "These were overturned by the popular war hero Mustafa Kemal, who was also a secularist and later abolished the caliphate.", ")Prior to the Iranian revolution in 1922, the Shiite cleric Mehdi Al-Khalissi issued a fatwa calling upon Iraqis not to participate in the Iraqi elections, as the Iraqi government was established by foreign powers.", "He later played a role in the Iraqi revolt of 1920.Between 1918 and 1919 in the Shia holy city of Najaf the ''League of the Islamic Awakening'' was established by several religious scholars, tribal chiefs, and landlords assassinated a British officer in the hopes of sparking a similar rebellion in Karbala which is also regarded as sacred for Shias.During the Iraqi revolt of 1920, Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi Shirazi the father of Mohammad al-Husayni al-Shirazi and grandfather of Sadiq Hussaini Shirazi, declared British rule impermissible and called for a jihad against European occupations in the Middle East.====Post-colonialism====Islamism has played an increasing role in the Muslim world in the 20th century, especially following the economic crises of the 1970s and 1980s.", "One of the first Islamist groups, the Muslim Brotherhood, emphasized physical struggle and martyrdom in its creed: \"God is our objective; the Quran is our constitution; the Prophet is our leader; struggle (jihad) is our way; and death for the sake of God is the highest of our aspirations.\"", "Hassan al-Banna emphasized jihad of the sword, and called on Egyptians to prepare for jihad against the British Empire, (making him the first influential scholar since the 1857 India uprising to call for jihad of the sword).", "The group called for jihad against Israel in the 1940s, and its Palestinian branch, Hamas, called for jihad against Israel when the First Intifada started.Modern Muslim thought had been focused on when to go to war (''jus ad bellum''), not paying much attention on conduct during war (''jus in bello'').", "This was because most Muslim theorists viewed international humanitarian law as consistent with Islamic requirements.", "However, recently Muslims have once again started discussing conduct during war in response to certain terrorist groups targeting civilians.According to Rudolph F. Peters and Natana J. DeLong-Bas, the new \"fundamentalist\" movement brought a reinterpretation of Islam and their own writings on jihad.", "These writings tended to be less interested and involved with legal arguments, what the different of schools of Islamic law had to say, or in solutions for all potential situations.", "\"They emphasize more the moral justifications and the underlying ethical values of the rules, than the detailed elaboration of those rules.\"", "They also tended to ignore the distinction between Greater and Lesser jihad because it distracted Muslims \"from the development of the combative spirit they believe is required to rid the Islamic world of Western influences\".Contemporary Islamic fundamentalists were often influenced by medieval Islamic jurist Ibn Taymiyyah's, and Egyptian journalist Sayyid Qutb's, ideas on jihad.Sayyid Qutb, Islamist author and influential leader of the Muslim BrotherhoodThe highly influential Muslim Brotherhood leader, Sayyid Qutb, preached in his book ''Milestones'' that jihad, `is not a temporary phase but a permanent war ... Jihad for freedom cannot cease until the Satanic forces are put to an end and the religion is purified for God in toto.` Qutb focused on martyrdom and jihad, but he added the theme of the treachery and enmity towards Islam of Christians and especially Jews.", "If non-Muslims were waging a \"war against Islam\", jihad against them was not offensive but defensive.", "He also insisted that Christians and Jews were ''mushrikeen'' (not monotheists) because (he alleged) gave their priests or rabbis \"authority to make laws, obeying laws which were made by them and not permitted by God\" and \"obedience to laws and judgments is a sort of worship\".Later ideologue, Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj, departed from some of Qutb's teachings on jihad.", "While Qutb felt that jihad was a proclamation of \"liberation for humanity\" (in which humanity has the free choice between Islam and unbelief), Faraj saw jihad as a mean of conquering the world and reestablishing the caliphate.", "Faraj legitimized lying, attacking by night (even if it leads to accidentally killing innocents), and destroying trees of the infidel.", "His ideas influenced Egyptian Islamist extremist groups, and Ayman al-Zawahiri, later the No.", "2 person in al-Qaeda.During the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, despite being a predominantly Sunni nation, Afghanistan's Shiite population took arms against the Communist government and allied Soviet forces like the nation's Sunnis and were collectively referred to as the Afghan Mujahideen.", "Shiite Jihadists in Afghanistan were known as the Tehran Eight and received support from the Iranian government in fighting against the Communist Afghan government and allied Soviet forces in Afghanistan.====Terrorism====Many Muslims, including scholars like al-Qaradawi and Sayyid Tantawi, denounced Islamic terrorist attacks against civilians, seeing them as contrary to rules of jihad that prohibit targeting noncombatants.", "After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the United States blamed Saudi Arabian Osama bin Laden and the Taliban in Afghanistan, triggering bin Laden, who in turn on October 7 issued a televised message, declaring \"Allah had blessed a vanguard group of Muslims, the spearhead of Islam, to destroy America.\"", "American and British forces were deployed around Afghanistan, and the Mullah Mohammad Omar, also the Commander to the Faithful of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, in turn called the world's Muslims to join him in a jihad.====Abdullah Azzam====In the 1980s Abdullah Azzam advocated waging jihad against the \"unbelievers\".", "Azzam issued a fatwa calling for jihad against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, declaring it an individual obligation for all able bodied Muslims because it was a defensive jihad to repel invaders.", "His fatwa was endorsed by a number of clerics including leading Saudi clerics such as Sheikh Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz.Azzam claimed that \"anyone who looks into the state of Muslims today will find that their great misfortune is their abandonment of ''Jihad''\", and he also warned that \"without ''Jihad'', ''shirk'' (joining partners with Allah) will spread and become dominant\".", "Jihad was so important that to \"repel\" the unbelievers was \"the most important obligation after Iman faith\".Azzam also argued for a broader interpretation of who it was permissible to kill in jihad, an interpretation that some think may have influenced some of his students, including Osama bin Laden.A charismatic speaker, Azzam traveled to dozens of cities in Europe and North America to encourage support for jihad in Afghanistan.", "He inspired young Muslims with stories of miraculous deeds during jihad—mujahideen who defeated vast columns of Soviet troops virtually single-handed, who had been run over by tanks but survived, who were shot but unscathed by bullets.", "Angels were witnessed riding into battle on horseback, and falling bombs were intercepted by birds, which raced ahead of the jets to form a protective canopy over the warriors.In Afghanistan he set up a \"services office\" for foreign fighters and with support from his former student Osama bin Laden and Saudi charities, foreign mujahideed or would-be mujahideen were provided for.", "Between 1982 and 1992 an estimated 35,000 individual Muslim volunteers went to Afghanistan to fight the Soviets and their Afghan regime.", "Thousands more attended frontier schools teeming with former and future fighters.", "Saudi Arabia and the other conservative Gulf monarchies also provided considerable financial support to the jihad—$600 million a year by 1982.CIA also funded Azzam's Maktab al-Khidamat and others via Operation Cyclone.Azzam saw Afghanistan as the beginning of jihad to repel unbelievers from many countries—the southern Soviet Republics of Central Asia, Bosnia, the Philippines, Kashmir, Somalia, Eritrea, Spain, and especially his home country of Palestine.", "The defeat of the Soviets in Afghanistan is said to have \"amplified the jihadist tendency from a fringe phenomenon to a major force in the Muslim world.", "\"Having tasted victory in Afghanistan, many of the thousands of fighters returned to their home country such as Egypt, Algeria, Kashmir or to places like Bosnia to continue jihad.", "Not all the former fighters agreed with Azzam's chioice of targets (Azzam was assassinated in November 1989) but former Afghan fighters led or participated in serious insurgencies in Egypt, Algeria, Kashmir, Somalia in the 1990s and later creating a \"transnational jihadist stream.", "\"In February 1998, Osama bin Laden put a \"Declaration of the World Islamic Front for Jihad against the Jews and the Crusaders\" in the ''Al-Quds al-Arabi'' newspaper.", "On 11 September 2001, four passenger planes were hijacked in the United States and crashed, destroying the World Trade Center and damaging the Pentagon.===Shia===In Shia Islam, jihad is one of the ten Practices of the Religion (though not one of the five pillars).", "Traditionally, Twelver Shi'a doctrine has differed from that of Sunni Islam on the concept of jihad, with jihad being \"seen as a lesser priority\" in Shia theology and \"armed activism\" by Shias being \"limited to a person's immediate geography\".Because of their history of being oppressed, Shias also associated jihad with certain passionate features, notably in the remembrance of Ashura.", "Mahmoud M. Ayoub says:In Islamic tradition jihad or the struggle in the way of God, whether as armed struggle, or any form of opposition of the wrong, is generally regarded as one of the essential requirements of a person's faith as a Muslim.", "Shi'î tradition carried this requirement a step further, making jihad one of the pillars or foundations (arkan) of religion.", "If, therefore, Husayn's struggle against the Umayyad regime must be regarded as an act of jihad, then, In the mind of devotees, the participation of the community in his suffering and its ascent to the truth of his message must also be regarded as an extension of the holy struggle of the Imam himself.", "The hadith from which we took the title of this chapter states this point very clearly.", "Ja'far al-Sadiq is said to have declared to al-Mufaddal, one of his closest disciples, 'The sigh of the sorrowful for the wrong done us is an act of praise (tasbih) of God, his sorrow for us is an act of worship, and his keeping of our secret is a struggle (jihad) in the way of God'; the Imâm then added, 'This hadith should be inscribed in letters of gold'.andHence, the concept of jihad (holy struggle) gained a deeper and more personal meaning.", "Whether through weeping, the composition and recitation of poetry, showing compassion and doing good to the poor or carrying arms, the Shi'i Muslim saw himself helping the Imam in his struggle against the wrong (zulm) and gaining for himself the same merit (thawab) of those who actually fought and died for him.", "The ta'ziyah, in its broader sense the sharing of the entire life of the suffering family of Muhammad, has become for the Shi'i community the true meaning of compassion.In the Syrian civil war, Shia and Sunni fighters waged jihad against each other.", "In Yemen, the Houthi Movement has used appeals to jihad as part of their ideology as well as their recruitment." ], [ "Evolution of the term in Islamic jurisprudence", "Some observers have noted the evolution in the rules of jihad—from the original \"classical\" doctrine to that of 21st century Salafi jihadism.", "According to the legal historian Sadarat Kadri, during the last couple of centuries, incremental changes in Islamic legal doctrine (developed by Islamists who otherwise condemn any ''bid‘ah'' (innovation) in religion), have \"normalized\" what was once \"unthinkable\".", "\"The very idea that Muslims might blow themselves up for God was unheard of before 1983, and it was not until the early 1990s that anyone anywhere had tried to justify killing innocent Muslims who were not on a battlefield.", "\"The first or the \"classical\" doctrine of jihad which was developed towards the end of the 8th century, emphasized the jihad of the sword (''jihad bil-saif'') rather than the \"jihad of the heart\", but it contained many legal restrictions which were developed from interpretations of both the Quran and the Hadith, such as detailed rules involving \"the initiation, the conduct, the termination\" of jihad, the treatment of prisoners, the distribution of booty, etc.", "Unless there was a sudden attack on the Muslim community, jihad was not a \"personal obligation\" (''fard ayn''); instead it was a \"collective one\" (''fard al-kifaya''), which had to be discharged \"in the way of God\" (''fi sabil Allah''), and it could only be directed by the caliph, \"whose discretion over its conduct was all but absolute.\"", "(This was designed in part to avoid incidents like the Kharijia's jihad against and killing of Caliph Ali, since they deemed that he was no longer a Muslim).", "Martyrdom resulting from an attack on the enemy with no concern for your own safety was praiseworthy, but dying by your own hand (as opposed to the enemy's) merited a special place in Hell.", "The category of jihad which is considered to be a collective obligation is sometimes simplified as \"offensive jihad\" in Western texts.Islamic theologian Abu Abdullah al-Muhajir has been identified as the key theorist and ideologue behind modern jihadist violence.", "His theological and legal justifications influenced Abu Musab al-Zarqawi of al-Qaeda as well as several jihadi terrorist groups, including ISIS.", "Zarqawi used a manuscript of al-Muhajir's ideas at AQI training camps that were later deployed by ISIS, referred to as ''The Jurisprudence of Jihad'' or ''The Jurisprudence of Blood''.The book has been described as rationalising \"the murder of non-combatants\" by ''The Guardian''s Mark Towsend, citing Salah al-Ansari of Quilliam, who notes: \"There is a startling lack of study and concern regarding this abhorrent and dangerous text ''The Jurisprudence of Blood'' in almost all Western and Arab scholarship\".", "Charlie Winter of ''The Atlantic'' describes it as a \"theological playbook used to justify the group's abhorrent acts\".", "He states:Psychologist Chris E. Stout also discusses the al Muhajir-inspired text in his book, ''Terrorism, Political Violence, and Extremism''.", "He assesses that jihadists regard their actions as being \"for the greater good\"; that they are in a \"weakened in the earth\" situation that renders terrorism a valid means of solution." ], [ "Current usage", "The term 'jihad' has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings.", "According to John Esposito, it can simply mean striving to live a moral and virtuous life, spreading and defending Islam as well as fighting injustice and oppression, among other things.", "The relative importance of these two forms of jihad is a matter of controversy.", "Rudoph Peters writes that, in the contemporary world, traditionalist Muslims understand jihad from classical works on fiqh; modernist Muslims regard jihad as a just war in international law and emphasize its defensive aspects; and fundamentalists view it as an expansion of Islam and realization of Islamic ideals.", "David Cook writes that Muslims have understood jihad in a military sense, both in classical texts and in contemporary ones.", "For Cook the idea that jihad is primarily non-violent comes primarily from Sufi texts and the Western scholars who study them, or from Muslim apologists.", "Gallup has stated that its surveys show that the concept of jihad among Muslims \"is considerably more nuanced than the single sense in which Western commentators invariably invoke the term.", "\"===Muslim public opinion===A poll by Gallup asked Muslims in eight countries what jihad meant to them.", "In Lebanon, Kuwait, Jordan, and Morocco, the most frequent response was to \"duty toward God\", a \"divine duty\", or a \"worship of God\", with no militaristic connotations.", "In Turkey, Iran, Pakistan and Indonesia, many of the responses includes \"sacrificing one's life for the sake of Islam/God/a just cause\" or \"fighting against the opponents of Islam\".", "Other common meanings of \"jihad\" in the Muslim world include \"a commitment to hard work\", \"promoting peace\", and \"living the principles of Islam\".", "The terminology is also applied to the fight for women's liberation.===Other spiritual, social, economic struggles===Shia Muslim scholar Mahmoud M. Ayoud states that \"The goal of true jihad is to attain a harmony between Islam (submission), iman (faith), and ihsan (righteous living).\"", "Jihad is a process encompassing both individual and social reform, this is called ''jihad fi sabil Allah'' (\"struggle in the way of God\"), and can be undertaken by the means of the Quran (''jihad bi-al-qur'an'').", "According to Ayoud the greatest Jihad is the struggle of every Muslim against the social, moral, and political evils.", "However, depending on social and political circumstances, Jihad may be regarded as a sixth fundamental obligation (farid) incumbent on the entire Muslim community (''ummah'') when their integrity is in danger, in this case ''jihad'' becomes an \"absolute obligation\" (fard 'ayn), or when social and religious reform is gravely hampered.", "Otherwise it is a \"limited obligation\" (fard kifayah), incumbent upon those who are directly involved.", "These rules apply to armed struggle or \"jihad of the sword\".In modern times, Pakistani scholar and professor Fazlur Rahman Malik has used the term to describe the struggle to establish a \"just moral-social order\", while President Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia has used it to describe the struggle for economic development in that country.According to the BBC, a third meaning of jihad is the struggle to build a good society.", "In a commentary of the hadith Sahih Muslim, entitled al-Minhaj, the medieval Islamic scholar Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi stated that \"one of the collective duties of the community as a whole (fard kifaya) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct\".Scholar Natana J. Delong-Bas lists a number of types of \"jihad\" that have been proposed by Muslims* educational jihad (''jihad al-tarbiyyah'');* missionary jihad or calling the people to Islam (''jihad al-da'wah'')Other \"types\" mentioned include* \"Intellectual\" Jihad (very similar to missionary jihad).", "* \"Economic\" Jihad (good doing involving money such as spending within one's means, helping the \"poor and the downtrodden\") President Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia, used jihad to describe the struggle for economic development in Tunisia.", "Iran has a Ministry of Jihad for Agriculture.", "* ''Jihad Al-Nikah,'' or sexual jihad, \"refers to women joining the jihad by offering sex to fighters to boost their morale\".", "The term originated from a fatwa believed to have been fabricated by the Syrian government to discredit its opponents, and the prevalence of this phenomenon has been disputed.", ";Usage by some non-Muslims* The United States Department of Justice has used its own ''ad hoc'' definitions of jihad in indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities:** \"As used in this First Superseding Indictment, 'Jihad' is the Arabic word meaning 'holy war'.", "In this context, jihad refers to the use of violence, including paramilitary action against persons, governments deemed to be enemies of the fundamentalist version of Islam.", "\"** \"As used in this Superseding Indictment, 'violent jihad' or 'jihad' include planning, preparing for, and engaging in, acts of physical violence, including murder, maiming, kidnapping, and hostage-taking.\"", "in the indictment against several individuals including José Padilla.", "* \"Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle,\" according to Karen Armstrong.", "* \"Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle—two ingredients common to many ideological movements,\" according to Maxime Rodinson.", "* Academic Benjamin R. Barber used the term Jihad to point out the resistant movement by fundamentalist ethnic groups who want to protect their traditions, heritage and identity from globalization (which he refers to as 'McWorld').===Views of other groups=======Ahmadiyya====In Ahmadiyya Islam, jihad is primarily one's personal inner struggle and should not be used violently for political motives.", "Violence is the last option only to be used to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of persecution.====Quranist====Quranists do not believe that the word jihad means holy war.", "They believe it means to struggle, or to strive.", "They believe it can incorporate both military and non-military aspects.", "When it refers to the military aspect, it is understood primarily as defensive warfare." ], [ "See also", "* Ijtihad* Islam and war* Islamic military jurisprudence* Jihadism and hip-hop* Jihad Cool* Religious war* Milkhemet Mitzvah" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===**** \"Djihad\" in: ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam''* * * ***** ** ** * * * **" ], [ "Further reading", "* Biancamaria Scarcia Amoretti, ''Tolleranza e guerra santa nell'Islam'', Scuola aperta/Sansoni, Firenze, 1974* David Cook ''Understanding Jihad'', Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.", "* Hadia Dajani-Shakeel and Ronald Messier (1991).", "''The Jihad and Its Times''.", "Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, University of Michigan.", "* DeLong-Bas, Natana (2010).", "''Jihad: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide''.", "Oxford University Press* Reuven Firestone: ''Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam''.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.", "* Hashami, Sohail H., ed.", "''Just Wars, Holy Wars, and Jihads: Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Encounters and Exchanges'' (Oxford University Press; 2012)** John Kelsay: ''Just War and Jihad'' New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.", "* Shiraz Maher, ''Salafi-Jihadism: The History of an Idea'', Oxford University Press, 2016* Suhas Majumdar: Jihad: The Islamic Doctrine of Permanent War; New Delhi, July 1994* * Nicola Melis, \"A Hanafi treatise on rebellion and ğihād in the Ottoman age (XVII c.)\", in ''Eurasian Studies'', Istituto per l'Oriente/Newham College, Roma-Napoli-Cambridge, Volume II; Number 2 (December 2003), pp. 215–26.", "** Alfred Morabia, ''Le Ğihâd dans l'Islâm médiéval.", "\"Le combat sacré\" des origines au XIIe siècle'', Albin Michel, Paris 1993* **" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Jacobin (politics)" ], [ "Introduction", " A '''Jacobin''' (; ) was a member of the Jacobin Club, a revolutionary political movement that was the most famous political club during the French Revolution (1789–1799).", "The club got its name from meeting at the Dominican rue Saint-Honoré Monastery of the Jacobins.", "The Dominicans in France were called ''Jacobins'' (, corresponds to ''Jacques'' in French and ''James'' in English) because their first house in Paris was theSaint Jacques Monastery.The terms Jacobin and '''Jacobinism''' have been used in a variety of senses.", "Prior to 1793, the terms were used by contemporaries to describe the politics of Jacobins in the congresses of 1789 through 1792.With the ascendancy of Maximilien Robespierre and the Montagnards into 1793, they have since become synonymous with the policies of the Reign of Terror, with Jacobinism now meaning \"Robespierrism\".", "As Jacobinism was memorialized through legend, heritage, tradition and other nonhistorical means over the centuries, the term acquired a \"semantic elasticity\" in French politics of the late 20th Century with a \"vague range of meanings\", but all with the \"central figure of a sovereign and indivisible public authority with power over civil society.\"", "Today in France, Jacobin colloquially indicates an ardent or republican supporter of a centralized and revolutionary democracy or state as well as \"a politician who is hostile to any idea of weakening and dismemberment of the State.\"" ], [ "In the French Revolution", "The Jacobin Club was one of several organizations that grew out of the French Revolution and it was distinguished for its left-wing, revolutionary politics.", "Because of this, the Jacobins, unlike other sects such as the Girondins (who were originally part of the Jacobins, but branched off), were closely allied to the sans-culottes, who were a popular force of working-class Parisians that played a pivotal role in the development of the revolution.The Jacobins had a significant presence in the National Convention; they were dubbed \"the mountain\" or Montagnards for their seats in the uppermost part of the chamber.", "Eventually, the Revolution coalesced around The Mountain's power, with the help of the insurrections of the sans-culottes, and, led by Robespierre, the Jacobins established a revolutionary dictatorship, or the joint domination of the Committee of Public Safety and Committee of General Security.The Jacobins were known for creating a strong government that could deal with the needs of war, economic chaos, as well as internal rebellion (such as the war in the Vendée).", "This included establishing the world's first universal military draft as a solution to filling army ranks to put down civil unrest and prosecute war.", "The Jacobin dictatorship was known for enacting the Reign of Terror, which targeted speculators, monarchists, right-wing Girondin, Hébertists, and traitors, and led to many beheadings.The Jacobins supported the rights of property, but represented a much more middle-class position than the government that succeeded them in Thermidor.They favored free trade and a market economy much like the Girondists, but their relationship to the people made them more willing to adopt interventionist economic policies.", "Unlike the Girondins, their economic policy favored price controls (''i.e.", "'', General maximum) on staples like grain and select household and grocery goods to address economic problems.", "Using the ''armée revolutionnaire'', they targeted farmers, the rich and others who may have stocks of essential goods (\"goods of the first necessity\") in service of a national distribution system with severe punishment for uncooperative hoarders.Another tenet of Jacobinism is a secularism that includes the elimination of existing religions in favor of one run by the state (''i.e.", "'', the cults of Reason and the Supreme Being).Jacobinism was as an ideology thus developed and implemented during the French Revolution of 1789.In the words of François Furet, in ''Penser la révolution française'' (quoted by Hoel in Introduction au Jacobinisme...), \"Jacobinism is both an ideology and a power: a system of representations and a system of action.\"", "(\"le jacobinisme est à la fois une idéologie et un pouvoir : un système de représentations et un système d'action\").", "Its political goals were largely achieved later during France's Third Republic." ], [ "France", "Jacobinism did not end with the Jacobins.", "The Robespierrist François-Noël Babeuf eventually rejected the rule of the Jacobins and welcomed the end of the Terror.", "However, he later eschewed the Thermidorean Reaction that overthrew the Jacobins and he returned to Robespierrism.", "In May 1796, he led a failed coup d'état with neo-Robespierrists to attempt to return the republic to the Montagnard Constitution of 1793 in the Conspiracy of Equals.", "His political ideology was a form of neo-Jacobinism and primordial communism that highlighted egalitarian division of all land and property enforced by a dictatorship run by the Equals.", "His ideas were widely publicized and further developed as \"Babeuvism\" by colleague Filippo Buonaroti in his 1828 book, ''Histoire de la Conspiration Pour l'Égalité Dite de Babeuf'' (''History of Babeuf's Conspiracy for Equality'').Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx called the Conspiracy of Equals \"the first appearance of a truly active Communist party.\"", "Leon Trotsky echoed these sentiments, stating that the foundation of the Communist International marked a \"carrying on in direct succession the heroic endeavours and martyrdom of a long line of revolutionary generations from Babeuf.", "\"Himself a Robespierrist, Buonaroti went on to write ''Observations sur Maximilien Robespierre'' in 1836, which extolled the Jacobin leader as a legend and hero.", "His portrayal of Robespierre as a model for socialist revolutionaries greatly influenced young socialists and republicans, such as Albert Laponneraye.The 19th century socialist firebrand, nationalist and founder of Blanquism, Louis Auguste Blanqui expressed admiration for Jacobin leaders of the Terror like Robespierre and Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, framing them in messianic terms.", "There is evidence that his principles were also instructed by Babeuvism through his familiarity with Buonarroti.", "After the French Revolution of 1848, he criticized contemporaries who claimed to be heirs of Jacobinism, writing: \"Our own self-styled Montagnards are a caricature, indeed a very poor copy, of the Girondins.\"", "His view of Robespierre later changed over an understanding of the Terror's executions of Georges Danton and the Hébertists, as well as the formation of the Cult of the Supreme Being, the latter due to Blanqui's promotion of materialism and atheism.", "According to Blanqui, the Hebertists were the true revolutionaries in defending atheism, science and equality.", "He said that socialism needed to be built on the foundations laid by the French Revolution, and would better defend the ideals of the Enlightenment than Jacobinism, adding the toast, \"Citizens, the Mountain is dead!", "To socialism, its sole heir!", "\"Various French left-wing parties would claim to be the \"true heirs\" to the French Revolution and the 1871 Paris Commune.", "Aspects of Blanqui were likewise claimed by French political groups like the Radical Socialists and the Stalinists.", "Other organizations included the French Central Revolutionary Committee and its successor, the Socialist Revolutionary Party, and the Blanquist section of the International Workingmen's Association or First International.On 4 October 1919, Alexandre Varenne founded the socialist daily ''La Montagne, Quotidien de la Démocratie Socialiste du Center''.", "The title was selected to reflect its alignment with the ideas of the Montagnards.In the 1930s, the Popular Front coalition included the French Communist Party or ''Parti communiste français'' (PCF), who along with portions of the alliance's socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) party increasingly emphasized patriotism.", "The PCF were characterized as \"New Jacobins\", and their leader Maurice Thorez as a \"Stalinist Jacobin\".On the French right, the nazi-collaborating founder of Neosocialism Marcel Déat was known to be inspired by Jacobin politics." ], [ "India", "In 1794, Tipu Sultan founded the Jacobin Club of Mysore with the support of French Republican officers and declared himself \"Citizen Tipoo\".", "In the subsequent Fourth Anglo-Mysore war in 1799 against Tipu, the British forced the surrender of French military personnel mobilized by François Ripaud, citing their \"most virulent principles of Jacobinism\".", "One historian argued that Britain's East India Company fabricated the club's existence to justify British military intervention." ], [ "Italy", "Blanquism had a notable influence on Benito Mussolini who founded fascism as an outgrowth of revolutionary socialism.", "He claimed he \"introduced into Italian socialism something of (Henri) Bergson mixed with much of Blanqui,\" including Blanqui's nationalism, the idea of rule by a dominant minority and use of violence.", "However, Mussolini dispensed with Blanquism's links to the Enlightenment and communism and instead stated, fascism is \"opposed to all individualistic abstractions based on eighteenth century materialism; and it is opposed to all Jacobinistic utopias and innovations.\"", "The masthead of his newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia carried quotes from Blanqui (\"Whoever has steel has bread\") and Napoleon Bonaparte (\"The Revolution is an idea which has found bayonets!\").", "Leon Trotsky called fascism in a sense \"a caricature of Jacobinism\"." ], [ "Poland", "King Stanisław II August was enamored with the American Constitution, the ideals of the Gironde of 1790–1792, and the office of ''Roi Citoyen'' (\"Citizen King\").", "He helped develop the 1791 Polish Constitution which embraced social reforms guaranteeing \"the freedom, property and equality of every citizen.\"", "Its ratification led some Society of the Friends of the Constitution chapters to endorse the King and his ''Rzeczypospolita'' and helped shape the French constitution adopted later that year.While the Constitutionalists had contacts with Jacobin Clubs, they were expressly not Jacobins.", "However prior to the 1792 war that crushed the republic, Russian Empress Catherine the Great claimed the constitution was the work of the Jacobins and that she would be \"fighting Jacobinism in Poland\" and \"the Jacobins of Warsaw\"." ], [ "Russia and Soviet Union", "The 1870s saw the emergence of the \"Worker's Marseillaise\", a Russian revolutionary song set to a Robert Schumann melody inspired by the 1792 \"Marseillaise\".", "It was used as a national anthem by the Russian Provisional Government and in Soviet Russia for a short time alongside \"The Internationale\".In the early 20th Century, Bolshevism and Jacobinism were linked.", "Russia's notion of the French Revolution permeated educated society and was reflected in speeches and writings of leaders, including Leon Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin.", "They modeled their revolution after the Jacobins and the Terror with Trotsky even envisioning a trial for Nicholas II akin to that for Louis XVI.", "Lenin regarded the execution of the former tsar and his immediate family as necessary, highlighting the precedent set in the French Revolution.", "At the same time, the Bolsheviks consciously tried to avoid the mistakes they saw made by the French revolutionaries.Lenin referred to Robespierre as a \"Bolshevik ''avant la lettre''\" and erected a statue to him.", "Other statues were planned or erected of other prominent members of the Terror as well as Babeuf.", "The Voskresenskaya Embankment in St. Petersburg was also renamed ''Naberezhnaya Robespera'' for the French leader in 1923; it was returned to its original name in 2014.Like Karl Marx, Lenin saw the overall progress in events in France from 1789 through 1871 as the French Bourgeois Revolution.", "He adhered to the Montagnards' policies of centralization of authority to stabilize a new state, the virtue and necessity of terror against oppressors and \"an alliance between the proletariat and peasantry\" (\"the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasants\").", "He would refer to his side as the Mountain or Jacobin and label his Menshevik opponents as the \"Gironde\"." ], [ "United Kingdom", "The conventionalized scrawny, French revolutionary ''sans-culottes'' Jacobin, was developed from about 1790 by British satirical artists James Gillray, Thomas Rowlandson and George Cruikshank.", "It was commonly contrasted with the stolid stocky conservative and well-meaning John Bull, dressed like an English country squire.", "C. L. R. James also used the term to refer to revolutionaries during the Haitian Revolution in his book ''The Black Jacobins''.Thomas Paine was a believer in the French Revolution and supported the Girondins.", "At the same time, Protestant Dissenters seeking for relief from the Test and Corporation Acts supported the French Revolution at least in its early stages after seeing concessions to religious minorities by the French authorities in 1787 and in the Declaration of Rights of Man.", "Paine's publications enjoyed support by Painite Radical factions like the Manchester Constitutional Society.", "Prominent members of the Society who worked for the Radical ''Manchester Herald'' newspaper even contacted the Jacobin Club in France on 13 April 1792.Thus, Radicals were labeled ''Jacobins'' by their opponents.", "Regional Painite radicalism was incorrectly portrayed as English Jacobinism and were attacked by Conservative forces including Edmund Burke as early as 1791.The London Revolution Society also corresponded with the National Assembly starting in November 1789.Their letters were circulated among the regional Jacobin clubs, with around 52 clubs corresponding with the society by the spring of 1792.Other regional British revolutionary societies formed in centers of British Jacobinism.", "English Jacobins included the young Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth and others prior to their disillusionment with the outbreak of the Reign of Terror.", "Others, such as Paine, William Hazlitt and Whig statesman Charles James Fox, remained idealistic about the Revolution.The London Corresponding Society founded in 1792 was partly modeled on the Jacobins to pressure the government in a law-abiding manner for democratic reform.", "Scottish chapters of the Societies of the Friends of the People pressed for parliamentary reform at the 1792 Scottish Convention in Edinburgh using explicit imitations of the Jacobins.Overall, after 1793 with the sidelining of the Girondins and the Terror, \"Jacobin\" became a pejorative for radical left-wing revolutionary politics and was linked to sedition.", "The word was further promoted in England by George Canning's 1797–98 newspaper ''Anti-Jacobin'' and later, John Gifford's 1798–1821 ''Anti-Jacobin Review'', which both criticized the English Radicals of the 18th and 19th centuries.", "Much detail on English Jacobinism can be found in E. P. Thompson's ''The Making of the English Working Class''.Welsh Jacobins include William Jones, a radical patriot who was a keen disciple of Voltaire.", "Rather than preaching revolution, Jones believed that an exodus from Wales was required and that a new Welsh colony should be founded in the United States.The socialist Chartist movement in the first half of the 19th Century was inspired by Robespierre.", "Chartist leader James Bronterre O'Brien defended Robespierre, describing him as \"one of the greatest men, and one of the purest and most enlightened reformers, that ever existed in the world.\"", "He came to Robespierre through his studies of Buonarroti and even served as Buonarroti's translator for the English edition of ''Buanarroti's History of Babeuf's Conspiracy for Equality,'' for which he further included his own observations." ], [ "Austria", "In the correspondence of Austrian statesman and diplomat Prince Klemens von Metternich and other leaders of the repressive policies that followed the second fall of Napoleon in 1815, ''Jacobin'' is the term commonly applied to anyone with progressive tendencies, such as the emperor Alexander I of Russia." ], [ "United States", "Federalists often characterized Thomas Jefferson, who himself had intervened in the French Revolution, and his Democratic-Republican party as Jacobins.", "Early Federalist-leaning American newspapers during the French Revolution referred to the Democratic-Republican party as the \"Jacobin Party\".", "The most notable examples are the ''Gazette of the United States'', published in Philadelphia, and the ''Delaware and Eastern-Shore Advertiser'', published in Wilmington, during the elections of 1800.In modern American politics, the term Jacobin is often used to describe extremists of any party who demand ideological purity.Evidencing the antagonistic relationship between the press and insurgent Arizona conservative presidential candidate Barry Goldwater, ''The New York Times'' attacked Goldwater in their Bastille Day coverage of the 1964 Republican National Convention.", "The paper called his supporters \"Cactus Jacobins\", comparing their opposition to \"establishment\" Eastern Republicans (see Rockefeller Republican) and \"sensation‐seeking columnists and commentators\" as expressed by moderate former president Dwight Eisenhower to the execution of representatives of the Ancien Régime in the Reign of Terror.", "In contrast, L. Brent Bozell, Jr. has written in Goldwater's seminal ''The Conscience of a Conservative'' (1960) that \"Throughout history, true Conservatism has been at war equally with autocrats and with 'democratic' Jacobins.", "\"In 2010 an American left-wing socialist publication, ''Jacobin'', was founded.On 27 May 2010 issue of ''The New York Review of Books'', Columbia university political science and humanities professor and self-described liberal Mark Lilla analyzed three recent books dealing with American political party discontent in a review titled \"The Tea Party Jacobins\".", "On the other side, historian Victor Davis Hanson likened the rise and policies of leftists in the Democratic Party in 2019 to the Jacobins and Jacobinism." ], [ "Influence", "The political rhetoric and populist ideas espoused by the Jacobins would lead to the development of the modern leftist movements throughout the 19th and 20th century, with Jacobinism being the political foundation of almost all leftist schools of thought including anarchism, communism and socialism.", "The Paris Commune was seen as the revolutionary successor to the Jacobins.", "The undercurrent of radical and populist tendencies espoused and enacted by the Jacobins would create a complete cultural and societal shock within the traditional and conservative governments of Europe, leading to new political ideas of society emerging.", "Jacobin rhetoric would lead to increasing secularization and skepticism towards the governments of Europe throughout the 1800s.", "This complex and complete revolution in political, societal and cultural structure, caused in part by the Jacobins, had lasting impact throughout Europe, with such societal revolutions throughout the 1800s culminating in the Revolutions of 1848.Jacobin populism and complete structural destruction of the old order led to an increasingly revolutionary spirit throughout Europe and such changes would contribute to new political foundations.", "It also informed new political ideologies.", "For instance in France, Georges Valois, founder of the first non-Italian fascist party Faisceau, claimed the roots of fascism stemmed from the Jacobin movement.", "While fascism bears similarities to Jacobinism particularly as a democratic nationalism fighting against an existing order, it is difficult to directly trace such lineage.", "Fascist groups themselves have held a variety of opinions mostly negative about the French Revolution, with the German National Socialists straightforwardly condemning it.", "Italian fascists called on fascism to surpass the French Revolution \"with a new kind of democracy run by producers.\"", "Some French fascists were ambivalent or admired parts of Jacobinism and the Revolution.", "Valois on the other hand saw the Revolution as the start of a movement both socialist and nationalist, which fascists would complete.Leftist organizations would take different elements from Jacobin's core foundation.", "Anarchists took influence from the Jacobins use of mass movements, direct democracy and left-wing populism which would influence the tactics of direct action.", "Some Marxists would take influence from the extreme protectionism of the Jacobins and the notion of the vanguard defender of the republic which would later evolve into vanguardism.", "The Jacobin philosophy of a complete dismantling of an old system, with completely radical and new structure, is historically seen as one of the most revolutionary and important movements throughout modern history." ], [ "See also", "* Polish Jacobins* ''Jacobin'' (magazine)* ''Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism''" ], [ "Further reading", "* Geneviève Rousselière.", "2021.", "\"Can Popular Sovereignty Be Represented?", "Jacobinism from Radical Democracy to Populism.\"", "''American Journal of Political Science''." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Johann Tobias Krebs" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johann Tobias Krebs''' (7 July 1690 – 11 February 1762) was a German organist and composer, today best remembered as the father of Johann Ludwig Krebs, one of Bach's most accomplished pupils.Krebs was born in Heichelheim and went to school in the nearby Weimar.", "Nothing is known about his early musical training, but at age 20 Krebs was proficient enough at the keyboard to be invited to become organist at Buttelstedt, another town in the same area.", "Krebs accepted, but continued his music studies in Weimar, travelling there twice a week to study with Johann Gottfried Walther, and later with Johann Sebastian Bach.", "In 1721 he was accepted a position at Buttstädt, where he played the organ of Michaeliskirche and taught at the school.", "Krebs remained in Buttstädt for the rest of his life.", "He had three sons, and the eldest, Johann Ludwig Krebs, became a well-known composer.Krebs' surviving works are scarce.", "A few chorale preludes preserved in manuscripts show a marked fondness for counterpoint.", "Two of the lesser known pieces from the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis catalogue may have been composed by Krebs: * Chorale prelude ''Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland'', BWV 660b, an arrangement of one of Bach's Leipzig Chorales, ''Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland'', BWV 660* Trio in C minor, BWV Anh.", "46, a contrapuntal trio which bears some similarity to Bach's organ trio sonatasIn addition, the ''Eight Short Preludes and Fugues'', BWV 553–560, once attributed to Bach, are now considered to be the work of either Johann Tobias Krebs, or his eldest son." ], [ "References", "* McLean, Hugh J.", "\"Krebs.", "1.Johann Tobias Krebs\".", "In L. Root, Deane.", "Grove Music Online.", "Oxford Music Online.", "Oxford University Press." ], [ "External links", "** Brief biography" ] ]
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[ [ "Joseph Gurney Cannon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph Gurney Cannon''' (May 7, 1836 – November 12, 1926) was an American politician from Illinois and leader of the Republican Party.", "Cannon represented parts of Illinois in the United States House of Representatives for twenty-three non-consecutive terms between 1873 and 1923; upon his retirement, he was the longest serving member of the United States Congress ever.", "From 1903 to 1911, he presided as Speaker of the House, becoming the most powerful speaker in United States history.As the Speaker during most of the presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft, Cannon was an obstacle to the progressive policies advanced by Roosevelt and later abandoned by Taft.", "A revolt against Cannon's authority as Speaker, led by George W. Norris, was a contributing factor to the Republican Party split in the elections of 1910 and 1912 and led to significant reforms to the House rules.The Cannon House Office Building, the oldest congressional office building, was named for him in 1962." ], [ "Early life", "Joseph Gurney Cannon was born in Guilford County, North Carolina on May 7, 1836.He was the elder of two sons of Horace Franklin Cannon, a country doctor, and Gulielma Cannon (née Hollingsworth).The Cannon family were Quakers and, like most members of their faith, opposed to slavery.", "Abhorring the practice and fearing war, the Cannons were among the many Quakers who left the South for the Western frontier.", "In 1840, his family moved west with other North Carolina Quakers, settling about 30 miles north of Terre Haute along the Wabash River.", "Their new settlement became Annapolis, Indiana.", "Horace Cannon drowned on August 7, 1851, as he tried to reach a sick patient by crossing a creek.", "Joe Cannon, aged fourteen, became head of the family and took charge of the family farm.", "He worked as a clerk in a country store to save money and, after five years, the family were able to pay their mortgage.Cannon became fascinated by the law when asked to testify in a slander case on behalf of a friend represented by John Palmer Usher.", "He studied under Usher at his Terre Haute office and used the remainder of his savings to enroll in law school at the University of Cincinnati.", "In 1858, he was admitted to the bar and commenced practice in Terre Haute, Indiana, but was disappointed when Usher refused to offer him a place in his office.", "He relocated to Shelbyville, Illinois but failed to attract clients, and from there moved on to Tuscola, county seat of the newly organized Coles County.", "His choice of a new hometown was involuntary; while travelling from Shelbyville to Chicago to find more clients, he ran out of money.", "He boarded a Chicago-bound train in Mattoon but was removed from the train in Tuscola after failing to show a ticket.While building his law practice, Cannon became a follower of Abraham Lincoln during the Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858.He launched his first campaign for the office of state's attorney for Coles County in 1860 but was defeated.", "However, he was elected in 1861 as state's attorney for the twenty-seventh judicial district, after the Republican legislature reformed the state judicial system.", "Cannon remained in that position until 1872, when he was elected to the U.S. House." ], [ "Early House career", "Cannon as a younger congressman –1880In 1872, Cannon ran for the U.S. House as an anti-reform candidate supportive of President Ulysses S. Grant.", "He later recalled it as \"a reform year, the beginning of a decade of 'reform' which shook up the virtues as well as the vices of the people.", "Nothing was right and nobody was safe from the reformers.\"", "Despite this, Cannon was elected to represent Illinois's 14th district, which included nearby Danville, in the 43rd Congress.Initially, Cannon focused on purely local issues.", "He secured an appointment to the Committee on Post Offices and Post Roads, from which he promoted a bill to provide that postage on newspapers and magazines should be prepaid by publishers, rather than by the subscribers after arrival.", "Despite opposition from the publishing industry, the measure passed both houses of Congress and became law.", "His maiden speech in the House was a defense of this bill and the free mailing of seed.", "Upon a remark by William Walter Phelps that Cannon \"must have oats in his pocket,\" the freshman Representative exclaimed, \"Yes!", "I have oats in my pocket and hayseed in my hair, and the Western people generally are affected the same way.", "And we expect that the seed, being good, will yield a good crop.\"", "The incident gained Cannon an instant national reputation as an advocate for farmers, though he would frequently bemoan that the press treated him as a caricature, rather than giving serious consideration to his legislative proposals.In 1889, Cannon stood as a candidate for Speaker of the House, but finished a poor third behind Thomas Brackett Reed and William McKinley.", "Instead, Cannon was named (alongside Reed and McKinley) to the powerful Committee on Rules.", "As his career progressed, Cannon had gained a reputation for partisan loyalty which was made evident in the 51st Congress.", "For example, he led opposition within the Republican Party to the Lodge Federal Elections Bill, but after the party caucus approved the bill by one vote, Cannon aided Speaker Reed in passing the bill on an expedited process by a party-line vote.", "Likewise, when Reed introduced dramatic reforms to the House Rules, Cannon vigorously pressed the issue both in committee and in the whole House.", "As a consequence of his efforts, Cannon was among the many House Republicans unseated in the 1890 elections.Cannon was out of office for only one term; he was elected again in 1892.After Reed's abrupt retirement in 1899, Cannon stood again for the Speakership but was defeated by David B. Henderson of Iowa.", "Cannon finally became Speaker in 1903, at the start of the 58th Congress.", "From 1895 until he became Speaker, Cannon chaired the powerful Appropriations Committee." ], [ "Speaker of the House (1903{{En dash}}1911)", "Cannon at the 1904 Republican National Convention in Chicago, where Theodore Roosevelt was nominated for a full term in office.|275x275px=== Theodore Roosevelt presidency ===At the time Cannon was elevated to Speaker, the President was Theodore Roosevelt, a fellow Republican.", "Roosevelt immediately took steps to consult Cannon on legislative matters and the two met several times a week at Roosevelt's request.", "However, unlike Roosevelt, Cannon opposed most of the progressive reform efforts of the day, including conservation, women's suffrage, the labor movement, and especially reductions in the overall tariff rate.", "Cannon also came to personally oppose Roosevelt's demanding, autocratic personality, once asserting that Roosevelt had \"no more use for the Constitution than a tomcat has for a marriage license.\"", "On another occasion, he said, \"That fellow at the other end of the Avenue wants everything from the birth of Christ to the death of the devil.", "\"At the time of Cannon's election, the Speaker of the House concurrently held the chair of the Rules Committee, which determined under what rules and restrictions bills could be debated, amended, and voted on, and, in some cases, whether they would be allowed on the floor at all.", "As such, Cannon effectively controlled every aspect of the House's agenda: bills reached the floor of the house only if Cannon approved of them, and then in whatever form he determined – with Cannon himself deciding whether and to what extent the measures could be debated and amended.", "Cannon also reserved to himself the right to appoint not only the chairs of the various House committees, but also all of the committees' members, and (despite the seniority system that had begun to develop) used that power to appoint his allies and proteges to leadership positions while punishing those who opposed his legislation.Cannon wielded the Speaker's authority with unprecedented severity.", "While his predecessor Thomas Brackett Reed was noted for his dramatic expansion of the Speaker's authority, Cannon distinguished himself by the manner in which he wielded that authority.", "According to historian Booth Mooney, \"The deadly rapier wielded by Reed gave way to a bludgeon, which at first he used only to knock down Democrats.\"", "Though Reed had been lampooned as a \"Czar,\" press treatment of \"Uncle Joe\" Cannon was far more critical during his first term as Speaker.", "Cannon was criticized by the Democratic press for the arbitrary exercise of his considerable power; on one voice vote, he ruled, \"The ayes make the most noise, but the nays have it.\"", "On another occasion, Representative Cordell Hull attempted to offer an income tax amendment to a tariff bill, and Cannon simply ignored him.", "When one Representative was asked by a constituent for a copy of the House Rules, the Representative simply sent back a picture of Speaker Cannon.", "When confronted with criticisms directly, Cannon would respond that the power he exercised was granted by the whole House, which reserved the authority to amend the Rules or vote him out as Speaker.Early in his term, Cannon was largely free from opposition within the House majority.", "His wrath was typically reserved for the Senate, and in conference committees he was a vigorous defender of the House position on legislation, winning him support and admiration from his colleagues.", "He continued to enjoy the public support of the President, who praised him in 1906 as \"a patriotic American... for every man, rich or poor, capitalist or labor man, so long as he is a decent American, and Cannon is entitled to our support because he is a patriotic man.", "\"After the 1906 election, the relationship between Cannon and Roosevelt began to fray.", "Roosevelt, who had already announced he would not campaign in 1908, adopted a more progressive stance against major corporations.", "Roosevelt's new proposals for a Pure Food and Drug Act, an income tax, an inheritance tax, a federal corporation law, government involvement in labor disputes, laws regulating the labor of women and children, and regulation of railroad securities all drew opposition from Cannon.", "Quoting John Morley, Cannon began to frequently refer to Roosevelt as \"half St. Paul, half St.", "Vitus.\"", "Rumors began to spread that Roosevelt would look to supplant Cannon as speaker, in order to hasten his legislative agenda through the House, but Roosevelt never addressed them, and Cannon survived as Speaker through Roosevelt's term in office.", "''Puck'' for September 30, 1908, satirizing Cannon as \"Abdul the Damned,\" the Ottoman sultan and subject of frequent assassination and deposition attempts.=== William Howard Taft presidency ======= 1908 elections ====As early as 1905, Cannon had expressed confidence that he was a contender for the 1908 presidential nomination.", "Ultimately, Roosevelt was able to maneuver the delegates at the 1908 Republican National Convention in support of William Howard Taft, his Secretary of War.", "Cannon received 51 of the 54 Illinois delegates and a handful from other states, finishing a distant fourth.", "Taft was nominated easily on the first ballot.", "Nevertheless, Cannon was influential at the convention, engineering the party platform and the nomination of conservative James S. Sherman of New York, one of his strongest House allies, for vice president.During the 1908 campaign, Cannon came under heavy fire from the press, which denounced him as a tyrant and obstacle to every piece of progressive legislation introduced in the prior thirty years.", "One cartoon depicted him as the \"Unrepentant Defendant\" in the court trial of \"Predatory Wealth\" for its victimization of \"The Common People.\"", "For his part, Cannon attributed the newspaper opposition to his refusal to support Roosevelt's proposal to permit the duty-free importation of newsprint and wood pulp, as well as his very first House bill which passed the cost of magazine and newspaper subscriptions to publishers.The Democratic Party seized on the issue of House reform, stating in their party platform, \"The House of Representatives, as controlled in recent years by the Republican party, has ceased to be a deliberative and legislative body, responsive to the will of a majority of its members, but has come under the absolute domination of the Speaker, who has entire control of its deliberations and powers of legislation.", "...", "Legislative government becomes a failure when one member, in the person of the Speaker, is more powerful than the entire body.\"", "William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic nominee for president, and labor leader Samuel Gompers each visited Illinois to campaign against Cannon's re-election.", "Even some Republicans, including Nebraska representative George W. Norris, campaigned against \"Cannonism.\"", "Taft himself privately admitted, \"the great weight I have to carry in this campaign is Cannonism.\"", "Nevertheless, Taft and the Republicans won an easy victory in the fall elections; Norris, who had distinguished himself as an intra-party rival to Cannon's power, won re-election by only 22 votes.Representative George W. Norris of Nebraska led the \"Insurgents,\" a loose group of progressive House Republicans opposed to Cannon's leadership.==== 1910 rules revolt ====When the 61st Congress met in March 1909, Roosevelt and Taft agreed that Cannon could not be removed as Speaker.", "The large Republican majority carried him to another term in office, though a core of twelve \"Insurgent\" members refused to vote for him.", "However, the new Democratic floor leader, Champ Clark, forced a roll-call vote on the usually uncontested vote to adopt the rules of the previous Congress.", "An amendment was ultimately adopted, with Democratic and Insurgent votes, to revise certain rules, including the introduction of a unanimous consent calendar for those bills which were not contested.", "In retaliation, Cannon removed three Insurgents from committee chairs and moved others to less significant committees.", "To the press, Cannon said, \"Judas was an insurgent and sold his Master for thirty pieces of silver.", "I have no doubt he would have been applauded by the newspapers in Jerusalem had there been any in that day.", "\"As Cannon's power continued to expand, his relationship with Taft continued to decline.", "Taft stayed out of House business, neither aiding nor opposing Cannon, but he privately noted that it was his wish to have Cannon removed.", "Cannon likewise grew critical of Taft, particularly after his elevation of Edward Douglass White, a Catholic Democrat, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.", "A growing movement within the Republican Party came to support Cannon's removal as Speaker, for pragmatic reasons; Henry Cabot Lodge advised Roosevelt that the Republicans would lose the House if Cannon remained, Taft expressed that such removal would \"accord... with the welfare of the Republican party,\" and various Republican newspapers suggested his resignation as Speaker or even from Congress.", "In the face of growing opposition, Cannon grew defiant.", "He said, \"I will say positively that I will not retire from Congress until my constituents fail to give me a majority.\"", "In one public meeting, he pulled open his coat and shouted, \"Behold Mr. Cannon, the Beelzebub of Congress!", "Gaze on this noble manly formme, Beelzebub!", "Me, the Czar!\"", "Of the Insurgents, he remarked that they were \"dishonest and disgruntled\"; he accused them of introducing demagogic bills which would never be approved, then telling the \"ignorant element\" of their constituents that Cannon had personally stopped the bill, \"thus creating the belief that the Speaker was a 'Czar' and controlled by the 'interests.", "'\"On March 16, 1910, Cannon's power began to crack when the House voted against his ruling on a matter of procedure.", "Edgar Crumpacker, chair of the Committee on the Census, introduced a joint resolution regarding the upcoming census.", "Though the resolution was not in the order of business, Crumpacker argued that the matter was constitutionally privileged, as the census was mandated by the Constitution, and the Constitution overrode any House rule.", "Cannon ruled in favor of the argument, but the House majority voted not to sustain his ruling.", "It was rare for the House to reject a Speaker's ruling, and Cannon bitterly remarked that his \"face had been rubbed in the sand.\"", "Sensing an opening, George Norris took the opportunity.", "The next day, Norris introduced a prepared resolution to create a new Rules Committee with fifteen members, all elected by the House.", "The Speaker, who had been the chair of the Rules Committee ''ex officio'' since 1880, would be barred from membership, thus placing the Committee (and ostensibly the House) above the Speaker's authority, with the power to revise that authority.", "Like Crumpacker, Norris claimed his resolution was constitutionally privileged under Article I, Section 5: \"Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings...\" and therefore should be heard immediately by the whole House.", "Having used Cannon's own ruling against him, Norris placed the Speaker in a double-bind.", "Cannon immediately denounced the resolution as \"anarchy under the color of law,\" but hurriedly withdrew to whip votes against it.", "His lieutenants delayed through dilatory tactics while loyal members returned to the Capitol, but after a weekend recess, Cannon proved unable to rally support to his side.", "On March 19, Cannon ruled Norris's resolution out of order, citing a long list of precedential rulings by prior Speakers, but the House again overruled him on appeal, by a vote of 182 to 163.The House immediately voted on the resolution itself, and it passed with 42 Republican and all 149 Democratic votes by the margin of 191 to 156.Cannon did maintain his position as Speaker by entertaining an immediate motion to vacate, which he won handily since the Republican majority would not risk a Democratic speaker replacing him.", "However, his iron rule of the House was broken.The new Rules Committee, chaired by John Dalzell, passed a flurry of reforms, including a discharge rule empowering a majority to remove bills from committee and a \"Calendar Wednesday,\" allowing committees to present bills otherwise blocked from consideration by the Speaker's scheduling.", "Despite the dramatic reduction in Cannon's powers, Republican prospects for the upcoming election did not improve.", "The Democrats won control of the House in the 1910 midterm elections for the first time since 1894; Cannon himself struggled for his re-election.Time'' magazine featured Cannon on his last day in office, March 3, 1923." ], [ "Later House career", "After Republicans became the minority party in the House, Cannon refused to serve as minority leader.", "He returned as ranking member of the Appropriations Committee, which he had chaired before his term as Speaker.", "While as chair he had favored lower spending, as ranking member he presented numerous expenditure measures to the Democratic majority.", "When the Insurgents' revolt of 1910 evolved into the Republican Party split of 1912, Cannon was defeated for re-election.", "He returned in 1914 and was re-elected each congressional election until 1920.He was a critic of President Woodrow Wilson and U.S. entry into World War I.", "He was also an outspoken critic of Wilson's League of Nations.Cannon declined to run in the 1922 congressional election and retired at the end of his last term in 1923; he was featured on the cover of the first issue of ''Time'' magazine on the last day of his last term in office." ], [ "Personal life", "Cannon's residence in Danville, Illinois, Cannon was one of the charter members of Tuscola's Masonic Lodge No.", "332, which was founded on October 2, 1860.Cannon married Mary Reed in 1862.They had two daughters.", "In 1876, Cannon moved his family to Danville, Illinois, where he resided for the rest of his life.Born a Quaker, he became a Methodist after leaving Congress.", "However, he may have been effectively a Methodist long before this.", "After marrying in a Methodist service, a Quaker encouraged him to express regret for this, to which Cannon replied, \"If you mean that I am to get up in meeting and say that I am sorry I married Mary, I won't do it.", "I'm damned if I'm sorry and I'm damned if I will say I am.", "\"Cannon died in his residence in Danville, Vermilion County, Illinois on November 12, 1926, while in a deep sleep.", "He had a weakened heart and also suffered from the general effects of old age.He was buried in Spring Hill Cemetery." ], [ "Legacy", "The first building of offices for congressmen outside of the United States Capitol building was named after Cannon.=== Public image ===His antic speaking style, diminutive stature and pugnacious manner were his trademarks.", "The newspapers frequently lampooned him as a colorful rube.Despite his reputation for tyranny in the House, Cannon was well-liked by colleagues and friends in Washington, including members of the opposition.=== Length of service ===Cannon is to date the second longest-serving Republican Representative, surpassed only by Alaska congressman Don Young, and also was the first member of Congress of either party ever to surpass 40 years of service (non-consecutive).", "His congressional career spanned 46 years of cumulative service, a concurrent 50 years, barring two terms after which he came back—a record not broken until 1959.He is the longest-serving member ever of the House of Representatives in Illinois, although the longest continuous service belongs to Adolph J. Sabath.", "He served in the House during the terms of 11 presidents, a record he shares with John Dingell and Jamie Whitten.Cannon is to date the second-longest continuously serving Republican Speaker in history, after another Illinoisan, Dennis Hastert, who surpassed him on June 1, 2006." ], [ "See also", "* Thomas Brackett Reed* 1908 Republican National Convention* 1908 United States presidential election* List of Republican National Conventions" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Busbey, L. White (1927). ''", "Uncle Joe Cannon, The Story of a Pioneer American''* *" ], [ "External links", "* The Joseph Gurney Cannon Papers are housed at the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum." ] ]
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[ [ "James G. Blaine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Gillespie Blaine''' (January 31, 1830January 27, 1893) was an American statesman and Republican politician who represented Maine in the United States House of Representatives from 1863 to 1876, serving as Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1869 to 1875, and then in the United States Senate from 1876 to 1881.Blaine twice served as Secretary of State, first in 1881 under President James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur, and then from 1889 to 1892 under President Benjamin Harrison.", "He is one of only two U.S.", "Secretaries of State to hold the position under three separate presidents, the other being Daniel Webster.", "Blaine unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for President in 1876 and 1880 before being nominated in 1884.In the 1884 general election, he was narrowly defeated by Democratic nominee Grover Cleveland.", "Blaine was one of the late 19th century's leading Republicans and a champion of the party's moderate reformist faction, later known as the \"Half-Breeds\".Blaine was born in the western Pennsylvania town of West Brownsville and moved to Maine after completing college where he became a newspaper editor.", "Nicknamed \"the Magnetic Man\", he was a charismatic speaker in an era that prized oratory.", "He began his political career as an early supporter of Republican Abraham Lincoln and the Union war effort in the American Civil War.", "During Reconstruction, Blaine was a supporter of black suffrage, but opposed some of the more coercive measures of the Radical Republicans.", "Initially in favor of high tariffs, he later worked to lower tariffs and expand international trade.", "Railroad promotion and construction were important issues in his time and, as a result of his interest and support, Blaine was widely suspected of corruption in awarding railroad charters, especially with the emergence of the Mulligan letters.", "Though no evidence of corruption ever surfaced from these allegations, they nevertheless plagued his 1884 presidential candidacy.As Secretary of State, Blaine was a transitional figure, marking the end of an isolationist era in foreign policy and foreshadowing the rise of the American Century that would begin with the Spanish–American War.", "His efforts to expand U.S. trade and influence began the nation's shift to a more active American foreign policy.", "Blaine was a pioneer of tariff reciprocity and urged greater involvement in Latin American affairs.", "An expansionist, Blaine's policies would lead in less than a decade to the establishment of the U.S. acquisition of Pacific colonies and dominance in the Caribbean." ], [ "Early life", "=== Family and childhood ===James Gillespie Blaine was born January 31, 1830, in West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, the third child of Ephraim Lyon Blaine and his wife Maria (Gillespie) Blaine.", "He had two older sisters, Harriet and Margaret.", "Blaine's father was a western Pennsylvania businessman and landowner, and the family lived in relative comfort.", "On his father's side, Blaine was descended from Scotch-Irish settlers who first emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1745.His great-grandfather Ephraim Blaine served as a Commissary-General under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War.", "Blaine's mother and her forebears were Irish Catholics who immigrated to Pennsylvania in the 1780s.", "Blaine's parents were married in 1820 in a Catholic ceremony, although Blaine's father remained a Presbyterian.", "Following a common compromise of the era, the Blaines agreed that their daughters would be raised in their mother's Catholic faith while their sons would be brought up in their father's religion.", "James Blaine's cousin, Angela Gillespie, was a nun and founded the American branch of the Sisters of the Holy Cross.", "In politics, Blaine's father supported the Whig Party.Blaine's biographers describe his childhood as \"harmonious,\" and note that the boy took an early interest in history and literature.", "At the age of thirteen, Blaine enrolled in his father's alma mater, Washington College (now Washington & Jefferson College), in nearby Washington, Pennsylvania.", "There, he was a member of the Washington Literary Society, one of the college's debating societies.", "Blaine succeeded academically, graduating near the top of his class and delivering the salutatory address in June 1847.After graduation, Blaine considered attending Yale Law School, but ultimately decided against it, instead moving west to find a job.=== Teacher and publisher ===In 1848, Blaine was hired as a professor of mathematics and ancient languages at the Western Military Institute in Georgetown, Kentucky.", "Although he was only 18 years old and younger than many of his students, Blaine adapted well to his new profession.", "Blaine grew to enjoy life in his adopted state and became an admirer of Kentucky Senator Henry Clay.", "He also made the acquaintance of Harriet Stanwood, a teacher at the nearby Millersburg Female College and native of Maine.", "On June 30, 1850, the two wed. Blaine once again considered taking up the study of law, but instead took his new bride to visit his family in Pennsylvania.", "They next lived with Harriet Blaine's family in Augusta, Maine, for several months, where their first child, Stanwood Blaine, was born in 1851.The young family soon moved again, this time to Philadelphia where Blaine took a job at the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind (now Overbrook School for the Blind) in 1852, teaching science and literature.The offices of the ''Kennebec Journal'', where Blaine got his start in politics as editor.Philadelphia's law libraries gave Blaine the chance to at last begin to study the law, but in 1853 he received a more tempting offer: to become editor and co-owner of the ''Kennebec Journal''.", "Blaine had spent several vacations in his wife's native state of Maine and had become friendly with the ''Journal'''s editors.", "When the newspaper's founder, Luther Severance, retired, Blaine was invited to purchase the publication along with co-editor Joseph Baker.", "He quickly accepted, borrowing the purchase price from his wife's brothers.", "In 1854, Baker sold his share to John L. Stevens, a local minister.", "The ''Journal'' had been a staunchly Whig newspaper, which coincided with Blaine's and Stevens' political opinions.", "The decision to become a newspaperman, unexpected as it was, started Blaine on the road to a lifelong career in politics.", "Blaine's purchase of the ''Journal'' coincided with the demise of the Whig party and birth of the Republican party, and Blaine and Stevens actively promoted the new party in their newspaper.", "The newspaper was financially successful, and Blaine was soon able to invest his profits in coal mines in Pennsylvania and Virginia, forming the basis of his future wealth.=== Maine politics ===Blaine's career as a Republican newspaperman led naturally to involvement in party politics.", "In 1856, he was selected as a delegate to the first Republican National Convention.", "From the party's early days, Blaine identified with the conservative wing, supporting Supreme Court Justice John McLean for the presidential nomination over the more radical John C. Frémont, the eventual nominee.", "The following year, Blaine was offered the editorship of the ''Portland Daily Advertiser'', which he accepted, selling his interest in the ''Journal'' soon thereafter.", "He still maintained his home in Augusta, however, with his growing family.", "Although Blaine's first son, Stanwood, died in infancy, he and Harriet had two more sons soon afterward: Walker, in 1855, and Emmons, in 1857.They would have four more children in years to come: Alice, James, Margaret, and Harriet.", "It was around this time that Blaine left the Presbyterian church of his childhood and joined his wife's new denomination, becoming a member of the South Parish Congregational Church in Augusta.In 1858, Blaine ran for a seat in the Maine House of Representatives, and was elected.", "He ran for reelection in 1859, 1860, and 1861, and was successful each time by large majorities.", "The added responsibilities led Blaine to reduce his duties with the ''Advertiser'' in 1860, and he soon ceased editorial work altogether.", "Meanwhile, his political power was growing as he became chairman of the Republican state committee in 1859, replacing Stevens.", "Blaine was not a delegate to the Republican convention in 1860, but attended anyway as an enthusiastic supporter of Abraham Lincoln.", "Returning to Maine, he was elected Speaker of the Maine House of Representatives in 1861 and reelected in 1862.With the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, he supported Lincoln's war effort and saw that the Maine Legislature voted to organize and equip units to join the Union Army." ], [ "House of Representatives, 1863–1876", "=== Elected to the House ===Blaine had considered running for the United States House of Representatives from Maine's 4th district in 1860, but agreed to step aside when Anson P. Morrill, a former governor, announced his interest in the seat.", "Morrill was successful, but after redistricting placed Blaine in the 3rd district for the 1862 election, he allowed his name to be put forward.", "Running on a campaign of staunch support for the war effort, Blaine was elected by a wide margin; though nationwide, the Republican Party lost a significant number of seats in Congress as the Union war effort to date had been only weakly successful.", "By the time Blaine took his seat in December 1863, at the start of the 38th Congress, the Union Army had turned the tide of the war with victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg.As a first-term congressman, he initially said little, mostly following the administration's lead in supporting the continuing war effort.", "He did clash several times with the leader of the Republicans' radical faction, Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, firstly over payment of states' debts incurred in supporting the war, and again over monetary policy concerning the new greenback currency.", "Blaine also spoke in support of the commutation provision of the military draft law passed in 1863 and proposed a constitutional amendment allowing the federal government to impose taxes on exports, but it never passed.=== Reconstruction and impeachment ===James G. Blaine in the 1860sBlaine was reelected in 1864 and, when the 39th Congress assembled in December 1865, the main issue was the Reconstruction of the defeated Confederate States.", "Although he was not a member of the committee charged with drafting what became the Fourteenth Amendment, Blaine did make his views on the subject known and believed that three-fourths of the non-seceded states would be needed to ratify it, rather than three-fourths of all states, an opinion that did not prevail and placed him, atypically, in the radical camp.", "The Republican Congress also played a role in the governance of the conquered South, dissolving the state governments President Andrew Johnson had installed and substituting military governments under Congress' control.", "Blaine voted in favor of these new, harsher measures, but also supported some leniency toward the former rebels when he opposed a bill that would have barred Southerners from attending the United States Military Academy.", "Blaine voted to impeach Johnson in 1868, although he had initially opposed the effort.", "Later, Blaine was more ambiguous about the validity of the charges against Johnson, writing that \"there was a very grave difference of opinion among those equally competent to decide,\" but he followed his party's leaders.=== Monetary policy ===Continuing his earlier battle with Stevens, Blaine led the fight in Congress for a strong dollar.", "After the issuance of 150 million dollars in greenbacks—non-gold-backed currency—the value of the dollar stood at a low ebb.", "A bipartisan group of inflationists, led by Republican Benjamin F. Butler and Democrat George H. Pendleton, wished to preserve the ''status quo'' and allow the Treasury to continue to issue greenbacks and even to use them to pay the interest due on pre-war bonds.", "Blaine called this idea a repudiation of the nation's promise to investors, which was made when the only currency was gold.", "Speaking several times on the matter, Blaine said that the greenbacks had only ever been an emergency measure to avoid bankruptcy during the war.", "Blaine and his hard money allies were successful, but the issue remained alive until 1879, when all remaining greenbacks were made redeemable in gold by the Specie Payment Resumption Act of 1875.=== Speaker of the House ===During his first three terms in Congress, Blaine had earned for himself a reputation as an expert of parliamentary procedure, and, aside from a growing feud with Roscoe Conkling of New York, had become popular among his fellow Republicans.", "In March 1869, when Speaker Schuyler Colfax resigned from office at the end of the 40th Congress to become vice president, the highly regarded Blaine was the unanimous choice of the Republican Congressional Caucus to become Speaker of the House for the 41st Congress.", "In the subsequent March 4, 1869, election for Speaker, Blaine easily defeated Democrat Michael C. Kerr of Indiana by a vote of 135 to 57.Republicans remained in control of the House in the 42nd and 43rd congresses, and Blaine was re-elected as speaker at the start of both of them.", "His time as speaker came to an end following the 1874-75 elections which produced a Democratic majority in the House for the 44th Congress.Blaine's residence in the capital city of Augusta is the home of Maine governors.Blaine was an effective Speaker with a magnetic personality.", "In the words of Washington journalist Benjamin Perley Poore, Blaine's \"graceful as well as powerful figure, his strong features, glowing with health, and his hearty, honest manner, made him an attractive speaker and an esteemed friend.\"", "Moreover, President Ulysses S. Grant valued his skill and loyalty in leading the House.", "He enjoyed the job and made his presence in Washington more permanent by buying a large residence on Fifteenth Street in the city.", "At the same time, the Blaine family moved to a mansion in Augusta.During Blaine's six-year tenure as Speaker his popularity continued to grow, and Republicans dissatisfied with Grant mentioned Blaine as a potential presidential candidate prior to the 1872 Republican National Convention.", "Instead, Blaine worked steadfastly for Grant's re-election.", "Blaine's growing fame brought growing opposition from the Democrats, as well, and during the 1872 campaign he was accused of receiving bribes in the Crédit Mobilier scandal.", "Blaine denied any part in the scandal, which involved railroad companies bribing federal officials to turn a blind eye to fraudulent railroad contracts that overcharged the government by millions of dollars.", "No one was able to satisfactorily prove Blaine's involvement.", "Though not an absolute defense, it is true that the law that made the fraud possible had been written before he was elected to Congress.", "But other Republicans were exposed by the accusations, including Vice President Colfax, who was dropped from the 1872 presidential ticket in favor of Henry Wilson.Although he supported a general amnesty for former Confederates, Blaine opposed extending it to include Jefferson Davis, and he cooperated with Grant in helping to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in response to increased violence and disenfranchisement of blacks in the South.", "He refrained from voting on the anti-third term resolution that overwhelmingly passed the House that same year, believing that to vote for it would look self-interested.", "Blaine was loyal to Grant, and the scandals of the Grant administration did not seem to affect how the public perceived him; according to his biographer, Blaine was never more popular than when he was Speaker.", "Liberal Republicans saw him as an alternative to the evident corruption of other Republican leaders, and some even urged him to form a new, reformist party.", "Although he remained a Republican, this base of moderate reformers remained loyal to Blaine and became known as the Half Breed faction of the party.=== Blaine Amendment ===Once out of the speaker's chair, Blaine had more time to concentrate on his presidential ambitions, and to develop new policy ideas.", "One result was a foray into education policy.", "In late 1875, President Grant made several speeches on the importance of the separation of church and state and the duty of the states to provide free public education.", "Blaine saw in this an issue that would distract from the Grant administration scandals and let the Republican party regain the high moral ground.", "In December 1875, he proposed a joint resolution that became known as the Blaine Amendment.The proposed amendment codified the church-state separation Blaine and Grant were promoting, stating that:The effect was to prohibit the use of public funds by any religious school, although it did not advance Grant's other aim of requiring states to provide public education to all children.", "The bill passed the House but failed in the Senate.", "Although it never passed Congress, and left Blaine open to charges of anti-Catholicism, the proposed amendment served Blaine's purpose of rallying Protestants to the Republican party and promoting himself as one of the party's foremost leaders." ], [ "1876 presidential election", "James G. Blaine in the 1870s=== Mulligan letters ===Blaine entered the 1876 presidential campaign as the favorite, but his chances were almost immediately harmed by the emergence of a scandal.", "Rumors had begun to spread in February that Blaine had been involved in a transaction with the Union Pacific Railroad which had paid Blaine $64,000 for some Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad bonds he owned even though they were nearly worthless.", "In essence, the alleged transaction was presented as a sham designed to bribe Blaine.", "Blaine denied the charges, as did the Union Pacific's directors.", "Blaine claimed that he never had any dealings with the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad except to purchase bonds at market price and that he had lost money on the transaction.", "Democrats in the House of Representatives, however, demanded a congressional investigation.", "The testimony appeared to favor Blaine's version of events until May 31, when James Mulligan, a Boston clerk who had been employed by Blaine's brother-in-law, testified that the allegations were true, he had arranged the transaction, and he had letters to prove it.", "The letters ended with the damning phrase \"Kindly burn this letter.\"", "When the investigating committee recessed, Blaine met with Mulligan that night in his hotel room.", "What happened between the men is unclear, but Blaine acquired the letters or, as Mulligan told the committee, snatched them from Mulligan's hands and fled the room.", "In any event, Blaine had the letters and refused the committee's demand to turn them over.Opinion swiftly turned against Blaine; the June 3 ''The New York Times'' carried the headline \"Blaine's Nomination Now Out of the Question.\"", "Blaine took his case to the House floor on June 5, theatrically proclaiming his innocence and calling the investigation a partisan attack by Southern Democrats in revenge for his exclusion of Jefferson Davis from the amnesty bill of the previous year.", "He read selected passages from the letters aloud and said, \"Thank God Almighty, I am not afraid to show them!\"", "Blaine even succeeded in extracting an apology from the committee chairman.", "The political tide turned anew in Blaine's favor, but the pressure had now begun to affect Blaine's health, and he collapsed while leaving church services on June 14.His opponents called the collapse a political stunt, with one Democratic newspaper reporting the event as \"Blaine Feigns a Faint.\"", "Rumors of Blaine's ill health combined with the lack of hard evidence against him garnered him sympathy among Republicans, and when the Republican convention began in Cincinnati later that month, he was again seen as the frontrunner.=== Plumed Knight ===Exposition Hall of Cincinnati during the announcement of Rutherford B. Hayes as the Republican nomineeThough he was damaged by the Mulligan letters, Blaine entered the convention as the favorite.", "Five other men were also considered serious candidates: Benjamin Bristow, the Kentucky-born Treasury Secretary; Roscoe Conkling, Blaine's old enemy and now a Senator from New York; Senator Oliver P. Morton of Indiana; Governor Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio; and Governor John F. Hartranft of Pennsylvania.", "Blaine was nominated by Illinois orator Robert G. Ingersoll in what became a famous speech:The speech was a success and Ingersoll's appellation of \"plumed knight\" remained a nickname for Blaine for years to come.", "On the first ballot, no candidate received the required majority of 378, but Blaine had the most votes, with 285 and no other candidate had more than 125.There were a few vote shifts in the next five ballots, and Blaine climbed to 308 votes, with his nearest competitor at just 111.On the seventh ballot the situation shifted drastically as anti-Blaine delegates began to coalesce around Hayes; by the time the balloting ended, Blaine's votes had risen to 351, but Hayes surpassed him at 384, a majority.Blaine received the news at his home in Washington and telegraphed Hayes his congratulations.", "In the subsequent contest of 1876, Hayes was elected after a contentious compromise over disputed electoral votes.", "The results of the convention had further effects on Blaine's political career, as Bristow, having lost the nomination, also resigned as Treasury Secretary three days after the convention ended.", "President Grant selected Senator Lot M. Morrill of Maine to fill the cabinet post, and Maine's governor, Seldon Connor, appointed Blaine to the now-vacant Senate seat.", "When the Maine Legislature reconvened that autumn, they confirmed Blaine's appointment and elected him to the full six-year term that would begin on March 4, 1877." ], [ "United States Senate, 1876–1881", "Hayes (pictured) at times, but was never among his chief defenders in the SenateBlaine was appointed to the Senate on July 10, 1876, but did not begin his duties there until the Senate convened in December of that year.", "While in the Senate, he served on the Appropriations Committee and held the chairmanship of the Committee on Civil Service and Retrenchment, but he never achieved the role of leadership that he had held as a member of the House.", "The Senate in the 45th Congress was controlled by a narrow Republican majority, but it was a majority often divided against itself and against the Hayes administration.", "Blaine did not number himself among the administration's defenders — later known as the Half-Breeds — but neither could he join the Republicans led by Conkling—later known as the Stalwarts — who opposed Hayes, because of the deep personal enmity between Blaine and Conkling.", "He opposed Hayes's withdrawal of federal troops from Southern capitals, which effectively ended the Reconstruction of the South, but to no avail.", "Blaine continued to antagonize Southern Democrats, voting against bills passed in the Democrat-controlled House that would reduce the Army's appropriation and repeal the post-war Enforcement Acts he had helped pass.", "Such bills passed Congress several times and Hayes vetoed them several times; ultimately, the Enforcement Acts remained in place, but the funds to enforce them dwindled.", "By 1879, there were only 1,155 soldiers stationed in the former Confederacy, and Blaine believed that this small force could never guarantee the civil and political rights of black Southerners—which would mean an end to the Republican party in the South.On monetary issues, Blaine continued the advocacy for a strong dollar that he had begun as a Representative.", "This stance was in opposition to Senate Republican leadership, including Senate President Pro Tempore Thomas W. Ferry, who generally supported the greenback movement.", "The issue had shifted from debate over greenbacks to debate over which metal should back the dollar: gold and silver, or gold alone.", "The Coinage Act of 1873 stopped the coinage of silver for all coins worth a dollar or more, effectively tying the dollar to the value of gold.", "As a result, the money supply contracted and the effects of the Panic of 1873 grew worse, making it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had entered into when currency was less valuable.", "Farmers and laborers, especially, clamored for the return of coinage in both metals, believing the increased money supply would restore wages and property values.", "Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri proposed a bill, which passed the House, that required the United States to coin as much silver as miners could sell the government, thus increasing the money supply and aiding debtors.", "In the Senate, William B. Allison, a Republican from Iowa offered an amendment to limit the silver coinage to two to four million dollars per month.", "This was still too much for Blaine, and he denounced the bill and the proposed amendment, but the amended Bland–Allison Act passed the Senate by a 48 to 21 vote.", "Hayes vetoed the bill, but Congress mustered the two-thirds vote to pass it over his veto.", "Even after the Bland–Allison Act's passage, Blaine continued his opposition, making a series of speeches against it during the 1878 congressional campaign season.His time in the Senate allowed Blaine to develop his foreign policy ideas.", "He advocated expansion of the American navy and merchant marine, which had been in decline since the Civil War.", "Blaine also bitterly opposed the results of the arbitration with Great Britain over American fishermen's right to fish in Canadian waters, which resulted in a $5.5 million award to Britain.", "Blaine's Anglophobia combined with his support of high tariffs.", "He had initially opposed a reciprocity treaty with Canada that would have reduced tariffs between the two nations, but by the end of his time in the Senate, he had changed his mind, believing that Americans had more to gain by increasing exports than they would lose by the risk of cheap imports." ], [ "1880 presidential election", "The Interstate Exposition Building (known as the \"Glass Palace\") during the convention; James A. Garfield is on the podium, waiting to speak.Hayes had announced early in his presidency that he would not seek another term, which meant that the contest for the Republican nomination in 1880 was open to all challengers—including Blaine.", "Blaine was among the early favorites for the nomination, as were former President Grant, Treasury Secretary John Sherman of Ohio, and Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont.", "Although Grant did not actively promote his candidacy, his entry into the race re-energized the Stalwarts and when the convention met in Chicago in June 1880, they instantly polarized the delegates into Grant and anti-Grant factions, with Blaine the most popular choice of the latter group.", "Blaine was nominated by James Frederick Joy of Michigan, but in contrast to Ingersoll's exciting speech of 1876, Joy's lengthy oration was remembered only for its maladroitness.", "After the other candidates were nominated, the first ballot showed Grant leading with 304 votes and Blaine in second with 284; no other candidate had more than Sherman's 93, and none had the required majority of 379.Sherman's delegates could swing the nomination to either Grant or Blaine, but he refused to release them through twenty-eight ballots in the hope that the anti-Grant forces would desert Blaine and flock to him.", "Eventually, they did desert Blaine, but instead of Sherman they shifted their votes to Ohio Congressman James A. Garfield, and by the thirty-sixth ballot he had 399 votes, enough for victory.Garfield placated the Stalwarts by endorsing Chester A. Arthur of New York, a Conkling loyalist, as nominee for vice president, but it was to Blaine and his delegates that Garfield owed his nomination.", "When Garfield was elected over Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock, he turned to Blaine to guide him in selection of his cabinet and offered him the preeminent position: Secretary of State.", "Blaine accepted, resigning from the Senate on March 4, 1881." ], [ "Secretary of State, 1881", "=== Foreign policy initiatives ===Blaine saw presiding over the cabinet as a chance to preside over the Washington social scene, as well, and soon ordered construction of a new, larger home near Dupont Circle.", "Although his foreign policy experience was minimal, Blaine quickly threw himself into his new duties.", "By 1881, Blaine had completely abandoned his protectionist leanings and now used his position as Secretary of State to promote freer trade, especially within the western hemisphere.", "His reasons were twofold: firstly, Blaine's old fear of British interference in the Americas was undiminished, and he saw increased trade with Latin America as the best way to keep Britain from dominating the region.", "Secondly, he believed that by encouraging exports, he could increase American prosperity, and by doing so position the Republican party as the author of that prosperity, ensuring continued electoral success.", "Garfield agreed with his Secretary of State's vision and Blaine called for a Pan-American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among the Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increasing trade.", "At the same time, Blaine hoped to negotiate a peace in the War of the Pacific then being fought by Bolivia, Chile, and Peru.", "Blaine favored a resolution that would not result in Peru yielding any territory, but Chile, which had by 1881 occupied the Peruvian capital, rejected any negotiations that would gain them nothing.", "Blaine sought to expand American influence in other areas, calling for renegotiation of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty to allow the United States to construct a canal through Panama without British involvement, as well as attempting to reduce British involvement in the strategically located Kingdom of Hawaii.", "His plans for the United States' involvement in the world stretched even beyond the Western Hemisphere, as he sought commercial treaties with Korea and Madagascar.=== Garfield's assassination ===Blaine (left) was present at Garfield's assassination.On July 2, 1881, Blaine and Garfield were walking through the Sixth Street Station of the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad in Washington when Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled lawyer and crazed office seeker who had made repeated demands for Blaine and other State Department officials to appoint him to various ambassadorships for which he was grossly unqualified or were already filled.Guiteau, a self-professed Stalwart, believed that after assassinating the President, he would strike a blow to unite the two factions of the Republican Party, allowing him to ingratiate himself with Vice President Arthur and receive his coveted position.", "Guiteau was overpowered and arrested immediately, while Garfield lingered for two and a half months before he died on September 19, 1881.Guiteau was convicted of killing Garfield and hanged on June 30, 1882.Garfield's death was not just a personal tragedy for Blaine; it also meant the end of his dominance of the cabinet, and the end of his foreign policy initiatives.", "With Arthur's ascent to the presidency, the Stalwart faction now held sway, and Blaine's days at the State Department were numbered.", "While Arthur asked all of the cabinet members to postpone their resignations until Congress recessed that December, Blaine nonetheless tendered his resignation on October 19, 1881, but he agreed to remain in office until December 19, when his successor would be in place.Blaine's replacement was Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, a New Jersey Stalwart; while Arthur and Frelinghuysen undid much of Blaine's work, cancelling the call for a Pan-American conference and stopping the effort to end the War of the Pacific, they did continue the drive for tariff reductions, signing a reciprocity treaty with Mexico in 1882.=== Private life ===Blaine's mansion in Dupont CircleBlaine began the year 1882 without a political office for the first time since 1859.Troubled by poor health, he sought no employment other than the completion of the first volume of his memoir, ''Twenty Years of Congress.''", "Friends in Maine petitioned Blaine to run for Congress in the 1882 elections, but he declined, preferring to spend his time writing and supervising the move to the new home.", "His income from mining and railroad investments was sufficient to sustain the family's lifestyle and to allow for the construction of a vacation cottage, \"Stanwood\" on Mount Desert Island, Maine, designed by Frank Furness.", "Blaine appeared before Congress in 1882 during an investigation into his War of the Pacific diplomacy, defending himself against allegations that he owned an interest in the Peruvian guano deposits being occupied by Chile, but otherwise stayed away from the Capitol.", "The publication of the first volume of ''Twenty Years'' in early 1884 added to Blaine's financial security and thrust him back into the political spotlight.", "As the 1884 campaign loomed, Blaine's name was being circulated once more as a potential nominee, and despite some reservations, he soon found himself back in the hunt for the presidency." ], [ "1884 presidential election", "Blaine/Logan campaign posterAn 1884 cartoon ridicules Blaine as the tattooed-man with many indelible scandals.Cleveland cartoon highlights the Halpin scandal.=== Nomination ===In the months leading up to the 1884 convention, Blaine was once more considered the favorite for the nomination, but President Arthur was contemplating a run for election in his own right.", "George Edmunds was again the favored candidate among reformers and John Sherman had a few delegates pledged to him, but neither was expected to command much support at the convention.", "John A. Logan of Illinois hoped to attract Stalwart votes if Arthur's campaign was unsuccessful.", "Blaine was unsure he wanted to try for the nomination for the third time and even encouraged General William T. Sherman, John Sherman's older brother, to accept it if it came to him, but ultimately Blaine agreed to be a candidate again.William H. West of Ohio nominated Blaine with an enthusiastic speech and after the first ballot, Blaine led the count with 334½ votes.", "While short of the necessary 417 for nomination, Blaine had far more than any other candidate with Arthur in second place at 278 votes.", "Blaine was unacceptable to the Arthur delegates just as Blaine's own delegates would never vote for the President, so the contest was between the two for the delegates of the remaining candidates.", "Blaine's total steadily increased as Logan and Sherman withdrew in his favor and some of the Edmunds delegates defected to him.", "Unlike in previous conventions, the momentum for Blaine in 1884 would not be halted.", "On the fourth ballot, Blaine received 541 votes and was, at last, nominated.", "Logan was named vice presidential nominee on the first ballot, and the Republicans had their ticket.=== Campaign against Cleveland ===The Democrats held their convention in Chicago the following month and nominated Governor Grover Cleveland of New York.", "Cleveland's time on the national scene was brief, but Democrats hoped that his reputation as a reformer and an opponent of corruption would attract Republicans dissatisfied with Blaine and his reputation for scandal.", "They were correct, as reform-minded Republicans (called \"Mugwumps\") denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland.", "The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher, were more concerned with morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government.", "However, even as the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some blue-collar workers to the Greenback Party, led by Benjamin F. Butler, Blaine's antagonist from their early days in the House.The campaign focused on the candidates' personalities, as each candidate's supporters cast aspersions on their opponents.", "Cleveland's supporters rehashed the old allegations from the Mulligan letters that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of railroads, later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies.", "Although the stories of Blaine's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier, this time more of his correspondence was discovered, making his earlier denials less plausible.", "Blaine acknowledged that the letters were genuine, but denied that anything in them impugned his integrity or contradicted his earlier explanations.", "Nevertheless, what Blaine described as \"stale slander\" served to focus the public's attention negatively on his character.", "On some of the most damaging correspondence, Blaine had written \"Burn this letter,\" giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry: \"Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, 'Burn this letter!", "'\"To counter Cleveland's image of superior morality, Republicans discovered reports that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer in Buffalo, New York, and chanted \"Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?", "\"—to which the Democrats, after Cleveland had been elected, appended, \"Gone to the White House, Ha!", "Ha!", "Ha!\"", "Cleveland admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin, the woman who claimed he fathered her child named Oscar Folsom Cleveland.", "Halpin was involved with several men at the time, including Cleveland's friend and law partner, Oscar Folsom, for whom the child was also named.", "Cleveland did not know which man was the father, and is believed to have assumed responsibility because he was the only bachelor among them.", "At the same time, Democratic operatives accused Blaine and his wife of not having been married when their eldest son, Stanwood, was born in 1851; this rumor was false, however, and caused little excitement in the campaign.", "Halpin disputed the claims of being involved with several men, accusing Cleveland of raping and impregnating her, then institutionalizing her against her will to gain control of their child.Both candidates believed that the states of New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut would determine the election.", "In New York, Blaine received less support than he anticipated when Arthur and Conkling, still powerful in the New York Republican party, failed to actively campaign for him.", "Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did; while the Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century, Blaine's mother was Irish Catholic, and he believed his career-long opposition to the British government would resonate with the Irish.", "Blaine's hope for Irish defections to the Republican standard were dashed late in the campaign when one of his supporters, Samuel D. Burchard, gave a speech denouncing the Democrats as the party of \"Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion.\"", "The Democrats spread the word of this insult in the days before the election, and Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states, including New York by just over one thousand votes.", "While the popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one-quarter of a percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219–182." ], [ "Party leader in exile", "Blaine, Benjamin Harrison, and Henry Cabot Lodge and their families on vacation in Bar Harbor, Maine.Blaine accepted his narrow defeat and spent most of the next year working on the second volume of ''Twenty Years of Congress.''", "The book continued to earn him enough money to support his lavish household and pay off his debts.", "Although he spoke to friends of retiring from politics, Blaine still attended dinners and commented on the Cleveland administration's policies.", "By the time of the 1886 Congressional elections, Blaine was giving speeches and promoting Republican candidates, especially in his home state of Maine.", "Republicans were successful in Maine, and after the Maine elections in September, Blaine went on a speaking tour from Pennsylvania to Tennessee, hoping to boost the prospects of Republican candidates there.", "Republicans were less successful nationwide, gaining seats in the House while losing seats in the Senate, but Blaine's speeches kept him and his opinions in the spotlight.Blaine and his wife and daughters sailed for Europe in June 1887, visiting England, Ireland, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, and finally Scotland, where they stayed at the summer home of Andrew Carnegie.", "While in France, Blaine wrote a letter to the ''New-York Tribune'' criticizing Cleveland's plans to reduce the tariff, saying that free trade with Europe would impoverish American workers and farmers.", "The family returned to the United States in August 1887.His letter in the ''Tribune'' had raised his political profile even higher, and by 1888 Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge, both former opponents, urged Blaine to run against Cleveland again.", "Opinion within the party was overwhelmingly in favor of renominating Blaine.As the state conventions drew nearer, Blaine announced that he would not be a candidate.", "His supporters doubted his sincerity and continued to encourage him to run, but Blaine still demurred.", "Hoping to make his intentions clear, Blaine left the country and was staying with Carnegie in Scotland when the 1888 Republican National Convention began in Chicago.", "Carnegie encouraged Blaine to accept if the convention nominated him, but the delegates finally accepted Blaine's refusal.", "John Sherman was the most prominent candidate and sought to attract the Blaine supporters to his candidacy, but instead found them flocking to former senator Benjamin Harrison of Indiana after a telegram from Carnegie suggested that Blaine favored him.", "Blaine returned to the United States in August 1888 and visited Harrison at his home in October, where twenty-five thousand residents paraded in Blaine's honor.", "Harrison defeated Cleveland in a close election, and offered Blaine his former position as Secretary of State." ], [ "Secretary of State, 1889–1892", "Blaine in his office, 1890Harrison had developed his foreign policy based largely on Blaine's ideas, and at the start of his term, Harrison and Blaine had very similar views on the United States' place in the world.", "In spite of their shared worldview, however, the two men became personally unfriendly as the term went on.", "Harrison was conscious that his Secretary of State was more popular than he, and while he admired Blaine's gift for diplomacy, he grew displeased with Blaine's frequent absence from his post because of illness, and suspected that Blaine was angling for the presidential nomination in 1892.Harrison tried to limit how many \"Blaine men\" filled subordinate positions in the State Department and denied Blaine's request that his son, Walker, be appointed First Assistant Secretary, instead naming him Solicitor of the Department of State.", "Despite the growing personal rancor, the two men continued, with one exception, to agree on the foreign policy questions of the day.=== Pacific diplomacy ===Blaine and Harrison wished to see American power and trade expanded across the Pacific and were especially interested in securing rights to harbors in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and Pago Pago, Samoa.", "When Blaine entered office, the United States, Great Britain, and the German Empire were disputing their respective rights in Samoa.", "Thomas F. Bayard, Blaine's predecessor, had accepted an invitation to a three-party conference in Berlin aimed at resolving the dispute, and Blaine appointed American representatives to attend.", "The result was a treaty that created a condominium among the three powers, allowing all of them access to the harbor.In Hawaii, Blaine worked to bind the kingdom more closely to the United States and to avoid its becoming a British protectorate.", "When the McKinley Tariff of 1890 eliminated the duty on sugar, Hawaiian sugar-growers looked for a way to retain their once-exclusive access to the American market.", "The Hawaiian minister to the United States, Henry A. P. Carter, tried to arrange for Hawaii to have complete trade reciprocity with the United States, but Blaine proposed instead that Hawaii become an American protectorate; Carter favored the idea, but the Hawaiian king, Kalākaua, rejected the infringement on his sovereignty.", "Blaine next procured the appointment of his former newspaper colleague John L. Stevens as minister to Hawaii.", "Stevens had long believed that the United States should annex Hawaii, and as minister he co-operated with Americans living in Hawaii in their efforts to bring about annexation.", "Their efforts ultimately culminated in a coup d'état against Kalākaua's successor, Liliuokalani, in 1893.Blaine's precise involvement is undocumented, but the results of Stevens' diplomacy were in accord with his ambitions for American power in the region.", "The new government petitioned the United States for annexation, but by that time Blaine was no longer in office.=== Latin America and reciprocity ===Soon after taking office, Blaine revived his old idea of an international conference of western hemisphere nations.", "The result was the First International Conference of American States, which met in Washington in 1890.Blaine and Harrison had high hopes for the conference, including proposals for a customs union, a pan-American railroad line, and an arbitration process to settle disputes among member nations.", "Their overall goal was to extend trade and political influence over the entire hemisphere; some of the other nations understood this and were wary of deepening ties with the United States to the exclusion of European powers.", "Blaine said publicly that his only interest was in \"annexation of trade,\" not annexation of territory, but privately he wrote to Harrison of a desire for some territorial enlargement of the United States:Congress was not as enthusiastic about a customs union as Blaine and Harrison were, but tariff reciprocity provisions were ultimately included in the McKinley Tariff that reduced duties on some inter-American trade.", "Otherwise, the conference achieved none of Blaine's goals in the short-term, but did lead to further communication and what would eventually become the Organization of American States.Sailors from the caused the major foreign affairs crisis of Blaine's second term as Secretary of State.In 1891, a diplomatic crisis arose in Chile that drove a wedge between Harrison and Blaine.", "The American minister to Chile, Patrick Egan, a political friend of Blaine's, granted asylum to Chileans who were seeking refuge from the Chilean Civil War.", "Chile was already suspicious of Blaine because of his War of the Pacific diplomacy ten years earlier, and this incident raised tensions even further.", "When sailors from the ''Baltimore'' took shore leave in Valparaíso, a fight broke out, resulting in the deaths of two American sailors and three dozen arrested.", "When the news reached Washington, Blaine was in Bar Harbor recuperating from a bout of ill health and Harrison himself drafted a demand for reparations.", "The Chilean foreign minister, Manuel Antonio Matta, replied that Harrison's message was \"erroneous or deliberately incorrect\" and said that the Chilean government was treating the affair the same as any other criminal matter.", "Tensions increased as Harrison threatened to break off diplomatic relations unless the United States received a suitable apology.", "Blaine returned to the capital and made conciliatory overtures to the Chilean government, offering to submit the dispute to arbitration and recall Egan.", "Harrison still insisted on an apology and submitted a special message to Congress about the threat of war.", "Chile issued an apology for the incident, and the threat of war subsided.=== Relations with European powers ===1890 political cartoon depicting Blaine \"outplaying\" British Prime Minister Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury.Blaine's earliest expressions in the foreign policy sphere were those of a reactionary Anglophobe, but by the end of his career his relationship with the United Kingdom had become more moderate and nuanced.", "A dispute over seal hunting in the waters off Alaska was the cause of Blaine's first interaction with Britain as Harrison's Secretary of State.", "A law passed in 1889 required Harrison to ban seal hunting in Alaskan waters, but Canadian fishermen believed they had the right to continue fishing there.", "Soon thereafter, the United States Navy seized several Canadian ships near the Pribilof Islands.", "Blaine entered into negotiations with Britain and the two nations agreed to submit the dispute to arbitration by a neutral tribunal.", "Blaine was no longer in office when the tribunal began its work, but the result was to allow the hunting once more, albeit with some regulation, and to require the United States to pay damages of $473,151.Ultimately, the nations signed the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911, which outlawed open-water seal hunting.At the same time as the Pribilof Islands dispute, an outbreak of mob violence in New Orleans became an international incident.", "After New Orleans police chief David Hennessy led a crackdown against local mafiosi, he was assassinated on October 14, 1890.After the alleged murderers were found not guilty on March 14, 1891, a mob stormed the jail and lynched eleven of them.", "Since many of those killed were Italian citizens the Italian minister, Saverio Fava, protested to Blaine.", "Blaine explained that federal officials could not control how state officials deal with criminal matters, and Fava announced that he would withdraw the legation back to Italy.", "Blaine and Harrison believed the Italians' response to be an overreaction, and did nothing.", "Tensions slowly cooled, and after nearly a year, the Italian minister returned to the United States to negotiate an indemnity.", "After some internal dispute—Blaine wanted conciliation with Italy, Harrison was reluctant to admit fault—the United States agreed to pay an indemnity of $25,000, and normal diplomatic relations resumed." ], [ "Retirement and death", "Political cartoon depicting the death and funeral of Blaine.Blaine had always believed his health to be fragile, and by the time he joined Harrison's cabinet he truly was unwell.", "The years at the State Department also brought Blaine personal tragedy as two of his children, Walker and Alice, died suddenly in 1890.Another son, Emmons, died in 1892.With these family losses and his declining health, Blaine decided to retire and announced that he would resign from the cabinet on June 4, 1892.Because of their growing animosity, and because Blaine's resignation came three days before the 1892 Republican National Convention began, Harrison suspected that Blaine was preparing to run against him for the party's nomination for president.Harrison was unpopular with the party and the country, and many of Blaine's old supporters encouraged him to run for the nomination.", "Blaine had denied any interest in the nomination months before his resignation, but some of his friends, including Senator Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania and James S. Clarkson, chairman of the Republican National Committee, took it for false modesty and worked for his nomination anyway.", "When Blaine resigned from the cabinet, his boosters were certain that he was a candidate, but the majority of the party stood by the incumbent.", "Harrison was renominated on the first ballot, but die-hard Blaine delegates still gave their champion 182 and 1/6 votes, good enough for second place.Blaine spent the summer of 1892 at his Bar Harbor cottage, and did not involve himself in the presidential campaign other than to make a single speech in New York in October.", "Harrison was defeated soundly in his rematch against former president Cleveland and when Blaine returned to Washington at the close of 1892, he and Harrison were friendlier than they had been in years.", "Blaine's health declined rapidly in the winter of 1892–1893, and he died in his Washington home on January 27, 1893, four days before turning sixty-three.", "After a funeral at the Presbyterian Church of the Covenant, he was buried in Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington.", "He was later re-interred in Blaine Memorial Park, Augusta, Maine, in 1920." ], [ "Legacy", "A towering figure in the Republican party of his day, Blaine fell into obscurity fairly soon after his death.", "A 1905 biography by his wife's cousin, Edward Stanwood, was written when the question was still in doubt, but by the time David Saville Muzzey published his biography of Blaine in 1934, the subtitle \"A Political Idol of Other Days\" already spoke to its subject's fading place in the popular mind, perhaps because of the nine men the Republican Party nominated for the presidency from 1860 to 1912, Blaine is the only one who never became president.", "Although several authors studied Blaine's foreign policy career, including Edward P. Crapol's 2000 work, Muzzey's was the last full-scale biography of the man until Neil Rolde's 2006 book.", "Historian R. Hal Williams was working on a new biography of Blaine, tentatively titled ''James G. Blaine: A Life in Politics'', until his death in 2016.During the 2016 United States presidential election, both Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton were compared to Blaine for their controversies.", "Blaine's status as a former Secretary of State who sought to erase evidence of his personal corruption drew parallels to Clinton, while his appeals to anti-Chinese sentiment were compared to Trump's anti-Muslim rhetoric.", "Similarly, the Mugwumps who opposed Blaine in 1884 have been compared to the Never Trump movement." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===; Books* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ; Articles* * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Green, Steven K., Requiem for State 'Blaine Amendments', ''Journal of Church and State'' (2021)* Grenville, John A. S. and George Berkeley Young.", "''Politics, Strategy, and American Diplomacy: Studies in Foreign Policy, 1873–1917'' (1966) pp 74–101 on \"The challenge of Latin America: Harrison and Blaine, 1889–1892\"* Khoo, Flora.", "\"The Ideological Influence of Political Cartoons on the 1884 US Presidential Race.\"", "''American Journalism'' 37.3 (2020): 372-396.", "* * * * Spetter, Allan.", "\"Harrison and Blaine: Foreign Policy, 1889-1893\" ''Indiana Magazine of History'' 65#3 (1969), pp.", "214–227 online* * Volwiler, A. T. \"Harrison, Blaine, and American Foreign Policy, 1889-1893\" ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 79#4 (1938) pp.", "637–648 online* West, Stephen A.", "\"Remembering Reconstruction in Its Twilight: Ulysses S. Grant and James G. Blaine on the Origins of Black Suffrage.\"", "''Journal of the Civil War Era'' 10.4 (2020): 495-523.online* Winchester, Richard Carlyle.", "\"James G. Blaine and the Ideology of American Expansionism\" (PhD dissertation, University Of Rochester; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1966.6610831)* Windle, Jonathan Clark.", "\"James G. Blaine: His Pan American Policy and its Effect Upon the Mckinley Tariff Act of 1890\" (Phd Dissertation, Florida Atlantic University; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1976.1309472)." ], [ "External links", "* * \"James G. Blaine, Presidential Contender\" from C-SPAN's ''The Contenders''* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Justinian I" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Justinian I''' ( ; , ; , ; 48214 November 565), also known as '''Justinian the Great''', was the Eastern Roman emperor from 527 to 565.His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovatio imperii'', or \"restoration of the Empire\".", "This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire.", "His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa.", "Subsequently, Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths.", "The praetorian prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing the province of Spania.", "These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million ''solidi''.", "During his reign, Justinian also subdued the ''Tzani'', a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before.", "He engaged the Sasanian Empire in the east during Kavad I's reign, and later again during Khosrow I's reign; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west.A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the , which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states.", "His reign also marked a blossoming of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) culture, and his building program yielded works such as the Hagia Sophia." ], [ "Life", "Justinian was born in Tauresium, Dardania, probably in 482.A native speaker of Latin (possibly the last Roman emperor to be one), he came from a peasant family thought to have been of either of Illyro-Roman or Thraco-Roman origin.", "The name ''Iustinianus'', which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin.", "During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace.", "His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin.", "Justin, who was commander of one of the imperial guard units (the Excubitors) before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople, and ensured the boy's education.", "As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology, and Roman history.", "Justinian served as a ''candidatus'', one of 40 men selected from the ''scholae palatinae'' to serve as the emperor's personal bodyguard.", "The chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, describes his appearance as short, fair-skinned, curly-haired, round-faced, and handsome.", "Another contemporary historian, Procopius, compares Justinian's appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander.When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor with significant help from Justinian.", "Justinian showed a lot of ambition, and several sources claim that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor, although there is no conclusive evidence of this.", "As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the ''de facto'' ruler.", "Following the general Vitalian's assassination in 520 (orchestrated by Justinian and Justin), Justinian was appointed consul and commander of the army of the east.", "Justinian remained Justin's close confidant, and in 525 was granted the titles of ''nobilissimus'' and ''caesar'' (heir-apparent).", "He was crowned co-emperor on 1 April 527, and became sole ruler after Justin's death on 1 August 527.As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy.", "He was known as \"the emperor who never sleeps\" for his work habits.", "Nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach.", "Around 525, he married his mistress, Theodora, in Constantinople.", "She was by profession an actress and some twenty years his junior.", "In earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law lifting restrictions on marriages with ex-actresses.", "Though the marriage caused a scandal, Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire.", "Other talented individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser; Peter the Patrician, the diplomat and long-time head of the palace bureaucracy; Justinian's finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented generals, Belisarius and Narses.Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied entrepreneurs was discovered as late as 562.Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered.", "Theodora died in 548 at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years.", "Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine, became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life.", "He died on 14 November 565, childless.", "He was succeeded by Justin II, who was the son of his sister Vigilantia and married to Sophia, the niece of Theodora.", "Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles until it was desecrated and robbed during the pillage of the city in 1204 by the Latin States of the Fourth Crusade." ], [ "Reign", "===Legislative activities===Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of all Roman law, something that had not previously been attempted.", "The total of Justinian's legislation is known today as the .", "It consists of the ''Codex Justinianeus'', the ''Digesta'' or ''Pandectae'', the ''Institutiones'', and the ''Novellae''.Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed the ''quaestor'' Tribonian to oversee this task.", "The first draft of the ''Codex Justinianeus'', a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529.", "(The final version appeared in 534.)", "It was followed by the ''Digesta'' (or ''Pandectae''), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the ''Institutiones'', a textbook explaining the principles of law.", "The ''Novellae'', a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements the ''Corpus''.", "As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the ''Novellae'' appeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire.The ''Corpus'' forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire.", "As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the ''leges'' (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults (''senatusconsulta''), imperial decrees, case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations (''responsa prudentium'').Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law.", "It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the ''Basilika'' of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise.", "The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of 554), from where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much Continental European law code, which was eventually spread by European empires to the Americas and beyond in the Age of Discovery.", "It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia.", "It remains influential to this day.He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being forced into prostitution.", "Rapists were treated severely.", "Further, by his policies: women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if a woman was widowed, her dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice.Family legislation also revealed a greater concern for the interests of children.", "This was particularly so with respect to children born out of wedlock.", "The law under Justinian also reveals a striking interest in child neglect issues.", "Justinian protected the rights of children whose parents remarried and produced more offspring, or who simply separated and abandoned their offspring, forcing them to beg.Justinian discontinued the regular appointment of Consuls in 541.In Constantinople, under Justinian, hospitals were built and free medical care provided to the many poor residents of the city.", "In addition, public baths were free for all residents and 20 state bakeries provided free bread to those who needed it.", "According to one study, “The empire’s social welfare programs ensured that no one went hungry.”===Nika riots===The Barberini Ivory, thought to portray either Justinian or Anastasius IJustinian's habit of choosing efficient but unpopular advisers nearly cost him his throne early in his reign.", "In January 532, partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople, normally rivals, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots.", "They forced him to dismiss Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senator Hypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius.", "While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital by sea, but eventually decided to stay, apparently on the prompting of his wife Theodora, who refused to leave.", "In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus.", "Procopius relates that 30,000 unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome.", "On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment, Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed.The destruction that took place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia.===Military activities===Reconstruction of the Column of Justinian, after Cornelius Gurlitt, 1912.The column was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543 in honour of his military victories.One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century.", "As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries.", "Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art.", "The re-conquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius.====War with the Sassanid Empire, 527–532====From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire.", "In 530 the Persian forces suffered a double defeat at Dara and Satala, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum.", "Justinian then tried to make alliance with the Axumites of Ethiopia and the Himyarites of Yemen against the Persians, but this failed.", "When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September 531), Justinian concluded an \"Eternal Peace\" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold) with his successor Khosrau I (532).", "Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, where Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire.====Conquest of North Africa, 533–534====The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa.", "King Hilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530 AD.", "Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian.", "Justinian protested Gelimer's actions, demanding that Gelimer return the kingdom to Hilderic.", "Gelimer replied, in effect, that Justinian had no authority to make these demands.", "Angered at this response, Justinian quickly concluded his ongoing war with the Sassanian Empire and prepared an expedition against the Vandals in 533.In 533, Belisarius sailed to Africa with a fleet of 92 dromons, escorting 500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops.", "They landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia) in modern Tunisia.", "They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off guard, at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took Carthage.", "King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia, but surrendered the next spring.", "He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph.", "Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the stronghold Septem Fratres near Mons Calpe (later named Gibraltar) were recovered in the same campaign.A golden medallion celebrating the reconquest of Africa, AD 534In this war, the contemporary Procopius remarks that Africa was so entirely depopulated that a person might travel several days without meeting a human being, and he adds, \"it is no exaggeration to say, that in the course of the war 5,000,000 perished by the sword, and famine, and pestilence.", "\"An African prefecture, centered in Carthage, was established in April 534, but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies.", "The area was not completely pacified until 548, but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity.", "The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold.====War in Italy, first phase, 535–540====Justinian's conquestsAs in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention.", "The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534, and a usurper, Theodahad, had imprisoned queen Amalasuintha, Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena, where he had her assassinated in 535.Thereupon Belisarius, with 7,500 men, invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536.By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army, who had elected Vitigis as their new king.", "He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city.Justinian sent another general, Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign.", "Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths.", "Justinian recalled Narses in 539.By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna.", "There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the Po River in Gothic hands.", "Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire.", "Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuntha with him.====War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562====Map of the Byzantine–Sasanian frontier in 565.In 541, the small but strategic region of Lazica on the eastern shore of the Black Sea became the new battlefield of the Roman–Persian Wars.Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians.", "Following a revolt against the Empire in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, King Khosrau I broke the \"Eternal Peace\" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540.He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city), besieged Daras, and then went on to attack the Byzantine base in the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea as requested by its discontented king Gubazes, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way.", "He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year.Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542.The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of his disloyalty reaching the court.The outbreak of the plague coupled with a rebellion in Persia brought Khosrow I's offensives to a halt.", "Exploiting this, Justinian ordered all the forces in the East to invade Persian Armenia, but the 30,000-strong Byzantine force was defeated by a small force at Anglon.", "The next year, Khosrau unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa.", "Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier.", "After that, the Lazic War in the North continued for several years: the Lazic king switched to the Byzantine side, and in 549 Justinian sent Dagisthaeus to recapture Petra, but he faced heavy resistance and the siege was relieved by Sasanian reinforcements.", "Justinian replaced him with Bessas, who was under a cloud after the loss of Rome in 546, but he managed to capture and dismantle Petra in 551.The war continued for several years until a second truce in 557, followed by a Fifty Years' Peace in 562.Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000 ''solidi'') to be paid by the Romans.====War in Italy, second phase, 541–554====Spanish Visigothic gold Tremissis in the name of emperor Justinian I, 7th century.", "The Christian cross on the breast defines the Visigothic attribution.", "British Museum.While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse.", "Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric (both murdered in 541) and especially Totila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains.", "After a victory at Faenza in 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire Italian Peninsula.", "Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies.", "Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548.Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet of 200 ships.", "During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550.Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked Greek coastlines.Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania) under the command of Narses.", "The army reached Ravenna in June 552 and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines, where Totila was slain.", "After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken.", "In 554, a large-scale Frankish invasion was defeated at Casilinum, and Italy was secured for the Empire, though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds.", "At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men.", "The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold.", "Procopius estimated 15,000,000 Goths died.====Other campaigns====Italia, Dalmatia, Africa, and southern Hispania.In addition to the other conquests, the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania, when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against King Agila I.", "In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men; according to the historian Jordanes, this army was led by the octogenarian Liberius.", "The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king.", "This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion.During Justinian's reign, the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube.", "Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works.", "In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius.====Results====Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized, with only noteworthy sustainable conquests in Africa.", "In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation.", "The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought.", "The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon Italian population were deeply resented.The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southern Hispania significantly enlarged the area of Byzantine influence and eliminated all naval threats to the empire, which in 555 reached its territorial zenith.", "Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinian's death, the empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving the Lombards as a regional threat.", "The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa.Events of the later years of his reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to attribute the Emperor's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age.", "In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe.===Religious activities===A mosaic showing Justinian with the bishop of Ravenna (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiersJustinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially Monophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt.", "Monophysite doctrine, which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature rather than a synthesis of divine and human nature, had been condemned as a heresy by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of Zeno and Anastasius I had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome.Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites.", "Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them.Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism, but he died before being able to issue any legislation.", "The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years.", "In the course of his reign, Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises.====Religious policy====Our Lady of Saidnaya Monastery, in present-day Syria, is traditionally held to have been founded by Justinian.As in his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the Emperor's ecclesiastical policy.", "He regulated everything, both in religion and in law.", "At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation, and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties, whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law.", "He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils.", "The bishops in attendance at the Council of Constantinople (536) recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command, while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription.", "Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics.", "He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church and clergy, and to protect and extend monasticism.", "He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive ''solemnia'', or annual gifts, from the Imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates.Theodora.", "After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, the gold background was replaced with a plain white one and the Greek text was modified into Arabic.Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was a \"nursing father\" of the Church.", "Both the ''Codex'' and the ''Novellae'' contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc.", "Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold), the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots.", "The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics, became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople.====Religious relations with Rome====From the middle of the 5th century onward, increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters.Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Acacian schism.", "Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized the Council of Chalcedon, which had condemned Monophysitism, which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by tolerating the appointment of Monophysites to church offices.", "The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies.", "Emperors Justin I (and later Justinian himself) rescinded these policies and reestablished the union between Constantinople and Rome.", "After this, Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections, as he did when he favored Vigilius and had his rival Silverius deported.Hagia Sophia mosaic depicting the Virgin Mary holding the Child Christ on her lap.", "On her right side stands Justinian, offering a model of the Hagia Sophia.", "On her left, Constantine I presents a model of Constantinople.This new-found unity between East and West did not, however, solve the ongoing disputes in the east.", "Justinian's policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites and Miaphysites (who were mistaken to be adherers of Monophysitism) to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks – thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces – and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Monophysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith.", "Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Miaphysites unreservedly.", "In the condemnation of the ''Three Chapters'', three theologians that had opposed Monophysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over the opposition.", "At the Fifth Ecumenical Council, most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperor's demands, and Pope Vigilius, who was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a chapel, finally also gave his assent.", "However, the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism, and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the Monophysites remained unsatisfied – all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters.====Authoritarian rule====Justinian's religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith, and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be the orthodoxy (Chalcedonian).", "Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II and which would now vigorously continue.", "The ''Codex'' contained two statutes that decreed the total destruction of paganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced.", "Contemporary sources (John Malalas, Theophanes, and John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position.The original Academy of Plato had been destroyed by the Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC.", "Several centuries later, in 410 AD, a Neoplatonic Academy was established that had no institutional continuity with Plato's Academy, and which served as a center for Neoplatonism and mysticism.", "It persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I.", "Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire, continued.In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus was reported to have converted 70,000 pagans, which was probably an exaggerated number.", "Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli, the Huns dwelling near the Don, the Abasgi, and the Tzanni in Caucasia.The worship of Amun at the oasis of Awjila in the Libyan desert was abolished, and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cataract of the Nile.", "The Presbyter Julian and the Bishop Longinus conducted a mission among the Nabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by dispatching a bishop from Egypt.The civil rights of Jews were restricted and their religious privileges threatened.", "Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue and encouraged the Jews to use the Greek Septuagint in their synagogues in Constantinople.The Emperor faced significant opposition from the Samaritans, who resisted conversion to Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection.", "He persecuted them with rigorous edicts, but could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign.", "The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment.", "At Constantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others by drowning.===Architecture, learning, art and literature===Consular diptych displaying Justinian's full name (Constantinople 521)Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area.", "Under Justinian's reign, the San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed under the sponsorship of Julius Argentarius.", "Most notably, he had the Hagia Sophia, originally a basilica-style church that had been burnt down during the Nika riots, splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan, under the architectural supervision of Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles.", "On 26 December 537, according to Pseudo-Codinus, Justinian stated at the completion of this edifice: \"Solomon, I have outdone thee\" (in reference to the first Jewish temple).", "The church had a second inauguration on 24 December 562, after several reworks made by Isidore the Younger.", "This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries.Basilica of Saint Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria, is believed to be the fifth structure to be constructed on the site and was built during the reign of Emperor Justinian I.Another prominent church in the capital, the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt.", "The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, later renamed Little Hagia Sophia, was also built between 532 and 536 by the imperial couple.", "Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and a column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543.Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy might have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty's prestige.Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns (see Basilica Cistern).", "To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border town Dara, an advanced arch dam was built.", "During his reign the large Sangarius Bridge was built in Bithynia, securing a major military supply route to the east.", "Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called Justiniana Prima, which was intended to replace Thessalonica as the political and religious centre of Illyricum.In Justinian's reign, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, including Procopius and Agathias, and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus the Melodist flourished.", "On the other hand, centres of learning such as the Neoplatonic Academy in Athens and the famous Law School of Berytus lost their importance during his reign.===Economy and administration===Gold coin of Justinian I (527–565) excavated in India probably in the south, an example of Indo-Roman trade during the periodAs was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the Empire's economic health rested primarily on agriculture.", "In addition, long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin was exchanged for Roman wheat.", "Within the Empire, convoys sailing from Alexandria provided Constantinople with wheat and grains.", "Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of Tenedos for storage and further transport to Constantinople.", "Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians.One important luxury product was silk, which was imported and then processed in the Empire.", "In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541.In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with the Abyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the Empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India.", "Then, in the early 550s, two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk worms from Central Asia back to Constantinople, and silk became an indigenous product.Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt and Nubia.Scene from daily life on a mosaic from the Great Palace of Constantinople, early 6th centuryAt the start of Justinian I's reign he had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 ''solidi'' (400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and Justin I.", "Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient.", "Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the prefectures and of the provinces, while power was taken away from the vicariates of the dioceses, of which a number were abolished.", "The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure.", "According to Brown (1971), the increased professionalization of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns.", "It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 ''solidi'' in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000 ''solidi'' in AD 550.Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East thrived, although Antioch was struck by two earthquakes (526, 528) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians (540).", "Justinian had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale.Despite all these measures, the Empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century.", "The first one was the plague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decimating the Empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages.", "The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of \"barbarians\" in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s.", "The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the Empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance." ], [ "Natural disasters", "An older Justinian; mosaic in Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (possibly a modified portrait of Theodoric)During the 530s, it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire.", "There were noxious fumes in the air and the Sun, while still providing daylight, refused to give much heat.", "The extreme weather events of 535–536 led to a famine such as had not been recorded before, affecting both Europe and the Middle East.", "These events may have been caused by an atmospheric dust veil resulting from a large volcanic eruption.The historian Procopius recorded in 536 in his work on the Vandalic War \"during this year a most dread portent took place.", "For the sun gave forth its light without brightness … and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear\".The causes of these disasters are not precisely known, but volcanoes at the Rabaul caldera, Lake Ilopango, Krakatoa, or, according to a recent finding, in Iceland are suspected.Seven years later in 542, a devastating outbreak of Bubonic Plague, known as the Plague of Justinian and second only to Black Death of the 14th century, killed tens of millions.", "Justinian and members of his court, physically unaffected by the previous 535–536 famine, were afflicted, with Justinian himself contracting and surviving the pestilence.", "The impact of this outbreak of plague has recently been disputed, since evidence for tens of millions dying is uncertain.In July 551, the eastern Mediterranean was rocked by the 551 Beirut earthquake, which triggered a tsunami.", "The combined fatalities of both events likely exceeded 30,000, with tremors felt from Antioch to Alexandria." ], [ "Cultural depictions", "cross-surmounted orb on the obverse of a coin.", "''Emperor Justinian in Council'' (1886), by Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant, prior to restoration in 2020.In the ''Paradiso'' section of the ''Divine Comedy'', Canto (chapter) VI, by Dante Alighieri, Justinian I is prominently featured as a spirit residing on the sphere of Mercury.", "The latter holds in Heaven the souls of those whose acts were righteous, yet meant to achieve fame and honor.", "Justinian's legacy is elaborated on, and he is portrayed as a defender of the Christian faith and the restorer of Rome to the Empire.", "Justinian confesses that he was partially motivated by fame rather than duty to God, which tainted the justice of his rule in spite of his proud accomplishments.", "In his introduction, \"Cesare fui e son Iustinïano\" (\"Caesar I was, and am Justinian\"), his mortal title is contrasted with his immortal soul, to emphasize that \"glory in life is ephemeral, while contributing to God's glory is eternal\", according to Dorothy L. Sayers.", "Dante also uses Justinian to criticize the factious politics of his 14th-century Italy, divided between Ghibellines and Guelphs, in contrast to the unified Italy of the Roman Empire.Justinian is a major character in the 1938 novel ''Count Belisarius'', by Robert Graves.", "He is depicted as a jealous and conniving Emperor obsessed with creating and maintaining his own historical legacy.Justinian appears as a character in the 1939 time-travel novel ''Lest Darkness Fall'', by L. Sprague de Camp.", "''The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian'' was a novel written by Pierson Dixon in 1958 about the court of Justinian.Justinian is a chief protagonist of Belisarius in \"Empire in Apocalypse\" by Robert Bruton (Legend Books 2023).", "The emperor's jealousy and envy of Belisarius eventually prompt him to undermine his best general.", "Justinian occasionally appears in the comic strip ''Prince Valiant'', usually as a nemesis of the title character.Justinian is played by Innokenty Smoktunovsky in the 1985 Soviet film ''Primary Russia''.Justinian's Crown is a historical artifact claimed by the Byzantine Empire in the popular 2020 computer strategy game ''Crusader Kings 3'', by Paradox Development Studio." ], [ "Historical sources", "Procopius provides the primary source for the history of Justinian's reign, but his opinion is tainted by a feeling of betrayal when Justinian became more pragmatic and less idealistic (Justinian and the Later Roman Empire by John W. Barker).", "He became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress, Theodora.", "In various Eastern Orthodox Churches, including the Orthodox Church in America, Justinian and his empress Theodora are commemorated on the anniversary of his death, 14 November.", "Some denominations translate the Julian calendar date to 27 November on the Gregorian calendar.", "The Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church–Canada also remember Justinian on 14 November." ], [ "See also", "* Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, rebuilt by Justinian* International Roman Law Moot Court" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* This article incorporates text from the ''Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge''." ], [ "Primary sources", "* Procopius, ''Historia Arcana''.", "**'' The Anecdota or Secret History''.", "Edited by H. B. Dewing.", "7 vols.", "Loeb Classical Library.", "Harvard University Press and London, Hutchinson, 1914–40.Greek text and English translation.", "**'' Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia''.", "Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth.", "3 vols.", "Leipzig: Teubner, 1962–64.Greek text.", "** ''The Secret History'', translated by G.A.", "Williamson.", "Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966.A readable and accessible English translation of the ''Anecdota''.", "* John Malalas, '' Chronicle'', translated by Elizabeth Jeffreys, Michael Jeffreys & Roger Scott, 1986.Byzantina Australiensia 4 (Melbourne: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies) * Evagrius Scholasticus, ''Ecclesiastical History'', translated by Edward Walford (1846), reprinted 2008.Evolution Publishing, ." ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * – German standard work; partially obsolete, but still useful.", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * St Justinian the Emperor Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion (14 November)* The ''Anekdota'' (\"Secret history\") of Procopius in English translation.", "* Lewis E 244 Infortiatum at OPenn* The ''Buildings'' of Procopius in English translation.", "* ''The Roman Law Library'' by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev* Lecture series covering 12 Byzantine Rulers, including Justinian – by Lars Brownworth* De Imperatoribus Romanis.", "An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors* Reconstruction of column of Justinian in Constantinople* Opera Omnia by Migne ''Patrologia Graeca'' with analytical indexes* Preface to the ''Digest'' of Emperor Justinian* Annotated Justinian Code (University of Wyoming website)* Mosaic of Justinian in Hagia Sophia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Martyn" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Nigel McGeachy''' (11 September 1948 – 29 January 2009), known professionally as '''John Martyn''', was a British singer-songwriter and guitarist.", "Over a 40-year career, he released 23 studio albums, and received frequent critical acclaim.", "''The Times'' described him as \"an electrifying guitarist and singer whose music blurred the boundaries between folk, jazz, rock and blues\".Martyn began his career at age 17 as a key member of the Scottish folk music scene, drawing inspiration from American blues and English traditional music, and signed with Island Records.", "By the 1970s he had begun incorporating jazz and rock into his sound on albums such as ''Solid Air'' (1973) and ''One World'' (1977), as well as experimenting with guitar effects and tape delay machines such as Echoplex.", "Domestic and substance abuse problems marked his personal life throughout the 1970s and 1980s, though he continued to release albums while collaborating with figures such as Phil Collins and Maeve Aubele, Carolyn Woolham and Lee \"Scratch\" Perry.", "He remained active until his death in 2009." ], [ "Early life and education", "Martyn was born in Beechcroft Avenue, New Malden, Surrey, to Belgian Jewish mother Beatrice \"Betty\" Ethel (''née'' Jewitt) and Greenock-born Scottish father Thomas Paterson \"Tommy\" McGeachy.", "His parents, both opera singers, divorced when he was five and he spent his childhood alternating between Scotland and England.", "Most of this time was spent in the care of his father and grandmother, Janet, in Shawlands, Glasgow, part of his holidays each year spent on his mother's houseboat.", "He adapted his accent depending on context or company, changing between broad or refined Glaswegian and southern English accents, and continued to do so throughout his life.", "He attended Shawlands Academy in Glasgow.", "At school, he was a keen rugby player.", "On leaving school he attended Glasgow School of Art, but left to pursue his musical aspirations." ], [ "Career", "=== 1960s and 1970s ===Mentored by Hamish Imlach, Martyn began his professional musical career when he was 17, playing a fusion of blues and folk resulting in a distinctive style which made him a key figure in the British folk scene during the mid-1960s.", "He signed to Chris Blackwell's Island Records in 1967 and released his first album, ''London Conversation'', the same year.", "Released in 1968, his second album, ''The Tumbler'', was moving towards jazz.By 1970 Martyn had developed a wholly original and idiosyncratic sound: acoustic guitar run through a fuzzbox, phase shifter and Echoplex.", "This sound was first apparent on ''Stormbringer!''", "released in February 1970.''Stormbringer!''", "was written and performed by Martyn and his then-wife Beverley, who had previously recorded solo as Beverley Kutner.", "Their second duo album, ''The Road to Ruin'', was released in November 1970.Island Records felt that it would be more successful to market Martyn as a solo act and this was how subsequent albums were produced, although Beverley continued to make appearances as a backing singer as well as continuing as a solo artist herself.Released in 1971, ''Bless the Weather'' was Martyn's third solo album.", "In February 1973, Martyn released the album ''Solid Air'', the title song a tribute to the singer-songwriter Nick Drake, a close friend and label-mate who would die in 1974 from an overdose of antidepressants.", "In 2009, a double CD Deluxe edition of ''Solid Air'' was released featuring unreleased songs and out-takes, and sleeve notes by Record Collector's Daryl Easlea.", "On ''Bless the Weather'' and on ''Solid Air'' Martyn collaborated with jazz bassist Danny Thompson, with whom he proceeded to have a musical partnership which continued until his death.Following the commercial success of ''Solid Air'', later on in 1973 Martyn quickly recorded and released the experimental ''Inside Out'', an album with emphasis placed on feel and improvisation rather than song structure.", "In 1975, he followed this with ''Sunday's Child'', a more song-based collection that includes \"My Baby Girl\" and \"Spencer the Rover\", which are references to his young family.", "Martyn subsequently described this period as 'very happy'.", "In September 1975, he released a live album, ''Live at Leeds'' — Martyn had been unable to persuade Island to release the record, and resorted to selling individually signed copies by mail from his home in Hastings.", "''Live at Leeds'' features Danny Thompson and drummer John Stevens.", "In 2010, a 2CD Deluxe version of Live at Leeds was released, and it was discovered that not all of the songs on the original album were from the Leeds concert.", "After releasing ''Live at Leeds'', Martyn took a sabbatical, including a visit to Jamaica, spending time with reggae producer Lee \"Scratch\" Perry.In 1977, he released ''One World'', which led some commentators to describe Martyn as the \"Father of Trip-Hop\".", "It included tracks such as \"Small Hours\" and \"Big Muff\", a collaboration with Lee \"Scratch\" Perry.", "''Small Hours'' was recorded outside; the microphones picked up ambient sounds, such as geese from a nearby lake.", "In 1978, he played guitar on the album ''Harmony of the Spheres'' by Neil Ardley.=== 1980s ===Martyn's marriage broke down at the end of the 1970s and \"John hit the self destruct button\" (although other biographers, including ''The Times'' obituary writer, attribute the break-up of his marriage to his already being addicted to drink and drugs).", "In her autobiography, Beverley also alleges protracted domestic violence.", "Out of this period, described by Martyn as \"a very dark period in my life\", came the album ''Grace and Danger''.", "Released in October 1980, the album had been held up for a year by Chris Blackwell.", "He was a close friend of John and Beverley, and found the album too openly disturbing to release.", "Only after intense and sustained pressure from Martyn did Blackwell agree to release the album.", "Commenting on that period, Martyn said, \"I was in a dreadful emotional state over that record.", "I was hardly in control of my own actions.", "The reason they finally released it was because I freaked: Please get it out!", "I don't give a damn about how sad it makes you feel—it's what I'm about: the direct communication of emotion.", "''Grace and Danger'' was very cathartic, and it really hurt.", "\"In the late 1980s, Martyn cited ''Grace and Danger'' as his favourite album, and said that it was \"probably the most specific piece of autobiography I've written.", "Some people keep diaries, I make records.\"", "The album has since become one of his highest-regarded, prompting a deluxe double-disc issue in 2007, containing the original album remastered.Phil Collins played drums and sang backing vocals on ''Grace and Danger'' and subsequently played drums on and produced Martyn's next album, ''Glorious Fool'', in 1981.Martyn left Island records in 1981, and recorded ''Glorious Fool'' and ''Well Kept Secret'' for WEA achieving his first Top 30 album.", "In 1983 Martyn released a live album, ''Philentropy'', and married Annie Furlong but the couple, who had lived in Scotland, later separated.", "Returning to Island records, he recorded ''Sapphire'' (1984), ''Piece by Piece'' (1986) and the live ''Foundations'' (1987) before leaving the label in 1988.=== 1990s and 2000s ===John Martyn performs at the Barbican Centre, London 2008.Martyn released ''The Apprentice'' in 1990 and ''Cooltide'' in 1991 for Permanent Records, and reunited with Phil Collins for ''No Little Boy'' (1993), which featured rerecorded versions of some of his classic tracks.", "The similar 1992 release ''Couldn't Love You More'' was unauthorised and disowned by Martyn.", "Material from these recordings and his two Permanent albums have been recycled on many releases.", "Permanent Records also released a live 2-CD set called \"Live\" in 1994.", "''And'' (1996) came out on Go!", "Discs and saw Martyn draw heavily on trip-hop textures, a direction which saw more complete expression on 2000's ''Glasgow Walker''.", "''The Church with One Bell'' (1998) is a covers album of blues classics, which draws on songs by other artists, including Portishead and Ben Harper.", "In 2001, Martyn appeared on the track \"Deliver Me\" by Faithless keyboard player and DJ Sister Bliss.Martyn in 2006In July 2006, the documentary ''Johnny Too Bad'' was screened by the BBC.", "The programme documented the period surrounding the operation to amputate Martyn's right leg below the knee (the result of a burst cyst that had led to septicaemia) and the writing and recording of ''On the Cobbles'' (2004), an album described by Peter Marsh on the BBC Music website as \"the strongest, most consistent set he's come up with in years.\"", "Much of ''Cobbles'' was a revisiting of his acoustic-based sound.Martyn's last concerts were in November 2008, reprising Grace and Danger.In collaboration with his keyboard player Spenser Cozens, Martyn wrote and performed the score for ''Strangebrew'' (Robert Wallace 2007), which won the Fortean Times Award at the London Short Film Festival in the same year.", "The film concept being a strong influence of the album design of Martyn's ''Heaven and Earth'' (2011).", "On 4 February 2008, Martyn received the lifetime achievement award at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards.", "The award was presented by his friend Phil Collins.", "The BBC website stated Martyn's \"heartfelt performances have either suggested or fully demonstrated an idiosyncratic genius.\"", "Eric Clapton was quoted saying that Martyn was \"so far ahead of everything, it's almost inconceivable.", "\"To mark Martyn's 60th birthday, Island released a 4 CD boxed set, ''Ain't No Saint'', on 1 September 2008.The set includes unreleased studio material and rare live recordings.Martyn was appointed OBE in the 2009 New Year Honours and died a few weeks later.", "His partner Theresa Walsh collected the award at Buckingham Palace.", "Martyn had recorded new material before he died and his final studio album, ''Heaven and Earth'', was completed and released posthumously in May 2011.The sleeve note says, \"all the tracks on this recording were kept as John wished — in their entirety\"." ], [ "Death", "Martyn died on 29 January 2009, at a hospital in Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ireland, from acute respiratory distress syndrome.", "He had been living in Thomastown with his partner Theresa Walsh.", "Martyn's health was affected by his life-long abuse of drugs and alcohol.", "He was survived by his partner and his children, Mhairi, Wesley and Spencer McGeachy.=== Tributes ===Following Martyn's death, ''Rolling Stone'' lauded his \"progressive folk invention and improvising sorcery\".", "Friend and collaborator Phil Collins paid tribute to him, saying, \"John's passing is terribly, terribly sad.", "I had worked with and known him since the late 1970s and he was a great friend.", "He was uncompromising, which made him infuriating to some people, but he was unique and we'll never see the likes of him again.", "I loved him dearly and will miss him very much.", "\"Mike Harding introduced an hour-long tribute to Martyn in his BBC Radio 2 programme on 25 February 2009.A tribute album, ''Johnny Boy Would Love This'', was released on 15 August 2011, comprising cover versions of his songs by various artists.The \"Grace & Danger: A Celebration of John Martyn\" tribute concert held on 27 January 2019 at Glasgow Royal Concert Hall marked the tenth anniversary of his passing.", "Curated and hosted by Danny Thompson, artists including Eddi Reader, Eric Bibb and Paul Weller performed \"to do full justice to a selection of Martyn's finest songs and channel some of the great man's spirit\"." ], [ "Discography", "=== Studio albums === Year Album Peak chart positions UK 1967 '''''London Conversation'''''* Released: October 1967* Label: Island (ILPS 952) - 1968 '''''The Tumbler'''''* Released: December 1968* Label: Island (ILPS 9091) - 1970 '''''Stormbringer!''", "(with Beverley Martyn)'''* Released: February 1970* Label: Island (ILPS 9113) - 1970 '''''The Road to Ruin'' (with Beverley Martyn)'''* Released: November 1970* Label: Island (ILPS 9133) - 1971 '''''Bless the Weather'''''* Released: November 1971* Label: Island (ILPS 9167) - 1973 '''''Solid Air'''''* Released: February 1973* Label: Island (ILPS 9226) - 1973 '''''Inside Out'''''* Released: October 1973* Label: Island (ILPS 9253) - 1975 '''''Sunday's Child'''''* Released: 28 January 1975* Label: Island (ILPS 9296) - 1977 '''''One World'''''* Released: 4 November 1977* Label: Island (ILPS/ZCI 9492) 54 1980 '''''Grace and Danger'''''* Released: 13 October 1980* Label: Island (ILPS/ZCI 9560) 54 1981 '''''Glorious Fool'''''* Released: September 1981* Label: WEA (WEA K/K4 99178) 25 1982 '''''Well Kept Secret'''''* Released: August 1982* Label: WEA (WEA K/K4 99255) 20 1984 '''''Sapphire'''''* Released: November 1984* Label: Island (ILPS/ICT 9779) 57 1986 '''''Piece by Piece'''''* Released: February 1986* Label: Island (ILPS/ICTCID 9807) 28 1990 '''''The Apprentice'''''* Released: March 1990* Label: Permanent Records (PERM CD/MC/LP 1) - 1991 '''''Cooltide'''''* Released: November 1991* Label: Permanent Records (PERM CD/MC/LP 4) - 1992 '''''Couldn't Love You More'''''* Released: August 1992* Label: Permanent Records (PERM CD/MC/LP 9) 65 1993 '''''No Little Boy'''''* Released: July 1993* Label: Permanent Records (PERM CD/MC 14) - 1996 '''''And'''''* Released: August 1996* Label: Go!", "Discs (828798-2/-4) 32 1998 '''''The Church with One Bell'''''* Released: 23 March 1998* Label: Independiente (ISOM 3CD) 51 2000 '''''Glasgow Walker'''''* Released: May 2000* Label: Independiente (ISOM 15CD) 66 2004 '''''On the Cobbles'''''* Released: 26 April 2004* Label: Independiente (ISOM 43CD) 95 2011 '''''Heaven and Earth'''''* Released: 16 May 2011* Label: Hole in the Rain (LSM4010) 51 \"-\" denotes a release that did not chart.", "Note: the 2009 reissue of Solid Air reached 88 in the UK chart.=== Live albums ===* ''Live at Leeds'' (September 1975)* ''Philentropy'' (November 1983)* ''Foundations'' (October 1987)*''BBC Radio 1 Live in Concert'' (May 1992)*''Live'' (July 1995)*''The New York Session'' (November 2000)*''Germany 1986'' (July 2001; with Danny Thompson)*''The Brewery Arts Centre, Kendal 1986'' (August 2001) (with Danny Thompson)*''Live at the Town & Country Club, 1986; Collectors Series 2'' (August 2001)*''Sweet Certain Surprise'' (live in New York, 1977) (October 2001)*''Live at the Bottom Line, New York, 1983; Collectors Series 3'' (November 2001)*''Live in Milan, 1979; Collectors Series 4'' (May 2002)*''And Live'' (June 2003) (recorded in 1996)*''Live in Concert at the Cambridge Folk Festival'' BBC 1985 (December 2003)*''Classics Live'' (November 2004)*''Live in Nottingham 1976'' (May 2005)*''On Air'' (Bremen Town Hall, Germany, September 1975) (May 2006)*''In Session'' (August 2006) (BBC sessions, recorded for John Peel and Bob Harris, between 1973 and 1978)*''Live at The Roundhouse'' (May 2007)*''BBC Live in Concert'' (June 2007)*''The Battle of Medway: 17 July 1973'' (November 2007)*''The Simmer Dim'' (Garrison Theatre, Lerwick, August 1980) (June 2008)*''The July Wakes'' (July Wakes Festival, Chorley, Lancs, July 1976) (October 2008)*''Live at Leeds'' (2010) (deluxe 2 CD reissue)*''Live at the Hanging Lamp'' (Richmond, London, May 1972) (2013) (vinyl-only release)=== Compilation albums ===*''So Far So Good'' (March 1977)*''The Electric John Martyn'' (October 1982)*''Sweet Little Mysteries: The Island Anthology'' (June 1994)*''The Hidden Years'' (December 1996)*''The Very Best Of'' (April 1997)*''Serendipity — An Introduction to John Martyn'' (1998)*''Another World; Collectors Series Vol 1'' (1998)*''Classics'' (March 2000)*''The Best of Live '91'' (July 2000)*''Solid Air — Classics Re-visited'' (September 2002) (compilation of previously released tracks)*''Late Night John'' (May 2004)*Mad Dog Days (June 2004)*''Anthology'' (September 2004)*''The John Martyn Story'' (May 2006)*''One World Sampler'' (November 2006)*''Sixty Minutes With'' (April 2007)*''Ain't No Saint'' (September 2008) (40-year anthology)*''May You Never — The Very Best Of'' (March 2009)*''Remembering John Martyn'' (June 2012)*''Sweet Little Mystery: The Essential'' (September 2013)*''The Island Years'' (September 2013) (18 disc box set)*''The Best of the Island Years'' (November 2014)*''May You Never: The Essential John Martyn'' (November 2016) (3 Disc Compilation)*''Head and Heart: The Acoustic John Martyn'' (June 2017)=== Tribute albums ===* ''Johnny Boy Would Love This'' (August 2011)=== Singles ===* \"John the Baptist\" / \"The Ocean\" (Island WIP 6076, January 1970)* \"Anni Part 1\" / \"Anni Part 2\" (with John Stevens' Away) (Vertigo 6059 140, 1976)* \"Over the Hill\" / \"Head and Heart\" (Island WIP 6385, February 1977)* \"Dancing\" / \"Dealer\" (version) (Island WIP 6414, January 1978)* \"In Search of Anna\" / \"Certain Surprise\" (Island K7450, 1979)* \"Johnny Too Bad\" / \"Johnny Too Bad\" (version) Island WIP 6547, October 1980)* \"Johnny Too Bad\" (extended dub version) / \"Big Muff\" (extended remix) (Island IPR 2047, March 1981)* \"Sweet Little Mystery\" / \"Johnny Too Bad\" (Island WIP 6718, June 1981)* \"Please Fall in Love with Me\" / \"Don't You Go\" (WEA K 79243, August 1981)* \"Hiss on the Tape\" / \"Livin' Alone\" (WEA K 79336, October 1982)* \"Gun Money\" (U.S. remix) / \"Hiss on the Tape\" (live) (WEA 259987-7, November 1982)* \"Over the Rainbow\" / \"Rope Soul'd\" (Island IS 209, October 1984)* \"Angeline\" / \"Tight Connection to My Heart\" (Island IS 265, February 1986)* \"Classic John Martyn\" (Island CID 265, February 1986)* \"Angeline\" / \"Tight Connection to My Heart\" / \"May You Never\" / \"Certain Surprise\" / \"One Day Without You\" (Island 12 IS 265, February 1986)* \"Lonely Love\" / \"Sweet Little Mystery\" (live) (Island IS 272, October 1986)* \"Send Me One Line\" / \"Patterns in the Rain\" (Hypertension HYS 100 102, May 1990)* \"Deny This Love\" (remix) / \"The Apprentice\" (live) (Permanent S12, August 1990, 7-inch vinyl)* \"Deny This Love\" (remix) / \"The Apprentice\" (live) / \"Deny This Love\" (album version) (Permanent CD Perm 1, August 1990)* \"Jack the Lad\" / \"Annie Sez\" / \"The Cure\" / \"Jack Sez\" (Permanent CD Perm 3, April 1992)* \"Sweet Little Mystery\" / \"Head and Heart\" (Permanent, Perm 6, September 1982)* \"Lonely Love\" / \"May You Never\" (Permanent, Perm 8, December 1992)* \"Somewhere Over the Rainbow\" (Voiceprint, JMCD001, 1998)* \"Excuse Me Mister\" / \"God Song\" (live) / \"Rock, Salt & Nails\" (live) / \"John Wayne\" (live) (Independiente, ISOM14MS CD, May 1998)* \"Deliver Me\" (with Sister Bliss) (Multiply Records, CDMULTY72, March 2001)=== DVD/video ===*''John Martyn in Vision 1973–81'' (1982)*''Live from London'' (Camden Palace, 1984)*''Foundations: Live at The Town and Country Club'' (recorded 1986, released 1988)*''The Apprentice Tour'' (August 1990)*''Purely Music'' (January 1992) (released on LaserDisc)*''Tell Them I'm Somebody Else'' (2000)*''Live in Concert'' (John Martyn & Band at Camden Palace Theatre, London, 23 November 1984) (2001) (DVD release of 1986 ''Live from London''; re-issued ''Live at the Camden Palace Theatre London 1984'' (2004) & ''Live from the Camden Palace'' (2012))*''Live in Dublin'' (with Danny Thompson at Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, for RTE TV, Ireland, June 1986) (February 2005)*''John Martyn at the BBC'' (various 1973–1982) (August 2006)*''The Apprentice in Concert'' (John Martyn & Band with Dave Gilmour at Shaw Theatre, London, 31 March 1990) (2006) (DVD release of 1990 ''The Apprentice Tour'')*''Empty Ceiling'' (John Martyn & Band recorded for Ohne Filter, German TV, April 1986) (November 2006)*''Solid Air Live at The Roundhouse'' (John Martyn & Band in London, 3 February 2007) (May 2007)*''The Man Upstairs'' (John Martyn (solo) recorded for Rockpalast, German TV, 17 March 1978) (April 2008)*''One World One John'' (John Martyn & Band recorded mostly at Vicar Street, Dublin in 1999, 2000 & 2003) (February 2012)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*John Neil Munro, ''Some People Are Crazy: The John Martyn Story'' (2007), 2011: foreword by Ian Rankin, *Chris Nickson, ''Solid Air: The Life of John Martyn'' (2011), *Mat Snow, ''John Martyn In Person'' (2011)" ], [ "External links", "* Official website – johnmartyn.com* Big Muff – johnmartyn.info" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Milton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Milton''' (9 December 1608 – 8 November 1674) was an English poet, polemicist, and civil servant.", "His 1667 epic poem ''Paradise Lost'', written in blank verse and including over ten books, was written in a time of immense religious flux and political upheaval.", "It addressed the fall of man, including the temptation of Adam and Eve by the fallen angel Satan and God's expulsion of them from the Garden of Eden.", "''Paradise Lost'' elevated Milton's reputation as one of history's greatest poets.", "He also served as a civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under its Council of State and later under Oliver Cromwell.Milton achieved fame and recognition during his lifetime; his celebrated ''Areopagitica'' (1644), written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship, is among history's most influential and impassioned defences of freedom of speech and freedom of the press.", "His desire for freedom extended beyond his philosophy and was reflected in his style, which included his introduction of new words (coined from Latin and Ancient Greek) to the English language.", "He was the first modern writer to employ unrhymed verse outside of the theatre or translations.Milton is described as the \"greatest English author\" by his biographer William Hayley, and he remains generally regarded \"as one of the preeminent writers in the English language\", though critical reception has oscillated in the centuries since his death, often on account of his republicanism.", "Samuel Johnson praised ''Paradise Lost'' as \"a poem which ... with respect to design may claim the first place, and with respect to performance, the second, among the productions of the human mind\", though he (a Tory) described Milton's politics as those of an \"acrimonious and surly republican\".", "Milton was revered by poets such as William Blake, William Wordsworth, and Thomas Hardy.Phases of Milton's life parallel the major historical and political divisions in Stuart England at the time.", "In his early years, Milton studied at Christ's College, Cambridge, and then travelled, wrote poetry mostly for private circulation, and launched a career as pamphleteer and publicist under Charles I's increasingly autocratic rule and Britain's breakdown into constitutional confusion and ultimately civil war.", "While once considered dangerously radical and heretical, Milton contributed to a seismic shift in accepted public opinions during his life that ultimately elevated him to public office in England.", "The Restoration of 1660 and his loss of vision later deprived Milton much of his public platform, but he used the period to develop many of his major works.Milton's views developed from extensive reading, travel, and experience that began with his days as a student at Cambridge in the 1620s and continued through the English Civil War, which started in 1642 and continued until 1651.By the time of his death in 1674, Milton was impoverished and on the margins of English intellectual life but famous throughout Europe and unrepentant for political choices that placed him at odds with governing authorities." ], [ "Early life and education", "Blue plaque on 1 Bread Street, London, commemorating Milton's birthplacePortrait of Milton at age 10 in Milton's Cottage, Chalfont St Giles, Buckinghamshire, painted by Cornelis Janssens van CeulenJohn Milton was born in Bread Street, London, on 9 December 1608, the son of composer John Milton and his wife Sarah Jeffrey.", "The senior John Milton (1562–1647) moved to London around 1583 after being disinherited by his devout Catholic father Richard \"the Ranger\" Milton for embracing Protestantism.", "In London, the senior John Milton married Sarah Jeffrey (1572–1637) and found lasting financial success as a scrivener.", "He lived in and worked from a house in Cheapside at Bread Street, where the Mermaid Tavern was located.", "The elder Milton was noted for his skill as a composer of music, and this talent left his son with a lifelong appreciation for music and friendships with musicians such as Henry Lawes.The prosperity of Milton's father allowed his eldest son to obtain a private tutor, Thomas Young, a Scottish Presbyterian with an MA from the University of St Andrews.", "Young's influence also served as the poet's introduction to religious radicalism.", "After Young's tutorship, Milton attended St Paul's School in London, where he began the study of Latin and Greek; the classical languages left an imprint on both his poetry and prose in English (he also wrote in Latin and Italian).Milton's first datable compositions are two psalms written at age 15 at Long Bennington.", "One contemporary source is ''Brief Lives'' of John Aubrey, an uneven compilation including first-hand reports.", "In the work, Aubrey quotes Christopher, Milton's younger brother: \"When he was young, he studied very hard and sat up very late, commonly till twelve or one o'clock at night\".", "Aubrey adds, \"His complexion exceeding faire—he was so faire that they called him the Lady of Christ's College.", "\"In 1625, Milton gained entry to Christ's College at the University of Cambridge, where he graduated with a BA in 1629, ranking fourth of 24 honours graduates that year in the University of Cambridge.", "Preparing, at that time, to become an Anglican priest, he stayed on at Cambridge where he received his MA on 3 July 1632.Milton may have been rusticated (suspended) in his first year at Cambridge for quarrelling with his tutor, Bishop William Chappell.", "He was certainly at home in London in the Lent Term 1626; there he wrote ''Elegia Prima'', his first Latin elegy, to Charles Diodati, a friend from St Paul's.", "Based on remarks of John Aubrey, Chappell \"whipt\" Milton.", "This story is now disputed, though certainly Milton disliked Chappell.", "Historian Christopher Hill notes that Milton was apparently rusticated, and that the differences between Chappell and Milton may have been either religious or personal.", "It is also possible that, like Isaac Newton four decades later, Milton was sent home from Cambridge because of the plague, which impacted Cambridge significantly in 1625.At Cambridge, Milton was on good terms with Edward King; he later dedicated \"Lycidas\" to him.", "Milton also befriended theologian Roger Williams, tutoring Williams in Hebrew in exchange for lessons in Dutch.", "Despite developing a reputation for poetic skill and general erudition, Milton suffered from alienation among his peers during his time at Cambridge.", "Having once watched his fellow students attempting comedy upon the college stage, he later observed, \"they thought themselves gallant men, and I thought them fools\".Milton also was disdainful of the university curriculum, which consisted of stilted formal debates conducted in Latin on abstruse topics.", "His own corpus is not devoid of humour, notably his sixth prolusion and his epitaphs on the death of Thomas Hobson.", "While at Cambridge, he wrote a number of his well-known shorter English poems, including \"On the Morning of Christ's Nativity\", \"Epitaph on the admirable Dramaticke Poet, W. Shakespeare\" (his first poem to appear in print), ''L'Allegro'', and ''Il Penseroso''." ], [ "Study, poetry, and travel", "After receiving his MA, Milton moved to Hammersmith, his father's new home since the previous year.", "He also lived at Horton, Berkshire, from 1635 and undertook six years of self-directed private study.", "Hill argues that this was not retreat into a rural idyll; Hammersmith was then a \"suburban village\" falling into the orbit of London, and even Horton was becoming deforested and suffered from the plague.", "He read both ancient and modern works of theology, philosophy, history, politics, literature, and science in preparation for a prospective poetical career.", "Milton's intellectual development can be charted via entries in his commonplace book (like a scrapbook), now in the British Library.", "As a result of such intensive study, Milton is considered to be among the most learned of all English poets.", "In addition to his years of private study, Milton had command of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, and Italian from his school and undergraduate days; he also added Old English to his linguistic repertoire in the 1650s while researching his ''History of Britain'', and probably acquired proficiency in Dutch soon after.Commemorative blue plaque 'John Milton lived here 1632–1638' at Berkyn Manor Farm, Horton, BerkshireMilton continued to write poetry during this period of study; his ''Arcades'' and ''Comus'' were both commissioned for masques composed for noble patrons, connections of the Egerton family, and performed in 1632 and 1634 respectively.", "''Comus'' argues for the virtuousness of temperance and chastity.", "He contributed his pastoral elegy ''Lycidas'' to a memorial collection for one of his fellow-students at Cambridge.", "Drafts of these poems are preserved in Milton's poetry notebook, known as the Trinity Manuscript, because it is now kept at Trinity College, Cambridge.In May 1638, accompanied by a manservant, Milton embarked upon a tour of France and Italy for 15 months that lasted until July or August 1639.His travels supplemented his study with new and direct experience of artistic and religious traditions, especially Roman Catholicism.", "He met famous theorists and intellectuals of the time and was able to display his poetic skills.", "For specific details of what happened within Milton's \"grand tour\", there appears to be just one primary source: Milton's own ''Defensio Secunda''.", "There are other records, including some letters and some references in his other prose tracts, but the bulk of the information about the tour comes from a work that, according to Barbara Lewalski, \"was not intended as autobiography but as rhetoric, designed to emphasise his sterling reputation with the learned of Europe.", "\"He first went to Calais and then on to Paris, riding horseback, with a letter from diplomat Henry Wotton to ambassador John Scudamore.", "Through Scudamore, Milton met Hugo Grotius, a Dutch law philosopher, playwright, and poet.", "Milton left France soon after this meeting.", "He travelled south from Nice to Genoa, and then to Livorno and Pisa.", "He reached Florence in July 1638.While there, Milton enjoyed many of the sites and structures of the city.", "His candour of manner and erudite neo-Latin poetry earned him friends in Florentine intellectual circles, and he met the astronomer Galileo who was under house arrest at Arcetri, as well as others.", "Milton probably visited the Florentine Academy and the Accademia della Crusca along with smaller academies in the area, including the Apatisti and the Svogliati.He left Florence in September to continue to Rome.", "With the connections from Florence, Milton was able to have easy access to Rome's intellectual society.", "His poetic abilities impressed those like Giovanni Salzilli, who praised Milton within an epigram.", "In late October, Milton attended a dinner given by the English College, Rome, despite his dislike for the Society of Jesus, meeting English Catholics who were also guests—theologian Henry Holden and the poet Patrick Cary.", "He also attended musical events, including oratorios, operas, and melodramas.", "Milton left for Naples toward the end of November, where he stayed only for a month because of the Spanish control.", "During that time, he was introduced to Giovanni Battista Manso, patron to both Torquato Tasso and to Giambattista Marino.Originally, Milton wanted to leave Naples in order to travel to Sicily and then on to Greece, but he returned to England during the summer of 1639 because of what he claimed in ''Defensio Secunda'' were \"sad tidings of civil war in England.\"", "Matters became more complicated when Milton received word that his childhood friend Diodati had died.", "Milton in fact stayed another seven months on the continent and spent time at Geneva with Diodati's uncle after he returned to Rome.", "In ''Defensio Secunda'', Milton proclaimed that he was warned against a return to Rome because of his frankness about religion, but he stayed in the city for two months and was able to experience Carnival and meet Lukas Holste, a Vatican librarian who guided Milton through its collection.", "He was introduced to Cardinal Francesco Barberini who invited Milton to an opera hosted by the Cardinal.", "Around March, Milton travelled once again to Florence, staying there for two months, attending further meetings of the academies, and spending time with friends.", "After leaving Florence, he travelled through Lucca, Bologna, and Ferrara before coming to Venice.", "In Venice, Milton was exposed to a model of Republicanism, later important in his political writings, but he soon found another model when he travelled to Geneva.", "From Switzerland, Milton travelled to Paris and then to Calais before finally arriving back in England in either July or August 1639." ], [ "Civil war, prose tracts, and marriage", "Title page of the 1644 edition of ''Areopagitica''On returning to England where the Bishops' Wars presaged further armed conflict, Milton began to write prose tracts against episcopacy, in the service of the Puritan and Parliamentary cause.", "Milton's first foray into polemics was ''Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England'' (1641), followed by ''Of Prelatical Episcopacy'', the two defences of Smectymnuus (a group of Presbyterian divines named from their initials; the \"TY\" belonged to Milton's old tutor Thomas Young), and ''The Reason of Church-Government Urged against Prelaty''.", "He vigorously attacked the High-church party of the Church of England and their leader William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, with frequent passages of real eloquence lighting up the rough controversial style of the period, and deploying a wide knowledge of church history.He was supported by his father's investments, but Milton became a private schoolmaster at this time, educating his nephews and other children of the well-to-do.", "This experience and discussions with educational reformer Samuel Hartlib led him to write his short tract ''Of Education'' in 1644, urging a reform of the national universities.In June 1642, Milton paid a visit to the manor house at Forest Hill, Oxfordshire, and, aged 34, married the 17-year-old Mary Powell.", "The marriage got off to a poor start as Mary did not adapt to Milton's austere lifestyle or get along with his nephews.", "Milton found her intellectually unsatisfying and disliked the royalist views she had absorbed from her family.", "It is also speculated that she refused to consummate the marriage.", "Mary soon returned home to her parents and did not come back until 1645, partly because of the outbreak of the Civil War.In the meantime, her desertion prompted Milton to publish a series of pamphlets over the next three years arguing for the legality and morality of divorce beyond grounds of adultery.", "(Anna Beer, author of a 2008 biography of Milton, points to a lack of evidence and the dangers of cynicism in urging that it was not necessarily the case that the private life so animated the public polemicising.)", "In 1643, Milton had a brush with the authorities over these writings, in parallel with Hezekiah Woodward, who had more trouble.", "It was the hostile response accorded the divorce tracts that spurred Milton to write ''Areopagitica; A speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicenc'd Printing, to the Parlament of England'', his celebrated attack on pre-printing censorship.", "In ''Areopagitica'', Milton aligns himself with the parliamentary cause, and he also begins to synthesize the ideal of neo-Roman liberty with that of Christian liberty.", "Milton also courted another woman during this time; we know nothing of her except that her name was Davis and she turned him down.", "However, it was enough to induce Mary Powell into returning to him which she did unexpectedly by begging him to take her back.", "They had two daughters in quick succession following their reconciliation." ], [ "Secretary for Foreign Tongues", "With the Parliamentary victory in the Civil War, Milton used his pen in defence of the republican principles represented by the Commonwealth.", "''The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates'' (1649) defended the right of the people to hold their rulers to account, and implicitly sanctioned the regicide; Milton's political reputation got him appointed Secretary for Foreign Tongues by the Council of State in March 1649.His main job description was to compose the English Republic's foreign correspondence in Latin and other languages, but he also was called upon to produce propaganda for the regime and to serve as a censor.The back of no 19 York Street (1848).", "In 1651, Milton moved into a \"pretty garden-house\" in Petty France, Westminster.", "He lived there until the Restoration.", "Later it became No.", "19 York Street, belonged to Jeremy Bentham, was occupied successively by James Mill and William Hazlitt, and finally was demolished in 1877.In October 1649, he published ''Eikonoklastes'', an explicit defence of the regicide, in response to the ''Eikon Basilike'', a phenomenal best-seller popularly attributed to Charles I that portrayed the King as an innocent Christian martyr.", "A month later the exiled Charles II and his party published the defence of monarchy ''Defensio Regia pro Carolo Primo'', written by leading humanist Claudius Salmasius.", "By January of the following year, Milton was ordered to write a defence of the English people by the Council of State.", "Milton worked more slowly than usual, given the European audience and the English Republic's desire to establish diplomatic and cultural legitimacy, as he drew on the learning marshalled by his years of study to compose a riposte.On 24 February 1652, Milton published his Latin defence of the English people ''Defensio pro Populo Anglicano'', also known as the ''First Defence''.", "Milton's pure Latin prose and evident learning exemplified in the ''First Defence'' quickly made him a European reputation, and the work ran to numerous editions.", "He addressed his ''Sonnet 16'' to 'The Lord Generall Cromwell in May 1652' beginning \"Cromwell, our chief of men ...\", although it was not published until 1654.In 1654, Milton completed the second defence of the English nation ''Defensio secunda'' in response to an anonymous Royalist tract ''\"Regii Sanguinis Clamor ad Coelum Adversus Parricidas Anglicanos\"'' The Cry of the Royal Blood to Heaven Against the English Parricides, a work that made many personal attacks on Milton.", "The second defence praised Oliver Cromwell, now Lord Protector, while exhorting him to remain true to the principles of the Revolution.", "Alexander Morus, to whom Milton wrongly attributed the ''Clamor'' (in fact by Peter du Moulin), published an attack on Milton, in response to which Milton published the autobiographical ''Defensio pro se'' in 1655.Milton held the appointment of Secretary for Foreign Tongues to the Commonwealth Council of State until 1660, although after he had become totally blind, most of the work was done by his deputies, Georg Rudolph Wecklein, then Philip Meadows, and from 1657 by the poet Andrew Marvell.By 1652, Milton had become totally blind; the cause of his blindness is debated but bilateral retinal detachment or glaucoma are most likely.", "His blindness forced him to dictate his verse and prose to amanuenses who copied them out for him; one of these was Andrew Marvell.", "One of his best-known sonnets, ''When I Consider How My Light is Spent'', titled by a later editor, John Newton, \"''On His Blindness''\", is presumed to date from this period." ], [ "The Restoration", "Engraving by William Faithorne, 1670Cromwell's death in 1658 caused the English Republic to collapse into feuding military and political factions.", "Milton, however, stubbornly clung to the beliefs that had originally inspired him to write for the Commonwealth.", "In 1659, he published ''A Treatise of Civil Power'', attacking the concept of a state-dominated church (the position known as Erastianism), as well as ''Considerations touching the likeliest means to remove hirelings'', denouncing corrupt practises in church governance.", "As the Republic disintegrated, Milton wrote several proposals to retain a non-monarchical government against the wishes of parliament, soldiers, and the people.", "* ''A Letter to a Friend, Concerning the Ruptures of the Commonwealth'', written in October 1659, was a response to General Lambert's recent dissolution of the Rump Parliament.", "* ''Proposals of certain expedients for the preventing of a civil war now feared'', written in November 1659.", "* ''The Ready and Easy Way to Establishing a Free Commonwealth'', in two editions, responded to General Monck's march towards London to restore the Long Parliament (which led to the restoration of the monarchy).", "The work is an impassioned, bitter, and futile jeremiad damning the English people for backsliding from the cause of liberty and advocating the establishment of an authoritarian rule by an oligarchy set up by an unelected parliament.Upon the Restoration in May 1660, Milton, fearing for his life, went into hiding, while a warrant was issued for his arrest and his writings were burnt.", "He re-emerged after a general pardon was issued, but was nevertheless arrested and briefly imprisoned before influential friends intervened, such as Marvell, now an MP.", "Milton married for a third and final time on 24 February 1663, marrying Elizabeth (Betty) Minshull, aged 24, a native of Wistaston, Cheshire.", "He spent the remaining decade of his life living quietly in London, only retiring to a cottage during the Great Plague of London—Milton's Cottage in Chalfont St. Giles, his only extant home.During this period, Milton published several minor prose works, such as the grammar textbook ''Art of Logic'' and a ''History of Britain''.", "His only explicitly political tracts were the 1672 ''Of True Religion'', arguing for toleration (except for Catholics), and a translation of a Polish tract advocating an elective monarchy.", "Both these works were referred to in the Exclusion debate, the attempt to exclude the heir presumptive from the throne of England—James, Duke of York—because he was Roman Catholic.", "That debate preoccupied politics in the 1670s and 1680s and precipitated the formation of the Whig party and the Glorious Revolution." ], [ "Death", "Milton died on 8 November 1674 and was buried in the church of St Giles-without-Cripplegate, Fore Street, London.", "However, sources differ as to whether the cause of death was consumption or gout.", "According to an early biographer, his funeral was attended by \"his learned and great Friends in London, not without a friendly concourse of the Vulgar.\"", "A monument was added in 1793, sculpted by John Bacon the Elder." ], [ "Family", "Milton and his first wife Mary Powell (1625–1652) had four children:* Anne (born 29 July 1646)* Mary (born 25 October 1648)* John (16 March 1651 – June 1652)* Deborah (2 May 1652 – 10 August 1727)Mary Powell died on 5 May 1652 from complications following Deborah's birth.", "Milton's daughters survived to adulthood, but he always had a strained relationship with them.On 12 November 1656, Milton was married to Katherine Woodcock at St Margaret's, Westminster.", "She died on 3 February 1658, less than four months after giving birth to her daughter Katherine, who also died.Milton married for a third time on 24 February 1663 to Elizabeth Mynshull or Minshull (1638–1728), the niece of Thomas Mynshull, a wealthy apothecary and philanthropist in Manchester.", "The marriage took place at St Mary Aldermary in the City of London.", "Despite a 31-year age gap, the marriage seemed happy, according to John Aubrey, and lasted more than 12 years until Milton's death.", "(A plaque on the wall of Mynshull's House in Manchester describes Elizabeth as Milton's \"3rd and Best wife\".)", "Samuel Johnson, however, claims that Mynshull was \"a domestic companion and attendant\" and Milton's nephew Edward Phillips relates that Mynshull \"oppressed his children in his lifetime, and cheated them at his death\".His nephews, Edward and John Phillips (sons of Milton's sister Anne), were educated by Milton and became writers themselves.", "John acted as a secretary, and Edward was Milton's first biographer." ], [ "Poetry", "Milton's poetry was slow to see the light of day, at least under his name.", "His first published poem was \"On Shakespeare\" (1630), anonymously included in the Second Folio edition of William Shakespeare's plays in 1632.An annotated copy of the First Folio has been suggested to contain marginal notes by Milton.", "Milton collected his work in ''1645 Poems'' in the midst of the excitement attending the possibility of establishing a new English government.", "The anonymous edition of ''Comus'' was published in 1637, and the publication of ''Lycidas'' in 1638 in ''Justa Edouardo King Naufrago'' was signed J. M. Otherwise.", "The 1645 collection was the only poetry of his to see print until ''Paradise Lost'' appeared in 1667.===''Paradise Lost''===''Milton Dictates the Lost Paradise to His Three Daughters'', ca.", "1826, by Eugène Delacroix Milton's ''magnum opus'', the blank-verse epic poem ''Paradise Lost'', was composed by the blind and impoverished Milton from 1658 to 1664 (first edition), with small but significant revisions published in 1674 (second edition).", "As a blind poet, Milton dictated his verse to a series of aides in his employ.", "It has been argued that the poem reflects his personal despair at the failure of the Revolution yet affirms an ultimate optimism in human potential.", "Some literary critics have argued that Milton encoded many references to his unyielding support for the \"Good Old Cause\".On 27 April 1667, Milton sold the publication rights for ''Paradise Lost'' to publisher Samuel Simmons for £5 (equivalent to approximately £770 in 2015 purchasing power), with a further £5 to be paid if and when each print run sold out of between 1,300 and 1,500 copies.", "The first run was a quarto edition priced at three shillings per copy (about £23 in 2015 purchasing power equivalent), published in August 1667, and it sold out in eighteen months.Milton followed up the publication ''Paradise Lost'' with its sequel ''Paradise Regained'', which was published alongside the tragedy ''Samson Agonistes'' in 1671.Both of these works also reflect Milton's post-Restoration political situation.", "Just before his death in 1674, Milton supervised a second edition of ''Paradise Lost'', accompanied by an explanation of \"why the poem rhymes not\", and prefatory verses by Andrew Marvell.", "In 1673, Milton republished his ''1645 Poems'', as well as a collection of his letters and the Latin prolusions from his Cambridge days." ], [ "Views", "An unfinished religious manifesto, , probably written by Milton, lays out many of his heterodox theological views, and was not discovered and published until 1823.Milton's key beliefs were idiosyncratic, not those of an identifiable group or faction, and often they go well beyond the orthodoxy of the time.", "Their tone, however, stemmed from the Puritan emphasis on the centrality and inviolability of conscience.", "He was his own man, but he was anticipated by Henry Robinson in ''Areopagitica''.===Philosophy===While Milton's beliefs are generally considered to be consistent with Protestant Christianity, Stephen Fallon argues that by the late 1650s, Milton may have at least toyed with the idea of monism or animist materialism, the notion that a single material substance which is \"animate, self-active, and free\" composes everything in the universe: from stones and trees and bodies to minds, souls, angels, and God.", "Fallon claims that Milton devised this position to avoid the mind-body dualism of Plato and Descartes as well as the mechanistic determinism of Hobbes.", "According to Fallon, Milton's monism is most notably reflected in ''Paradise Lost'' when he has angels eat (5.433–439) and apparently engage in sexual intercourse (8.622–629) and the ''De Doctrina'', where he denies the dual natures of man and argues for a theory of Creation ''ex Deo''.===Political thought===Milton was a \"passionately individual Christian Humanist poet.\"", "He appears on the pages of seventeenth century English Puritanism, an age characterized as \"the world turned upside down.\"", "He was a Puritan and yet was unwilling to surrender conscience to party positions on public policy.", "Thus, Milton's political thought, driven by competing convictions, a Reformed faith and a Humanist spirit, led to enigmatic outcomes.Title page of John Milton's 1644 edition of ''Areopagitica'' ''Areopagitica'' was written in response to the Licensing Order, in November 1644.Milton's political thought may be best categorized according to respective periods in his life and times.", "The years 1641–42 were dedicated to church politics and the struggle against episcopacy.", "After his divorce writings, ''Areopagitica'', and a gap, he wrote in 1649–54 in the aftermath of the execution of Charles I, and in polemic justification of the regicide and the existing Parliamentarian regime.", "Then in 1659–60 he foresaw the Restoration and wrote to head it off.Milton's own beliefs were in some cases unpopular, particularly his commitment to republicanism.", "In coming centuries, Milton would be claimed as an early apostle of liberalism.", "According to James Tully:A friend and ally in the pamphlet wars was Marchamont Nedham.", "Austin Woolrych considers that although they were quite close, there is \"little real affinity, beyond a broad republicanism\", between their approaches.", "Blair Worden remarks that both Milton and Nedham, with others such as Andrew Marvell and James Harrington, would have taken their problem with the Rump Parliament to be not the republic itself, but the fact that it was not a proper republic.", "Woolrych speaks of \"the gulf between Milton's vision of the Commonwealth's future and the reality\".", "In the early version of his ''History of Britain'', begun in 1649, Milton was already writing off the members of the Long Parliament as incorrigible.He praised Oliver Cromwell as the Protectorate was set up; though subsequently he had major reservations.", "When Cromwell seemed to be backsliding as a revolutionary, after a couple of years in power, Milton moved closer to the position of Sir Henry Vane, to whom he wrote a sonnet in 1652.The group of disaffected republicans included, besides Vane, John Bradshaw, John Hutchinson, Edmund Ludlow, Henry Marten, Robert Overton, Edward Sexby and John Streater; but not Marvell, who remained with Cromwell's party.", "Milton had already commended Overton, along with Edmund Whalley and Bulstrode Whitelocke, in ''Defensio Secunda''.", "Nigel Smith writes thatAs Richard Cromwell fell from power, he envisaged a step towards a freer republic or \"free commonwealth\", writing in the hope of this outcome in early 1660.Milton had argued for an awkward position, in the ''Ready and Easy Way'', because he wanted to invoke the Good Old Cause and gain the support of the republicans, but without offering a democratic solution of any kind.", "His proposal, backed by reference (amongst other reasons) to the oligarchical Dutch and Venetian constitutions, was for a council with perpetual membership.", "This attitude cut right across the grain of popular opinion of the time, which swung decisively behind the restoration of the Stuart monarchy that took place later in the year.", "Milton, an associate of and advocate on behalf of the regicides, was silenced on political matters as Charles II returned.===Theology===John Milton was neither a clergyman nor a theologian; however, theology, and particularly English Calvinism, formed the palette on which he created his greatest thoughts.", "Milton wrestled with the great doctrines of the Church amidst the theological crosswinds of his age.", "The great poet was undoubtedly Reformed (though his grandfather, Richard \"the Ranger\" Milton had been Roman Catholic).", "However, Milton's Calvinism had to find expression in a broad-spirited Humanism.", "Like many Renaissance artists before him, Milton attempted to integrate Christian theology with classical modes.", "In his early poems, the poet narrator expresses a tension between vice and virtue, the latter invariably related to Protestantism.", "In ''Comus'', Milton may make ironic use of the Caroline court masque by elevating notions of purity and virtue over the conventions of court revelry and superstition.", "In his later poems, Milton's theological concerns become more explicit.His use of biblical citation was wide-ranging; Harris Fletcher, standing at the beginning of the intensification of the study of the use of scripture in Milton's work (poetry and prose, in all languages Milton mastered), notes that typically Milton clipped and adapted biblical quotations to suit the purpose, giving precise chapter and verse only in texts for a more specialized readership.", "As for the plenitude of Milton's quotations from scripture, Fletcher comments, \"For this work, I have in all actually collated about twenty-five hundred of the five to ten thousand direct Biblical quotations which appear therein\".", "Milton's customary English Bible was the Authorized King James.", "When citing and writing in other languages, he usually employed the Latin translation by Immanuel Tremellius, though \"he was equipped to read the Bible in Latin, in Greek, and in Hebrew, including the Targumim or Aramaic paraphrases of the Old Testament, and the Syriac version of the New, together with the available commentaries of those several versions\".Milton embraced many heterodox Christian theological views.", "He has been accused of rejecting the Trinity, believing instead that the Son was subordinate to the Father, a position known as Arianism; and his sympathy or curiosity was probably engaged by Socinianism: in August 1650 he licensed for publication by William Dugard the ''Racovian Catechism'', based on a non-trinitarian creed.", "Milton's alleged Arianism, like much of his theology, is still subject of debate and controversy.", "Rufus Wilmot Griswold argued that \"In none of his great works is there a passage from which it can be inferred that he was an Arian; and in the very last of his writings he declares that \"the doctrine of the Trinity is a plain doctrine in Scripture.\"", "In ''Areopagitica,'' Milton classified Arians and Socinians as \"errorists\" and \"schismatics\" alongside Arminians and Anabaptists.", "A source has interpreted him as broadly Protestant, if not always easy to locate in a more precise religious category.", "In 2019, John Rogers stated, \"Heretics both, John Milton and Isaac Newton were, as most scholars now agree, Arians.", "\"In his 1641 treatise, ''Of Reformation'', Milton expressed his dislike for Catholicism and episcopacy, presenting Rome as a modern Babylon, and bishops as Egyptian taskmasters.", "These analogies conform to Milton's puritanical preference for Old Testament imagery.", "He knew at least four commentaries on ''Genesis'': those of John Calvin, Paulus Fagius, David Pareus and Andreus Rivetus.Through the Interregnum, Milton often presents England, rescued from the trappings of a worldly monarchy, as an elect nation akin to the Old Testament Israel, and shows its leader, Oliver Cromwell, as a latter-day Moses.", "These views were bound up in Protestant views of the Millennium, which some sects, such as the Fifth Monarchists predicted would arrive in England.", "Milton, however, would later criticise the \"worldly\" millenarian views of these and others, and expressed orthodox ideas on the prophecy of the Four Empires.The Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 began a new phase in Milton's work.", "In ''Paradise Lost'', ''Paradise Regained'' and ''Samson Agonistes'', Milton mourns the end of the godly Commonwealth.", "The Garden of Eden may allegorically reflect Milton's view of England's recent Fall from Grace, while Samson's blindness and captivity—mirroring Milton's own lost sight—may be a metaphor for England's blind acceptance of Charles II as king.", "Illustrated by ''Paradise Lost'' is mortalism, the belief that the soul lies dormant after the body dies.Despite the Restoration of the monarchy, Milton did not lose his personal faith; ''Samson'' shows how the loss of national salvation did not necessarily preclude the salvation of the individual, while ''Paradise Regained'' expresses Milton's continuing belief in the promise of Christian salvation through Jesus Christ.Though he maintained his personal faith in spite of the defeats suffered by his cause, the ''Dictionary of National Biography'' recounted how he had been alienated from the Church of England by Archbishop William Laud, and then moved similarly from the Dissenters by their denunciation of religious tolerance in England.Writing of the enigmatic and often conflicting views of Milton in the Puritan age, David Daiches wrote,A fair theological summary may be that John Milton was a Puritan, though his tendency to press further for liberty of conscience, sometimes out of conviction and often out of mere intellectual curiosity, made the great man, at least, a vital if not uncomfortable ally in the broader Puritan movement.===Religious toleration===Milton called in the ''Areopagitica'' for \"the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties\" to the conflicting Protestant denominations.", "According to American historian William Hunter, \"Milton argued for disestablishment as the only effective way of achieving broad toleration.", "Rather than force a man's conscience, government should recognise the persuasive force of the gospel.", "\"===Divorce===Milton wrote ''The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce'' in 1643, at the beginning of the English Civil War.", "In August of that year, he presented his thoughts to the Westminster Assembly of Divines, which had been created by the Long Parliament to bring greater reform to the Church of England.", "The Assembly convened on 1 July against the will of King Charles I.Milton's thinking on divorce caused him considerable trouble with the authorities.", "An orthodox Presbyterian view of the time was that Milton's views on divorce constituted a one-man heresy:Even here, though, his originality is qualified: Thomas Gataker had already identified \"mutual solace\" as a principal goal in marriage.", "Milton abandoned his campaign to legitimise divorce after 1645, but he expressed support for polygamy in the , the theological treatise that provides the clearest evidence for his views.Milton wrote during a period when thoughts about divorce were anything but simplistic; rather, there was active debate among thinkers and intellectuals at the time.", "However, Milton's basic approval of divorce within strict parameters set by the biblical witness was typical of many influential Christian intellectuals, particularly the Westminster divines.", "Milton addressed the Assembly on the matter of divorce in August 1643, at a moment when the Assembly was beginning to form its opinion on the matter.", "In the ''Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce'', Milton argued that divorce was a private matter, not a legal or ecclesiastical one.", "Neither the Assembly nor Parliament condemned Milton or his ideas.", "In fact, when the Westminster Assembly wrote the Westminster Confession of Faith they allowed for divorce ('Of Marriage and Divorce,' Chapter 24, Section 5) in cases of infidelity or abandonment.", "Thus, the Christian community, at least a majority within the 'Puritan' sub-set, approved of Milton's views.Nevertheless, reaction among Puritans to Milton's views on divorce was mixed.", "Herbert Palmer, a member of the Westminster Assembly, condemned Milton in the strongest possible language:Palmer expressed his disapproval in a sermon addressed to the Westminster Assembly.", "The Scottish commissioner Robert Baillie described Palmer's sermon as one \"of the most Scottish and free sermons that ever I heard any where.", "\"===History===History was particularly important for the political class of the period, and Lewalski considers that Milton \"more than most illustrates\" a remark of Thomas Hobbes on the weight placed at the time on the classical Latin historical writers Tacitus, Livy, Sallust and Cicero, and their republican attitudes.", "Milton himself wrote that \"Worthy deeds are not often destitute of worthy relaters\", in Book II of his ''History of Britain''.", "A sense of history mattered greatly to him:" ], [ "Legacy and influence", "Once ''Paradise Lost'' was published, Milton's stature as epic poet was immediately recognised.", "He cast a formidable shadow over English poetry in the 18th and 19th centuries; he was often judged equal or superior to all other English poets, including Shakespeare.", "Very early on, though, he was championed by Whigs, and decried by Tories: with the regicide Edmund Ludlow he was claimed as an early Whig, while the High Tory Anglican minister Luke Milbourne lumped Milton in with other \"Agents of Darkness\" such as John Knox, George Buchanan, Richard Baxter, Algernon Sidney and John Locke.", "The political ideas of Milton, Locke, Sidney, and James Harrington strongly influenced the Radical Whigs, whose ideology in turn was central to the American Revolution.", "Modern scholars of Milton's life, politics, and work are known as Miltonists: \"his work is the subject of a very large amount of academic scholarship\".In 2008, John Milton Passage, a short passage by Bread Street into St Mary-le-Bow Churchyard in London, was unveiled.===Early reception of the poetry===Title page of a 1752–1761 edition of \"The Poetical Works of John Milton with Notes of Various Authors by Thomas Newton\" printed by J.", "& R. Tonson in the StrandJohn Dryden, an early enthusiast, in 1677 began the trend of describing Milton as the poet of the sublime.", "Dryden's ''The State of Innocence and the Fall of Man: an Opera'' (1677) is evidence of an immediate cultural influence.", "In 1695, Patrick Hume became the first editor of ''Paradise Lost'', providing an extensive apparatus of annotation and commentary, particularly chasing down allusions.In 1732, the classical scholar Richard Bentley offered a corrected version of ''Paradise Lost''.", "Bentley was considered presumptuous and was attacked in the following year by Zachary Pearce.", "Christopher Ricks judges that, as critic, Bentley was both acute and wrong-headed, and \"incorrigibly eccentric\"; William Empson also finds Pearce to be more sympathetic to Bentley's underlying line of thought than is warranted.There was an early, partial translation of ''Paradise Lost'' into German by Theodore Haak and based on that a standard verse translation by Ernest Gottlieb von Berge.", "A subsequent prose translation by Johann Jakob Bodmer was very popular; it influenced Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock.", "The German-language Milton tradition returned to England in the person of the artist Henry Fuseli.Many Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century revered and commented on Milton's poetry and non-poetical works.", "In addition to John Dryden, among them were Alexander Pope, Joseph Addison, Thomas Newton, and Samuel Johnson.", "For example, in ''The Spectator'', Joseph Addison wrote extensive notes, annotations, and interpretations of certain passages of ''Paradise Lost''.", "Jonathan Richardson, senior, and Jonathan Richardson, the younger, co-wrote a book of criticism.", "In 1749, Thomas Newton published an extensive edition of Milton's poetical works with annotations provided by himself, Dryden, Pope, Addison, the Richardsons (father and son) and others.", "Newton's edition of Milton was a culmination of the honour bestowed upon Milton by early Enlightenment thinkers; it may also have been prompted by Richard Bentley's infamous edition, described above.", "Samuel Johnson wrote numerous essays on ''Paradise Lost'', and Milton was included in his ''Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets'' (1779–1781).", "In ''The Age of Louis XIV'', Voltaire said \"Milton remains the glory and the wonder (''l'admiration'') of England.", "\"===Blake===Frontispiece to ''Milton: A Poem in Two Books''William Blake considered Milton the major English poet.", "Blake placed Edmund Spenser as Milton's precursor, and saw himself as Milton's poetical son.", "In his ''Milton: A Poem in Two Books'', Blake uses Milton as a character.===Romantic theory===Edmund Burke was a theorist of the sublime, and he regarded Milton's description of Hell as exemplary of sublimity as an aesthetic concept.", "For Burke, it was to set alongside mountain-tops, a storm at sea, and infinity.", "In ''The Beautiful and the Sublime'', he wrote: \"No person seems better to have understood the secret of heightening, or of setting terrible things, if I may use the expression, in their strongest light, by the force of a judicious obscurity than Milton.", "\"The Romantic poets valued his exploration of blank verse, but for the most part rejected his religiosity.", "William Wordsworth began his sonnet \"London, 1802\" with \"Milton!", "thou should'st be living at this hour\" and modelled ''The Prelude'', his own blank verse epic, on ''Paradise Lost''.", "John Keats found the yoke of Milton's style uncongenial; he exclaimed that \"Miltonic verse cannot be written but in an artful or rather artist's humour.\"", "Keats felt that ''Paradise Lost'' was a \"beautiful and grand curiosity\", but his own unfinished attempt at epic poetry, ''Hyperion'', was unsatisfactory to the author because, amongst other things, it had too many \"Miltonic inversions\".", "In ''The Madwoman in the Attic'', Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar note that Mary Shelley's novel ''Frankenstein'' is, in the view of many critics, \"one of the key 'Romantic' readings of ''Paradise Lost''.", "\"===Later legacy===The Victorian age witnessed a continuation of Milton's influence.", "Thomas Carlyle declared him the \"moral king of English literature,\" while George Eliot and Thomas Hardy were particularly inspired by Milton's poetry and biography.", "Hostile 20th-century criticism by T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound did not reduce Milton's stature.", "F. R. Leavis, in ''The Common Pursuit'', responded to the points made by Eliot, in particular the claim that \"the study of Milton could be of no help: it was only a hindrance\", by arguing, \"As if it were a matter of deciding ''not'' to study Milton!", "The problem, rather, was to escape from an influence that was so difficult to escape from because it was unrecognized, belonging, as it did, to the climate of the habitual and 'natural'.\"", "Harold Bloom, in ''The Anxiety of Influence'', wrote that \"Milton is the central problem in any theory and history of poetic influence in English ...\".Milton's ''Areopagitica'' is still cited as relevant to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.", "A quotation from ''Areopagitica''—\"A good book is the precious lifeblood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life\"—is displayed in many public libraries, including the New York Public Library.The title of Philip Pullman's ''His Dark Materials'' trilogy is derived from a quotation, \"His dark materials to create more worlds\", line 915 of Book II in ''Paradise Lost''.", "Pullman was concerned to produce a version of Milton's poem accessible to teenagers, and has spoken of Milton as \"our greatest public poet\".Titles of a number of other well-known literary works are also derived from Milton's writings.", "Examples include Thomas Wolfe's ''Look Homeward, Angel'', Aldous Huxley's ''Eyeless in Gaza'', Arthur Koestler's ''Darkness at Noon'', and William Golding's ''Darkness Visible''.T.", "S. Eliot believed that \"of no other poet is it so difficult to consider the poetry simply as poetry, without our theological and political dispositions ... making unlawful entry\".===Literary legacy===temple of British Worthies, Stowe, BuckinghamshireMilton's use of blank verse, in addition to his stylistic innovations (such as grandiloquence of voice and vision, peculiar diction and phraseology) influenced later poets.", "At the time, poetic blank verse was considered distinct from its use in verse drama, and ''Paradise Lost'' was taken as a unique exemplar.", "Said Isaac Watts in 1734, \"Mr. Milton is esteemed the parent and author of blank verse among us\".", "\"Miltonic verse\" might be synonymous for a century with blank verse as poetry, a new poetic terrain independent from both the drama and the heroic couplet.Lack of rhyme was sometimes taken as Milton's defining innovation.", "He himself considered the rhymeless quality of ''Paradise Lost'' to be an extension of his own personal liberty:This pursuit of freedom was largely a reaction against conservative values entrenched within the rigid heroic couplet.", "Within a dominant culture that stressed elegance and finish, he granted primacy to freedom, breadth and imaginative suggestiveness, eventually developed into the romantic vision of sublime terror.", "Reaction to Milton's poetic worldview included, grudgingly, acknowledgement of the poet's resemblance to classical writers (Greek and Roman poetry being unrhymed).", "Blank verse came to be a recognised medium for religious works and for translations of the classics.", "Unrhymed lyrics like Collins' ''Ode to Evening'' (in the meter of Milton's translation of Horace's ''Ode to Pyrrha'') were not uncommon after 1740.A second aspect of Milton's blank verse was the use of unconventional rhythm:Before Milton, \"the sense of regular rhythm ... had been knocked into the English head so securely that it was part of their nature\".", "The \"Heroick measure\", according to Samuel Johnson, \"is pure ... when the accent rests upon every second syllable through the whole line ...", "The repetition of this sound or percussion at equal times, is the most complete harmony of which a single verse is capable\".", "Caesural pauses, most agreed, were best placed at the middle and the end of the line.", "In order to support this symmetry, lines were most often octo- or deca-syllabic, with no enjambed endings.", "To this schema Milton introduced modifications, which included hypermetrical syllables (trisyllabic feet), inversion or slighting of stresses, and the shifting of pauses to all parts of the line.", "Milton deemed these features to be reflective of \"the transcendental union of order and freedom\".", "Admirers remained hesitant to adopt such departures from traditional metrical schemes: \"The English ... had been writing separate lines for so long that they could not rid themselves of the habit\".", "Isaac Watts preferred his lines distinct from each other, as did Oliver Goldsmith, Henry Pemberton, and Scott of Amwell, whose general opinion it was that Milton's frequent omission of the initial unaccented foot was \"displeasing to a nice ear\".", "It was not until the late 18th century that poets (beginning with Gray) began to appreciate \"the composition of Milton's harmony ... how he loved to vary his pauses, his measures, and his feet, which gives that enchanting air of freedom and wilderness to his versification\".", "By the 20th century, American poet and critic John Hollander would go so far as to say that Milton \"was able, by plying that most remarkable instrument of English meter ... to invent a new mode of image-making in English poetry.", "\"Milton's pursuit of liberty extended into his vocabulary as well.", "It included many Latinate neologisms, as well as obsolete words already dropped from popular usage so completely that their meanings were no longer understood.", "In 1740, Francis Peck identified some examples of Milton's \"old\" words (now popular).", "The \"Miltonian dialect\", as it was called, was emulated by later poets; Pope used the diction of ''Paradise Lost'' in his Homer translation, while the lyric poetry of Gray and Collins was frequently criticised for their use of \"obsolete words out of Spenser and Milton\".", "The language of Thomson's finest poems (e.g.", "''The Seasons'', ''The Castle of Indolence'') was self-consciously modelled after the Miltonian dialect, with the same tone and sensibilities as ''Paradise Lost''.", "Following to Milton, English poetry from Pope to John Keats exhibited a steadily increasing attention to the connotative, the imaginative and poetic, value of words.===Musical settings===Milton's ode ''At a solemn Musick'' was set for choir and orchestra as ''Blest Pair of Sirens'' by Hubert Parry (1848–1918), and Milton's poem ''On the Morning of Christ's Nativity'' was set as a large-scale choral work by Cyril Rootham (1875–1938).", "Milton also wrote the hymn Let us with a gladsome mind, a versification of Psalm 136.His 'L'Allegro' and 'Il Penseroso', with additional material, were magnificently set by Handel (1740)." ], [ "Works", "===Poetry and drama===* 1629: ''On the Morning of Christ's Nativity''* 1630: ''On Shakespeare''* 1631: ''On Arriving at the Age of Twenty-Three''* 1632: ''L'Allegro''* 1632: ''Il Penseroso''* 1634: ''A Mask Presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634'', commonly known as ''Comus'' (a masque)* 1637: ''Lycidas''* 1645: ''Poems of Mr John Milton, Both English and Latin''* 1652: ''When I Consider How My Light is Spent'' (Commonly referred to as \"On his blindness\", though Milton did not use this title)* 1655: ''On the Late Massacre in Piedmont''* 1667: ''Paradise Lost''* 1671: ''Paradise Regained''* 1671: ''Samson Agonistes''* 1673: ''Poems, &c, Upon Several Occasions''* Arcades: a masque.", "(date is unknown).", "* On his Deceased wife, To The Nightingale, On reaching the Age of twenty four.===Prose===* ''Of Reformation'' (1641)* ''Of Prelatical Episcopacy'' (1641)* ''Animadversions'' (1641)* ''The Reason of Church-Government Urged against Prelaty'' (1642)* ''Apology for Smectymnuus'' (1642)* ''Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce'' (1643)* ''Judgement of Martin Bucer Concerning Divorce'' (1644)* ''Of Education'' (1644)* ''Areopagitica'' (1644)* ''Tetrachordon'' (1645)* ''Colasterion'' (1645)* ''The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates'' (1649)* ''Eikonoklastes'' (1649)* ''Defensio pro Populo Anglicano'' ''First Defence'' (1651)* ''Defensio Secunda'' ''Second Defence'' (1654)* ''A Treatise of Civil Power'' (1659)* ''The Likeliest Means to Remove Hirelings from the Church'' (1659)* ''The Ready and Easy Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth'' (1660)* ''Brief Notes Upon a Late Sermon'' (1660)* ''Accedence Commenced Grammar'' (1669)* ''The History of Britain'' (1670)* ''Artis logicae plenior institutio'' ''Art of Logic'' (1672)* ''Of True Religion'' (1673)* ''Epistolae Familiaries'' (1674)* ''Prolusiones'' (1674)* ''A brief History of Moscovia, and other less known Countries lying Eastward of Russia as far as Cathay, gathered from the writings of several Eye-witnesses'' (1682)* (1823)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Beer, Anna.", "''Milton: Poet, Pamphleteer and Patriot''.", "New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2008.", "* Campbell, Gordon and Corns, Thomas.", "''John Milton: Life, Work, and Thought''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.", "* Chaney, Edward, ''The Grand Tour and the Great Rebellion: Richard Lassels and 'The Voyage of Italy' in the Seventeenth Century'' (Geneva, CIRVI, 1985) and \"Milton's Visit to Vallombrosa: A literary tradition\", ''The Evolution of the Grand Tour'', 2nd ed (Routledge, London, 2000).", "* Dexter, Raymond.", "''The Influence of Milton on English Poetry''.", "London: Kessinger Publishing.", "1922* Dick, Oliver Lawson.", "''Aubrey's Brief Lives''.", "Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1962.", "* Eliot, T. S. \"Annual Lecture on a Master Mind: Milton\", ''Proceedings of the British Academy'' 33 (1947).", "* Fish, Stanley.", "''Versions of Antihumanism: Milton and Others.''", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012..* * Gray, Thomas.", "''Observations on English Metre''.", "\"The Works of Thomas Gray\".", "ed.", "Mitford.", "London: William Pickering, 1835.", "* Hawkes, David, John Milton: A Hero of Our Time (Counterpoint Press: London and New York, 2009) * Hill, Christopher.", "''Milton and the English Revolution''.", "London: Faber, 1977.", "* Hobsbaum, Philip.", "\"Meter, Rhythm and Verse Form\".", "New York: Routledge, 1996.", "* Hunter, William Bridges.", "''A Milton Encyclopedia''.", "Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1980.", "* Johnson, Samuel.", "\"Rambler #86\" 1751.", "* Johnson, Samuel.", "''Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets''.", "London: Dove, 1826.", "* Le Comte, Edward.", "''Milton and Sex''.", "London: Macmillan, 1978.", "* Leonard, John.", "''Faithful Labourers: A Reception History of Paradise Lost, 1667–1970''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.", "* Lewalski, Barbara K. ''The Life of John Milton''.", "Oxford: Blackwells Publishers, 2003.", "* * Masson, David.", "''The Life of John Milton and History of His Time'', Vol.", "1.Oxford: 1859.", "* McCalman, Iain.", "et al., ''An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age: British Culture, 1776–1832''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.", "* Milner, Andrew.", "''John Milton and the English Revolution: A Study in the Sociology of Literature''.", "London: Macmillan, 1981.", "* Milton, John.", "''Complete Prose Works'' 8 Vols.", "gen. ed.", "Don M. Wolfe.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959.", "* Milton, John.", "''The Verse'', \"Paradise Lost\".", "London, 1668.", "* Peck, Francis.", "\"New Memoirs of Milton\".", "London, 1740.", "* Pfeiffer, Robert H. \"The Teaching of Hebrew in Colonial America\", ''The Jewish Quarterly Review'' (April 1955).", "* Rosenfeld, Nancy.", "''The Human Satan in Seventeenth-Century English Literature: From Milton to Rochester''.", "Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008.", "* Saintsbury, George.", "\"The Peace of the Augustans: A Survey of Eighteenth Century Literature as a Place of Rest and Refreshment\".", "London: Oxford University Press.", "1946.", "* Saintsbury, George.", "\"A History of English Prosody: From the Twelfth Century to the Present Day\".", "London: Macmillan and Co., 1908.", "* Scott, John.", "\"Critical Essays\".", "London, 1785.", "* * Sullivan, Ceri.", "''Literature in the Public Service: Divine Bureaucracy'' (2013).", "* Toland, John.", "''Life of Milton'' in ''The Early Lives of Milton''.", "Ed.", "Helen Darbishere.", "London: Constable, 1932.", "* von Maltzahn, Nicholas.", "\"Milton's Readers\" in ''The Oxford Companion to Milton''.", "ed.", "Dennis Richard Danielson, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.", "* Watts, Isaac.", "\"Miscellaneous Thoughts\" No.", "lxxiii.", "''Works'' 1810* Wedgwood, C. V. ''Thomas Wentworth, First Earl of Strafford 1593–1641''.", "New York: Macmillan, 1961.", "* Wilson, A. N. ''The Life of John Milton''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983." ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joris Ivens" ], [ "Introduction", "Conference of \"World Union of documentary films\" in 1948 Warsaw: Basil Wright (on the left), Elmar Klos, Joris Ivens (2nd from the right) and Jerzy Toeplitz.Still from film ''Regen'' (Rain, 1929) by Joris Ivens.Joris Ivens (left) with Ernest Hemingway (middle) and Ludwig Renn in the Spanish Civil War, 1936/37.Ivens' tomb at Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris.", "'''Georg Henri Anton''' \"'''Joris'''\" '''Ivens''' (18 November 1898 – 28 June 1989) was a Dutch documentary filmmaker.", "Among the notable films he directed or co-directed are ''A Tale of the Wind'', ''The Spanish Earth'', ''Rain'', ''...A Valparaiso'', ''Misère au Borinage'' (''Borinage''), ''17th Parallel: Vietnam in War'', ''The Seine Meets Paris'', ''Far from Vietnam'', ''Pour le Mistral'' and ''How Yukong Moved the Mountains''." ], [ "Early life and career", "Born Georg Henri Anton Ivens into a wealthy family, Ivens went to work in one of his father's photo supply shops and from there developed an interest in film.", "Under the direction of his father, he completed his first film at 13; in college he studied economics with the goal of continuing his father's business, but an interest in class issues distracted him from that path.", "He met photographer Germaine Krull in Berlin in 1923, and entered into a marriage of convenience with her between 1927 and 1943 so that Krull could hold a Dutch passport and could have a \"veneer of married respectability without sacrificing her autonomy.", "\"Originally his work was constructivist in character, especially his short city symphonies ''Rain'' (''Regen'', 1929), which he directed together with Mannus Franken, filmed over two years, and ''The Bridge'' (''De Brug'', 1928).", "The latter was about a newly built elevator railway bridge in Rotterdam, shot in 1927, and shown in 1928 by the ''Nederlandsche Filmliga'' (1927-1933).", "This avant-garde cineclub, with its eponymous magazine, had just been established by Ivens, Menno ter Braak and others, with branches in different Dutch cities.", "''The Bridge'' was part of its first season of film screenings, and received critical acclaim.", "The ''Filmliga'' (film league) drew various foreign filmmakers to the Netherlands, such as Alberto Cavalcanti, René Clair, Sergei Eisenstein, Vsevolod Pudovkin, and Dziga Vertov, who also became Ivens' friends.", "Through these connections, ''The Bridge'' was widely shown abroad, including the Soviet Union.In 1929, Ivens went to the Soviet Union and due to the success of ''The Bridge'', he was invited to direct a film on a topic of his own choosing, which was the new industrial city of Magnitogorsk.", "Before commencing work, he returned to the Netherlands to make ''Industrial Symphony'' for Philips Electric which is considered to be a film of great technical beauty.", "He returned to the Soviet Union to make the film about Magnitogorsk, ''Song of Heroes '' in 1931 with music composed by Hanns Eisler.", "This was the first film on which Ivens and Eisler worked together.", "It was a propaganda film about this new industrial city where masses of laborers and communist youth worked for Stalin's Five Year Plan.With Henri Storck, Ivens made ''Misère au Borinage'' (''Borinage'', 1933), a documentary on life in a coal mining region.", "In 1943, he also directed two Allied propaganda films for the National Film Board of Canada, including ''Action Stations'', about the Royal Canadian Navy's escorting of convoys in the Battle of the Atlantic." ], [ "U.S. and World War II-era career", "From 1936 to 1945, Ivens was based in the United States.", "For Pare Lorentz's U.S. Film Service, in the year 1940, he made a documentary film on rural electrification called ''Power and the Land''.", "It focused on a family, the Parkinsons, who ran a business providing milk for their community.", "The film showed the problem in the lack of electricity and the way the problem was fixed.", "Ivens was, however, known for his anti-fascist and other propaganda films, including ''The Spanish Earth'', for the Spanish Republicans, co-written with Ernest Hemingway and music by Marc Blitzstein and Virgil Thomson.", "Jean Renoir did the French narration for the film and Hemingway did the English version only after Orson Welles' sounded too theatrical..", "This film was financed by Archibald MacLeish, Fredric March, Florence Eldridge, Lillian Hellman, Luise Rainer, Dudley Nichols, Franchot Tone and other Hollywood movie stars, moguls, and writers who composed a group known as the Contemporary Historians. ''", "Spanish Earth '' was shown at the White House on 8 July 1937 after Ivens, Hemingway, Martha Gellhorn, had had dinner with President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt and Harry Hopkins.", "The Roosevelts loved the film but said that it needed more propaganda.", "This 1937 documentary was considered his masterpiece.In 1938 he traveled to China.", "''The 400 Million'' (1939) depicted the history of modern China and the Chinese resistance during the Second Sino-Japanese War, including dramatic shots of the Battle of Taierzhuang.", "Robert Capa did camerawork, Sidney Lumet worked on the film as a reader, Hanns Eisler wrote the musical score, and Fredric March provided the narration.", "It, too, had been financed by the same people as those of ''Spanish Earth''.", "Its chief fundraiser was Luise Rainer, recipient of the best actress Oscar two years in a row; and the entire group called themselves this time, ''History Today, Inc ''.", "The Kuomintang government censored the film, fearing that it would give too much credit to left-wing forces.", "Ivens was also suspected of being a friend of Mao Zedong and especially Zhou Enlai.In early 1943, Frank Capra hired Ivens to supervise the production of ''Know Your Enemy: Japan '' for his U.S. War Department film series ''Why We Fight''.", "The film's commentary was written largely by Carl Foreman.", "Capra fired Ivens from the project because he felt that his approach was too sympathetic toward the Japanese.", "The film's release was held up because there were concerns that Emperor Hirohito was being depicted as a war criminal, and there was a policy shift to portray the Emperor more favorably after the war as a means of maintaining order in post-war Japan.With the emerging \"Red Scare\" of the late 1940s, Ivens was forced to leave the country in the early months of the Truman administration.", "Ivens' leftist politics also put a stop to his first feature film project which was to have starred Greta Garbo.", "In fact, Walter Wanger, the film's producer, was adamant about \"running Ivens out of town.\"" ], [ "Return to Europe", "In 1946, commissioned to make a Dutch film about Indonesian 'independence', Ivens resigned in protest over what he considered ongoing imperialism; the Dutch were in his view resisting decolonization.", "Instead, Ivens filmed ''Indonesia Calling'' in secret, for which he received funding from the International Workers Order.", "For around a decade Ivens lived in Eastern Europe, working for several studios there.", "His position concerning Indonesia and his taking sides for the Eastern Bloc in the Cold War annoyed the Dutch government.", "Over a period of many years, he was obliged to renew his passport every three or four months.", "According to later mythology however, he lost his passport for ten years, which is not true, as demonstrated by the fact that he was able to travel to New York City to sit by the bedside of his old friend Paul Robeson when he was ill.Having been criticized in the Netherlands, the tides were turning in the 1960s.", "In 1965, the city of Rotterdam commissioned him to make a film about the port, which was meant to be a promotional film, yet Ivens got ''carte blanche''.", "The result, the essay-film ''Rotterdam Europoort'' (1966), is not only critical of modern city planning and consumerism, but also an autobiographical tale inspired by the legend of the Flying Dutchman.", "Ivens was very happy with the result and even believed that it was his best film.", "At about the same time, from 1965 to 1970, Ivens also worked on two documentary films about North Vietnam during the war; he made ''17e parallèle: La guerre du peuple'' ''(17th Parallel: Vietnam in War)'' and he participated in the collective work ''Loin du Vietnam'' (''Far from Vietnam'').", "He was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize for the year 1967.From 1971 to 1977, he shot ''How Yukong Moved the Mountains'', a 763-minute documentary about the Cultural Revolution in China.", "He was given unprecedented access because of his pro-communist views and his old personal friendships with Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong.He spoke to Radio Netherlands about his life and work in a wide-ranging interview.In 1988 Ivens received the Golden Lion Honorary Award at the Venice Film Festival.", "He then received the Order of the Netherlands Lion in January 1989, and died on 28 June that year.", "Shortly before his death he released the last of more than 40 films ''Une histoire de vent'' (''A Tale of the Wind'').", "A statue of Ivens by sculptor Bryan McCormack was erected in the Parc de Saint-Cloud in Paris in 2010." ], [ "Filmography", "*''The Flaming Arrow'' (1912)*''O, Sunland'' (1922)*''The Sunhouse'' (1925)*''Film Sketchbook'' (1927)*''The Sick Town'' (1927)*''Instruction Films Micro Camera, University Leiden'' (1927)*''Movement Studies in Paris'' (1927)*''Filmstudy Zeedijk'' (1927)*''The Street'' (1927)*''Ice Skating'' (1927)*''The Bridge'' (1928)*''Rain'' (1929)*''Breakers'' (1929)*''Poor Drenthe'' (The Misery in the Peat-mores of Drenthe) (1929)*''Pile Diving'' (1929)*''Zonneland'' (1930)*''We are building'' (1930)*''Second Union Film'' (1930)*''Zuiderzee'' (1930)*''Tribune Film'' (1930)*''Concrete Construction'' (1930)*''Donogoo-Tonka'' (1931)*''Philips Radio'' (1931)*''Creosote'' (1932)*''Komsomol,'' (Song of Heroes, Youth Speaks) (1932)*''New Earth'' (1933)*''Borinage'' (1934)*''The Spanish Earth'' (1937)*''The 400 Million'' (1938)*''New Frontiers'' (1940)*''Power and the Land'' (1940)*''Our Russian Front'' (1942)*''Action Stations'' (1943)*''Corvette Port Arthur'' (1943)*''Know Your Enemy: Japan'' (1945) (uncredited)*''Indonesia Calling'' (1946)*''The First Years'' (1948)*''Friendship Triumphs'' (1952)*''Peace Tour 1952'' (1952)*''Chagall'' (article in Italian) (1952-1960)*''The Song of the Rivers'' (1954)*''My Child'' (1956)*''The Windrose / Rose of the Winds'' (1957)*''The war of the 600 Million People'' (1958)*''Letters from China'' (1958)*''L'Italia non è un paese povero'' (article in Italian) (1960)*''Demain à Nanguila'' (1960)*''Carnet de viaje'' (1961)*''Pueblo en armas'' (1961)*''Le petit chapiteau'' (1963)*''Le train de la victoire'' (1964)*''...A Valparaiso (article in French)'' (1965)*''Le mistral'' (1965)*''Rotterdam Europoort'' (1966)*''Le ciel - La terre'' (1967)*''Far from Vietnam'' (1967)*''Une histoire de ballon'' (1967)*''17th Parallel: Vietnam in War'' (1968)*''Le people et ses fusills'' (1970)*''How Yukong Moved the Mountains'' (1976)*''Les ouigours'' (1977)*''Les Kazaks'' (1977)*''The Drugstore'' (1980)*''A Tale of the Wind'' (1988)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*A. Zalzman, ''Joris Ivens'', Seghers, Paris, 1963.", "*Joris Ivens, ''The Camera and I'', International Publishers, New York, 1969.", "*Rosalind Delmar, ''Joris Ivens: 50 Years of Film-Making'', Educational Advisory Service, British Film Institute, London, 1979.", "*Carlos Böker, ''Joris Ivens, Film-Maker: Facing Reality'', UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1981.", "*''Joris Ivens and China'', New World Press, Beijing, 1983.", "*Kees Bakker (ed.", "), ''Joris Ivens and the Documentary Context'', paperback edition, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, 2000.", "**Hans Schoots, ''Living Dangerously: A Biography of Joris Ivens'', Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, 2000.", "*Virgilio Tosi, ''Joris Ivens: Cinema e Utopia'', Bulzoni, Rome, 2002." ], [ "External links", "* European Foundation Joris Ivens* Biographer Hans Schoots on Ivens*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jaguar" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''jaguar''' ('''''Panthera onca''''') is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus ''Panthera'' native to the Americas.", "With a body length of up to and a weight of up to , it is the biggest cat species in the Americas and the third largest in the world.", "Its distinctively marked coat features pale yellow to tan colored fur covered by spots that transition to rosettes on the sides, although a melanistic black coat appears in some individuals.", "The jaguar's powerful bite allows it to pierce the carapaces of turtles and tortoises, and to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull of mammalian prey between the ears to deliver a fatal blow to the brain.The modern jaguar's ancestors probably entered the Americas from Eurasia during the Early Pleistocene via the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait.", "Today, the jaguar's range extends from the Southwestern United States across Mexico and much of Central America, the Amazon rainforest and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina.", "It inhabits a variety of forested and open terrains, but its preferred habitat is tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest, wetlands and wooded regions.", "It is adept at swimming and is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush apex predator.", "As a keystone species, it plays an important role in stabilizing ecosystems and in regulating prey populations.The jaguar is threatened by habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, poaching for trade with its body parts and killings in human–wildlife conflict situations, particularly with ranchers in Central and South America.", "It has been listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002.The wild population is thought to have declined since the late 1990s.", "Priority areas for jaguar conservation comprise 51 Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs), defined as large areas inhabited by at least 50 breeding jaguars.", "The JCUs are located in 36 geographic regions ranging from Mexico to Argentina.The jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of indigenous peoples of the Americas, including those of the Aztec and Maya civilizations." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"jaguar\" is possibly derived from the Tupi-Guarani word meaning 'wild beast that overcomes its prey at a bound'.", "In North America, the word is pronounced disyllabic , while in British English, it is pronounced with three syllables .", "Because that word also applies to other animals, indigenous peoples in Guyana call it , with the added sufix ''eté'', meaning \"true beast\".", "\"Onca\" is derived from the Portuguese name for a spotted cat that is larger than a lynx; cf.", "''ounce''.", "The word \"panther\" is derived from classical Latin , itself from the ancient Greek ()." ], [ "Taxonomy and evolution", "===Taxonomy===In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the jaguar in his work ''Systema Naturae'' and gave it the scientific name ''Felis onca''.In the 19th and 20th centuries, several jaguar type specimens formed the basis for descriptions of subspecies.", "In 1939, Reginald Innes Pocock recognized eight subspecies based on the geographic origins and skull morphology of these specimens.Pocock did not have access to sufficient zoological specimens to critically evaluate their subspecific status but expressed doubt about the status of several.", "Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized.", "The description of ''P.", "o. palustris'' was based on a fossil skull.By 2005, nine subspecies were considered to be valid taxa:*''P.", "o. onca'' was a jaguar from Brazil.*''P.", "o. peruviana'' was a jaguar skull from Peru.*''P.", "o. hernandesii'' was a jaguar from Mazatlán in Mexico.*''P.", "o. palustris'' was a fossil jaguar mandible excavated in the Sierras Pampeanas of Córdova District, Argentina.*''P.", "o. centralis'' was a skull of a male jaguar from Talamanca, Costa Rica.*''P.", "o. goldmani'' was a jaguar skin from Yohatlan in Campeche, Mexico.*''P.", "o. paraguensis'' was a skull of a male jaguar from Paraguay.*''P.", "o. arizonensis'' was a skin and skull of a male jaguar from the vicinity of Cibecue, Arizona.*''P.", "o. veraecrucis'' was a skull of a male jaguar from San Andrés Tuxtla in Mexico.Reginald Innes Pocock placed the jaguar in the genus ''Panthera'' and observed that it shares several morphological features with the leopard (''P.", "pardus'').", "He, therefore, concluded that they are most closely related to each other.", "Results of morphological and genetic research indicate a clinal north–south variation between populations, but no evidence for subspecific differentiation.", "DNA analysis of 84 jaguar samples from South America revealed that the gene flow between jaguar populations in Colombia was high in the past.", "Since 2017, the jaguar is considered to be a monotypic taxon, though the modern ''Panthera onca onca'' is still distinguished from two fossil subspecies, ''Panthera onca augusta'' and ''Panthera onca mesembrina''.===Evolution===Fossil skull of ''P.", "o. augusta''The ''Panthera'' lineage is estimated to have genetically diverged from the common ancestor of the Felidae around to .", "Some genetic analyses place the jaguar as a sister species to the lion with which it diverged , but other studies place the lion closer to the leopard.The lineage of the jaguar appears to have originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia 1.95–1.77 mya.", "The modern species may have descended from ''Panthera gombaszoegensis'', which is thought to have entered the American continent via Beringia, the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait.", "Fossils of modern jaguars have been found in North America dating to over 850,000 years ago.", "Results of mitochondrial DNA analysis of 37 jaguars indicate that current populations evolved between 510,000 and 280,000 years ago in northern South America and subsequently recolonized North and Central America after the extinction of jaguars there during the Late Pleistocene.Two extinct subspecies of jaguar are recognized in the fossil record: the North American ''P.", "o. augusta'' and South American ''P.", "o. mesembrina''." ], [ "Description", "The jaguar is a compact and muscular animal.", "It is the largest cat native to the Americas and the third largest in the world, exceeded in size only by the tiger and the lion.", "It stands tall at the shoulders.Its size and weight vary considerably depending on sex and region: weights in most regions are normally in the range of .", "Exceptionally big males have been recorded to weigh as much as .The smallest females from Middle America weigh about .", "It is sexually dimorphic, with females typically being 10–20% smaller than males.", "The length from the nose to the base of the tail varies from .", "The tail is long and the shortest of any big cat.Its muscular legs are shorter than the legs of other ''Panthera'' species with similar body weight.Size tends to increase from north to south.", "Jaguars in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Pacific coast of central Mexico weighed around .Jaguars in Venezuela and Brazil are much larger, with average weights of about in males and of about in females.The jaguar's coat ranges from pale yellow to tan or reddish-yellow, with a whitish underside and covered in black spots.", "The spots and their shapes vary: on the sides, they become rosettes which may include one or several dots.", "The spots on the head and neck are generally solid, as are those on the tail where they may merge to form bands near the end and create a black tip.", "They are elongated on the middle of the back, often connecting to create a median stripe, and blotchy on the belly.", "These patterns serve as camouflage in areas with dense vegetation and patchy shadows.Jaguars living in forests are often darker and considerably smaller than those living in open areas, possibly due to the smaller numbers of large, herbivorous prey in forest areas.The jaguar closely resembles the leopard but is generally more robust, with stockier limbs and a more square head.", "The rosettes on a jaguar's coat are larger, darker, fewer in number and have thicker lines, with a small spot in the middle.It has powerful jaws with the third-highest bite force of all felids, after the tiger and the lion.It has an average bite force at the canine tip of 887.0 Newton and a bite force quotient at the canine tip of 118.6.A jaguar can bite with a force of with the canine teeth and at the carnassial notch.===Color variation===Melanistic jaguars are also known as black panthers.", "The black morph is less common than the spotted one.Black jaguars have been documented in Central and South America.", "Melanism in the jaguar is caused by deletions in the melanocortin 1 receptor gene and inherited through a dominant allele.", "Black jaguars occur at higher densities in tropical rainforest and are more active during the daytime.", "This suggests that melanism provides camouflage in dense vegetation with high illumination.In 2004, a camera trap in the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains photographed the first documented black jaguar in Northern Mexico.", "Black jaguars were also photographed in Costa Rica's Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve, in the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in Barbilla National Park and in eastern Panama." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "In 1999, the jaguar's historic range at the turn of the 20th century was estimated at , stretching from the southern United States through Central America to southern Argentina.", "By the turn of the 21st century, its global range had decreased to about , with most declines in the southern United States, northern Mexico, northern Brazil, and southern Argentina.Its present range extends from Mexico through Central America to South America comprising Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, particularly on the Osa Peninsula, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina.", "It is considered to be locally extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay.Jaguars have been occasionally sighted in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas.Between 2012 and 2015, a male vagrant jaguar was recorded in 23 locations in the Santa Rita Mountains.The jaguar prefers dense forest and typically inhabits dry deciduous forests, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, rainforests and cloud forests in Central and South America; open, seasonally flooded wetlands, dry grassland and historically also oak forests in the United States.", "It has been recorded at elevations up to but avoids montane forests.", "It favors riverine habitat and swamps with dense vegetation cover.", "In the Mayan forests of Mexico and Guatemala, 11 GPS-collared jaguars preferred undisturbed dense habitat away from roads; females avoided even areas with low levels of human activity, whereas males appeared less disturbed by human population density.", "A young male jaguar was also recorded in the semi-arid Sierra de San Carlos at a waterhole.=== Former range ===In the 19th century, the jaguar was still sighted at the North Platte River north of Longs Peak in Colorado, in coastal Louisiana, northern Arizona and New Mexico.Multiple verified zoological reports of the jaguar are known in California, two as far north as Monterey in 1814 and 1826.The only record of an active jaguar den with breeding adults and kittens in the United States was in the Tehachapi Mountains of California prior to 1860.The jaguar persisted in California until about 1860.The last confirmed jaguar in Texas was shot in 1948, southeast of Kingsville, Texas.In Arizona, a female was shot in the White Mountains in 1963.By the late 1960s, the jaguar was thought to have been extirpated in the United States.", "Arizona outlawed jaguar hunting in 1969, but by then no females remained, and over the next 25 years only two males were sighted and killed in the state.", "In 1996, a rancher and hunting guide from Douglas, Arizona came across a jaguar in the Peloncillo Mountains and became a researcher on jaguars, placing trail cameras, which recorded four more jaguars." ], [ "Behavior and ecology", "The jaguar is mostly active at night and during twilight.However, jaguars living in densely forested regions of the Amazon Rainforest and the Pantanal are largely active by day, whereas jaguars in the Atlantic Forest are primarily active by night.The activity pattern of the jaguar coincides with the activity of its main prey species.", "Jaguars are good swimmers and play and hunt in the water, possibly more than tigers.", "They have been recorded moving between islands and the shore.", "Jaguars are also good at climbing trees but do so less often than cougars.===Ecological role===Jaguar at Three Brothers River, Pantanal, BrazilThe adult jaguar is an apex predator, meaning it is at the top of the food chain and is not preyed upon in the wild.", "The jaguar has also been termed a keystone species, as it is assumed that it controls the population levels of prey such as herbivorous and seed-eating mammals and thus maintains the structural integrity of forest systems.However, field work has shown this may be natural variability, and the population increases may not be sustained.", "Thus, the keystone predator hypothesis is not accepted by all scientists.The jaguar is sympatric with the cougar (''Puma concolor'').", "In central Mexico, both prey on white-tailed deer (''Odocoileus virginianus''), which makes up 54% and 66% of jaguar and cougar's prey, respectively.", "In northern Mexico, the jaguar and the cougar share the same habitat, and their diet overlaps dependent on prey availability.", "Jaguars seemed to prefer deer and calves.", "In Mexico and Central America, neither of the two cats are considered to be the dominant predator.In South America, the jaguar is larger than the cougar and tends to take larger prey, usually over .", "The cougar's prey usually weighs between , which is thought to be the reason for its smaller size.This situation may be advantageous to the cougar.", "Its broader prey niche, including its ability to take smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human-altered landscapes.===Hunting and diet===The jaguar has a powerful bite that allows it to pierce the shells of armored prey.Jaguars killing and feeding on a yacare caimanThe jaguar is an obligate carnivore and depends solely on flesh for its nutrient requirements.", "An analysis of 53 studies documenting the diet of the jaguar revealed that its prey ranges in weight from ; it prefers prey weighing , with the capybara and the giant anteater being the most selected.", "When available, it also preys on marsh deer, southern tamandua, collared peccary and black agouti.", "In floodplains, jaguars opportunistically take reptiles such as turtles and caimans.", "Consumption of reptiles appears to be more frequent in jaguars than in other big cats.", "One remote population in the Brazilian Pantanal is recorded to primarily feed on aquatic reptiles and fish.The jaguar also preys on livestock in cattle ranching areas where wild prey is scarce.The daily food requirement of a captive jaguar weighing was estimated at of meat.The jaguar's bite force allows it to pierce the carapaces of the yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle and the yellow-footed tortoise.", "It employs an unusual killing method: it bites mammalian prey directly through the skull between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain.", "It kills capybara by piercing its canine teeth through the temporal bones of its skull, breaking its zygomatic arch and mandible and penetrating its brain, often through the ears.It has been hypothesized to be an adaptation to cracking open turtle shells; armored reptiles may have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar following the late Pleistocene extinctions.", "However, this is disputed, as even in areas where jaguars prey on reptiles, they are still taken relatively infrequently compared to mammals in spite of their greater abundance.Between October 2001 and April 2004, 10 jaguars were monitored in the southern Pantanal.", "In the dry season from April to September, they killed prey at intervals ranging from one to seven days; and ranging from one to 16 days in the wet season from October to March.The jaguar uses a stalk-and-ambush strategy when hunting rather than chasing prey.", "The cat will slowly walk down forest paths, listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing.", "The jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species' ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers and are probably a product of its role as an apex predator in several different environments.", "The ambush may include leaping into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels.", "After killing prey, the jaguar will drag the carcass to a thicket or other secluded spot.", "It begins eating at the neck and chest.", "The heart and lungs are consumed, followed by the shoulders.===Social activity===Male (background) and young female (foreground) near the Cuiabá River, Porto Jofre, Poconé, Mato Grosso, BrazilThe jaguar is generally solitary except for females with cubs.", "In 1977, groups consisting of a male, female and cubs, and two females with two males were sighted several times in a study area in the Paraguay River valley.", "In some areas, males may form paired coalitions which together mark, defend and invade territories, find and mate with the same females and search for and share prey.", "A radio-collared female moved in a home range of , which partly overlapped with another female.", "The home range of the male in this study area overlapped with several females.The jaguar uses scrape marks, urine, and feces to mark its territory.The size of home ranges depends on the level of deforestation and human population density.", "The home ranges of females vary from in the Pantanal to in the Amazon to in the Atlantic Forest.", "Male jaguar home ranges vary from in the Pantanal to in the Amazon to in the Atlantic Forest and in the Cerrado.Studies employing GPS telemetry in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per in the Pantanal region, compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods; this suggests the widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of individuals in a sampling area.", "Fights between males occur but are rare, and avoidance behavior has been observed in the wild.", "In one wetland population with degraded territorial boundaries and more social proximity, adults of the same sex are more tolerant of each other and engage in more friendly and co-operative interactions.Captive jaguar vocalizing while playingThe jaguar roars/grunts for long-distance communication; intensive bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been observed in the wild.", "This vocalization is described as \"hoarse\" with five or six guttural notes.", "Chuffing is produced by individuals when greeting, during courting, or by a mother comforting her cubs.", "This sound is described as low intensity snorts, possibly intended to signal tranquility and passivity.", "Cubs have been recorded bleating, gurgling and mewing.===Reproduction and life cycle===Jaguars mating in the northern PantanalFemale jaguar picking up her cubIn captivity, the female jaguar is recorded to reach sexual maturity at the age of about 2.5 years.", "Estrus lasts 7–15 days with an estrus cycle of 41.8 to 52.6 days.", "During estrus, she exhibits increased restlessness with rolling and prolonged vocalizations.She is an induced ovulator but can also ovulate spontaneously.Gestation lasts 91 to 111 days.The male is sexually mature at the age of three to four years.His mean ejaculate volume is 8.6±1.3 ml.Generation length of the jaguar is 9.8 years.In the Pantanal, breeding pairs were observed to stay together for up to five days.", "Females had one to two cubs.The young are born with closed eyes but open them after two weeks.", "Cubs are weaned at the age of three months but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts.Jaguars remain with their mothers for up to two years.", "They appear to rarely live beyond 11 years, but captive individuals may live 22 years.In 2001, a male jaguar killed and partially consumed two cubs in Emas National Park.", "DNA paternity testing of blood samples revealed that the male was the father of the cubs.", "Two more cases of infanticide were documented in the northern Pantanal in 2013.To defend against infanticide, the female may hide her cubs and distract the male with courtship behavior.===Attacks on humans===The Spanish conquistadors feared the jaguar.", "According to Charles Darwin, the indigenous peoples of South America stated that people did not need to fear the jaguar as long as capybaras were abundant.The first official record of a jaguar killing a human in Brazil dates to June 2008.Two children were attacked by jaguars in Guyana.The majority of known attacks on people happened when it had been cornered or wounded." ], [ "Threats", "A South American jaguar killed by Theodore RooseveltThe jaguar is threatened by loss and fragmentation of habitat, illegal killing in retaliation for livestock depredation and for illegal trade in jaguar body parts.", "It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002, as the jaguar population has probably declined by 20–25% since the mid-1990s.", "Deforestation is a major threat to the jaguar across its range.", "Habitat loss was most rapid in drier regions such as the Argentine pampas, the arid grasslands of Mexico and the southwestern United States.In 2002, it was estimated that the range of the jaguar had declined to about 46% of its range in the early 20th century.", "In 2018, it was estimated that its range had declined by 55% in the last century.", "The only remaining stronghold is the Amazon rainforest, a region that is rapidly being fragmented by deforestation.Between 2000 and 2012, forest loss in the jaguar range amounted to , with fragmentation increasing in particular in corridors between Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs).By 2014, direct linkages between two JCUs in Bolivia were lost, and two JCUs in northern Argentina became completely isolated due to deforestation.In Mexico, the jaguar is primarily threatened by poaching.", "Its habitat is fragmented in northern Mexico, in the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula, caused by changes in land use, construction of roads and tourism infrastructure.In Panama, 220 of 230 jaguars were killed in retaliation for predation on livestock between 1998 and 2014.In Venezuela, the jaguar was extirpated in about 26% of its range in the country since 1940, mostly in dry savannas and unproductive scrubland in the northeastern region of Anzoátegui.In Ecuador, the jaguar is threatened by reduced prey availability in areas where the expansion of the road network facilitated access of human hunters to forests.In the Alto Paraná Atlantic forests, at least 117 jaguars were killed in Iguaçu National Park and the adjacent Misiones Province between 1995 and 2008.Some Afro-Colombians in the Colombian Chocó Department hunt jaguars for consumption and sale of meat.Between 2008 and 2012, at least 15 jaguars were killed by livestock farmers in central Belize.The international trade of jaguar skins boomed between the end of the Second World War and the early 1970s.Significant declines occurred in the 1960s, as more than 15,000 jaguars were yearly killed for their skins in the Brazilian Amazon alone; the trade in jaguar skins decreased since 1973 when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species was enacted.Interview surveys with 533 people in the northwestern Bolivian Amazon revealed that local people killed jaguars out of fear, in retaliation, and for trade.Between August 2016 and August 2019, jaguar skins and body parts were seen for sale in tourist markets in the Peruvian cities of Lima, Iquitos and Pucallpa.Human-wildlife conflict, opportunistic hunting and hunting for trade in domestic markets are key drivers for killing jaguars in Belize and Guatemala.Seizure reports indicate that at least 857 jaguars were involved in trade between 2012 and 2018, including 482 individuals in Bolivia alone; 31 jaguars were seized in China.Between 2014 and early 2019, 760 jaguar fangs were seized that originated in Bolivia and were destined for China.", "Undercover investigations revealed that the smuggling of jaguar body parts is run by Chinese residents in Bolivia." ], [ "Conservation", "The jaguar is listed on CITES Appendix I, which means that all international commercial trade in jaguars or their body parts is prohibited.", "Hunting jaguars is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, the United States, and Venezuela.", "Hunting jaguars is restricted in Guatemala and Peru.", "In Ecuador, hunting jaguars is prohibited, and it is classified as threatened with extinction.In Guyana, it is protected as an endangered species, and hunting it is illegal.El Jefe, a jaguar in ArizonaIn 1986, the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary was established in Belize as the world's first protected area for jaguar conservation.===Jaguar Conservation Units===In 1999, field scientists from 18 jaguar range countries determined the most important areas for long-term jaguar conservation based on the status of jaguar population units, stability of prey base and quality of habitat.", "These areas, called \"Jaguar Conservation Units\" (JCUs), are large enough for at least 50 breeding individuals and range in size from ; 51 JCUs were designated in 36 geographic regions including:* the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra de Tamaulipas in Mexico* the Selva Maya tropical forests extending over Mexico, Belize and Guatemala* the Chocó–Darién moist forests from Honduras and Panama to Colombia* Venezuelan Llanos* northern Cerrado and Amazon basin in Brazil* Tropical Andes in Bolivia and Peru* Misiones Province in ArgentinaOptimal routes of travel between core jaguar population units were identified across its range in 2010 to implement wildlife corridors that connect JCUs.", "These corridors represent areas with the shortest distance between jaguar breeding populations, require the least possible energy input of dispersing individuals and pose a low mortality risk.", "They cover an area of and range in length from in Mexico and Central America and from in South America.Cooperation with local landowners and municipal, state, or federal agencies is essential to maintain connected populations and prevent fragmentation in both JCUs and corridors.Seven of 13 corridors in Mexico are functioning with a width of at least and a length of no more than .", "The other corridors may hamper passage, as they are narrower and longer.In August 2012, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service set aside in Arizona and New Mexico for the protection of the jaguar.", "The Jaguar Recovery Plan was published in April 2019, in which Interstate 10 is considered to form the northern boundary of the Jaguar Recovery Unit in Arizona and New Mexico.In Mexico, a national conservation strategy was developed from 2005 on and published in 2016.The Mexican jaguar population increased from an estimated 4,000 individuals in 2010 to about 4,800 individuals in 2018.This increase is seen as a positive effect of conservation measures that were implemented in cooperation with governmental and non-governmental institutions and landowners.An evaluation of JCUs from Mexico to Argentina revealed that they overlap with high-quality habitats of about 1,500 mammals to varying degrees.", "Since co-occurring mammals benefit from the JCU approach, the jaguar has been called an umbrella species.Central American JCUs overlap with the habitat of 187 of 304 regional endemic amphibian and reptile species, of which 19 amphibians occur only in the jaguar range.===Approaches===A jaguar in BelizeIn setting up protected reserves, efforts generally also have to be focused on the surrounding areas, as jaguars are unlikely to confine themselves to the bounds of a reservation, especially if the population is increasing in size.", "Human attitudes in the areas surrounding reserves and laws and regulations to prevent poaching are essential to make conservation areas effective.To estimate population sizes within specific areas and to keep track of individual jaguars, camera trapping and wildlife tracking telemetry are widely used, and feces are sought out with the help of detection dogs to study jaguar health and diet.Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promoting ecotourism.", "Ecotourism setups are being used to generate public interest in charismatic animals such as the jaguar while at the same time generating revenue that can be used in conservation efforts.", "A key concern in jaguar ecotourism is the considerable habitat space the species requires.", "If ecotourism is used to aid in jaguar conservation, some considerations need to be made as to how existing ecosystems will be kept intact, or how new ecosystems will be put into place that are large enough to support a growing jaguar population.Conservationists and professionals in Mexico and the United States have established the Northern Jaguar Reserve in northern Mexico.", "Advocacy for reintroduction of the jaguar to its former range in Arizona and New Mexico have been supported by documentation of natural migrations by individual jaguars into the southern reaches of both states, the recency of extirpation from those regions by human action, and supportive arguments pertaining to biodiversity, ecological, human, and practical considerations." ], [ "In culture and mythology", "In the pre-Columbian Americas, the jaguar was a symbol of power and strength.", "In the Andes, a jaguar cult disseminated by the early Chavín culture became accepted over most of today's Peru by 900 BC.", "The later Moche culture in northern Peru used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many of their ceramics.", "In the Muisca religion in Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the jaguar was considered a sacred animal, and people dressed in jaguar skins during religious rituals.The skins were traded with peoples in the nearby Orinoquía Region.The name of the Muisca ruler Nemequene was derived from the Chibcha words ''nymy'' and ''quyne'', meaning \"force of the jaguar\".Sculptures with \"Olmec were-jaguar\" motifs were found on the Yucatán Peninsula in Veracruz and Tabasco; they show stylized jaguars with half-human faces.", "In the later Maya civilization, the jaguar was believed to facilitate communication between the living and the dead and to protect the royal household.", "The Maya saw these powerful felines as their companions in the spiritual world, and several Maya rulers bore names that incorporated the Mayan word for jaguar ''b'alam'' in many of the Mayan languages.", "''Balam'' remains a common Maya surname, and it is also the name of Chilam Balam, a legendary author to whom are attributed 17th and 18th-centuries Maya miscellanies preserving much important knowledge.", "Remains of jaguar bones were discovered in a burial site in Guatemala, which indicates that Mayans may have kept jaguars as pets.The Aztec civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the representative of the ruler and as a warrior.", "The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class known as the Jaguar warrior.", "In Aztec mythology, the jaguar was considered to be the totem animal of the powerful deities Tezcatlipoca and Tepeyollotl.A conch shell gorget depicting a jaguar was found in a burial mound in Benton County, Missouri.", "The gorget shows evenly-engraved lines and measures .Rock drawings made by the Hopi, Anasazi and Pueblo all over the desert and chaparral regions of the American Southwest show an explicitly spotted cat, presumably a jaguar, as it is drawn much larger than an ocelot.The jaguar is also used as a symbol in contemporary culture.", "It is the national animal of Guyana and is featured in its coat of arms." ], [ "See also", "* List of largest cats" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * People and Jaguars a Guide for Coexistence* Felidae Conservation Fund*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jeffrey Dahmer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jeffrey Lionel Dahmer''' (; May 21, 1960 – November 28, 1994), also known as the '''Milwaukee Cannibal''' or the '''Milwaukee Monster''', was an American serial killer and sex offender who killed and dismembered seventeen males between 1978 and 1991.Many of his later murders involved necrophilia, cannibalism, and the permanent preservation of body parts—typically all or part of the skeleton.Although he was diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (BPD), schizotypal personality disorder (StPD), and a psychotic disorder, Dahmer was found to be legally sane at his trial.", "He was convicted of fifteen of the sixteen homicides he had committed in Wisconsin and was sentenced to fifteen terms of life imprisonment on February 17, 1992.Dahmer was later sentenced to a sixteenth term of life imprisonment for an additional homicide committed in Ohio in 1978.On November 28, 1994, Dahmer was beaten to death by Christopher Scarver, a fellow inmate at the Columbia Correctional Institution in Portage, Wisconsin." ], [ "Early life", "===Childhood===Jeffrey Dahmer was born on May 21, 1960, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the first of two sons to Lionel Herbert Dahmer, a Marquette University chemistry student and later a research chemist, and Joyce Annette Dahmer (), a teletype machine instructor.", "Lionel was of German and Welsh ancestry, and Joyce was of Norwegian and Irish ancestry.Some sources report Dahmer was deprived of attention as an infant.", "Other sources, however, suggest that Dahmer was generally doted upon as an infant and toddler by both parents, although his mother was known to be tense, greedy for both attention and pity, and argumentative with her husband and their neighbors.As Dahmer entered first grade, Lionel's studies kept him away from home much of the time.", "When he was home, his wife—a hypochondriac who suffered from depression—demanded constant attention and spent an increasing amount of time in bed.", "On one occasion, she attempted suicide using Equanil.", "Consequently, neither parent devoted much time to their son, who later recollected that, from an early age, he felt \"unsure of the solidity of the family\", recalling extreme tension and numerous arguments between his parents during his early years.Dahmer had been an \"energetic and happy child\" but became notably subdued after double hernia surgery shortly before his fourth birthday.", "At elementary school, Dahmer was regarded as quiet and timid; one teacher recollected she detected early signs of abandonment due to his father's absence and mother's illnesses, the symptoms of which increased when she became pregnant with her second child.", "In elementary school, Dahmer had a small number of friends.In October 1966, the family moved to Doylestown, Ohio.", "When Joyce gave birth in December, Dahmer was allowed to choose the name of his new baby brother; he chose the name David.", "The same year, Lionel earned his degree and started work as an analytical chemist in nearby Akron, Ohio.From an early age, Dahmer manifested an interest in dead animals.", "His fascination with dead animals may have begun when, at the age of four, he saw his father removing animal bones from beneath the family home.", "According to Lionel, Dahmer was \"oddly thrilled\" by the sound the bones made, and became preoccupied with animal bones, which he initially called his \"fiddlesticks\".", "He occasionally searched beneath and around the family home for additional bones, and explored the bodies of live animals to discover where their bones were located.In May 1968, the family moved to Bath Township, Summit County, Ohio.", "This address was their third in two years, and the Dahmers' sixth address since marriage.", "The home stood in one and a half acres of woodland, with a small hut only a short walk from the house where Dahmer began collecting large insects and the skeletons of small animals, such as chipmunks and squirrels.", "Some of these remains were preserved in jars of formaldehyde and stowed within the hut.Two years later, during a chicken dinner, Dahmer asked Lionel what would happen if the chicken bones were placed in bleach.", "Lionel, pleased by what he believed to be his son's scientific curiosity, demonstrated how to safely bleach and preserve animal bones.", "Dahmer incorporated these preserving techniques into his bone collecting.", "He also began collecting dead animals—including roadkill—which he would dissect and bury beside the hut, with the skulls occasionally placed atop makeshift crosses.According to one friend, Dahmer explained to him that he was curious as to how animals \"fit together\".", "In one instance in 1975, Dahmer decapitated the carcass of a dog before nailing the body to a tree and impaling the skull upon a stick in the woodland behind his house.", "As a \"prank\", he later invited a friend to view the display, claiming he had discovered the remains by chance.", "The same year Lionel taught his son how to preserve animal bones, Joyce began increasing her daily consumption of Equanil, laxatives and sleeping pills, further minimizing her tangible contact with her husband and children.===Adolescence and high school===From his freshman year at Revere High School, Dahmer was seen as an outcast.", "By age 14, he had begun drinking beer and hard alcohol in the daylight hours, frequently concealing his liquor inside the jacket he wore to school.", "Dahmer mentioned to one classmate who inquired why he was drinking Scotch in a morning history class that the alcohol he consumed was \"my medicine\".", "Although largely uncommunicative, in his freshman year Dahmer was seen by staff as polite and highly intelligent but with average grades.", "He was a competitive tennis player and played briefly in the high school band.When he reached puberty, Dahmer discovered he was gay; he did not tell his parents.", "In his early teens, he had a brief relationship with another teenage boy, although they never had intercourse.", "By Dahmer's admission, he began fantasizing about dominating and controlling a completely submissive male partner in his early to mid-teens, and his masturbatory fantasies gradually evolved to his focusing on chests and torsos.", "These fantasies gradually became intertwined with dissection.", "When he was about 16, Dahmer conceived a fantasy of rendering unconscious a particular male jogger he found attractive, and then making sexual use of his body.", "On one occasion, Dahmer concealed himself in bushes with a baseball bat to lie in wait for this man.", "However, the jogger did not pass by on that particular day.", "Dahmer later admitted this was his first attempt to attack and render an individual submissive to him.Revere High School yearbook, ''Reverie''Dahmer was seen by his high school peers as a class clown who often staged pranks, which became known as \"Doing a Dahmer\"; these included bleating and simulating epileptic seizures or cerebral palsy at school and local stores.", "Occasionally, Dahmer would perform these antics for money to purchase alcohol.By 1977, Dahmer's grades had declined.", "His parents hired a private tutor, with limited success.", "The same year, in an attempt to save their marriage, his parents attended counseling sessions.", "They continued to quarrel frequently.", "When Lionel discovered Joyce had engaged in a brief affair in September 1977, they decided to divorce, telling their sons they wished to do so amicably.", "The process of their divorce soon became increasingly bitter and acrimonious, and Lionel moved out of the house in early 1978, temporarily residing in a motel on North Cleveland Massillon Road.In May 1978, Dahmer graduated from high school.", "A few weeks before his graduation, one of his teachers observed Dahmer sitting close to the school parking lot, drinking several cans of beer.", "When the teacher threatened to report the matter, Dahmer informed him he was experiencing \"a lot of problems\" at home and that the school's guidance counselor was aware of them.", "That spring, Joycecontrary to a court order and without informing Lionelmoved out of the family home with David to live with relatives in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin.", "Dahmer had just turned 18 and remained in the family home.", "Dahmer's parents' divorce was finalized on July 24, 1978.Joyce was awarded custody of her younger son and alimony payments." ], [ "Late teens and early 20s: first murder", "===Murder of Steven Hicks===Dahmer committed his first murder in 1978, three weeks after his graduation.", "On June 18, Dahmer picked up a hitchhiker named Steven Mark Hicks, who was almost 19.Dahmer lured Hicks to his house on the pretext of drinking.", "Hicks, who had been hitchhiking to a rock concert at Chippewa Lake Park, Ohio, agreed to accompany Dahmer to his house upon the promise of \"a few beers\" with Dahmer as he had the house to himself.According to Dahmer, the sight of the bare-chested Hicks standing at the roadside stirred his sexual feelings, although when Hicks began talking about girls, he knew any sexual passes he made would be rebuffed.", "After several hours of talking, drinking and listening to music, Hicks \"wanted to leave and I didn't want him to leave.\"", "Dahmer bludgeoned Hicks with a dumbbell.", "He later stated he struck Hicks twice from behind with the dumbbell as Hicks sat upon a chair.", "When Hicks fell unconscious, Dahmer strangled him to death with the bar of the dumbbell, then stripped the clothes from Hicks' body before exploring his chest with his hands, then masturbating as he stood above the corpse.", "Hours later, Dahmer dragged the body to the basement.The following day, Dahmer dissected Hicks' body in his basement.", "He later buried the remains in a shallow grave in his back yard.", "Several weeks later, he unearthed the remains and pared the flesh from the bones.", "He dissolved the flesh in acid before flushing the solution down the toilet; he crushed the bones with a sledgehammer and scattered them in the woodland behind the family home.", "Hicks' necklace and the knife used to dismember him were thrown from the West Bath Road bridge into the Cuyahoga River.===College and Army service===Six weeks after the murder of Hicks, Dahmer's father and his fiancé returned to his home, where they discovered Dahmer living alone.", "That August, Dahmer enrolled at Ohio State University (OSU), hoping to major in business.", "Dahmer's sole term at OSU was completely unproductive, largely because of his persistent alcohol abuse.", "He received failing grades in Introduction to Anthropology, Classical Civilizations, and Administrative Science.", "The only course Dahmer was successful at was Riflery, having received a B− grade.", "His overall GPA was 0.45/4.0.On one occasion, Lionel paid a surprise visit to his son, only to find his room strewn with empty liquor bottles.", "Despite his father having paid in advance for the second term, Dahmer dropped out of OSU after just three months.Dahmer, pictured in West Germany in 1979.His off-duty drinking caused him to be deemed unsuitable for military service in 1981.In January 1979, on his father's urging, Dahmer enlisted in the United States Army.", "He underwent basic training at Fort McClellan in Anniston, Alabama, before training as a medical specialist at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas.", "He was occasionally reprimanded for intoxication while stationed at Fort Sam Houston.", "On one occasion, an instance of insubordination resulted in his entire platoon being punished, earning Dahmer a severe beating from his fellow recruits.On July 13, 1979, Dahmer was deployed to Baumholder, West Germany, where he served as a combat medic in the 2nd Battalion, 68th Armored Regiment, 8th Infantry Division.", "According to published reports, in Dahmer's first year of service, he was an \"average or slightly above average\" soldier.Owing to Dahmer's alcohol abuse, his performance deteriorated and, in March 1981, he was deemed unsuitable for military service and was later discharged from the Army.", "He received an honorable discharge, as his superiors did not believe that any problems Dahmer had in the Army would be applicable to civilian life.On March 24, 1981, Dahmer was sent to Fort Jackson, South Carolina, for debriefing and provided with a plane ticket to travel anywhere in the country.", "Dahmer later told police he felt he could not return home to face his father, so he opted to travel to Miami Beach, Florida, both because he was \"tired of the cold\" and in an attempt to live by his own means.", "In Florida, Dahmer found a job at a delicatessen and rented a room in a nearby motel.", "He spent most of his salary on alcohol and was soon evicted from the motel for non-payment.", "Dahmer initially spent his evenings on the beach as he continued to work at the sandwich shop until phoning his father and asking to return to Ohio in September of the same year.=== Return to Ohio and relocation to West Allis, Wisconsin ===After his return to Ohio, Dahmer initially lived with his father and stepmother and insisted on being delegated numerous chores to occupy his time while he looked for work.", "He continued to drink heavily, and two weeks after his return, was arrested for drunk and disorderly conduct.", "He was fined $60 and given a suspended 10-day jail sentence.", "Dahmer's father tried unsuccessfully to wean his son off alcohol.", "In December 1981, he and Dahmer's stepmother sent him to live with his grandmother in West Allis, Wisconsin.", "Dahmer's grandmother was the only family member to whom Dahmer displayed any affection.", "They hoped that her influence, plus the change of location, might persuade Dahmer to quit drinking, find a job, and live responsibly.Initially, Dahmer's living arrangements with his grandmother were harmonious: he accompanied her to church, willingly undertook chores, actively sought work and abided by most of her house rules (although he continued to drink and smoke).", "In early 1982, he found employment as a phlebotomist at the Milwaukee Blood Plasma Center.", "He held this job for a total of ten months before being laid off.", "Dahmer remained unemployed for over two years, during which he lived upon whatever money his grandmother gave him.Shortly before losing his job, Dahmer was arrested for indecent exposure.", "On August 8, 1982, at Wisconsin State Fair Park, he was observed exposing himself \"on the south side of the Coliseum in which 25 people were present including women and children.\"", "For this incident, he was convicted and fined $50 plus court costs.In January 1985, Dahmer was hired as a mixer at the Milwaukee Ambrosia Chocolate Factory, where he worked from 11 p.m to 7 a.m. six nights per week, with Saturday evenings off.", "Shortly after he found this job, an incident occurred in which Dahmer was propositioned by another man while reading in the West Allis Public Library.", "The stranger threw Dahmer a note offering to perform fellatio upon him.", "Although Dahmer did not respond to this proposition, the incident stirred in his mind the fantasies of control and dominance he had developed as a teenager, and he began to familiarize himself with Milwaukee's gay bars, gay bathhouses, and bookstores.", "He also stole a male mannequin from a store, which he briefly used for sexual stimulation, until his grandmother discovered the item stowed in a closet and demanded that he discard it.By late 1985, Dahmer had begun to regularly frequent the bathhouses, which he later described as being \"relaxing places\", but during his sexual encounters, he became frustrated at his partners' moving during the act.", "Following his arrest, he stated: \"I trained myself to view people as objects of pleasure instead of as people\".", "For this reason, beginning in June 1986, he administered sleeping pills to his partners, giving them liquor laced with sedatives.", "He then waited for his partner to fall asleep before performing various sexual acts.", "To maintain an adequate supply of this medication, Dahmer informed doctors he worked nights and required the tablets to adjust to that schedule.", "After approximately 12 such instances, the bathhouses' administration revoked Dahmer's membership, and he began to use hotel rooms to continue this practice.Shortly after his bathhouse memberships were revoked, Dahmer read a report in a newspaper regarding the upcoming funeral of an 18-year-old male.", "He conceived the idea of stealing the freshly interred corpse and taking it home.", "According to Dahmer, he attempted to dig up the coffin from the ground, but found the soil too hard and abandoned the plan.On September 8, 1986, Dahmer was arrested upon a charge of lewd and lascivious behavior for masturbating in the presence of two 12-year-old boys as he stood close to the Kinnickinnic River.", "He initially claimed he had merely been urinating, unaware that there were witnesses, but soon admitted the offense.", "The charge was changed to disorderly conduct and, on March 10, 1987, Dahmer was sentenced to one year of probation, with additional instructions to undergo counseling." ], [ "Late 20s and early 30s: subsequent murders", "===Ambassador Hotel===On November 20, 1987, Dahmer, at the time residing with his grandmother in West Allis, encountered a 25-year-old man from Ontonagon, Michigan, named Steven Tuomi at a bar and persuaded him to return to the Ambassador Hotel in Milwaukee, where Dahmer had rented a room for the evening.", "According to Dahmer, he had no intention of killing Tuomi, but intended to simply drug him and lie beside him as he explored his body.", "The following morning, Dahmer awoke to find Tuomi lying beneath him on the bed, his chest \"crushed in\" and \"black and blue\" with bruises.", "Blood was seeping from the corner of his mouth, and Dahmer's fists and one forearm were extensively bruised.", "Dahmer later said he had no memory of having killed Tuomi, and that he \"could not believe this had happened\".Dahmer purchased a large suitcase, in which he transported Tuomi's body to his grandmother's residence.", "One week later, he severed the head, arms, and legs, then filleted the bones from the body before cutting the flesh into pieces small enough to handle.", "Dahmer placed the flesh inside plastic garbage bags.", "He wrapped the bones inside a sheet and pounded them into splinters with a sledgehammer.", "The dismemberment process took Dahmer approximately two hours.", "He disposed of all of Tuomi's remains, excluding the head, in the trash.For two weeks following Tuomi's killing, Dahmer retained Tuomi's head wrapped in a blanket.", "After two weeks, Dahmer boiled the head in a mixture of Soilax (an alkali-based industrial detergent) and bleach in an effort to retain the skull, which he then used as stimulus for masturbation.", "Eventually, the skull became too brittle by this bleaching process, so Dahmer pulverized and disposed of it.===Intermediate murders===According to Dahmer, Tuomi's murder was a pivotal incident after which he did not try to control his compulsions.", "He began to actively seek victims, most of whom he encountered in or around gay bars and would typically lure them to his grandmother's home.", "He would drug his victim with triazolam or temazepam before or shortly after engaging in sexual activity with them.", "Once his victim was unconscious, he strangled them to death.Two months after the Tuomi killing, Dahmer encountered a 14-year-old Native American prostitute, James Doxtator.", "Dahmer lured him to his grandmother's residence with an offer of $50 to pose for nude pictures.", "They engaged in sexual activity before Dahmer drugged Doxtator and strangled him on the floor of the cellar.", "Dahmer left the body in the cellar for one week before dismembering it in much the same manner as he had with Tuomi.", "He placed all of Doxtator's remains (excluding the skull) in the trash.", "The skull was boiled and cleansed in bleach before Dahmer found that it, too, had been rendered brittle by the process.", "He pulverized the skull two weeks later.On March 24, 1988, Dahmer met a 22-year-old bisexual man, Richard Guerrero, outside a gay bar called the Phoenix.", "Dahmer lured Guerrero to his grandmother's residence, offering him $50 to spend the night with him.", "He drugged Guerrero with sleeping pills, strangled him with a leather strap, and fellated the corpse.", "Dahmer dismembered Guerrero's body within 24 hours, again disposing of the remains in the trash and retaining the skull before pulverizing it several months later.On April 23, Dahmer lured Ronald Flowers Jr. to his house; however, after giving Flowers a drugged coffee, both he and Flowers heard Dahmer's grandmother call, \"Is that you, Jeff?\"", "Although Dahmer replied in a manner that led his grandmother to believe he was alone, she observed that he was not alone.", "Because of this, Dahmer was unable to kill Flowers, instead waiting until he had become unconscious before taking him to the County General Hospital.In September 1988, Dahmer's grandmother asked him to move out, largely because of his drinking, his habit of bringing young men to her house late at night and the foul smells emanating from the basement and the garage.", "Dahmer found a one-bedroom apartment at 808 North 24th Street and moved into his new residence on September 25.Two days later, he was arrested for drugging and sexually fondling a 13-year-old boy whom he had lured to his home on the pretext of posing nude for photographs.Dahmer's father hired an attorney named Gerald Boyle to defend his son.", "At Boyle's request, Dahmer underwent a series of psychological evaluations prior to his court hearings.", "The evaluations found that Dahmer harbored deep feelings of alienation.", "A second evaluation two months later revealed Dahmer to be an impulsive individual, suspicious of others, and dismayed by his lack of accomplishments in life.", "His probation officer also referenced a 1987 diagnosis of Dahmer suffering from a schizoid personality disorder for presentation to the court.On January 30, 1989, Dahmer pleaded guilty to the charges of second-degree sexual assault and of enticing a child for immoral purposes.", "Sentencing was suspended until May.", "On March 20, Dahmer commenced a ten-day Easter absence from work, during which he moved back into his grandmother's home.Two months after his conviction and two months prior to his sentencing, Dahmer murdered his fifth victim, a 24-year-old mixed-race aspiring model, Anthony Sears, whom he met at a gay bar on March 25, 1989.According to Dahmer, on this particular occasion he was not looking to commit a crime; however, shortly before closing time that evening, Sears \"just started talking to me\".", "Dahmer lured Sears to his grandmother's home, where the pair engaged in oral sex before Dahmer drugged and strangled Sears.The following morning, Dahmer placed the corpse in his grandmother's bathtub, where he decapitated the body before attempting to flay the corpse.", "He stripped the flesh from the body and pulverized the bones, which he disposed of in the trash.", "According to Dahmer, he found Sears \"exceptionally attractive\", and Sears was the first victim from whom he permanently retained any body parts: he preserved Sears' head and genitalia in acetone and stored them in a wooden box, which he later placed in his work locker.", "When he moved to a new address the following year, he took the remains there.On May 23, 1989, Dahmer was sentenced to five years' probation and one year in the House of Correction, with work release permitted so he could keep his job.", "He was also required to register as a sex offender.", "Two months before his scheduled release, Dahmer was paroled from this regimen.", "His five years' probation imposed in 1989 began at this point.", "Dahmer temporarily moved back to his grandmother's home in West Allis.===Oxford Apartments=======1990 murders====On May 14, 1990, Dahmer moved out of his grandmother's house and into 924 North 25th Street, Apartment 213, taking Sears' mummified head and genitals with him.", "Although located in a high-crime area, Dahmer's new apartment was close to his workplace, was furnished, and at $300 per month inclusive of all bills excluding electricity, was economical.", "Within one week of his moving to this address, Dahmer killed his sixth victim, Raymond Smith.", "Smith was a 32-year-old prostitute whom Dahmer lured to his apartment with the promise of $50 for sex.", "Inside the apartment, he gave Smith a drink laced with seven sleeping pills, then manually strangled him.The following day, Dahmer purchased a Polaroid camera, with which he took several pictures of Smith's body in suggestive positions before dismembering him in the bathroom.", "He boiled the legs, arms, and pelvis in a steel kettle with Soilax, which allowed him to rinse the bones in his sink.", "Dahmer dissolved the remainder of Smith's skeleton—excluding the skull—in a container filled with acid.", "He later spray-painted Smith's skull, which he placed alongside the skull of Sears upon a black towel inside a filing cabinet.Approximately one week after the murder of Smith, on or about May 27, Dahmer lured another young man to his apartment.", "On this occasion, Dahmer accidentally consumed the drink laden with sedatives intended for his guest.", "When he awoke the following day, he discovered the man had stolen several items of clothing, $300 and a watch.", "Dahmer never reported this incident to the police, although on May 29, he divulged to his probation officer that he had been robbed.In June 1990, Dahmer lured a 27-year-old acquaintance, Edward Smith, to his apartment, where he drugged and strangled him.", "On this occasion, rather than immediately acidifying the skeleton or repeating previous processes of bleaching, which had rendered previous victims' skulls brittle, Dahmer placed Smith's skeleton in his freezer for several months in the hope it would not retain moisture.", "Freezing the skeleton did not remove moisture, and the skeleton of this victim was acidified several months later.", "Dahmer accidentally destroyed the skull when he placed it in the oven to dry—a process that caused the skull to explode.", "Dahmer later informed police he had felt \"rotten\" about Smith's murder, as he had been unable to retain any parts of his body.Less than three months after the murder of Edward Smith, Dahmer encountered a 22-year-old Chicago native named Ernest Miller outside a bookstore on the corner of North 27th Street.", "Miller agreed to accompany Dahmer to his apartment for $50 and further agreed to allow him to listen to his heart and stomach.", "When Dahmer attempted to perform oral sex upon Miller, he was informed, \"That'll cost you extra\", whereupon Dahmer gave Miller a drink laced with two sleeping pills.On this occasion, Dahmer had only two sleeping pills to give his victim.", "Therefore, he killed Miller by slashing his carotid artery with the same knife he used to dissect his victims' bodies.", "Miller bled to death within minutes.", "Dahmer then posed the nude body for various suggestive Polaroid photographs before placing it in his bathtub for dismemberment.", "Dahmer repeatedly kissed and talked to the severed head while he dismembered the remainder of the body.Dahmer wrapped Miller's heart, liver, biceps, and portions of flesh from the legs in plastic bags and placed them in the freezer for later consumption.", "He boiled the remaining flesh and organs into a \"jelly-like substance\" using Soilax, which enabled him to rinse the flesh off the skeleton, which he intended to retain.", "To preserve the skeleton, Dahmer placed the bones in a light bleach solution for 24 hours before allowing them to dry upon a cloth for one week.", "The severed head was initially placed in the refrigerator before being stripped of flesh, then painted and coated with enamel.Three weeks after the murder of Miller, on September 24, Dahmer encountered a 22-year-old father of two named David Thomas at the Grand Avenue Mall.", "He persuaded him to return to his apartment for a few drinks, with additional money on offer if he would pose for photographs.", "In his statement to police after his arrest, Dahmer said that, after giving Thomas a drink laden with sedatives, he did not feel attracted to him, but was afraid to allow him to awaken, fearing that he would be angry over having been drugged.", "Therefore, he strangled him and dismembered the body—intentionally retaining no body parts whatsoever.", "He photographed the dismemberment process and retained these photographs, which later aided in Thomas's identification.Following the murder of Thomas, Dahmer did not kill anyone for almost five months, although on a minimum of five occasions between October 1990 and February 1991, he unsuccessfully attempted to lure men to his apartment.", "He regularly complained of feelings of both anxiety and depression to his probation officer throughout 1990, with frequent references to his sexuality, his solitary lifestyle, financial difficulties, and—shortly before Thanksgiving—his apprehension regarding meeting and facing his father and younger brother.", "On several occasions, Dahmer also referred to harboring suicidal thoughts.====1991 murders====In February 1991, Dahmer observed a 17-year-old named Curtis Straughter standing at a bus stop near Marquette University.", "According to Dahmer, he lured Straughter into his apartment with an offer of money for posing for nude photos, with the added incentive of sexual intercourse.", "Dahmer drugged Straughter, cuffed his hands behind his back, then strangled him to death with a leather strap.", "He then dismembered Straughter, retaining his skull, hands, and genitals and photographing each stage of the dismemberment process.Less than two months later, on April 7, Dahmer encountered a 19-year-old named Errol Lindsey walking to get a key cut.", "Dahmer lured Lindsey to his apartment where he drugged him, then drilled a hole in his skull through which he injected hydrochloric acid with a baster.", "According to Dahmer, Lindsey awoke after this experiment (which Dahmer had conceived in the hope of inducing a permanent, unresistant, submissive state), saying: \"I have a headache.", "What time is it?\"", "In response to this, Dahmer again drugged Lindsey, then strangled him.", "He decapitated Lindsey and retained his skull.", "He then flayed Lindsey's body, placing the skin in a solution of cold water and salt for several weeks in the hope of permanently retaining it.", "Reluctantly, he disposed of Lindsey's skin when he noted it had become too frayed and brittle.By 1991, fellow residents of the Oxford Apartments had repeatedly complained to the building's manager, Sopa Princewill, of the foul smells emanating from Apartment 213, in addition to the sounds of falling objects and the occasional sound of a chainsaw.", "Princewill contacted Dahmer in response to these complaints on several occasions, although he initially excused the odors emanating from his apartment as being caused by his freezer breaking, causing the contents to become \"spoiled\".", "On later occasions, he informed Princewill that the reason for the resurgence of the odor was that several of his tropical fish had recently died, and that he would take care of the matter.On May 24, 1991, Dahmer encountered 31-year-old aspiring model Tony Hughes at a nightclub.", "He was lured to Dahmer's apartment with an offer of money to pose for photographs.", "Hughes was drugged into unconsciousness before Dahmer injected hydrochloric acid into his skull in an effort to disable his will and render him submissive, although on this occasion, the drilling and injection proved fatal.Konerak SinthasomphoneOn the afternoon of May 26, 1991, Dahmer encountered a 14-year-old Lao teenager, Konerak Sinthasomphone, on Wisconsin Avenue.", "Unknown to Dahmer, Sinthasomphone was the younger brother of the boy he had molested in 1988.Dahmer offered Sinthasomphone money to accompany him to his apartment to pose for Polaroid pictures.", "According to Dahmer, Sinthasomphone was initially reluctant to the proposal, before changing his mind and accompanying him to his apartment, where he posed for two pictures in his underwear before Dahmer drugged him into unconsciousness and performed oral sex on him.", "Before Sinthasomphone fell unconscious, Dahmer led the boy into his bedroom, where the body of Tony Hughes, whom Dahmer had killed three days earlier, lay naked on the floor.", "According to Dahmer, he \"believed that Sinthasomphone saw this body\" yet did not react to seeing the bloated corpse—likely because of the effects of the sleeping pills he had ingested.On this occasion, Dahmer drilled a single narrow hole into the crown of Sinthasomphone's skull, through which he injected hydrochloric acid into the frontal lobe.", "Dahmer then drank several beers while lying alongside Sinthasomphone before briefly falling asleep, then leaving his apartment to drink at a bar and purchase more alcohol.In the early morning hours of May 27, Dahmer returned toward his apartment to discover Sinthasomphone sitting naked on the corner of 25th and State, talking in Lao, with three distressed young women standing near him.", "Dahmer approached the women and told them that Sinthasomphone (whom he referred to by the alias John Hmong) was his friend, and attempted to lead him to his apartment by the arm.", "The three women dissuaded Dahmer, explaining they had phoned 9-1-1.Upon the arrival of two Milwaukee police officers, John Balcerzak and Joseph Gabrish, Dahmer's demeanor relaxed: he told the officers that Sinthasomphone was his 19-year-old boyfriend, that he had drunk too much following a quarrel, and that he frequently behaved in this manner when intoxicated.", "Dahmer added his lover had consumed Jack Daniel's whiskey that evening.The three women were exasperated, and when one of the trio attempted to indicate to one of the officers—both of whom had observed no injuries beyond a scrape to Sinthasomphone's knee and believed him to be intoxicated—that Sinthasomphone had blood upon his testicles, was bleeding from his rectum and that he had seemingly struggled against Dahmer's attempts to walk him to his apartment prior to their arrival, the officer harshly informed her to \"butt out\", \"shut the hell up\" and to not interfere.Shortly after the arrival of the Milwaukee police officers, three members of the Milwaukee Fire Department arrived at the scene.", "These individuals also examined Sinthasomphone for injuries and provided a yellow blanket for the police officers to cover Sinthasomphone.", "One of the three believed Sinthasomphone needed treatment, but the police officers directed the fire department personnel to leave.", "Shortly thereafter, officer Richard Porubcan arrived at the scene.", "He and Gabrish—followed by Balcerzak—escorted Dahmer and Sinthasomphone to Dahmer's apartment as Dahmer repeatedly commented on the general crime in the neighborhood and of his appreciation of the police.Inside his apartment and in an effort to verify his claim that he and Sinthasomphone were lovers, Dahmer showed the officers the two semi-nude Polaroid pictures he had taken of Sinthasomphone the previous evening.", "Though Balcerzak said he smelled nothing unusual, Gabrish later stated he noted a strange scent reminiscent of excrement inside the apartment.", "This odor emanated from the decomposing body of Hughes.", "Dahmer stated that to investigate this odor, one officer simply \"peeked his head around the bedroom, but really didn't take a good look.\"", "The officers then left, with a departing remark that Dahmer \"take good care\" of Sinthasomphone.", "This incident was listed by the officers as a \"domestic dispute.", "\"Upon the departure of the three officers from his apartment, Dahmer again injected hydrochloric acid into Sinthasomphone's brain.", "This second injection proved fatal.", "The following day, May 28, Dahmer took a day's leave from work to devote himself to the dismemberment of the bodies of Sinthasomphone and Hughes.", "He retained both victims' skulls.On June 30, Dahmer traveled to Chicago, where he encountered a 20-year-old named Matt Turner at a bus station.", "Turner accepted Dahmer's offer to travel to Milwaukee for a professional photo shoot.", "At the apartment, Dahmer drugged, strangled and dismembered Turner and placed his head and internal organs in separate plastic bags in the freezer.", "Turner was not reported missing.", "Five days later, on July 5, Dahmer lured 23-year-old Jeremiah Weinberger from a Chicago bar to his apartment on the promise of spending the weekend with him.", "He drugged Weinberger and twice injected boiling water through his skull, sending him into a coma from which he died two days later.On July 15, Dahmer encountered 24-year-old Oliver Lacy at the corner of 27th and Kilbourn.", "Lacy agreed to Dahmer's ruse of posing nude for photographs and accompanied him to his apartment, where the pair engaged in tentative sexual activity before Dahmer drugged Lacy.", "On this occasion, Dahmer intended to prolong the time he spent with Lacy while alive.", "After unsuccessfully attempting to render Lacy unconscious with chloroform, he phoned his workplace to request a day's absence; this was granted, although the next day, he was suspended.After strangling Lacy, Dahmer had sex with the corpse before dismembering him.", "He placed Lacy's head and heart in the refrigerator and his skeleton in the freezer.", "Four days later, on July 19, Dahmer received word that he was dismissed.", "Upon receipt of this news, Dahmer lured 25-year-old Joseph Bradehoft to his apartment.", "Bradehoft was strangled and left lying on Dahmer's bed covered with a sheet for two days.", "On July 21, Dahmer removed the sheet to find the head covered in maggots.", "He decapitated the body, cleaned the head and placed it in the refrigerator.", "He later acidified Bradehoft's torso, along with those of two other victims killed within the previous month." ], [ "Arrest", "===Capture===On July 22, 1991, Dahmer approached three men with an offer of $100 to accompany him to his apartment to pose for nude photographs, drink beer and simply keep him company.", "One of the trio, 32-year-old Tracy Edwards, agreed to accompany him to his apartment.", "Upon entering Dahmer's apartment, Edwards noted a foul odor and several boxes of hydrochloric acid on the floor, which Dahmer claimed to use for cleaning bricks.", "After some minor conversation, Edwards responded to Dahmer's request to turn his head and view his tropical fish, whereupon Dahmer placed a handcuff upon his wrist.", "When Edwards asked, \"What's happening?\"", "Dahmer unsuccessfully attempted to cuff his wrists together, then told Edwards to accompany him to the bedroom to pose for nude pictures.", "While inside the bedroom, Edwards noted nude male posters on the wall and that a videotape of ''The Exorcist III'' was playing.", "He also noted a blue 57-gallon drum in the corner, from which a strong odor emanated.Dahmer then brandished a knife and informed Edwards he intended to take nude pictures of him.", "In an attempt to appease Dahmer, Edwards unbuttoned his shirt, saying he would allow him to do so if he would remove the handcuffs and put the knife away.", "In response to this promise, Dahmer simply turned his attention towards the TV.", "Edwards observed Dahmer rocking back and forth and chanting before turning his attention back to him.", "He placed his head on Edwards' chest, listened to his heartbeat and, with the knife pressed against his intended victim, informed Edwards he intended to eat his heart.In continuous attempts to prevent Dahmer from attacking him, Edwards repeated that he was Dahmer's friend and that he was not going to run away.", "Edwards had decided he was going to either jump from a window or run through the unlocked front door upon the next available opportunity.", "When Edwards next stated he needed to use the bathroom, he asked if they could sit with a beer in the living room, where there was air conditioning.", "Dahmer consented, and the pair walked to the living room when Edwards exited the bathroom.", "Inside the living room, Edwards waited until he observed Dahmer have a momentary lapse of concentration before requesting to use the bathroom again.", "When Edwards rose from the couch, he noted Dahmer was not holding the handcuffs, whereupon Edwards punched him in the face, knocking Dahmer off balance, and ran out the front door.At 11:30 p.m. on July 22, Edwards flagged down two Milwaukee police officers, Robert Rauth and Rolf Mueller, at the corner of North 25th Street.", "The officers noted Edwards had a handcuff attached to his wrist, whereupon he explained to the officers that a \"freak\" had placed the handcuffs upon him and asked if the police could remove them.", "When the officers' handcuff keys failed to fit the brand of handcuffs, Edwards agreed to accompany the officers to the apartment where, Edwards stated, he had spent the previous five hours before escaping.When the officers and Edwards arrived at Apartment 213, Dahmer invited the trio inside and acknowledged he had placed the handcuffs upon Edwards, although he offered no explanation as to why he had done so.", "At this point, Edwards divulged to the officers that Dahmer had also brandished a large knife upon him and that this had happened in the bedroom.", "Dahmer made no comment to this revelation, indicating to one of the officers, Mueller, that the key to the handcuffs was in his bedside dresser.", "As Mueller entered the bedroom, Dahmer attempted to pass Mueller to retrieve the key himself, whereupon the second officer present, Rauth, informed him to \"back off\".In the bedroom, Mueller noted there was a large knife beneath the bed.", "He saw an open drawer which, upon closer inspection, contained scores of Polaroid pictures—many of which were of human bodies in various stages of dismemberment.", "Mueller noted the decor indicated they had been taken in the same apartment in which they were standing.", "Mueller walked into the living room to show them to his partner, uttering the words, \"These are for real.", "\"When Dahmer saw that Mueller was holding several of his Polaroids, he fought with the officers in an effort to resist arrest.", "The officers quickly overpowered him, cuffed his hands behind his back, and called a second squad car for backup.", "At this point, Mueller opened the refrigerator to reveal the freshly severed head of a black male on the bottom shelf.", "As Dahmer lay pinned on the floor beneath Rauth, he turned his head towards the officers and muttered the words: \"For what I did I should be dead.", "\"A more detailed search of the apartment, conducted by the Milwaukee police's Criminal Investigation Bureau, revealed a total of four severed heads in Dahmer's kitchen.", "A total of seven skulls—some painted, some bleached—were found in Dahmer's bedroom and inside a closet.", "Investigators discovered collected blood drippings upon a tray at the bottom of Dahmer's refrigerator, plus two human hearts and a portion of arm muscle, each wrapped inside plastic bags upon the shelves.", "In Dahmer's freezer, investigators discovered an entire torso, plus a bag of human organs and flesh stuck to the ice at the bottom.Private contractors from the Fire Department's Hazardous Materials Unit remove the 57-gallon drum from Dahmer's apartment, July 23, 1991.Elsewhere in Apartment 213, investigators discovered two entire skeletons, a pair of severed hands, two severed and preserved penises, a mummified scalp and, in the 57-gallon drum, three further dismembered torsos dissolving in the acid solution.", "A total of 74 Polaroid pictures detailing the dismemberment of Dahmer's victims were found.", "In reference to the recovery of body parts and artifacts at 924 North 25th Street, the chief medical examiner later stated: \"It was more like dismantling someone's museum than an actual crime scene.", "\"===Confession===Beginning in the early hours of July 23, 1991, Dahmer was questioned by Detective Patrick Kennedy as to the murders he had committed and the evidence found at his apartment.", "Over the following two weeks, Kennedy and, later, Detective Dennis Murphy conducted numerous interviews with Dahmer which, when combined, totaled over 60 hours.", "Dahmer waived his right to have a lawyer present throughout his interrogations, adding he wished to confess all as he had \"created this horror and it only makes sense I do everything to put an end to it.\"", "He readily admitted to having murdered sixteen young men in Wisconsin since 1987, with one further victim—Steven Hicks—killed in Ohio in 1978.Most of Dahmer's victims had been rendered unconscious prior to their murder, although some had died as a result of having acid or boiling water injected into their brain.", "As he had no memory of the killing of his second victim, Steven Tuomi, he was unsure whether he was unconscious when beaten to death, although he did concede it was possible that his viewing the exposed chest of Tuomi while in a drunken stupor may have led him to unsuccessfully attempt to tear Tuomi's heart from his chest.", "Almost all the murders Dahmer committed after moving into the Oxford Apartments had involved a ritual of posing the victims' bodies in suggestive positions—typically with the chest thrust outwards—prior to dismemberment.Dahmer readily admitted to engaging in necrophilia with several of his victims' bodies, including performing sexual acts with their viscera as he dismembered their bodies in his bathtub.", "Having noted that much of the blood pooled inside his victims' chest after death, Dahmer first removed their internal organs, then suspended the torso so the blood drained into his bathtub, before dicing any organs he did not wish to retain and paring the flesh from the body.", "The bones he wished to dispose of were pulverized or acidified, with Soilax and bleach solutions used to aid in the preservation of the skeletons and skulls he wished to keep.", "Dahmer confessed to having consumed the hearts, liver, biceps, and portions of thigh of three victims he had killed at the Oxford Apartments (Raymond Smith, Ernest Miller and Oliver Lacy), and to have retained the flesh and organs of other victims for intended consumption.", "Typically, Dahmer would tenderize the body parts he intended to consume prior to preparing meals flavored with various condiments.Referencing his reasons for consuming his victims, Dahmer stated he had initially consumed portions of his victims due to \"curiosity\" before adding: \"I suppose, in an odd way, it made me feel they were even more a permanent part of me.", "\"Describing the increase in his rate of killing in the two months prior to his arrest, Dahmer stated he had been \"completely swept along\" with his compulsion to kill, adding: \"It was an incessant and never-ending desire to be with someone at whatever cost.", "Someone good looking, really nice looking.", "It just filled my thoughts all day long.\"", "When asked as to why he had preserved a total of seven skulls and the entire skeletons of two victims, Dahmer stated he had been in the process of constructing a private altar of victims' skulls which he had intended to display on the black table located in his living room and upon which he had photographed the bodies of many of his victims.altar he had been planning to create at the time of his July 1991 arrestThis display of skulls was to be adorned at each side with the complete skeletons of Miller and Lacy.", "The four severed heads found in his kitchen were to have all flesh removed and used in this altar, as was the skull of at least one future victim.", "Incense sticks were to be placed at each end of the black table, above which Dahmer intended to place a large blue lamp with extending blue globe lights.", "The entire construction was to be placed before a window covered with a black, opaque shower curtain, in front of which Dahmer intended to sit in a black leather chair.When asked in a November 18, 1991, interview to whom the altar was dedicated, Dahmer replied: \"Myself ...", "It was a place where I could feel at home.\"", "He further described his intended altar as a \"place for meditation\", from where he believed he could draw a sense of power, adding: \"If this his arrest had happened six months later, that's what they would have found.", "\"===Indictment===On July 25, 1991, Dahmer was charged with four counts of first-degree murder.", "By August 22, he had been charged with a further eleven murders committed in Wisconsin.", "On September 14, investigators in Ohio, having uncovered hundreds of bone fragments in woodland behind the address in which Dahmer had confessed to killing his first victim, formally identified two molars and a vertebra with X-ray records of Hicks.", "Three days later, Dahmer was charged by authorities in Ohio with Hicks' murder.Dahmer was not charged with the attempted murder of Edwards, nor with the murder of Tuomi.", "He was not charged with Tuomi's murder because the Milwaukee County District Attorney only brought charges where murder could be proven beyond a reasonable doubt and Dahmer had no memory of actually committing this particular murder, for which no physical evidence of the crime existed.", "At a scheduled preliminary hearing on January 13, 1992, Dahmer pleaded guilty but insane to 15 counts of murder." ], [ "Trial", "Dahmer's trial began on January 30, 1992.He was tried in Milwaukee for the 15 counts of first-degree murder before Judge Laurence Gram.", "By pleading guilty on January 13 to the charges brought against him, Dahmer had waived his rights to a trial to establish guilt, as defined in Wisconsin law.", "Attorneys at Dahmer's trial debated whether he suffered from either a mental or a personality disorder.", "The prosecution claimed that any disorders did not deprive Dahmer of the ability to appreciate the criminality of his conduct or to deprive him of the ability to resist his impulses.", "The defense argued that Dahmer suffered from a mental disease and was driven by obsessions and impulses he was unable to control.Defense experts argued that Dahmer was insane due to his necrophilic drive—his compulsion to have sexual encounters with corpses.", "Defense expert Fred Berlin testified that Dahmer was unable to conform his conduct at the time that he committed the crimes due to his paraphilia or, more specifically, necrophilia.", "Judith Becker, a professor of psychiatry and psychology, was the second expert witness for the defense.", "Becker diagnosed Dahmer as a necrophiliac, although she added Dahmer had informed her, he preferred comatose sexual partners to deceased ones \"75 percent\" of the time.", "The final defense expert to testify, forensic psychiatrist Carl Wahlstrom, diagnosed Dahmer with necrophilia, borderline personality disorder, schizotypal personality disorder, alcohol dependence, and a psychotic disorder.On February 8, Fred Fosdal testified on behalf of the prosecution.", "Fosdal testified to his belief that Dahmer was without mental disease or defect at the time he committed the murders.", "He described Dahmer as a calculating and cunning individual, able to differentiate between right and wrong, with the ability to control his actions, and whose lust overpowered his morals.", "Although Fosdal did state his belief that Dahmer was a paraphiliac, his conclusion was that Dahmer was not a sadist.The second and final witness to appear for the prosecution, forensic psychiatrist Park Dietz, began his testimony on February 12.Dietz testified that he did not believe Dahmer had any form of mental disease or defect at the time that he committed the crimes, stating that \"Dahmer went to great lengths to be alone with his victim and to have no witnesses.\"", "He explained that there was ample evidence that Dahmer prepared in advance for each murder, therefore, his crimes were not impulsive.", "Although Dietz did concede any acquisition of a paraphilia was not a matter of personal choice, he stated his belief that Dahmer's habit of becoming intoxicated prior to committing each of the murders was significant; \"If he had an impulse to kill or a compulsion to kill\", Dietz testified, \"he wouldn't have to drink alcohol to overcome it.", "He only has to drink alcohol to overcome it because he is inhibited against killing.", "\"Dietz noted that Dahmer strongly identified with the villains of ''The Exorcist III'' and ''Return of the Jedi'', particularly the level of power held by these characters.", "Expounding on the significance of these movies on Dahmer's psyche and many of the murders committed at the Oxford Apartments, Dietz explained that Dahmer occasionally viewed scenes from these films before searching for a victim.", "Dietz diagnosed Dahmer with substance use disorder, paraphilia, and schizotypal personality disorder.Two court-appointed mental health professionals—testifying independently of either prosecution or defense—were forensic psychiatrist George Palermo and clinical psychologist Samuel Friedman.", "Palermo stated that the murders were the result of a \"pent-up aggression within himself Dahmer.", "He killed those men because he wanted to kill the source of his homosexual attraction to them.", "In killing them, he killed what he hated in himself.\"", "Palermo concluded that Dahmer had a severe mixed personality disorder, with antisocial, obsessive-compulsive, sadistic, fetishistic, borderline and necrophilic features, but otherwise legally sane.Friedman testified that it was a longing for companionship that caused Dahmer to kill and testified that Dahmer was not psychotic.", "He described Dahmer as \"amiable, pleasant to be with, courteous, with a sense of humor, conventionally handsome, and charming in manner.", "He was, and still is, a bright young man.\"", "He diagnosed Dahmer with a personality disorder not otherwise specified featuring borderline, obsessive-compulsive, and sadistic traits.===Closing arguments===The trial lasted two weeks.", "On February 14, both attorneys delivered their closing arguments to the jury.", "Each attorney was allowed to speak for two hours.", "Defense attorney Gerald Boyle argued first.", "Repeatedly referring to the testimony of the mental health professionals—almost all of whom had agreed Dahmer was afflicted with a mental disease—Boyle argued that Dahmer's compulsive killings had been a result of \"a sickness he discovered, not chose.\"", "Boyle portrayed Dahmer as a desperately lonely and profoundly sick individual \"so out of control he could not conform his conduct anymore.", "\"Following the defense counsel's 75-minute closing argument, Michael McCann delivered his closing argument for the prosecution, describing Dahmer as a sane man, in full control of his actions, who simply strove to avoid detection.", "McCann described Dahmer as a calculating individual who killed to control his victims and retained their bodies \"merely to afford\" himself a prolonged period of sexual pleasure.", "McCann argued that by pleading guilty but insane to the charges, Dahmer was seeking to escape responsibility for his crimes.===Conviction===On February 15, the court reconvened to hear the verdict: Dahmer was ruled to be sane and not suffering from a mental disorder at the time of each of the 15 murders for which he was tried, although in each count, two of the twelve jurors signified their dissent.", "Formal sentencing was postponed until February 17.On this date, Dahmer's attorney announced his client wished to address the court.", "Dahmer then approached a lectern and read from a statement prepared by himself and his defense as he faced the judge.In this statement, Dahmer emphasized that he had never desired freedom following his arrest, and that he \"frankly\" wished for his own death.", "He further stressed that none of his murders had been motivated by hatred, that he understood that nothing he either said or did could \"undo the terrible harm\" he had caused to the families of his victims and the city of Milwaukee, and that he and his doctors believed his criminal behavior had been motivated by mental disorders.", "Dahmer added that this medical knowledge had given him \"some peace\", and that although he understood that society would never forgive him, he hoped God would.", "Dahmer closed his statement with: \"I know my time in prison will be terrible, but I deserve whatever I get because of what I have done.", "Thank you, your honor, and I am prepared for your sentence, which I know will be the maximum.", "I ask for no consideration.\"", "He then returned to his seat to await formal sentencing.Dahmer was then sentenced to life imprisonment plus ten years upon the first two counts.", "The remaining thirteen counts carried a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment plus seventy years.", "The death penalty was not an option for Judge Gram to consider at the penalty phase, as Wisconsin had abolished capital punishment in 1853.Upon hearing of Dahmer's sentencing, his father Lionel and stepmother Shari requested to be allowed a ten-minute private meeting with their son before he was transferred to the Columbia Correctional Institution in Portage, to begin his sentence.", "This request was granted, and the trio exchanged hugs and well-wishes before Dahmer was escorted away.Three months after his conviction in Milwaukee, Dahmer was extradited to Ohio to be tried for the murder of his first victim, Steven Hicks.", "In a court hearing lasting just 45 minutes, Dahmer again pleaded guilty to the charges and was sentenced to a 16th term of life imprisonment on May 1, 1992." ], [ "Imprisonment", "Columbia Correctional Institution.", "Dahmer was imprisoned at this facility until his death in 1994.Upon sentencing, Dahmer was transferred to the Columbia Correctional Institution.", "For the first year of his incarceration, Dahmer was placed in solitary confinement due to concerns for his physical safety should he come into contact with fellow inmates.", "He received ample correspondence from individuals across the world, with several individuals donating money which he spent on items such as cassette recordings, stationery, cigarettes, and magazines.", "Upon Dahmer's request, after one year in solitary confinement, he was transferred to a less secure unit, where he was assigned a two-hour daily work detail cleaning the toilet block.", "This work detail later expanded to include cleaning the prison gymnasium.Shortly after completing his lengthy confessions in 1991, Dahmer had requested to Detective Murphy that he be given a copy of the Bible.", "This request was granted and Dahmer gradually devoted himself to Christianity and became a born-again Christian.", "On his father's urging, he also read creationist books from the Institute for Creation Research.", "In May 1994, Dahmer was baptized by Roy Ratcliff, a minister in the Church of Christ and a graduate of Oklahoma Christian University whom he had met on April 20.This service was conducted in the prison whirlpool.Following Dahmer's baptism, Ratcliff visited him on a weekly basis.", "The two regularly discussed the prospect of death, and Ratcliff later divulged that, in the months prior to his murder, Dahmer had questioned whether he was sinning against God by continuing to live.", "Referring to his crimes in a 1994 interview with Stone Phillips on ''Dateline NBC'', Dahmer had stated: \"If a person doesn't think that there is a God to be accountable to, then what's the point of trying to modify your behavior to keep it within acceptable ranges?", "That's how I thought anyway.", "\"On July 3, 1994, a fellow inmate, Osvaldo Durruthy, attempted to slash Dahmer's throat with a razor embedded in a toothbrush as Dahmer sat in the prison chapel after the weekly church service was concluded.", "Dahmer received superficial wounds and was not seriously hurt in this incident.", "According to Dahmer's family, he had long been ready to die, and accepted any punishment which he might endure in prison.", "In addition to his father and stepmother maintaining regular contact, Dahmer's mother, Joyce, also maintained regular contact with her son.", "Prior to his arrest, the two had not seen each other since Christmas 1983.Joyce related that in her weekly phone calls, whenever she expressed concerns for her son's physical well-being, Dahmer responded with comments to the effect of: \"It doesn't matter, Mom.", "I don't care if something happens to me.", "\"===Death===On the morning of November 28, 1994, Dahmer left his cell to conduct his assigned work detail.", "Accompanying him were two fellow inmates, Jesse Anderson and Christopher Scarver.", "The trio were left unsupervised in the showers of the prison gym for approximately 20 minutes.", "At approximately 8:10 a.m. Dahmer was discovered on the floor of the bathrooms of the gym suffering from extreme head wounds; he had been severely bludgeoned about the head and face with a metal bar.", "His head had also been repeatedly struck against the wall in the assault.", "Although Dahmer was still alive and was rushed to a nearby hospital, he was pronounced dead one hour later.", "Anderson had been beaten with the same instrument; he died from his wounds two days later.Scarver, who was serving a life sentence for a murder committed in 1990, informed authorities he had first attacked Dahmer with the metal bar as Dahmer was cleaning a staff locker room, before attacking Anderson as Anderson cleaned an inmate locker room.", "According to Scarver, Dahmer did not yell or make any noise as he was attacked.", "Immediately after attacking both men, Scarver, who was thought to be schizophrenic, returned to his cell and informed a prison guard: \"God told me to do it.", "Jesse Anderson and Jeffrey Dahmer are dead.\"", "Scarver was adamant he had not planned the attacks in advance, although he later divulged to investigators he had concealed the 20-inch iron bar used to kill both men in his clothing shortly before the killings.Upon learning of his death, Dahmer's mother Joyce responded angrily to the media: \"Now is everybody happy?", "Now that he's bludgeoned to death, is that good enough for everyone?\"", "The response of the families of Dahmer's victims was mixed: some celebrated the news, while others were saddened.", "Catherine Lacy, the mother of victim Oliver Lacy, remarked: \"The hurt is worse now, because he's not suffering like we are.\"", "The district attorney who prosecuted Dahmer cautioned against turning Scarver into a folk hero, saying that Dahmer's death was still murder.", "On May 15, 1995, Scarver was sentenced to two additional terms of life imprisonment for the murders of Dahmer and Anderson.Dahmer had stated in his will that he wished for no services to be conducted and that he wished to be cremated.", "In September 1995, Dahmer's body was cremated, and his ashes divided between his parents.", "Owing to a disagreement between his parents as to whether Dahmer's brain should be retained for medical research, this organ was initially retained, but later cremated in December 1995.===Aftermath===On August 5, 1991, as the nature and scale of Dahmer's crimes initially came to light, a candlelight vigil to celebrate and heal the Milwaukee community was attended by more than 400 people.", "Present at the vigil were community leaders, gay rights activists, and family members of several of Dahmer's victims.", "Organizers stated the purpose of the vigil was to enable Milwaukeeans to \"share their feelings of pain and anger over what happened\".Dahmer's murders were committed at a time of heightened racial tension in Milwaukee.", "A professor of community studies at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Walter Farrell, later stated race relations in the city had been \"in a state of disrepair for nearly a decade\" at the time of Dahmer's arrest.", "In an August 1991 interview given to the Christian Science Monitor, Farrell stated that news of the murders, as well as the conduct of Milwaukee police officers John Balcerzak and Joseph Gabrish with regards to victim Konerak Sinthasomphone, exacerbated and highlighted racial tensions within the city.Milwaukee's gay scene was generally underground and transient in nature at the time of Dahmer's murders, with many sexually active gay men using aliases.", "Many in the city's gay community were nervous of the intentions of others after the extent of Dahmer's murders became known, although the fear and distrust generated by Dahmer's crimes was short-lived.", "As the 1990s progressed, the usage of aliases became less common among members of Milwaukee's gay community.The Oxford Apartments at 924 North 25th Street, where Dahmer had killed twelve of his victims, were demolished in November 1992.The site is now a vacant lot.", "Alternate plans to convert the site into either a memorial garden, a playground, or to reconstruct new housing have failed to materialize.Dahmer's estate was awarded to the families of eleven of his victims who had sued for damages.", "In 1996, Thomas Jacobson, a lawyer representing eight of the families, announced a planned auction of Dahmer's estate.", "Although victims' relatives stated the motivation was not greed, the announcement sparked controversy.", "A civic group, Milwaukee Civic Pride, was quickly established in an effort to raise the funds to purchase and destroy many of Dahmer's possessions.", "The group pledged $407,225, including a $100,000 gift by Milwaukee real estate developer Joseph Zilber, for purchase of Dahmer's estate; five of the eight families represented by Jacobson agreed to the terms, and Dahmer's possessions were subsequently destroyed and buried in an undisclosed Illinois landfill.In 1994, Lionel published a book, ''A Father's Story,'' and donated a portion of the proceeds from his book to the victims' families.", "Most of the families showed support for Lionel and Shari, although three families subsequently sued Lionel: two for using their names in the book without obtaining prior consent, and a third family—that of Steven Hicks—filing a wrongful death suit against Lionel, Shari, and former wife Joyce, citing parental negligence as the cause for the claim.Lionel Dahmer lived with his second wife, Shari, until her death in January 2023.He died of natural causes on December 5, 2023.Both refused to change their surname and professed their love of Dahmer in spite of his crimes.", "Joyce Flint died of cancer on November 27, 2000.Prior to her death, she had attempted suicide on at least one occasion.", "Dahmer's younger brother, David, changed his surname and lives in anonymity." ], [ "Victims", "Jeffrey Dahmer killed seventeen young men between 1978 and 1991.Twelve were killed in his North 25th Street apartment.", "Three victims were murdered and dismembered at his grandmother's West Allis residence.", "His first and second victims were murdered at his parents' home in Ohio and at the Ambassador Hotel in Milwaukee, respectively.", "A total of fourteen of Dahmer's victims were from various ethnic minority backgrounds, with nine victims being black.", "Dahmer was adamant that the race of his victims was incidental to him and that it was the body form of a potential victim that attracted his attention.", "These contentions have been supported via an independent forensic specialists' study of Dahmer's victim selection, the anthropological analysis of which revealed his victims shared a \"morphological similarity\" and suggesting Dahmer was \"psychologically attracted to a certain anthropometric body type.", "\"Most of Dahmer's victims were killed by strangulation after being drugged with sedatives.", "His first victim was killed by a combination of bludgeoning and strangulation and his second victim was battered to death, with one further victim killed in 1990, Ernest Miller, dying of a combination of shock and blood loss due to his carotid artery being cut.", "Four of Dahmer's victims killed in 1991 had holes bored into their skulls through which Dahmer injected hydrochloric acid or, later, boiling water, into the frontal lobes in an attempt to induce a permanent, submissive, unresistant state.", "This proved fatal, although on each occasion this was not Dahmer's intention.===1978===* '''June 18''': Steven Mark Hicks, 18.Last seen hitchhiking to a rock concert in Chippewa Lake Park in Bath, Ohio.", "By Dahmer's admission, Hicks caught his attention because he was bare-chested.", "He was bludgeoned with a dumbbell and strangled to death with this instrument before being dismembered.", "Remains pulverized and scattered in woodland behind Dahmer's family home.===1987===Steven Walter Tuomi* '''November 20''': Steven Walter Tuomi, 25.Killed in a rented room at the Ambassador Hotel in Milwaukee.", "Dahmer claimed to have no memory of murdering Tuomi, yet stated he must have battered him to death in a drunken stupor.", "His body was dismembered in the basement of Dahmer's grandmother's house and the remains discarded in the trash.", "No remains were ever found.===1988===* '''January 16''': James Edward Doxtator, 14.Met Dahmer outside a gay bar in Wisconsin.", "Doxtator was lured to West Allis on the pretext of earning $50 for posing for nude pictures.", "Dahmer strangled Doxtator and kept his body in the basement for a week before dismembering him and discarding the remains in the trash.", "No remains were ever found.", "* '''March 24''': Richard Guerrero, 22.Drugged and strangled in Dahmer's bedroom at West Allis.", "Dahmer dismembered Guerrero's corpse in the basement, dissolved the flesh in acid and disposed of the bones in the trash.", "He bleached and retained the skull for several months before disposing of it.", "No remains were ever found.===1989===* '''March 25''': Anthony Lee Sears, 24.Sears was the last victim to be drugged and strangled at Dahmer's grandmother's residence; he was also the first victim from whom Dahmer permanently retained any body parts.", "His preserved skull and genitals were found in a filing cabinet at 924 North 25th Street following Dahmer's arrest in 1991.===1990===* '''May 20''': Raymond Lamont Smith (also known as Ricky Beeks), 32.The first victim to be killed at Dahmer's North 25th Street apartment.", "Smith was a male sex worker whom Dahmer encountered at a tavern.", "Dahmer gave Smith a drink laced with sleeping pills, then strangled him on his kitchen floor.", "His skull was spray-painted and retained.", "* '''June 14''': Edward Warren Smith, 27.A known acquaintance of Dahmer who was last seen in his company at a party.", "Dahmer acidified Smith's skeleton; his skull was destroyed unintentionally when placed in the oven in an effort to remove moisture.", "No remains were ever found.", "* '''September 2''': Ernest Marquez Miller, 22.Miller was a dance student whom Dahmer encountered outside a bookstore.", "According to Dahmer, he was especially attracted to Miller's physique.", "He was killed by having his carotid artery severed before being dismembered in the bathtub, with Dahmer storing his entire skeleton in the bottom drawer of a filing cabinet and his heart, liver, biceps, and portions of his thighs in the freezer for later consumption.", "* '''September 24''': David Courtney Thomas, 22.Encountered Dahmer near the Grand Avenue Mall; he was lured to Dahmer's apartment on the promise of money for posing nude.", "Once a laced drink had rendered Thomas unconscious, Dahmer decided he \"wasn't my type.\"", "Nonetheless, Dahmer strangled Thomas, taking Polaroid photos of the dismemberment process.", "No remains were ever found.===1991===* '''February 18''': Curtis Durrell Straughter, 17.Approached by Dahmer as he waited at a bus stop near Marquette University.", "Dahmer lured Straughter to his apartment, where he drugged, handcuffed and strangled him before dismembering his body in the bathtub.", "He retained Straughter's skull, hands, and genitals.", "* '''April 7''': Errol Lindsey, 19.The first victim upon whom Dahmer practiced what he later described to investigators as his \"drilling technique\", a procedure in which he drilled holes into the victim's skull, through which he injected hydrochloric acid into the brain.", "According to Dahmer, Lindsey awoke after this practice, after which he was again rendered unconscious with a drink laced with sedatives, then strangled to death.", "Dahmer flayed Lindsey's body and retained the skin for several weeks.", "His skull was found following Dahmer's arrest.Tony Anthony Hughes*'''May 24''': Tony Anthony Hughes, 31.Hughes was lured by Dahmer to his apartment upon the promise of posing nude for photographs.", "As Hughes was deaf, he and Dahmer communicated using handwritten notes.", "The injection of hydrochloric acid into Hughes's skull proved fatal.", "His body was left on Dahmer's bedroom floor for three days before being dismembered, with Dahmer photographing the dismemberment process.", "His skull was retained and identified from dental records.", "* '''May 27''': Konerak Sinthasomphone, 14.The younger brother of the boy Dahmer had assaulted in 1988.Sinthasomphone was drugged and had hydrochloric acid injected into his brain before Dahmer left him unattended as he left the apartment to purchase beer.", "When he returned, he discovered Sinthasomphone naked and disoriented in the street, with three distressed young women attempting to assist him.", "When police arrived, Dahmer persuaded them he and Sinthasomphone were lovers and that Sinthasomphone was simply intoxicated.", "When police left Sinthasomphone with Dahmer in his apartment, Dahmer again injected hydrochloric acid into Sinthasomphone's brain, and this proved fatal.", "His head was retained in the freezer and his body dismembered.", "* '''June 30''': Matt Cleveland Turner, 20.On June 30, Dahmer attended the Chicago Pride Parade.", "At a bus stop, he encountered a 20-year-old named Matt Turner and persuaded him to accompany him to Milwaukee to pose for a photo shoot.", "Turner was drugged, strangled, and then dismembered in the bathtub.", "His head and internal organs were put in the freezer and his torso subsequently placed in the 57-gallon drum Dahmer purchased on July 12.", "* '''July 5''': Jeremiah Benjamin Weinberger, 23.Met Dahmer at a gay bar in Chicago and agreed to accompany him to Milwaukee for the weekend.", "Dahmer drilled through Weinberger's skull and injected boiling water into the cavity.", "He later recalled Weinberger's death to be exceptional, as he was the only victim who died with his eyes open.", "Weinberger's decapitated body was kept in the bathtub for a week before being dismembered; his torso was placed in the 57-gallon drum.", "* '''July 15''': Oliver Joseph Lacy, 24.A bodybuilding enthusiast whom Dahmer enticed to his apartment on the promise of money for posing for photographs.", "Lacy was drugged and strangled with a leather strap before being decapitated, with his head and heart being placed in the refrigerator.", "His skeleton was retained to adorn one side of the private shrine of skulls and skeletons Dahmer was in the process of creating when arrested one week later.", "* '''July 19''': Joseph Arthur Bradehoft, 25.Dahmer's last victim.", "Bradehoft was a father of three children from Minnesota who was looking for work in Milwaukee at the time of his murder.", "He was left on Dahmer's bed for two days following his murder before, on July 21, being decapitated.", "His head was placed in the refrigerator and his torso in the 57-gallon drum." ], [ "In media", "===Film===* ''The Secret Life: Jeffrey Dahmer'' was released in 1993.Directed by David Bowen, this biographical crime drama stars Carl Crew as Dahmer.", "* The biographical film ''Dahmer'' was released in 2002.It stars Jeremy Renner in the title role and co-stars Bruce Davison as Dahmer's father, Lionel.", "* The drama film ''Raising Jeffrey Dahmer'' was released in 2006.Revolving around the reactions of Dahmer's parents following his arrest in 1991, ''Raising Jeffrey Dahmer'' stars Rusty Sneary as Dahmer and co-stars Scott Cordes as Lionel.", "* In 2012, an independent documentary, ''The Jeffrey Dahmer Files'', premiered at the South by Southwest festival.", "It features interviews with Dahmer's former neighbor, Pamela Bass, as well as Detective Patrick Kennedy, and the city medical examiner Jeffrey Jentzen.", "* The Marc Meyers–directed film, ''My Friend Dahmer'', premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 25, 2017.Based on the graphic novel by John Backderf, the film stars Ross Lynch as Dahmer and chronicles his high school years and the events leading up to his first murder.===Books===* * * * * * * ===Television===* ''The Trial of Jeffrey Dahmer'' was released in 1992.Directed by Elkan Allan, this documentary largely focuses upon testimony delivered at Dahmer's first trial.", "The documentary concludes with Dahmer's addressing Judge Laurence Gram following his conviction.", "* ''Dahmer: Mystery of a Serial Killer''.", "Directed by Michael Husain and released in November 1993, this 50-minute A&E Networks documentary contains archive footage of Dahmer's trial in addition to interviews with individuals such as forensic psychiatrist Park Dietz.", "* ''Inside Edition'' conducted an interview with Dahmer in January 1993.Conducted by reporter Nancy Glass, this 30-minute interview was broadcast in February 1993.", "* ABC News has commissioned a one-hour episode focusing upon Dahmer's crimes as part of their television news magazine series ''Day One''.", "This episode features interviews with forensic psychiatrist Park Dietz and psychiatrist Fred Berlin and was first broadcast in April 1993.", "* Channel 4 has commissioned a documentary focusing on the murders committed by Jeffrey Dahmer.", "Titled ''To Kill and Kill Again'', this 50-minute documentary was first broadcast on December 12, 1993.", "* ''Dateline NBC'' has also broadcast an interview with Dahmer.", "Conducted by Stone Phillips and first broadcast on March 8, 1994, this 90-minute episode—titled ''Confessions of a Serial Killer''—features interviews with Dahmer and his father conducted at Columbia Correctional Institution.", "Dahmer's mother is also interviewed for this program.", "* The BBC has broadcast a documentary focusing on the life and crimes of Jeffrey Dahmer.", "Titled ''Everyman: Profile of a Serial Killer'' and directed by Nikki Stockley, this 50-minute documentary was first broadcast in November 1994.", "* A&E Networks has commissioned a second documentary focusing upon the murders committed by Jeffrey Dahmer.", "Titled ''Jeffrey Dahmer: The Monster Within'', this 50-minute episode was first broadcast in June 1996 and contains interviews with Detective Patrick Kennedy and Prosecutor Michael McCann.", "* The British true crime series ''Born to Kill?''", "has broadcast an episode focusing upon Jeffrey Dahmer.", "This 45-minute episode features interviews with FBI criminal profiler Robert Ressler and Detective Patrick Kennedy and was first broadcast in October 2005.", "* The Investigation Discovery channel has also broadcast a documentary focusing upon Dahmer within its documentary series, ''Most Evil''.", "This documentary features excerpts of Dahmer's 1994 Dateline NBC interview with Stone Phillips and was first broadcast in August 2006.", "* HLN has broadcast an episode focusing upon Dahmer's crimes as part of its investigative series, ''How it Really Happened''.", "This episode, titled ''The Strange Case of Jeffrey Dahmer'', was originally aired on March 31, 2017.", "* The digital cable and satellite television channel Oxygen broadcast the two-part documentary ''Dahmer on Dahmer: A Serial Killer Speaks'' in November 2017.Produced and directed by Matthew Watts, the program features interviews with, among others, Dahmer's father, stepmother, former classmates, psychiatrists who testified at his trial, and a homicide detective involved in the investigation.Poster for the theatrical play ''Jeffrey Dahmer: Guilty but Insane''* The Netflix dark tourism documentary series ''Dark Tourist'' has broadcast an episode which features Dahmer's crimes.", "This 40-minute documentary was first broadcast on July 20, 2018.", "* ''Jeffrey Dahmer: Mind of a Monster'' was commissioned by the Investigation Discovery channel.", "This documentary was first broadcast in May 2020 and includes interviews with Dahmer's father, former neighbors and eyewitnesses in addition to investigators and forensic psychiatrists.", "* ''Dahmer – Monster: The Jeffrey Dahmer Story''.", "A 10-part biographical crime drama series that was commissioned by Netflix and released on September 21, 2022.Evan Peters portrayed Dahmer.", "* ''Conversations with a Killer: The Jeffrey Dahmer Tapes''.", "Commissioned by Netflix and directed by Joe Berlinger, this series includes previously unreleased recordings of conversations between Dahmer and his attorneys.", "The first of this three-part series was broadcast on October 7, 2022.===Theater===* ''The Law of Remains'' (1992) by experimental writer and director Reza Abdoh uses the techniques of Artaud's Theatre of Cruelty to depict the life and crimes of Dahmer.", "* ''Jeffrey Dahmer: Guilty but Insane'' (2013).", "Written and performed by Joshua Hitchens and directed by Ryan Walter." ], [ "See also", "* Incidents of necrophilia* List of homicides in Wisconsin* List of incidents of cannibalism* List of serial killers by number of victims* List of serial killers in the United States" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations===" ], [ "Print sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Excerptsof Jeffrey Dahmer's confession * ''WI v. Dahmer (1992)'': A Court TV website detailing the first of Dahmer's 1992 murder trials* Contemporary news article pertaining to the trial of Jeffrey Dahmer* CNN interview with Lionel and Shari Dahmer* ''Loneliness and Associated Violent Antisocial Behavior: Analysis of the Case Reports of Jeffrey Dahmer and Dennis Nilsen'' as published by the United States National Library of Medicine* 1993 *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph Cotten" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph Cheshire Cotten Jr.''' (May 15, 1905 – February 6, 1994) was an American film, stage, radio and television actor.", "Cotten achieved prominence on Broadway, starring in the original stage productions of ''The Philadelphia Story'' (1939) and ''Sabrina Fair'' (1953).", "He then gained worldwide fame for his collaborations with Orson Welles on three films, ''Citizen Kane'' (1941), ''The Magnificent Ambersons'' (1942), and ''Journey into Fear'' (1943), which Cotten starred in and for which he was also credited with the screenplay.Cotten went on to become one of the leading Hollywood actors of the 1940s, appearing in films such as ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943), ''Gaslight'' (1944), ''Love Letters'' (1945), ''Duel in the Sun'' (1946), ''Portrait of Jennie'' (1948) for which he won the Volpi Cup for Best Actor, ''The Third Man'' (1949) and ''Niagara'' (1953).", "One of his final films was Michael Cimino's ''Heaven's Gate'' (1980).Multiple film critics and media outlets have cited him as one of the best actors never to have received an Academy Award nomination." ], [ "Early life", "Joseph Cotten modeled for ''The American Magazine'' (September 1931)Cotten and Jennifer Jones in ''Duel in the Sun'' (1946)Joseph Cotten was born in 1905 in Petersburg, Virginia, the first of three boys born for Joseph Cheshire Cotten Sr., an assistant postmaster, and Sally Willson Cotten.", "He grew up in the Tidewater region and showed an aptitude for drama and a gift for storytelling.In 1923, when Cotten was 18, his family arranged for him to receive private lessons at the Hickman School of Expression in Washington, D.C., and underwrote his expenses.", "Cotten served in the First Motion Picture Unit of the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II.Cotten earned spending money playing professional football on Sundays, for $25 a quarter.", "After graduation, he earned enough money as a lifeguard at Wilcox Lake to pay back his family's loan, with interest.", "He moved to Miami in 1925 and worked as an advertising salesman for ''The Miami Herald'' at $35 a week.", "He started performing at the Miami Civic Theatre, and worked there for five years, also reviewing the shows for the ''Herald''." ], [ "Career", "=== 1932–1939: Broadway and film debuts === Cotten moved to New York and went to work for David Belasco as an assistant stage manager.", "He understudied Melvyn Douglas in ''Tonight or Never'' then took over Douglas' role for the Copley Theatre in Boston, where he worked on over 30 plays.", "Cotten struggled to find work in the depression so turned to modeling under the Walter Thornton Model Agency and acting in industrial films.", "He also performed on radio.", "Cotten made his Broadway debut in 1932 in ''Absent Friends'' which ran for 88 performances.", "He followed it with ''Jezebel'' (1933), staged by Katherine Cornell and Guthrie McClintic, which only had a short run.", "He was in ''Loose Moments'' which ran for 8 performances.In 1934, Cotten met and became friends with Orson Welles, a fellow cast member on CBS Radio's ''The American School of the Air''.", "Welles regarded Cotten as a brilliant comic actor, and gave him the starring role in his Federal Theatre Project farce, '' Horse Eats Hat'' (September 26 – December 5, 1936).", "Cotten was sure that ''Horse Eats Hat'' won him the notice of his future Broadway co-star, Katharine Hepburn.", "Cotten said Welles later told him \"You're very lucky to be tall and thin and have curly hair.", "You can also move about the stage without running into the furniture.", "But these are fringe assets, and I'm afraid you'll never make it as an actor.", "But as a star, I think you well might hit the jackpot.", "\"In 1937, Cotten became an inaugural member of Welles's Mercury Theatre company, starring in its Broadway productions ''Caesar'' as Publius; it ran for 157 performances.", "He followed it with ''The Shoemaker's Holiday'' (1938) and ''Danton's Death'' (1938) for Welles.", "Cotten also performed in radio dramas presented on ''The Mercury Theatre on the Air'' and ''The Campbell Playhouse''.", "That same year Cotten made his film debut in the Welles-directed short, ''Too Much Johnson'' (1938), a comedy that was intended to complement the aborted 1938 Mercury stage production of William Gillette's 1894 play.", "The film was never screened in public and was lost until 2008 (and then screened in 2013 at the Pordenone Silent Film Festival).Cotten returned to Broadway in 1939, creating the role of C. K. Dexter Haven opposite Katharine Hepburn's Tracy Lord in the original production of Philip Barry's ''The Philadelphia Story''.", "The play ran for 417 performances at the Shubert Theatre, and in the months before its extensive national tour a film version was to be made by MGM.", "Cotten went to Hollywood, but discovered there that his stage success in ''The Philadelphia Story'' translated to, in the words of his agent Leland Hayward, \"spending a solid year creating the Cary Grant role.\"", "Hayward suggested that they call Cotten's good pal, Orson Welles.", "\"He's been making big waves out here\", Hayward said.", "\"Maybe nobody in Hollywood ever heard of the Shubert Theatre in New York, but everybody certainly knows about the Mercury Theatre in New York.", "\"=== 1940–1949: Leading film roles ======= ''Citizen Kane'' (1941) ====After the success of Welles's ''War of the Worlds'' 1938 Halloween radio broadcast, Welles gained a unique contract with RKO Pictures.", "The two-picture deal promised full creative control for the young director below an agreed budget limit, and Welles's intention was to feature the Mercury Players in his productions.", "Shooting had still not begun on a Welles film after a year, but after a meeting with writer Herman J. Mankiewicz Welles had a suitable project.In mid-1940, filming began on ''Citizen Kane'', portraying the life of a press magnate (played by Welles) who starts out as an idealist but eventually turns into a corrupt, lonely old man.", "The film featured Cotten prominently in the role of Kane's best friend Jedediah Leland, eventually a drama critic for one of Kane's papers.When released on May 1, 1941, ''Citizen Kane'' – based in part on the life of William Randolph Hearst – did not do much business at theaters; Hearst owned numerous major newspapers, and forbade them to carry advertisements for the film.", "Nominated for nine Academy Awards in 1942, the film won only for Best Screenplay, for Mankiewicz and Welles.", "''Citizen Kane'' launched the film careers of the Mercury Players, including Agnes Moorehead (who played Kane's mother), Ruth Warrick (Kane's first wife), and Ray Collins (Kane's political opponent).", "However, Cotten was the only one of the four to find major success as a lead in Hollywood outside of ''Citizen Kane''; Moorehead and Collins became successful character film actors.", "Moorehead starred in Bewitched and Warrick spent decades in a career in daytime television.The ''Los Angeles Times'', in an otherwise mixed review of the film, said that \"Cotten's work is vital and distinctive ...", "He is an important 'find.'\"", "Alexander Korda hired him to play Merle Oberon's leading man in ''Lydia'' (1941).", "\"I didn't care about the movies, really\", Cotten said later.", "\"I was tall.", "I had curly hair.", "I could talk.", "It was easy to do.", "\"==== ''The Magnificent Ambersons'' (1942) ==== Cotten starred in Welles's adaptation and production of ''The Magnificent Ambersons'' (1942).", "After the commercial disappointment of ''Citizen Kane'', RKO was apprehensive about the new film, and after poor preview responses, cut it by nearly an hour before its release.", "Though at points the film appeared disjointed, it was well received by critics.", "Despite the critical accolades Cotten received for his performance, he was again snubbed by the academy.==== ''Journey into Fear'' (1943) ====Cotten was cast in the Nazi-related thriller ''Journey into Fear'' (1943) based on the novel by Eric Ambler.", "It was originally scripted by Ben Hecht but Welles, who was supervising, disliked it, and he rewrote it with Cotten.", "Released by RKO, the Mercury production was directed by Norman Foster.", "It was a collaborative effort due to the difficulties shooting the film and the pressures related to Welles's imminent departure to South America to begin work on ''It's All True''.Alfred Hitchcock hired Cotten to play a charming serial killer in ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943).", "It was made for Universal Pictures, for whom Cotten then appeared in ''Hers to Hold'' (1943), as Deanna Durbin's leading man.After Welles's return he and Cotten co-produced ''The Mercury Wonder Show'' for members of the U.S. armed services.", "Opening August 3, 1943, the all-star magic and variety show was presented in a tent at 9000 Cahuenga Boulevard in Hollywood.", "Featured were Welles (Orson the Magnificent), Cotten (Jo-Jo the Great), Rita Hayworth (forced to quit by Columbia Pictures boss Harry Cohn and replaced by Marlene Dietrich), Agnes Moorehead (Calliope Aggie) and others.", "Tickets were free to servicemen, and more than 48,000 of them had seen show by September 1943.In late 1943, Cotten visited Welles's office and said that producer David O. Selznick wanted to make two or three films with him, but that he wanted him under his own contract.", "Welles then tore up Cotten's contract with Mercury Productions, saying, \"He can do more for you than I can.", "Good luck!\"", "Cotten signed a long-term deal with Selznick.", "Selznick loaned out Cotten and Ingrid Bergman to MGM for the thriller ''Gaslight'' (1944) which was a major hit.", "Selznick then put Cotten in a wartime drama ''Since You Went Away'' (1944) alongside Claudette Colbert, Jennifer Jones and Shirley Temple; it was another major success.Selznick followed this up by teaming Cotten with Ginger Rogers and Temple in ''I'll Be Seeing You'' (1945), another melodrama.", "Hal Wallis borrowed Cotten and Jones to make ''Love Letters'' (1945).", "Exhibitors voted him the 17th most popular star in the United States in 1945.Selznick used Cotten, Jennifer Jones and Gregory Peck in ''Duel in the Sun'' (1946), an epic Western that was hugely popular at the box office.Dore Schary, who had worked for Selznick, went to run RKO and hired Cotten for ''The Farmer's Daughter'' (1947), where he was Loretta Young's leading man.", "Cotten then made ''Portrait of Jennie'' (1948) for Selznick, co starring with Jones; Cotten played a melancholy artist who becomes obsessed with a girl who might have died many years before.", "His performance won Cotten the International Prize for Best Actor at the 1949 Venice International Film Festival.==== ''The Third Man'' (1949) ====Cotten was reunited with Welles in ''The Third Man'' (1949), produced by Korda and Selznick.", "Cotten portrays a writer of pulp fiction who travels to postwar Vienna to meet his friend Harry Lime (Welles).", "When he arrives, he is told that Lime has died.", "Determined to prove to the police that his friend was murdered, he uncovers an even darker secret.", "Years later, Cotten would say \"Orson Welles lists ''Citizen Kane'' as his best film, Alfred Hitchcock opts for ''Shadow of a Doubt'', and Sir Carol Reed chose ''The Third Man'' – and I'm in all of them.", "\"Cotten then reunited with Hitchcock and Ingrid Bergman in ''Under Capricorn'' (1949) as an Australian landowner with a shady past; it was a box office disappointment.", "So too was ''Beyond the Forest'' (1949) with Bette Davis at Warner Bros.=== 1950–1969: Established actor ===Cotten co-starred with Joan Fontaine in ''September Affair'' (1950) for Hal Wallis.", "Selznick loaned him to 20th Century Fox for the dark Civil War Western ''Two Flags West'' (1950), then to RKO for ''Walk Softly, Stranger'' (1950, shot in 1948) which reunited him with Alida Valli from ''The Third Man''.", "It was a huge flop.", "At Fox he did ''Half Angel'' (1951) with Young, then did another with Wallis at Paramount, ''Peking Express'' (1951) and went to MGM for ''The Man with a Cloak'' (1951) with Barbara Stanwyck.", "He had a cameo in Welles' ''Othello'' (1951).Cotten did a Western at Universal, ''Untamed Frontier'' (1953), during the filming of which he was injured.", "He did a thriller for Andrew L. Stone, ''The Steel Trap'' (1952), which reunited with Teresa Wright from ''Shadow of a Doubt''.", "At Fox he was in the Marilyn Monroe vehicle ''Niagara'' (1953), after James Mason turned down the role.", "He narrated ''Egypt by Three'' (1953) and was reunited with Stone in ''A Blueprint for Murder'' (1953).On the stage in 1953, Cotten created the role of Linus Larrabee Jr. in the original Broadway production of ''Sabrina Fair'', opposite Margaret Sullavan.", "The production ran from November 11, 1953, until August 21, 1954, and was the basis of the Billy Wilder film ''Sabrina'', which starred Humphrey Bogart and Audrey Hepburn.", "He and Sullivan appeared in a TV production of ''State of the Union'' for ''Producers' Showcase,'' directed by Arthur Penn.Cotten made ''Special Delivery'' (1955) in West Germany and appeared in a TV adaptation of ''Broadway'' for ''The Best of Broadway'' (1955), directed by Franklin J. Schaffner.", "He appeared in episodes of ''Celebrity Playhouse'', ''The Ford Television Theatre'', ''Star Stage'', ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' (several times) and ''General Electric Theater''.In 1955, Cotten hosted ''The 20th Century Fox Hour'' on television.", "In 1956, he starred in the NBC anthology series ''On Trial'' (renamed at midseason ''The Joseph Cotten Show'').", "It ran for 41 episodes.He returned to features with ''The Bottom of the Bottle'' (1956), ''The Killer Is Loose'' (1957) and ''The Halliday Brand'' (1957).", "He guest-starred on ''Jane Wyman Presents The Fireside Theatre'', ''Telephone Time'', ''Playhouse 90'', ''Schlitz Playhouse'', ''Zane Grey Theater'', ''Suspicion'' and ''Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse''.", "He made a cameo appearance in Welles's ''Touch of Evil'' (1958) and a starring role in the film adaptation of Jules Verne's ''From the Earth to the Moon'' (1958).", "Cotten had another success on Broadway when he appeared in ''Once More, With Feeling'' (1958–60), which ran for 263 performances.", "For the third time, Cotten was in a Broadway hit but did not reprise his role in the film version; Yul Brynner played the part on screen.Cotten and Patricia Medina in 1973Cotten had a supporting role in the films ''The Angel Wore Red'' (1960) and ''The Last Sunset'' (1961), and guest-starred on ''The DuPont Show with June Allyson'', ''Checkmate'', ''The Barbara Stanwyck Show'', ''Bus Stop'', ''Theatre '62'' (an adaptation of ''Notorious''), ''Dr.", "Kildare'', ''Wagon Train'' and ''Saints and Sinners''.Cotten returned to Broadway to appear in ''Calculated Risk'' (1962–63), which ran for 221 performances and meant he had to turn down a role in a film ''Harrigan's Halo''.", "He guest starred on ''The Great Adventure'' and ''77 Sunset Strip'' and appeared in the pilot for ''Alexander the Great'' (1963).After some time away from film, Cotten returned in the horror classic ''Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte'' (1964) for Aldrich, with Bette Davis, Olivia de Havilland and Agnes Moorehead.", "Cotten was top billed in ''The Great Sioux Massacre'' (1965) and ''The Tramplers'' (1965), ''Brighty of the Grand Canyon'' (1966), ''The Cruel Ones'' (1967), ''Some May Live'' (1967) and ''Gangsters '70'' (1968).", "He took supporting roles in ''The Money Trap'' (1965) and ''The Oscar'' (1966).", "He guest starred on ''Cimarron Strip'', ''Ironside'' and ''Journey to the Unknown'' and had a support role in ''Jack of Diamonds'' (1967).", "He had the lead in ''White Comanche'' (1968) and ''Latitude Zero'' (1969) (shot in Japan with his wife) and supported in the TV movies ''The Lonely Profession'' (1969) and ''Cutter's Trail'' (1970).", "He also appeared as himself on the ''Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In'' (1968) variety show.=== 1970–1981: Later and final roles ===Cotten appeared in ''The Name of the Game'', ''It Takes a Thief'', ''NET Playhouse'', ''The Grasshopper'' (1970), ''Tora!", "Tora!", "Tora!", "'', ''The Virginian'', ''Assault on the Wayne'' (1971), ''Do You Take This Stranger?''", "(1971), ''City Beneath the Sea'' (1971), ''The Abominable Dr. Phibes'' (1971), ''Lady Frankenstein'' (1971) and ''The Screaming Woman'' (1972) with de Havilland.He had lead roles in ''Doomsday Voyage'' (1972), ''Baron Blood'' (1972), and ''The Scopone Game'' (1973) and was in ''The Devil's Daughter'' (1973), ''The Streets of San Francisco'', ''Soylent Green'' (1973), ''A Delicate Balance'' (1973), ''The Rockford Files'', ''Syndicate Sadists'' (1975), ''The Timber Tramps'' (1975), ''The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case'' (1976), ''A Whisper in the Dark'' (1976), ''Origins of the Mafia'' (1976), ''Twilight's Last Gleaming'' (1977) for Aldrich, ''Airport '77'', ''Aspen'' (1977), ''The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries'', ''Last In, First Out'' (1978), ''Caravans'' (1978), ''Indagine su un delitto perfetto'' (1978), ''Island of the Fishmen'' (1979), ''Concorde Affaire '79'' (1979), ''Guyana: Cult of the Damned'' (1979), ''Churchill and the Generals'' (1979), ''Tales of the Unexpected'' and ''Fantasy Island''.Cotten later admitted, \"I was in a lot of junk.", "I get nervous when I don't work.", "\"Cotten's final performances include in George Bower's supernatural horror film ''The Hearse'' (1980), the ABC television movie ''Casino'' (1980), Michael Cimino's ''Heaven's Gate'' (1980), multiple episodes of ''The Love Boat'' (1981), ''The Survivor'' (1981), shot in Australia and ''Delusion'' (1981)." ], [ "Personal life", "Cotten's first wife Lenore Kipp died of leukemia in early 1960.He married British actress Patricia Medina on October 20, 1960, in Beverly Hills at the home of David O. Selznick and Jennifer Jones.", "He bought a historic 1935 home in the Mesa neighborhood of Palm Springs, California, where he and his wife lived from 1985 to 1992.The marriage produced no children.In 1961 Cotten was admitted to the Society of the Cincinnati in North Carolina based on his descent from Captain Hudson Whitaker, Seventh Regiment, North Carolina Continental Line.", "He held Captain Whitaker's hereditary seat until his death in 1994.===Illness and death===On June 8, 1981, Cotten experienced a heart attack followed by a stroke that affected his brain's speech center.", "He began years of therapy that eventually restored his ability to speak.", "As he began to recover, he and Orson Welles talked on the phone each week for several hours.", "Cotten wrote, \"He was strong and supportive, and whenever I used the wrong word (which was frequently) he would say, 'That's a much better word, Jo, I'm going to use it.'\"", "He and Welles would meet for lunch and reminisce.", "When Cotten announced he had written a book, Welles asked for the manuscript and read it that night.In 1990, Cotten's larynx was removed because of cancer.", "He died on February 6, 1994, of pneumonia at the age of 88.He was buried at Blandford Cemetery in Petersburg, Virginia." ], [ "Acting credits" ], [ "Accolades and legacy", "At the 10th Venice International Film Festival, Cotten was awarded the Volpi Cup for Best Actor for his performance in the film ''Portrait of Jennie'' (1948).", "He was also given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960.Cotten was portrayed by Tim Robbins in the 1985 TV film ''Malice in Wonderland'', by James Tupper in the film ''Me and Orson Welles'' (2008) and by Matthew Glave in the television series ''Feud'' (2017), which depicts the filming of ''Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte''." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * .", "New York: ''MovieMaker'', archived 2007-06-18 from the original at the Internet Archive.", "Retrieved 2013-08-29.", "* Kneebone, John T., et al., eds.", "''Dictionary of Virginia Biography'' (Richmond: Library of Virginia, 1998– ), 3:478–481.." ], [ "External links", "* * * Joseph Cotten at Turner Classic Movies * The Joseph Cotten Pages fan site* 1959-08-02 Joseph Cotten – Red Cloud Mesa (Audio file, 20 mins)* Photographs and literature* Joseph Cotten interview on BBC Radio 4 ''Desert Island Discs'', October 30, 1981" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jonah" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jonah''' or '''Jonas''' ( , ) is a prophet in the Hebrew Bible, hailing from Gath-hepher in the Kingdom of Israel around the 8th century BCE.", "He is the central figure of the Book of Jonah, which details his reluctance in delivering the judgment of Yahweh to the city of Nineveh (near present-day Mosul) in Assyria.", "After he is swallowed by a large sea creature and then released, he returns to the divine mission.In Judaism, the story of Jonah represents the teaching of ''teshuva'', the ability to repent to God for forgiveness.", "Jesus of Nazareth, in the New Testament of Christianity, calls himself \"greater than Jonah\" and promises the Pharisees \"the sign of Jonah\" in reference to his resurrection.", "Early Christian interpreters viewed Jonah as the ''type'' of Jesus.", "In Islam, Jonah is regarded as an Islamic prophet, and the narrative of Jonah in the Bible is repeated in a chapter of the Quran named after him (''Yūnus'').", "Mainstream Bible scholars generally regard the Book of Jonah as fictional, and often at least partially satirical.", "The character of Jonah, son of Amittai, may have been based on the historical prophet of the same name who prophesied during the reign of Amaziah of the Kingdom of Judah, as mentioned in 2 Kings.Although the creature that swallowed Jonah is often depicted in art and culture as a whale, the Hebrew text uses the phrase ().", "In the 17th century and early 18th century, the species of the fish that swallowed Jonah was the subject of speculation by naturalists, who interpreted the story as an account of a historical incident.", "Some modern scholars of folklore, on the other hand, note similarities between Jonah and other legendary religious figures, like the Indian yogi Matsyendranatha, the Sumerian ruler Gilgamesh, and the Greek hero Jason." ], [ "Book of Jonah", "''Jonah and the Whale'' (1621) by Pieter LastmanJonah Preaching to the Ninevites'' (1866) by Gustave Doré, in ''La Grande Bible de Tours''Jonah is the central character in the Book of Jonah, in which God commands him to go to the city of Nineveh to prophesy against it \"for their great wickedness is come up before me,\" but Jonah instead attempts to flee from \"the presence of the Lord\" by going to Jaffa (sometimes transliterated as ''Joppa'' or ''Joppe'').", "He sets sail for Tarshish.", "A huge storm arises and the sailors, realizing that it is no ordinary storm, cast lots and discover that Jonah is to blame.", "Jonah admits this and says that if he is thrown overboard, the storm will cease.", "The sailors refuse to do this and continue rowing, but all their efforts fail, and they eventually throw Jonah overboard.", "As a result, the storm calms and the sailors offer sacrifices to God.After being cast from the ship, Jonah is swallowed by a large fish, within the belly of which he remains for three days and three nights.", "While in the great fish, Jonah prays to God in his affliction and commits to giving thanks and to paying what he has vowed.", "God commands the fish to vomit Jonah out.God again commands Jonah to travel to Nineveh and prophesy to its inhabitants.", "This time he travels there and enters the city, crying, \"In forty days Nineveh shall be overthrown.\"", "After Jonah has walked across Nineveh, the people begin to believe his word and proclaim a fast.", "The king of Nineveh puts on sackcloth and sits in ashes, making a proclamation which decrees fasting, the wearing of sackcloth, prayer, and repentance.", "God sees their repentant hearts and spares the city at that time.", "The entire city is humbled and broken, with the people (and even the animals) wearing sackcloth and ashes.Displeased by this, Jonah refers to his earlier flight to Tarshish while asserting that, since God is merciful, it was inevitable that God would turn from the threatened calamities.", "He leaves the city and makes a shelter, waiting to see whether or not the city will be destroyed.", "God causes a plant (in Hebrew a ''kikayon'') to grow over Jonah's shelter to give him some shade from the sun.", "Later, God causes a worm to bite the plant's root and it withers.", "Jonah, exposed to the full force of the sun, becomes faint and pleads for God to kill him." ], [ "Religious views", "===In Judaism===Illustration of Jonah being swallowed by the fish from the Kennicott Bible, folio 305r (1476), in the Bodleian Library, OxfordThe Book of Jonah (Yonah יונה) is one of the twelve minor prophets included in the Hebrew Bible.", "According to one tradition, Jonah was the boy brought back to life by Elijah the prophet in 1 Kings.", "Another tradition holds that he was the son of the woman of Shunem brought back to life by Elisha in 2 Kings and that he is called the \"son of Amittai\" (''Truth'') due to his mother's recognition of Elisha's identity as a prophet in 2 Kings.", "The Book of Jonah is read every year, in its original Hebrew and in its entirety, on Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement – as the Haftarah at the afternoon mincha prayer.", "According to Rabbi Eliezer, the fish that swallowed Jonah was created in the primordial era and the inside of its mouth was like a synagogue; the fish's eyes were like windows and a pearl inside its mouth provided further illumination.According to the Midrash, while Jonah was inside the fish, the fish told him that its life was nearly over because soon the Leviathan would eat them both.", "Jonah promised the fish that he would save them.", "Following Jonah's directions, the fish swam up alongside the Leviathan and Jonah threatened to leash the Leviathan by its tongue and let the other fish eat it.", "The Leviathan heard Jonah's threats, saw that he was circumcised, and realized that he was protected by the Lord, so it fled in terror, leaving Jonah and the fish alive.", "The medieval Jewish scholar and rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra (1092–1167) argued against any literal interpretation of the Book of Jonah, stating that the \"experiences of all the prophets except Moses were visions, not actualities.\"", "The later scholar Isaac Abarbanel (1437–1509), however, argued that Jonah could have easily survived in the belly of the fish for three days, because \"after all, fetuses live nine months without access to fresh air.", "\"Teshuva – the ability to repent and be forgiven by God – is a prominent idea in Jewish thought.", "This concept is developed in the Book of Jonah: Jonah, the son of truth (the name of his father \"Amitai\" in Hebrew means ''truth''), refuses to ask the people of Nineveh to repent.", "He seeks the truth only, and not forgiveness.", "When forced to go, his call is heard loud and clear, and the people of Nineveh repent ecstatically, \"fasting, including the sheep,\" and the Jewish text is critical of this.", "The Book of Jonah also highlights the sometimes unstable relationship between two religious needs: comfort and truth.Twelfth-century Jewish rabbi and explorer Petachiah of Regensburg visited Jonah's tomb during his visit to the Holy Land, and wrote: \"There is a beautiful palace built over it.", "Near it is a pleasure garden wherein all kinds of fruit are found.", "The keeper of the pleasure garden is a Gentile.", "Nevertheless, when Gentiles come there he gives them no fruit, but when Jews come he gives them a friendly reception, saying, Jonah, son of Amittai, was a Jew, therefore it is due to you to partake of what is his, and then gives to the Jews to eat thereof.\"", "Petachiah did not provide details about the exact location of the tomb.===In Christianity===The Last Judgment'', Michelangelo depicted Christ below Jonah (IONAS) to qualify the prophet as his precursorChrist rises from the tomb, alongside Jonah spit onto the beach====In the Book of Tobit====Jonah is mentioned twice in the fourteenth chapter of the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, the conclusion of which finds Tobit's son, Tobias, rejoicing at the news of Nineveh's destruction by Nebuchadnezzar and Ahasuerus in apparent fulfillment of Jonah's prophecy against the Assyrian capital.====In the New Testament====In the New Testament, Jonah is mentioned in the gospels of Matthew and Luke.", "In Matthew, Jesus makes a reference to Jonah when he is asked for a sign by some of the scribes and the Pharisees.", "Jesus says that the sign will be the sign of Jonah: Jonah's restoration after three days and three night inside the great fish prefigures his own resurrection.Jonah is regarded as a saint by a number of Christian denominations.", "His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church is on 21 September, according to the ''Martyrologium Romanum''.", "On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, Jonah's feast day is on 22 September (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian calendar; 22 September currently falls in October on the modern Gregorian calendar).", "In the Armenian Apostolic Church, moveable feasts are held in commemoration of Jonah as a single prophet and as one of the Twelve Minor Prophets.", "Jonah's mission to the Ninevites is commemorated by the Fast of Nineveh in Syriac and Oriental Orthodox Churches.", "Jonah is commemorated as a prophet in the Calendar of Saints of the Missouri Synod of the Lutheran Church on 22 September.Christian theologians have traditionally interpreted Jonah as a type for Jesus Christ.", "Jonah being in swallowed by the giant fish was regarded as a foreshadowing of Jesus's crucifixion and Jonah emerging from the fish after three days was seen as a parallel for Jesus emerging from the tomb after three days.", "Saint Jerome equates Jonah with Jesus's more nationalistic side, and justifies Jonah's actions by arguing that \"Jonah acts thus as a patriot, not so much that he hates the Ninevites, as that he does not want to destroy his own people.", "\"====Post-Biblical views====Russian Orthodox icon of Jonah, 16th century (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia)Other Christian interpreters, including Saint Augustine and Martin Luther, have taken a directly opposite approach, regarding Jonah as the epitome of envy and jealousness, which they regarded as inherent characteristics of the Jewish people.", "Luther likewise concludes that the ''kikayon'' (plant) represents Judaism, and that the worm which devours it represents Christ.", "Luther also questioned the idea that the Book of Jonah was ever intended as literal history, commenting that he found it hard to believe that anyone would have interpreted it as such if it were not in the Bible.", "Luther's antisemitic interpretation of Jonah remained the prevailing interpretation among German Protestants throughout early modern history.", "J. D. Michaelis comments that \"the meaning of the fable hits you right between the eyes\", and concludes that the Book of Jonah is a polemic against \"the Israelite people's hate and envy towards all the other nations of the earth.\"", "Albert Eichhorn was a strong supporter of Michaelis's interpretation.John Calvin and John Hooper regarded the Book of Jonah as a warning to all those who might attempt to flee from the wrath of God.", "While Luther had been careful to maintain that the Book of Jonah was not written by Jonah, Calvin declared that the Book of Jonah was Jonah's personal confession of guilt.", "Calvin sees Jonah's time inside the fish's belly as equivalent to the fires of Hell, intended to correct Jonah and set him on the path of righteousness.", "Also, unlike Luther, Calvin finds fault with all the characters in the story, describing the sailors on the boat as \"hard and iron-hearted, like Cyclops'\", the penitence of the Ninevites as \"untrained\", and the king of Nineveh as a \"novice\".", "Hooper, on the other hand, sees Jonah as the archetypal dissident and the ship he is cast out from as a symbol of the state.", "Hooper deplores such dissidents, decrying: \"Can you live quietly with so many Jonasses?", "Nay then, throw them into the sea!\"", "In the eighteenth century, German professors were forbidden from teaching that the Book of Jonah was anything other than a literal, historical account.===In Islam===Jonah and the giant fish in the ''Jami' al-tawarikh'' (c. 1400), Metropolitan Museum of Art====Quran====Jonah () is the title of the tenth chapter of the Quran.", "Yūnus is traditionally viewed as highly important in Islam as a prophet who was faithful to God and delivered His messages.", "Jonah is the only one of Judaism's Twelve Minor Prophets to be named in the Quran.", "In Quran 21:87 and 68:48, Jonah is called Dhul-Nūn (; meaning \"The One of the Fish\").", "In 4:163 and 6:86, he is referred to as \"an apostle of Allah\".", "Surah 37:139–148 retells the full story of Jonah:The Quran never mentions Jonah's father, but Muslim tradition teaches that Jonah was from the tribe of Benjamin and that his father was Amittai.====Hadiths====Jonah trying to hide his nakedness in the midst of bushes; Jeremiah in the wilderness (top left); Uzeyr awakened after the destruction of Jerusalem.", "''Zubdat al-Tawarikh'', Ottoman miniature, 1583.Jonah is also mentioned in a few incidents during the lifetime of Muhammad.", "Quraysh sent their servant, Addas, to serve him grapes for sustenance.", "Muhammad asked Addas where he was from and the servant replied Nineveh.", "\"The town of Jonah the just, son of Amittai!\"", "Muhammad exclaimed.", "Addas was shocked because he knew that the pagan Arabs had no knowledge of the prophet Jonah.", "He then asked how Muhammad knew of this man.", "\"We are brothers,\" Muhammad replied.", "\"Jonah was a Prophet of God and I, too, am a Prophet of God.\"", "Addas immediately accepted Islam and kissed the hands and feet of Muhammad.One of the sayings attributed to Muhammad, in the collection of Imam Bukhari, says that Muhammad said \"One should not say that I am better than Jonah\".", "Umayya ibn Abi al-Salt, an older contemporary of Muhammad, taught that, had Jonah not prayed to Allah, he would have remained trapped inside the fish until Judgement Day, but, because of his prayer, Jonah \"stayed only a few days within the belly of the fish\".The ninth-century Persian historian Al-Tabari records that, while Jonah was inside the fish, \"none of his bones or members were injured\".", "Al-Tabari also writes that Allah made the body of the fish transparent, allowing Jonah to see the \"wonders of the deep\" and that Jonah heard all the fish singing praises to Allah.", "Kisai Marvazi, a tenth-century poet, records that Jonah's father was seventy years old when Jonah was born and that he died soon afterwards, leaving Jonah's mother with nothing but a wooden spoon, which turned out to be a cornucopia.====Claimed tombs====Photograph of the ruins of the mosque of Yunus, following its destruction by ISILNineveh's current location is marked by excavations of five gates, parts of walls on four sides, and two large mounds: the hill of Kuyunjik and hill of Nabi Yunus.", "A mosque atop Nabi Yunus was dedicated to the prophet Jonah and contained a shrine, which was revered by both Muslims and Christians as the site of Jonah's tomb.", "The tomb was a popular pilgrimage site and a symbol of unity to Jews, Christians, and Muslims across the Middle East.", "On July 24, 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) destroyed the mosque containing the tomb as part of a campaign to destroy religious sanctuaries it deemed to be idolatrous.", "After Mosul was taken back from ISIL in January 2017, an ancient Assyrian palace built by Esarhaddon dating to around the first half of the 7th century BCE was discovered beneath the ruined mosque.", "ISIL had plundered the palace of items to sell on the black market, but some of the artifacts that were more difficult to transport still remained in place.Other reputed locations of Jonah's tomb include:* the Arab village of Mashhad, located on the ancient site of Gath-hepher in Israel; * the Nabi Yunis mosque of the Palestinian town of Halhul, in the West Bank, north of Hebron, was purportedly built over Jonah's tomb; * a sanctuary near the city of Sarafand (Sarepta) in Lebanon; * a hill now called Giv'at Yonah, \"Jonah's Hill\", at the northern edge of the Israeli town of Ashdod, at a site covered by a modern lighthouse;* a \"tomb of Jonah\" in the city of Diyarbakir, Turkey, located behind the mihrab at Fatih Pasha Mosque – Evliya Çelebi states in his ''Seyahatname'' that he visited the tombs of prophet Jonah and prophet George in the city." ], [ "Scholarly interpretations", "The story of a man surviving after being swallowed by a whale or giant fish is classified in the catalogue of folktale types as ATU 1889G.===Historicity===Many Biblical scholars hold that the contents of the Book of Jonah are ahistorical.", "Although the prophet Jonah allegedly lived in the eighth century BCE, the Book of Jonah was written centuries later during the time of the Achaemenid Empire.", "The Hebrew used in the Book of Jonah shows strong influences from Aramaic and the cultural practices described in it match those of the Achaemenid Persians.", "Some scholars regard the Book of Jonah as an intentional work of parody or satire.", "If this is the case, then it was probably admitted into the canon of the Hebrew Bible by sages who misunderstood its satirical nature and mistakenly interpreted it as a serious prophetic work.While the Book of Jonah itself is considered fiction, Jonah himself may have been a historical prophet; he is briefly mentioned in the Second Book of Kings:In a lecture delivered in 1978 and published in 1979, Assyriologist Donald Wiseman defended the plausibility of many aspects of the story, supporting \"the tradition that many features in the narrative exhibit an intimate and accurate knowledge of Assyria which could stem from an historical event as early as the eighth century B.C.", "\", concluding that \"the story of Jonah need not be considered as a late story or parable\".===Parodic elements===Modern restoration of the Adad gate at Nineveh in a photograph taken prior to the gate's total destruction by ISIL in April 2016.The Book of Jonah exaggerates the size of Nineveh far beyond what it actually was historically.The views expressed by Jonah in the Book of Jonah are a parody of views held by members of Jewish society at the time when it was written.", "The primary target of the satire may have been a faction whom Morton Smith calls \"Separationists\", who believed that God would destroy those who disobeyed him, that sinful cities would be obliterated, and that God's mercy did not extend to those outside the Abrahamic covenant.", "McKenzie and Graham remark that \"Jonah is in some ways the most 'orthodox' of Israelite theologians – to make a theological point.\"", "Jonah's statements throughout the book are characterized by their militancy, but his name ironically means \"dove\", a bird which the ancient Israelites associated with peace.Jonah's rejection of God's commands is a parody of the obedience of the prophets described in other Old Testament writings.", "The king of Nineveh's instant repentance parodies the rulers throughout the other writings of the Old Testament who disregard prophetic warnings, such as Ahab and Zedekiah.", "The readiness to worship God displayed by the sailors on the ship and the people of Nineveh contrasts ironically with Jonah's own reluctance, as does Jonah's greater love for ''kikayon'' providing him shade than for all the people in Nineveh.The Book of Jonah also employs elements of literary absurdism; it exaggerates the size of the city of Nineveh to an implausible degree and incorrectly refers to the administrator of the city as a \"king\".", "According to scholars, no human being could realistically survive for three days inside a fish, and the description of the livestock in Nineveh fasting alongside their owners is \"silly\".Some of these points are countered in the aforementioned lecture of Donald Wiseman.The motif of a protagonist being swallowed by a giant fish or whale became a stock trope of later satirical writings.", "Similar incidents are recounted in Lucian of Samosata's ''A True Story'', which was written in the second century CE, and in the novel ''Baron Munchausen's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia'', published by Rudolf Erich Raspe in 1785." ], [ "The fish", "===Translation===Gothic-era Dom St. Peter, in Worms, GermanyThough art and culture often depicts Jonah's fish as a whale, the Hebrew text, as throughout scripture, refers to no marine species in particular, simply saying \"great fish\" or \"big fish\".", "While some biblical scholars suggest the size and habits of the great white shark correspond better to the representations of Jonah's experiences, normally an adult human is too large to be swallowed whole.", "The development of whaling from the 18th century onwards made it clear that most, if not all, species of whale are incapable of swallowing a human, leading to much controversy about the veracity of the biblical story of Jonah.In Jonah 2:1 (1:17 in English translations), the Hebrew text reads ''dag gadol'' (דג גדול) or, in the Hebrew Masoretic Text, ''dāḡ gāḏōl'' (דָּ֣ג גָּד֔וֹל), which means \"great fish\".", "The Septuagint translates this phrase into Greek as ''kētei megalōi'' (κήτει μεγάλῳ), meaning \"huge fish\".", "In Greek mythology, the same word meaning \"fish\" (''kêtos'') is used to describe the sea monster slain by the hero Perseus that nearly devoured the Princess Andromeda.", "Jerome later translated this phrase as ''piscis grandis'' in his Latin Vulgate.", "He translated ''kétos'', however, as ''ventre ceti'' in Matthew 12:40: this second case occurs only in this verse of the New Testament.At some point ''cetus'' became synonymous with \"whale\" (the study of whales is now called ''cetology'').", "In his 1534 translation, William Tyndale translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as \"greate fyshe\" and the word ''kétos'' (Greek) or ''cetus'' (Latin) in Matthew 12:40 as \"whale\".", "Tyndale's translation was later incorporated into the Authorized Version of 1611.Since then, the \"great fish\" in Jonah 2 has been most often interpreted as a whale.", "In English some translations use the word \"whale\" for Matthew 12:40, while others use \"sea creature\" or \"big fish\".===Scientific speculation===Photograph of a whale shark, the largest known species of fishPhotograph of a sperm whale, the largest toothed predator and one of the largest extant species of whalesIn the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, naturalists, interpreting the Jonah story as a historical account, became obsessed with trying to identify the exact species of the fish that swallowed Jonah.", "In the mid-nineteenth century, Edward Bouverie Pusey, professor of Hebrew at Oxford University, claimed that the Book of Jonah must have been authored by Jonah himself and argued that the fish story must be historically true, or else it would not have been included in the Bible.", "Pusey attempted to scientifically catalogue the fish, hoping to \"shame those who speak of the miracle of Jonah's preservation in the fish as a thing less credible than any of God's other miraculous doings\".The debate over the fish in the Book of Jonah played a major role during Clarence Darrow's cross-examination of William Jennings Bryan at the Scopes trial in 1925.Darrow asked Bryan \"When you read that ... the whale swallowed Jonah ... how do you literally interpret that?\"", "Bryan replied that he believed in \"a God who can make a whale and can make a man and make both of them do what He pleases.\"", "Bryan ultimately admitted that it was necessary to interpret the Bible, and is generally regarded as having come off looking like a \"buffoon\".The largest of all whales – blue whales – are baleen whales which eat plankton; and \"it is commonly said that this species would be choked if it attempted to swallow a herring.\"", "The largest of all fishes – the whale shark — has a large mouth, but its throat is only four inches wide, with a sharp elbow or bend behind the opening, such that not even a human arm would be able to pass through it.", "Therefore, Jonah could not have been swallowed by a whale shark.Sperm whales, however, appear to be a different matter: They regularly eat giant squid, so presumably one could swallow a human.", "Similar to a cow, sperm whales have four-chambered stomachs.", "The first chamber has no gastric juices but has muscular walls to crush its food.", "On the other hand, it is not possible to breathe inside the sperm whale's stomach because there is no air (but probably methane instead).", "A 2023 novel by Daniel Kraus explores the idea of a man surviving being swallowed by a sperm whale, but with an oxygen tank." ], [ "Cultural influence", "Depiction of Jonah in a champlevé enamel (1181) by Nicholas of Verdun in the Verduner altar at Klosterneuburg abbey, AustriaIn Turkish, \"Jonah's fish\" (''yunus balığı'') is the term used for dolphins.", "A long-established expression among sailors uses the term \"a Jonah\" to mean a sailor/passenger whose presence on board brings bad luck and endangers the ship.", "Later, this meaning was extended to \"a person who carries a jinx, one who will bring bad luck to any enterprise.", "\"Despite its brevity, the Book of Jonah has been adapted numerous times in literature and in popular culture.", "In Herman Melville's ''Moby-Dick'' (1851), Father Mapple delivers a sermon on the Book of Jonah.", "Mapple asks why Jonah does not show remorse for disobeying God while he is inside of the fish.", "He concludes that Jonah admirably understands that \"his dreadful punishment is just.\"", "Carlo Collodi's ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'' (1883) features the title character and his father Geppetto being swallowed by \"the Terrible Dogfish,\" an allusion to the story of Jonah.", "Walt Disney's 1940 film adaptation of the novel retains this allusion.", "The story of Jonah was adapted into Phil Vischer and Mike Nawrocki's animated film ''Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie'' (2002).", "In the film, Jonah is swallowed by a gargantuan whale." ], [ "Suggested connections to legends", "Jonah being swallowed by a great toothed sea-monster.", "Sculpted column capital from the nave of the abbey-church in Mozac, France, 12th century.===''Epic of Gilgamesh''===Joseph Campbell suggests that the story of Jonah parallels a scene from the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', in which Gilgamesh obtains a plant from the bottom of the sea.", "In the Book of Jonah, a worm (in Hebrew ''tola'ath'', \"maggot\") bites the shade-giving plant's root causing it to wither; whereas in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', Gilgamesh ties stones to his feet and plucks his plant from the floor of the sea.", "Once he returns to the shore, the rejuvenating plant is eaten by a serpent.===Jason (Greek mythology)===Campbell also noted several similarities between the story of Jonah and that of Jason in Greek mythology.", "The Greek rendering of the name Jonah is ''Jonas'' (Ἰωνᾶς), which differs from ''Jason'' (Ἰάσων) only in the order of sounds—both ''o''s are omegas suggesting that Jason may have been confused with Jonah.", "Gildas Hamel, drawing on the Book of Jonah and Greco-Roman sources—including Greek vases and the accounts of Apollonius of Rhodes, Gaius Valerius Flaccus and Orphic Argonautica—identifies a number of shared motifs, including the names of the heroes, the presence of a dove, the idea of \"fleeing\" like the wind and causing a storm, the attitude of the sailors, the presence of a sea-monster or dragon threatening the hero or swallowing him, and the form and the word used for the \"gourd\" (''kikayon'').", "Hamel takes the view that it was the Hebrew author who reacted to and adapted this mythological material to communicate his own, quite different message." ], [ "See also", "* Aquanaut, a person who stays underwater for a long time* Biblical and Quranic narratives* Jonah on the Sistine Chapel ceiling* Legends and the Quran* Prophets of Islam* Qisas Al-Anbiya" ], [ "Further reading", "***Lasine, Stuart.", "2020.Jonah and the Human Condition: Life and Death in Yahweh’s World.New York: Bloomsbury/T & T Clark." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Jonah leaving whale* The Book of Jonah (Hebrew and English)* The Book of Jonah (NIV)* * Prophet Jonah Orthodox icon and synaxarion* The Prophet Jonah at the Christian Iconography website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jacquard machine" ], [ "Introduction", "Jacquard was woven in silk on a Jacquard loom and required 24,000 punched cards to create (1839).", "It was only produced to order.", "Charles Babbage owned one of these portraits; it inspired him in using perforated cards in his Analytical Engine.", "It is in the collection of the Science Museum in London, England.The '''Jacquard machine''' () is a device fitted to a loom that simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with such complex patterns as brocade, damask and matelassé.", "The resulting ensemble of the loom and Jacquard machine is then called a '''Jacquard loom'''.", "The machine was patented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804, based on earlier inventions by the Frenchmen Basile Bouchon (1725), Jean Baptiste Falcon (1728), and Jacques Vaucanson (1740).", "The machine was controlled by a \"chain of cards\"; a number of punched cards laced together into a continuous sequence.", "Multiple rows of holes were punched on each card, with one complete card corresponding to one row of the design.", "Both the Jacquard process and the necessary loom attachment are named after their inventor.", "This mechanism is probably one of the most important weaving innovations as Jacquard shedding made possible the automatic production of unlimited varieties of complex pattern weaving.", "The term \"Jacquard\" is not specific or limited to any particular loom, but rather refers to the added control mechanism that automates the patterning.", "The process can also be used for patterned knitwear and machine-knitted textiles such as jerseys.This use of replaceable punched cards to control a sequence of operations is considered an important step in the history of computing hardware, having inspired Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine." ], [ "History", "A Jacquard loom showing information punchcards, National Museum of ScotlandTraditionally, figured designs were made on a drawloom.", "The heddles with warp ends to be pulled up were manually selected by a second operator, the draw boy, not the weaver.", "The work was slow and labour-intensive, and the complexity of the pattern was limited by practical factor.", "The first prototype of a Jacquard-type loom was made in the second half of the 15th century by an Italian weaver from Calabria, Jean le Calabrais, who was invited to Lyon by Louis XI.", "He introduced a new kind of machine which was able to work the yarns faster and more precisely.", "Over the years, improvements to the loom were ongoing.An improvement of the draw loom took place in 1725, when Basile Bouchon introduced the principle of applying a perforated band of paper.", "A continuous roll of paper was punched by hand, in sections, each of which represented one lash or tread, and the length of the roll was determined by the number of shots in each repeat of pattern.", "The Jacquard machine then evolved from this approach.Joseph Marie Jacquard saw that a mechanism could be developed for the production of sophisticated patterns.", "He possibly combined mechanical elements of other inventors, but certainly innovated.", "His machine was generally similar to Vaucanson's arrangement, but he made use of Jean-Baptiste Falcon's individual pasteboard cards and his square prism (or card \"cylinder\"): he is credited with having fully perforated each of its four sides, replacing Vaucanson's perforated \"barrel\".", "Jacquard's machine contained eight rows of needles and uprights, where Vaucanson had a double row.", "This modification enabled him to increase the figuring capacity of the machine.", "In his first machine, he supported the harness by knotted cords, which he elevated by a single trap board.One of the chief advantages claimed for the Jacquard machine was that unlike previous damask-weaving machines, in which the figuring shed was usually drawn once for every four shots, with the new apparatus, it could be drawn on every shot, thus producing a fabric with greater definition of outline.Jacquard's invention had a deep influence on Charles Babbage.", "In that respect, he is viewed by some authors as a precursor of modern computing technology." ], [ "Principles of operation", " A schematic diagram of the Jacquard system19th century Engineering drawing of a Jacquard loomOn the diagram, the cards are fastened into a continuous chain (1) which passes over a square box.", "At each quarter rotation a new card is presented to the Jacquard head which represents one row (one \"pick\" of the shuttle carrying the weft).", "The box swings from the right to the position shown and presses against the control rods (2).", "Where there is a hole the rod passes through the card and is unmoved whereas if the hole is not punched the rod is pushed to the left.", "Each rod acts upon a hook (3).", "When the rod is pushed in, the hook moves out of position to the left, a rod that is not pushed in leaves its hook in place.", "A beam (4) then rises under the hooks and those hooks in the rest location are raised; the hooks that have been displaced are not moved by the beam.", "Each hook can have multiple cords (5).", "The cords pass through a guide(6) and are attached to their heddle (7) and a return weight (8).", "The heddles raise the warp to create the shed through which the shuttle carrying the weft will pass.", "A loom with a 400 hook head might have four threads connected to each hook, resulting in a fabric that is 1600 warp ends wide with four repeats of the weave going across.The term \"Jacquard loom\" is somewhat inaccurate.", "It is the \"Jacquard head\" that adapts to a great many dobby looms that allow the weaving machine to then create the intricate patterns often seen in Jacquard weaving.Jacquard-driven looms, although relatively common in the textile industry, are not as ubiquitous as dobby looms which are usually faster and much cheaper to operate.", "However, dobby looms are not capable of producing so many different weaves from one warp.", "Modern jacquard machines are controlled by computers in place of the original punched cards and can have thousands of hooks.The threading of a Jacquard machine is so labor-intensive that many looms are threaded only once.", "Subsequent warps are then tied into the existing warp with the help of a knotting robot which ties each new thread on individually.", "Even for a small loom with only a few thousand warp ends the process of re-threading can take days." ], [ "Mechanical Jacquard devices", "Punched cards in use in a Jacquard loomA punch for Jacquard cardsOriginally the Jacquard machines were mechanical, and the fabric design was stored in a series of punched cards which were joined to form a continuous chain.", "The Jacquards often were small and only independently controlled a relatively few warp ends.", "This required a number of repeats across the loom width.", "Larger capacity machines, or the use of multiple machines, allowed greater control, with fewer repeats, and hence larger designs could be woven across the loom width.A factory must choose looms and shedding mechanisms to suit its commercial requirements.", "As a rule the more warp control required the greater the expense.", "So it is not economical to purchase Jacquard machines if one can make do with a dobby mechanism.", "As well as the capital expense, the Jacquard machines are more costly to maintain as they are complex and require higher skilled personnel; an expensive design system is required to prepare the designs for the loom, and possibly a card-cutting machine.", "Weaving is more costly since Jacquard mechanisms are more likely to produce faults than dobby or cam shedding.", "Also, the looms will not run as quickly and down-time will increase because it takes time to change the continuous chain of cards when a design changes.", "For these reasons it is best to weave larger batches with mechanical Jacquards." ], [ "Electronic Jacquard machines", "It is recorded that in 1855, a Frenchman adapted the Jacquard mechanism to a system by which it could be worked by electro-magnets.", "There was significant interest, but trials were not successful, and the development was soon forgotten.Bonas Textile Machinery NV launched the first successful electronic Jacquard at ITMA Milan in 1983.Although the machines were initially small, modern technology has allowed Jacquard machine capacity to increase significantly, and single end warp control can extend to more than 10,000 warp ends.", "That avoids the need for repeats and symmetrical designs and allows almost infinite versatility.", "The computer-controlled machines significantly reduce the down time associated with changing punched paper designs, thus allowing smaller batch sizes.", "However, electronic Jacquards are costly and may not be required in a factory weaving large batch sizes, and smaller designs.", "The larger machines allowing single end warp control are very expensive, and can only be justified where great versatility is required, or very specialized design requirements need to be met.", "For example, they are an ideal tool to increase the ability and stretch the versatility of the niche linen Jacquard weavers who remain active in Europe and the West, while most of the large batch commodity weaving has moved to low cost areas.Linen products associated with Jacquard weaving are linen damask napery, Jacquard apparel fabrics and damask bed linen.", "Jacquard weaving uses all sorts of fibers and blends of fibers, and it is used in the production of fabrics for many end uses.", "Jacquard weaving can also be used to create fabrics that have a Matelassé or a brocade pattern.", "Research is under way to develop layered and shaped items as reinforcing components for structures made from composite materials." ], [ "The woven silk prayer book", "A pinnacle of production using a Jacquard machine is a prayer book, woven in silk.", "The book's title is .", "All 58 pages of the prayer book were made of silk, woven using a Jacquard machine, using black and gray thread.", "The pages have elaborate borders with text and pictures of saints.", "It is estimated that 200,000 to 500,000 punch cards were necessary to encode the pages, at 160 threads per cm (400 threads per inch).It was issued in 1886 and 1887, in Lyon, France.", "It was publicly displayed at the 1889 ''Exposition Universelle'' (World's Fair).", "It was designed by R. P. J. Hervier, woven by J. A.", "Henry and published by A. Roux.", "It took two years and almost 50 trials to get correct.", "An estimated 50 or 60 copies were produced." ], [ "Importance in computing", "The Jacquard head used replaceable punched cards to control a sequence of operations.", "It is considered an important step in the history of computing hardware.", "The ability to change the pattern of the loom's weave by simply changing cards was an important conceptual precursor to the development of computer programming and data entry.", "Charles Babbage knew of Jacquard machines and planned to use cards to store programs in his Analytical Engine.", "In the late 19th century, Herman Hollerith took the idea of using punched cards to store information a step further when he created a punched card tabulating machine which he used to input data for the 1890 U.S. Census.", "A large data processing industry using punched-card technology was developed in the first half of the twentieth centurydominated initially by the International Business Machine corporation (IBM) with its line of unit record equipment.", "The cards were used for data, however, with programming done by plugboards.Some early computers, such as the 1944 IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Harvard Mark I) received program instructions from a paper tape punched with holes, similar to Jacquard's string of cards.", "Later computers executed programs from higher-speed memory, though cards were commonly used to load the programs into memory.", "Punched cards remained in use in computing up until the mid-1980s." ], [ "See also", "* Thomas Ferguson & Co Ltd" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "****" ], [ "External links", "* Posselt, Emanuel A.", "(1892) ''The Jacquard machine analyzed and explained: the preparation of Jacquard cards and practical hints to learners of Jacquard designing'' – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library* CEMATEX, European Committee of Textile Machinery Manufacturers (and owners of the ITMA exhibition)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "JUnit" ], [ "Introduction", "'''JUnit''' is a unit testing framework for the Java programming language.", "JUnit has been important in the development of test-driven development, and is one of a family of unit testing frameworks which is collectively known as xUnit that originated with SUnit.JUnit is linked as a JAR at compile-time.", "The latest version of the framework, JUnit 5, resides under package .", "Previous versions JUnit 4 and JUnit 3 were under packages and , respectively.A research survey performed in 2013 across 10,000 Java projects hosted on GitHub found that JUnit (in a tie with slf4j-api) was the most commonly included external library.", "Each library was used by 30.7% of projects." ], [ "JUnit Life Cycle", "Every JUnit test class usually has several test cases.", "These test cases are subject to the test life cycle.", "The full JUnit Life Cycle has three major phases:# Setup phase - This phase is where the test infrastructure is prepared.", "Two levels of setup are available.", "The first type of setup is class-level setup in which a computationally expensive object, such as a database connection, is created and reused, with minimal side effects.", "Class-level setup is implemented using the annotation.", "The other type is setup before running each test case, which uses the annotation.# Test execution - This phase is responsible for running the test and verifying the result.", "The test result will indicate if the test result is a success or a failure.", "The annotation is used here.# Clean up phase - After all posttest executions are performed, the system may need to perform cleanup.", "Similar to class-level setup, there is a corresponding class-level clean up.", "The annotation is used to support class-level clean up.", "The annotation allows for cleanup after test execution." ], [ "Integration with other tools", "JUnit 5 integrates a number of tools, such as build tools, integrated development environments (IDE), continuous integration (CI) tools and many more.===Build Tools===JUnit supports Apache Ant, Apache Maven and Gradle build tools, which are the most widely used project build tools.", "Build tools are vital for automating the process of building the project.", "====Ant Extension====Apache Ant, also known as Ant, is one of the build tools with the highest degree of versatility, and has the longest history out of the three build tools listed above.", "Ant centers around the build.xml file, used for configuring the tasks necessary to run a project.", "Ant also has an extension called Apache Ivy, which helps deal with dependency resolution.", "The project dependencies can be declared in the ivy.xml file.", "Ant can integrate with JUnit 5 by configuring the Java code coverage tools (JaCoCo), for the ivy.xml file.", "The ivy.xml can then be configured with the java-platform-console and junit-platform-runner dependencies to integrate with JUnit 5.====Maven Extension====In contrast to Ant, Apache Maven, also known as Maven, uses a standardized and unified approach to the build process.", "Maven follows the paradigm of \"convention over configuration\" for managing its dependencies.", "The Java source code (or \"src\") can be found under the src/main/java directory, and the test files can be found under the src/test/java directory.", "Maven can be used for any Java Project.", "It uses the Project Object Model (POM), which is an XML-based approach to configuring the build steps for the project.", "The minimal Maven with the pom.xml build file must contain a list of dependencies and a unique project identifier.", "Maven must be available on the build path to work.", "Maven can integrate with JUnit 5 using the jacoco-maven-plugin plugin which supports out-of-box functionality for JUnit 5 tests.", "Different Maven goals can be specified to achieve these tasks.====Gradle Extension====Gradle is a build tool that borrows many concepts from its predecessors, Ant and Maven.", "It uses the file to declare the steps required for the project build.", "Unlike Ant and Maven, which are XML-based, Gradle requires the use of Apache Groovy, which is a Java-based programming language.", "Unlike Ant and Maven, Gradle does not require the use of XML.", "Gradle still adheres to Maven's \"convention over configuration\" approach, and follows the same structure for and directories.", "Gradle can integrate with JUnit 5 by configuring a plugin alongside the junit-platform plug-in given by the JUnit 5 team in the build file." ], [ "JUnit Extension Model", "JUnit follows the paradigm of preferring extension points over features.", "The JUnit team decided not to put all features within the JUnit core, and instead decided to give an extensible way for developers to address their concerns.", "In JUnit 4, there are two extension mechanisms: the Runner API and Rule API.", "There were some disadvantages to both the Runner API and the Rule API.", "A major limitation of the Runner API is that the developer has to implement the entire life cycle even if they only need a specific life cycle stage.", "This is too complicated and heighweight for the majority of use cases.", "Another major limitation is that only one runner class is used for each test case, and makes them uncomposable.", "As an example, Mockito and Parameterized runners cannot exist within the same test class.", "A major limitation of the Rule API is that it cannot control the entire life cycle of the test, so they cannot be used for every single use case.", "They are only appropriate when something needs to occur before or after test case execution.", "Another major limitation is that rules for class-level and method-level callbacks must be made separately.", "In JUnit 5, the extension API is found within the JUnit Jupiter Engine.", "The JUnit Team wants to allow the developer to hook to separate stages of a test life cycle by providing a single unified extension API.", "Upon reaching a certain life cycle phase, the Jupiter Engine will invoke all registered extensions for that phase.", "The developer can hook into five major extension points:# Test life cycle callbacks - This allows the developer to hook to certain phases of a test life cycle# Test instance post-processing - this enables the developer to hook after test instance creation by implementing the TestInstancePostProcessor interface.# Conditional test execution - this enables the developer to execute the test case only after meeting certain criteria.# Parameter resolution - This enables the developer to resolve a parameter after receiving it from a test method or constructor.# Exception handling - A use case for exception handling is to change the testing behavior instead of throwing an exception." ], [ "Example of a JUnit test fixture", "A JUnit test fixture is a Java object.", "Test methods must be annotated by the annotation.", "If the situation requires it, it is also possible to define a method to execute before (or after) each (or all) of the test methods with the (or ) and (or ) annotations.import org.junit.jupiter.api.", "*;class FoobarTests { @BeforeAll static void setUpClass() throws Exception { // Code executed before the first test method } @BeforeEach void setUp() throws Exception { // Code executed before each test } @Test void oneThing() { // Code that tests one thing } @Test void anotherThing() { // Code that tests another thing } @Test void somethingElse() { // Code that tests something else } @AfterEach void tearDown() throws Exception { // Code executed after each test } @AfterAll static void tearDownClass() throws Exception { // Code executed after the last test method }}" ], [ "Previous versions of JUnit", "According to Martin Fowler, one of the early adopters of JUnit:As a side effect of its wide use, previous versions of JUnit remain popular, with JUnit 4 having over 100,000 usages by other software components on the Maven Central repository.In JUnit 4, the annotations for test execution callbacks were , , , and , as opposed to JUnit 5's , , , and .In JUnit 3, test fixtures had to inherit from .", "Additionally, test methods had to be prefixed with 'test'." ], [ "See also", "* xUnit, the family name given to testing frameworks including ''JUnit''* SUnit, the original Smalltalk version written by Kent Beck based on which JUnit was written* TestNG, another test framework for Java* Mock object, a technique used during unit testing* Mockito, a mocking library to assist in writing tests* EvoSuite, a tool to automatically generate JUnit tests* List of Java Frameworks" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jerome Kern" ], [ "Introduction", "Jerome Kern in 1934'''Jerome David Kern''' (January 27, 1885 – November 11, 1945) was an American composer of musical theatre and popular music.", "One of the most important American theatre composers of the early 20th century, he wrote more than 700 songs, used in over 100 stage works, including such classics as \"Ol' Man River\", \"Can't Help Lovin' Dat Man\", \"A Fine Romance\", \"Smoke Gets in Your Eyes\", \"The Song Is You\", \"All the Things You Are\", \"The Way You Look Tonight\" and \"Long Ago (and Far Away)\".", "He collaborated with many of the leading librettists and lyricists of his era, including George Grossmith Jr., Guy Bolton, P. G. Wodehouse, Otto Harbach, Oscar Hammerstein II, Dorothy Fields, Johnny Mercer, Ira Gershwin and Yip Harburg.A native New Yorker, Kern created dozens of Broadway musicals and Hollywood films in a career that lasted for more than four decades.", "His musical innovations, such as 4/4 dance rhythms and the employment of syncopation and jazz progressions, built on, rather than rejected, earlier musical theatre tradition.", "He and his collaborators also employed his melodies to further the action or develop characterization to a greater extent than in the other musicals of his day, creating the model for later musicals.", "Although dozens of Kern's musicals and musical films were hits, only ''Show Boat'' is now regularly revived.", "Songs from his other shows, however, are still frequently performed and adapted.", "Many of Kern's songs have been adapted by jazz musicians to become standard tunes." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Kern was born in New York City, on Sutton Place, in what was then the city's brewery district.", "His parents were Henry Kern (1842–1908), a Jewish German immigrant, and Fannie Kern ''née'' Kakeles (1852–1907), who was an American Jew of Bohemian parentage.", "At the time of Kern's birth, his father ran a livery stable; later he became a successful merchant.", "Kern grew up on East 56th Street in Manhattan, where he attended public schools.", "He showed an early aptitude for music and was taught to play the piano and organ by his mother, a professional player and teacher.In 1897, the family moved to Newark, New Jersey, where Kern attended Newark High School (which became Barringer High School in 1907).", "He wrote songs for the school's first musical, a minstrel show, in 1901, and for an amateur musical adaptation of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' put on at the Newark Yacht Club in January 1902.Kern left high school before graduation in the spring of his senior year in 1902.In response, Kern's father insisted that his son work with him in business, instead of composing.", "Kern, however, failed miserably in one of his earliest tasks: he was supposed to purchase two pianos for the store, but instead he ordered 200.His father relented, and later in 1902, Kern became a student at the New York College of Music, studying the piano under Alexander Lambert and Paolo Gallico, and harmony under Dr. Austin Pierce.", "His first published composition, a piano piece, ''At the Casino'', appeared in the same year.", "Between 1903 and 1905, he continued his musical training under private tutors in Heidelberg, Germany, returning to New York via London.===First compositions===Angela Lansbury sings \"How'd you like to spoon with me?\"", "in ''Till the Clouds Roll By'' (1946)For a time, Kern worked as a rehearsal pianist in Broadway theatres and as a song-plugger for Tin Pan Alley music publishers.", "While in London, he secured a contract from the American impresario Charles Frohman to provide songs for interpolation in Broadway versions of London shows.", "He began to provide these additions in 1904 to British scores for ''An English Daisy'', by Seymour Hicks and Walter Slaughter, and ''Mr.", "Wix of Wickham'', for which he wrote most of the songs.In 1905, Kern contributed the song \"How'd you like to spoon with me?\"", "to Ivan Caryll's hit musical ''The Earl and the Girl'' when the show transferred to Chicago and New York in 1905.He also contributed to the New York production of ''The Catch of the Season'' (1905), ''The Little Cherub'' (1906) and ''The Orchid'' (1907), among other shows.", "From 1905 on, he spent long periods of time in London, contributing songs to West End shows like ''The Beauty of Bath'' (1906; with lyricist P. G. Wodehouse) and making valuable contacts, including George Grossmith Jr. and Seymour Hicks, who were the first to introduce Kern's songs to the London stage.", "In 1909 during one of his stays in England, Kern took a boat trip on the River Thames with some friends, and when the boat stopped at Walton-on-Thames, they went to an inn called the Swan for a drink.", "Kern was much taken with the proprietor's daughter, Eva Leale (1891–1959), who was working behind the bar.", "He wooed her, and they were married at the Anglican church of St. Mary's in Walton on October 25, 1910.The couple then lived at the Swan when Kern was in England.Billie Burke, for whom Kern wrote stage and screen musicKern is believed to have composed music for silent films as early as 1912, but the earliest documented film music which he is known to have written was for a twenty-part serial, ''Gloria's Romance'' in 1916.This was one of the first starring vehicles for Billie Burke, for whom Kern had earlier written the song \"Mind the Paint\", with lyrics by A. W. Pinero.", "The film is now considered lost, but Kern's music survives.", "Another score for the silent movies, ''Jubilo'', followed in 1919.Kern was one of the founding members of ASCAP.Kern's first complete score was Broadway's ''The Red Petticoat'' (1912), one of the first musical-comedy Westerns.", "The libretto was by Rida Johnson Young.", "By World War I, more than a hundred of Kern's songs had been used in about thirty productions, mostly Broadway adaptations of West End and European shows.", "Kern contributed two songs to ''To-Night's the Night'' (1914), another Rubens musical.", "It opened in New York and went on to become a hit in London.", "The best known of Kern's songs from this period is probably \"They Didn't Believe Me\", which was a hit in the New York version of the Paul Rubens and Sidney Jones musical, ''The Girl from Utah'' (1914), for which Kern wrote five songs.", "Kern's song, with four beats to a bar, departed from the customary waltz-rhythms of European influence and fitted the new American passion for modern dances such as the fox-trot.", "He was also able to use elements of American styles, such as ragtime, as well as syncopation, in his lively dance tunes.", "Theatre historian John Kenrick writes that the song put Kern in great demand on Broadway and established a pattern for musical comedy love songs that lasted through the 1960s.In May 1915, Kern was due to sail with Charles Frohman from New York to London on board the RMS ''Lusitania'', but Kern missed the boat, having overslept after staying up late playing poker.", "Frohman died in the sinking of the ship.===Princess Theatre musicals===Jerome Kern in 1918Kern composed 16 Broadway scores between 1915 and 1920 and also contributed songs to the London hit ''Theodore & Co'' (1916; most of the songs are by the young Ivor Novello) and to revues like the Ziegfeld Follies.", "The most notable of his scores were those for a series of shows written for the Princess Theatre, a small (299-seat) house built by Ray Comstock.", "Theatrical agent Elisabeth Marbury asked Kern and librettist Guy Bolton to create a series of intimate and low-budget, yet smart, musicals.The \"Princess Theatre shows\" were unique on Broadway not only for their small size, but their clever, coherent plots, integrated scores and naturalistic acting, which presented \"a sharp contrast to the large-scale Ruritanian operettas then in vogue\" or the star-studded revues and extravaganzas of producers like Florenz Ziegfeld.", "Earlier musical comedy had often been thinly plotted, gaudy pieces, marked by the insertion of songs into their scores with little regard to the plot.", "But Kern and Bolton followed the examples of Gilbert and Sullivan and French ''opéra bouffe'' in integrating song and story.", "\"These shows built and polished the mold from which almost all later major musical comedies evolved.", "...", "The characters and situations were, within the limitations of musical comedy license, believable and the humor came from the situations or the nature of the characters.", "Kern's exquisitely flowing melodies were employed to further the action or develop characterization.\"", "The shows featured modern American settings and simple scene changes to suit the small theatre.", "''Oh Boy!", "''The team's first Princess Theatre show was an adaptation of Paul Rubens' 1905 London show, ''Mr.", "Popple (of Ippleton)'', called ''Nobody Home'' (1915).", "The piece ran for 135 performances and was a modest financial success.", "However, it did little to fulfill the new team's mission to innovate, except that Kern's song, \"The Magic Melody\", was the first Broadway showtune with a basic jazz progression.", "Kern and Bolton next created an original piece, ''Very Good Eddie'', which was a surprise hit, running for 341 performances, with additional touring productions that went on into the 1918-19 season.", "The British humorist, lyricist and librettist P. G. Wodehouse joined the Princess team in 1917, adding his skill as a lyricist to the succeeding shows.", "''Oh, Boy!''", "(1917) ran for an extraordinary 463 performances.", "Other shows written for the theatre were ''Have a Heart'' (1917), ''Leave It to Jane'' (1917) and ''Oh, Lady!", "Lady'' (1918).", "The first opened at another theatre before ''Very Good Eddie'' closed.", "The second played elsewhere during the long run of ''Oh Boy!''", "An anonymous admirer wrote a verse in their praise that begins:Sheet music from ''Oh, Lady!", "Lady''In February 1918, Dorothy Parker wrote in ''Vanity Fair'':''Oh, Lady!", "Lady'' was the last successful \"Princess Theatre show\".", "Kern and Wodehouse disagreed over money, and the composer decided to move on to other projects.", "Kern's importance to the partnership was illustrated by the fate of the last musical of the series, ''Oh, My Dear!''", "(1918), to which he contributed only one song: \"Go, Little Boat\".", "The rest of the show was composed by Louis Hirsch and ran for 189 performances: \"Despite a respectable run, everyone realized there was little point in continuing the series without Kern.", "\"===Early 1920s===Marilyn Miller, the star of ''Sally''The 1920s were an extremely productive period in American musical theatre, and Kern created at least one show every year for the entire decade.", "His first show of 1920 was ''The Night Boat'', with book and lyrics by Anne Caldwell, which ran for more than 300 performances in New York and for three seasons on tour.", "Later in the same year, Kern wrote the score for ''Sally'', with a book by Bolton and lyrics by Otto Harbach.", "This show, staged by Florenz Ziegfeld, ran for 570 performances, one of the longest runs of any Broadway show in the decade, and popularized the song \"Look for the Silver Lining\" (which had been written for an earlier show), performed by the rising star Marilyn Miller.", "It also had a long run in London in 1921, produced by George Grossmith Jr. Kern's next shows were ''Good Morning, Dearie'' (1921, with Caldwell) which ran for 347 performances; followed in 1922 by a West End success, ''The Cabaret Girl'' in collaboration with Grossmith and Wodehouse; another modest success by the same team, ''The Beauty Prize'' (1923); and a Broadway flop, ''The Bunch and Judy'', remembered, if at all, as the first time Kern and Fred Astaire worked together.", "''Stepping Stones'' (1923, with Caldwell) was a success, and in 1924 the Princess Theatre team of Bolton, Wodehouse and Kern reunited to write ''Sitting Pretty'', but it did not recapture the popularity of the earlier collaborations.", "Its relative failure may have been partly due to Kern's growing aversion to having individual songs from his shows performed out of context on radio, in cabaret, or on record, although his chief objection was to jazz interpretations of his songs.", "He called himself a \"musical clothier – nothing more or less,\" and said, \"I write music to both the situations and the lyrics in plays.\"", "When ''Sitting Pretty'' was produced, he forbade any broadcasting or recording of individual numbers from the show, which limited their chance to gain popularity.1925 was a major turning point in Kern's career when he met Oscar Hammerstein II, with whom he would entertain a lifelong friendship and collaboration.", "As a young man, Kern had been an easy companion with great charm and humor, but he became less outgoing in his middle years, sometimes difficult to work with: he once introduced himself to a producer by saying, \"I hear you're a son of a bitch.", "So am I.\"", "He rarely collaborated with any one lyricist for long.", "With Hammerstein, however, he remained on close terms for the rest of his life.", "Their first show, written together with Harbach, was ''Sunny'', which featured the song \"Who (Stole My Heart Away)?\"", "Marilyn Miller played the title role, as she had in ''Sally''.", "The show ran for 517 performances on Broadway, and the following year ran for 363 performances in the West End, starring Binnie Hale and Jack Buchanan.===''Show Boat''===Oscar Hammerstein II, one of Kern's chief collaborators Because of the strong success of ''Sally'' and ''Sunny'' and consistent good results with his other shows, Ziegfeld was willing to gamble on Kern's next project in 1927.Kern had been impressed by Edna Ferber's novel ''Show Boat'' and wished to present a musical stage version.", "He persuaded Hammerstein to adapt it and Ziegfeld to produce it.", "The story, dealing with racism, marital strife and alcoholism, was unheard of in the escapist world of musical comedy.", "Despite his doubts, Ziegfeld spared no expense in staging the piece to give it its full epic grandeur.", "According to the theatre historian John Kenrick: \"After the opening night audience filed out of the Ziegfeld Theatre in near silence, Ziegfeld thought his worst fears had been confirmed.", "He was pleasantly surprised when the next morning brought ecstatic reviews and long lines at the box office.", "In fact, ''Show Boat'' proved to be the most lasting accomplishment of Ziegfeld's career – the only one of his shows that is regularly performed today.\"", "The score is, arguably, Kern's greatest and includes the well-known songs \"Ol' Man River\" and \"Can't Help Lovin' Dat Man\" as well as \"Make Believe\", \"You Are Love\", \"Life Upon the Wicked Stage\", \"Why Do I Love You\", all with lyrics by Hammerstein, and \"Bill\", originally written for ''Oh, Lady!", "Lady!", "'', with lyrics by P. G. Wodehouse.", "The show ran for 572 performances on Broadway and was also a success in London.", "Although Ferber's novel was filmed unsuccessfully as a part-talkie in 1929 (using some songs from the Kern score), the musical itself was filmed twice, in 1936, and, with Technicolor, in 1951.In 1989, a stage version of the musical was presented on television for the first time, in a production from the Paper Mill Playhouse telecast by PBS on ''Great Performances''.While most Kern musicals have largely been forgotten, except for their songs, ''Show Boat'' remains well-remembered and frequently seen.", "It is a staple of stock productions and has been revived numerous times on Broadway and in London.", "A 1946 revival integrated choreography into the show, in the manner of a Rodgers and Hammerstein production, as did the 1994 Harold Prince–Susan Stroman revival, which was nominated for ten Tony Awards, winning five, including best revival.", "It was the first musical to enter a major opera company's repertory (New York City Opera, 1954), and the rediscovery of the 1927 score with Robert Russell Bennett's original orchestrations led to a large-scale EMI recording in 1987 and several opera-house productions.", "In 1941, the conductor Artur Rodziński wished to commission a symphonic suite from the score, but Kern considered himself a songwriter and not a symphonist.", "He never orchestrated his own scores, leaving that to musical assistants, principally Frank Saddler (until 1921) and Robert Russell Bennett (from 1923).", "In response to the commission, Kern oversaw an arrangement by Charles Miller and Emil Gerstenberger of numbers from the show into the orchestral work ''Scenario for Orchestra: Themes from Show Boat'', premiered in 1941 by the Cleveland Orchestra conducted by Rodziński.Show Boat''Kern's last Broadway show in the 1920s was ''Sweet Adeline'' (1929), with a libretto by Hammerstein.", "It was a period piece, set in the Gay 90s, about a girl from Hoboken, New Jersey (near Kern's childhood home), who becomes a Broadway star.", "Opening just before the stock market crash, it received rave reviews, but the elaborate, old-fashioned piece was a step back from the innovations in ''Show Boat'', or even the Princess Theatre shows.", "In January 1929, at the height of the Jazz Age, and with ''Show Boat'' still playing on Broadway, Kern made news on both sides of the Atlantic for reasons wholly unconnected with music.", "He sold at auction, at New York's Anderson Galleries, the collection of English and American literature that he had been building up for more than a decade.", "The collection, rich in inscribed first editions and manuscript material of eighteenth and nineteenth century authors, sold for a total of $1,729,462.50 () – a record for a single-owner sale that stood for over fifty years.", "Among the books he sold were first or early editions of poems by Robert Burns and Percy Bysshe Shelley, and works by Jonathan Swift, Henry Fielding and Charles Dickens, as well as manuscripts by Alexander Pope, John Keats, Shelley, Lord Byron, Thomas Hardy and others.===First films and later shows===In 1929 Kern made his first trip to Hollywood to supervise the 1929 film version of ''Sally'', one of the first \"all-talking\" Technicolor films.", "The following year, he was there a second time to work on ''Men of the Sky'', released in 1931 without his songs, and a 1930 film version of ''Sunny''.", "There was a public reaction against the early glut of film musicals after the advent of film sound; Hollywood released more than 100 musical films in 1930, but only 14 in 1931.Warner Bros. bought out Kern's contract, and he returned to the stage.", "He collaborated with Harbach on the Broadway musical ''The Cat and the Fiddle'' (1931), about a composer and an opera singer, featuring the songs \"She Didn't Say Yes\" and \"The Night Was Made for Love\".", "It ran for 395 performances, a remarkable success for the Depression years, and transferred to London the following year.", "It was filmed in 1934 with Jeanette MacDonald.", "''Music in the Air'' (1932) was another Kern-Hammerstein collaboration and another show-biz plot, best remembered today for \"The Song Is You\" and \"I've Told Ev'ry Little Star\".", "It was \"undoubtedly an operetta\", set in the German countryside, but without the Ruritanian trimmings of the operettas of Kern's youth.", "''Roberta'' (1933) by Kern and Harbach included the songs \"Smoke Gets in Your Eyes\", \"Let's Begin\" and \"Yesterdays\" and featured, among others, Bob Hope, Fred MacMurray, George Murphy and Sydney Greenstreet all in the early stages of their careers.", "Kern's ''Three Sisters'' (1934), was his last West End show, with a libretto by Hammerstein.", "The musical, depicting horse-racing, the circus, and class distinctions, was a failure, running for only two months.", "Its song \"I Won't Dance\" was used in the film ''Roberta''.", "Some British critics objected to American writers essaying a British story; James Agate, doyen of London theatre critics of the day, dismissed it as \"American inanity,\" though both Kern and Hammerstein were strong and knowledgeable Anglophiles.", "Kern's last Broadway show (other than revivals) was ''Very Warm for May'' (1939), another show-biz story and another disappointment, although the score included the Kern and Hammerstein classic \"All The Things You Are\".===Kern in Hollywood===In 1935, when musical films had become popular once again, thanks to Busby Berkeley, Kern returned to Hollywood, where he composed the scores to a dozen more films, although he also continued working on Broadway productions.", "He settled permanently in Hollywood in 1937.After suffering a heart attack in 1939, he was told by his doctors to concentrate on film scores, a less stressful task, as Hollywood songwriters were not as deeply involved with the production of their works as Broadway songwriters.", "This second phase of Kern's Hollywood career had considerably greater artistic and commercial success than the first.", "With Hammerstein, he wrote songs for the film versions of his recent Broadway shows ''Music in the Air'' (1934), which starred Gloria Swanson in a rare singing role, and ''Sweet Adeline'' (1935).", "With Dorothy Fields, he composed the new music for ''I Dream Too Much'' (1935), a musical melodrama about the opera world, starring the Metropolitan Opera diva Lily Pons.", "Kern and Fields interspersed the opera numbers with their songs, including \"the swinging 'I Got Love,' the lullaby 'The Jockey on the Carousel,' and the entrancing title song.\"", "Also with Fields, he wrote two new songs, \"I Won't Dance\" and \"Lovely to Look At\", for the Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers film version of ''Roberta'' (1935), which was a hit.", "The show also included the song \"I'll Be Hard to Handle\".", "This was given a 1952 remake called ''Lovely to Look At''.Their next film, ''Swing Time'' (1936) included the song \"The Way You Look Tonight\", which won the Academy Award in 1936 for the best song.", "Other songs in ''Swing Time'' include \"A Fine Romance\", \"Pick Yourself Up\" and \"Never Gonna Dance\".", "''The Oxford Companion to the American Musical'' calls ''Swing Time'' \"a strong candidate for the best of the Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers musicals\" and says that, although the screenplay is contrived, it \"left plenty of room for dance and all of it was superb.", "...", "Although the movie is remembered as one of the great dance musicals, it also boasts one of the best film scores of the 1930s.\"", "For the 1936 film version of ''Show Boat'', Kern and Hammerstein wrote three new songs, including \"I Have The Room Above Her\" and \"Ah Still Suits Me\".", "''High, Wide, and Handsome'' (1937) was intentionally similar in plot and style to ''Show Boat'', but it was a box-office failure.", "Kern songs were also used in the Cary Grant film, ''When You're in Love'' (1937), and the first Abbott and Costello feature, ''One Night in the Tropics'' (1940).", "In 1940, Hammerstein wrote the lyric \"The Last Time I Saw Paris\", in homage to the French capital, recently occupied by the Germans.", "Kern set it, the only time he set a pre-written lyric, and his only hit song not written as part of a musical.", "Originally a hit for Tony Martin and later for Noël Coward, the song was used in the film ''Lady Be Good'' (1941) and won Kern another Oscar for best song.", "Kern's second and last symphonic work was his 'Mark Twain Suite'' (1942).In his last Hollywood musicals, Kern worked with several new and distinguished partners.", "With Johnny Mercer for ''You Were Never Lovelier'' (1942), he contributed \"a set of memorable songs to entertain audiences until the plot came to its inevitable conclusion\".", "The film starred Astaire and Rita Hayworth and included the song \"I'm Old Fashioned\".", "Kern's next collaboration was with Ira Gershwin on ''Cover Girl'' starring Hayworth and Gene Kelly (1944) for which Kern composed \"Sure Thing\",\"Put Me to the Test,\" \"Make Way for Tomorrow\" (lyric by E. Y. Harburg), and the hit ballad \"Long Ago (and Far Away)\".", "For the Deanna Durbin Western musical, ''Can't Help Singing'' (1944), with lyrics by Harburg, Kern \"provided the best original score of Durbin's career, mixing operetta and Broadway sounds in such songs as 'Any Moment Now,' 'Swing Your Partner,' 'More and More,' and the lilting title number.\"", "\"More and More\" was nominated for an Oscar.Kern composed his last film score, ''Centennial Summer'' (1946) in which \"the songs were as resplendent as the story and characters were mediocre.", "... Oscar Hammerstein, Leo Robin, and E. Y. Harburg contributed lyrics for Kern's lovely music, resulting in the soulful ballad 'All Through the Day,' the rustic 'Cinderella Sue,' the cheerful 'Up With the Lark,' and the torchy 'In Love in Vain.'\"", "\"All Through the Day\" was another Oscar nominee.", "The music of Kern's last two films is notable in the way it developed from his earlier work.", "Some of it was too advanced for the film companies; Kern's biographer, Stephen Banfield, refers to \"tonal experimentation ... outlandish enharmonics\" that the studios insisted on cutting.", "At the same time, in some ways his music came full circle: having in his youth helped to end the reigns of the waltz and operetta, he now composed three of his finest waltzes (\"Can't Help Singing\", \"Californ-i-ay\" and \"Up With the Lark\"), the last having a distinctly operetta-like character.===Personal life and death===Lena Horne sings \"Can't Help Lovin' Dat Man\" in ''Till the Clouds Roll By''.Kern and his wife, Eva, often vacationed on their yacht ''Show Boat''.", "He collected rare books and enjoyed betting on horses.", "At the time of Kern's death, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer was filming a fictionalized version of his life, ''Till the Clouds Roll By'', which was released in 1946 starring Robert Walker as Kern.", "In the film, Kern's songs are sung by Judy Garland, Kathryn Grayson, June Allyson, Lena Horne, Dinah Shore, Frank Sinatra and Angela Lansbury, among others, and Gower Champion and Cyd Charisse appear as dancers.", "Many of the biographical elements are fictionalized.In the fall of 1945, Kern returned to New York City to oversee auditions for a new revival of ''Show Boat'', and began to work on the score for what would become the musical ''Annie Get Your Gun'', to be produced by Rodgers and Hammerstein.", "On November 5, 1945, at 60 years of age, he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage while walking at the corner of Park Avenue and 57th Street.", "Identifiable only by his ASCAP card, Kern was initially taken to the indigent ward at City Hospital, later being transferred to Doctors Hospital in Manhattan.", "Hammerstein was at his side when Kern's breathing stopped.", "Hammerstein hummed or sang the song \"I've Told Ev'ry Little Star\" from ''Music in the Air'' (a personal favorite of the composer's) into Kern's ear.", "Receiving no response, Hammerstein realized Kern had died.", "Rodgers and Hammerstein then assigned the task of writing the score for ''Annie Get Your Gun'' to the veteran Broadway composer Irving Berlin.Kern is interred at Ferncliff Cemetery in Westchester County, New York.", "His daughter, Elizabeth \"Betty\" Jane Kern (1918–1996) married Artie Shaw in 1942 and later Jack Cummings.", "Kern's wife eventually remarried, to a singer named George Byron." ], [ "Accolades", "Jerome Kern was nominated eight times for an Academy Award, and won twice.", "Seven nominations were for Best Original Song; these included a posthumous nomination in each of 1945 and 1946.One nomination was in 1945 for Best Original Music Score.", "Kern was not eligible for any Tony Awards, which were not created until 1947.In 1976, ''Very Good Eddie'' was nominated for a Drama Desk Award as Outstanding Revival, and the director and actors received various Tony, Drama Desk and other awards and nominations.", "Elisabeth Welsh was nominated for a Tony Award for her performance in ''Jerome Kern Goes to Hollywood'' in 1986, and ''Show Boat'' received Tony nominations in both 1983 and 1995, winning for best revival in 1995 (among numerous other awards and nominations), and won the Laurence Olivier Award for best revival in 2008.In 1986, ''Big Deal'' was nominated for the Tony for best musical, among other awards, and Bob Fosse won as best choreographer.", "In 2000, ''Swing!", "'', featuring Kern's \"I Won't Dance\" was nominated for the Tony for Best Musical, among others.", "In 2002, ''Elaine Stritch at Liberty'', featuring Kern's \"All in Fun\", won the Tony Award for Best Special Theatrical Event.", "In 2004, ''Never Gonna Dance'' received two Tony nominations.Kern was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame posthumously, in 1970.In 1985, the U.S. Post Office issued a postage stamp (Scott #2110, 22¢), with an illustration of Kern holding sheet music.", "The Grateful Dead guitarist Jerry Garcia was named after Kern by his Dixieland bandleader father.===Academy Award for Best Original Song===* 1935 – Nominated for \"Lovely to Look At\" (lyrics by Dorothy Fields and Jimmy McHugh) from ''Roberta''* 1936 – '''Won''' for \"The Way You Look Tonight\" (lyrics by Dorothy Fields) from ''Swing Time''* 1941 – '''Won''' for \"The Last Time I Saw Paris\" (lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II) from ''Lady Be Good''* 1942 – Nominated for \"Dearly Beloved\" (lyrics by Johnny Mercer) from ''You Were Never Lovelier''.", "* 1944 – Nominated for \"Long Ago (and Far Away)\" (lyrics by Ira Gershwin) from ''Cover Girl''* 1945 – Posthumously nominated for \"More and More\" (lyrics by E. Y. Harburg) from ''Can't Help Singing''* 1946 – Posthumously nominated for \"All Through the Day\" (lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II) from ''Centennial Summer''.===Academy Award for Best Original Music Score===* 1945 – Posthumously nominated for ''Can't Help Singing'' (with H. J. Salter)." ], [ "Selected works", "Note: All shows listed are musical comedies for which Kern was the sole composer unless otherwise specified.During his first phase of work (1904–1911), Kern wrote songs for 22 Broadway productions, including songs interpolated into British musicals or featured in revues (sometimes writing lyrics as well as music), and he occasionally co-wrote musicals with one or two other composers.", "During visits to London beginning in 1905, he also composed songs that were first performed in several London shows.", "The following are some of the most notable such shows from this period:*''Mr.", "Wix of Wickham'' (1904) – contributed most of the songs for this musical's New York production*''The Catch of the Season'' (1905) – contributor to this Seymour Hicks musical's New York production*''The Earl and the Girl'' (1905) – contributor of music and lyrics to this Hicks and Ivan Caryll musical's American productions*''The Little Cherub'' (1906) – contributor to this Caryll and Owen Hall musical's New York production*''The Rich Mr. Hoggenheimer'' (1906) – contributor of eight songs*''The Beauty of Bath'' (1906) – contributor to the original London production of this Hicks musical, with lyricist P. G. Wodehouse*''The Orchid'' (1907) – contributor to this Caryll and Lionel Monckton musical's New York production*''The Girls of Gottenberg'' (1908) – contributor of \"I Can't Say That You're The Only One\" to this Caryll and Monckton musical's New York production*''Fluffy Ruffles'' (1908) – co-composer for eight out of ten songs*''The Dollar Princess'' (1909) – contributor of songs for American production*''Our Miss Gibbs'' (1910) – contributor of four songs and some lyrics to this Caryll and Monckton musical's New York production*''La Belle Paree'' (1911) – revue – co-composer for seven songs; the Broadway debut of Al JolsonFrom 1912 to 1924, the more-experienced Kern began to work on dramatically concerned shows, including incidental music for plays, and, for the first time since his college show ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', he wrote musicals as the sole composer.", "His regular lyricist collaborators for his more than 30 shows during this period were Bolton, Wodehouse, Caldwell, Harry B. Smith and Howard Dietz.", "Some of his most notable shows during this very productive period were as follows:*''The \"Mind-the-Paint\" Girl'' (1912 play; starring Billie Burke) – incidental music*''The Red Petticoat'' (1912) – Kern's first complete score*''To-Night's the Night'' (1914) – contributor of two songs to this Rubens musical*''The Girl from Utah'' (1914) – added five songs to the American production of this Rubens musical*''Nobody Home'' (1915) – the first \"Princess Theatre show\"*''Very Good Eddie'' (1915; revived in 1975)*''Ziegfeld Follies of 1916'' (1916; a revue; the first of many) – contributed four songs*''Theodore & Co'' (1916) – contributed four songs to young Ivor Novello's London hit.", "*''Miss 1917'' - the musical comedy*''Miss Springtime'' (1917) – contributor of two songs to this Emmerich Kalman success*''Have a Heart'' (1917) – composer and contributor of some lyrics*''Love O' Mike'' (1917)*''Oh, Boy!''", "(1917) – the most successful Princess Theatre show*''Ziegfeld Follies of 1917'' (1917) – contributor of \"Because You Are Just You (Just Because You're You)\"*''Leave It to Jane'' (1917; revived in 1958 Off-Broadway)*''Oh, Lady!", "Lady'' (1918) – the last Princess Theatre hit*\"Oh, My Dear\" (1918) – contributed one song to this last \"Princess Theatre show\"*''The Night Boat'' (1920)*''Hitchy-Koo of 1920'' (1920) – revue*''Sally'' (1920; revived in 1923 and 1948) – one of Kern's biggest hits*''The Cabaret Girl'' (London 1922)*''The Bunch and Judy'' (1922) – Kern's first show with Fred Astaire*''Stepping Stones'' (1923)During the last phase of his theatrical composing career, Kern continued to work with his previous collaborators but also met Oscar Hammerstein II and Otto Harbach, with whom Kern wrote his most lasting, memorable, and well-known works.", "The most successful of these are as follows:*''Sunny'' (1925) – a follow-up to ''Sally'' and almost as big a hit; first collaboration with Hammerstein and Harbach*''Criss Cross'' (1926) – with Harbach*''Show Boat'' (1927; revived frequently) – with Hammerstein*''Blue Eyes'' (1928; London)*''Sweet Adeline'' (1929) – with Hammerstein*''The Cat and the Fiddle'' (1931) – Kern collaborated with Harbach the music, book and lyrics*''Music in the Air'' (1932; revived in 1951) – composer and co-director with Hammerstein*''Roberta'' (1933) – with Harbach (remade as ''Lovely to Look At'' (1952))*''Three Sisters'' (1934; London)*''Mamba's Daughters'' (1939; revived in 1940) – play – featured songwriter*''Very Warm for May'' (1939) – with Hammerstein; Kern's last stage musical, and a failureIn addition to revivals of his most popular shows, Kern's music has been posthumously featured in a variety of revues, musicals and concerts on and off Broadway.", "*''Jerome Kern Goes to Hollywood'' (1986) – Broadway revue consisting solely of Kern songs with lyrics by twelve different writers*''Big Deal'' (1986) – a Bob Fosse dance revue; includes \"Pick Yourself Up\"*''Something Wonderful'' (1995) – concert celebrating Oscar Hammerstein II's 100th birthday – featured composer*''Dream'' (1997) – revue – includes \"You Were Never Lovelier\", \"I'm Old Fashioned\", and \"Dearly Beloved\"*''Swing!''", "(1999) – dance revue; includes \"I Won't Dance\"*''Elaine Stritch at Liberty'' (2002) – one-woman show; included \"All In Fun\"*''Never Gonna Dance'' (2003) – musical consisting solely of songs composed by Kern, with lyrics by nine different writers*''Jerome Kern: All the Things You Are'' (2008) – K T Sullivan's revue biography of Kern featuring Kern's songs*''Come Fly Away'' – a Twyla Tharp dance revue; includes \"Pick Yourself Up\"" ], [ "Kern's songs", "Among the more than 700 songs by Kern are such classics as \"They Didn't Believe Me\" (1914), \"Look for the Silver Lining\" (1920), \"Ol' Man River\", \"Can't Help Lovin' Dat Man\", \"Make Believe\", \"You Are Love\" and \"Bill\" (all from ''Show Boat'', 1927), \"The Song Is You\" (1932), \"Smoke Gets in Your Eyes\", \"Yesterdays\" and \"Let's Begin\" (all from ''Roberta'', 1933), \"I Won't Dance\" (1935), \"A Fine Romance\" and the Academy Award-winning \"The Way You Look Tonight\" (both from ''Swing Time'', 1936), \"All the Things You Are\" (1939) and \"I'm Old Fashioned\" (1942).", "Another Oscar winner was \"The Last Time I Saw Paris\".", "One of Kern's last hits was \"Long Ago (and Far Away)\" (1944)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Banfield, Stephen and Geoffrey Holden Block.", "''Jerome Kern'', New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 2006.", "*Blackman, Michael Ernest (1989).", "''A short history of Walton-on-Thames'', Walton and Weybridge Local History Society.", ".", "*Block, G. \"Show Boat: In the Beginning\", ''Enchanted Evenings: the Broadway Musical from 'Show Boat' to Sondheim'' (New York, 1997), pp, 19–40; 319–24*Bloom, Ken and Vlastnik, Frank.", "''Broadway Musicals: The 101 Greatest Shows of all Time.''", "Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, New York, 2004.", "*Bordman, Gerald.", "''Jerome Kern: his Life and Music'' (New York, 1980)*Davis, L. ''Bolton and Wodehouse and Kern: the Men who made Musical Comedy'' (New York, 1993)*Denison, Chuck, and Duncan Schiedt.", "''The Great American Songbook''.", "Bandon, Oregon, Robert D. Reed Publishers, 2004..*Ewen, D. ''The World of Jerome Kern'' (New York, 1960)*Fordin, Hugh.", "''Jerome Kern: the Man and his Music'' Santa Monica, CA, 1975*Freedland, M. ''Jerome Kern: a Biography'' (London, 1978)*Green, Benny.", "''P.", "G. Wodehouse – A Literary Biography'', Pavilion Books, London, 1981.", "*Green, Kay (ed.)", "''Broadway Musicals, Show by Show'', Hal Leonard Corporation, 1996.", "*Jasen, David.", "''P.", "G. Wodehouse – Portrait of a Master'', Garnstone Press, London, 1972.", "*Lamb, Andrew.", "''Jerome Kern in Edwardian London'' (Littlehampton, 1981; 1985)*McLean, Lorraine Arnal.", "''Dorothy Donnelly''.", "Jefferson, North Carolina, McFarlan, 1999..*Wilder, A.", "''American Popular Song: the Great Innovators, 1900–1950'' (New York, 1972)" ], [ "External links", "* Jerome Kern's biography at the \"Songwriters Hall of Fame\".", "**** \"Dorothy Fields on Kern\" at the Dorothy Fields website; describes circumstances of the composer's death.", "* Jerome Kern Collection at the Library of Congress* Jerome Kern recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jim Henson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Maury Henson''' (September 24, 1936 – May 16, 1990) was an American puppeteer, animator, cartoonist, actor, inventor, and filmmaker who achieved worldwide notability as the creator of the Muppets.", "Henson was also well known for creating ''Fraggle Rock'' (1983–1987) and as the director of ''The Dark Crystal'' (1982) and ''Labyrinth'' (1986).Born in Greenville, Mississippi and raised in both Leland, Mississippi and University Park, Maryland, Henson began developing puppets in high school.", "He created ''Sam and Friends'' (1955–1961), a short-form comedy television program, while he was a freshman at the University of Maryland, College Park in collaboration with Jane Nebel, who was a senior there.", "A few years later the two married.", "He graduated from the University of Maryland with a degree in home economics, after which he and Jane produced coffee advertisements and developed experimental films.", "In 1958, he co-founded Muppets, Inc. with Jane; it later became The Jim Henson Company.In 1969, Henson joined the children's educational television program ''Sesame Street'' (1969–present) where he helped to develop Muppet characters for the series.", "He and his creative team also appeared on the first season of the sketch comedy show ''Saturday Night Live'' (1975–present).", "He produced the sketch comedy television series ''The Muppet Show'' (1976–1981) during this period.", "He won fame for his characters, particularly Kermit the Frog, Rowlf the Dog and Ernie.", "During the later years of his life, he founded the Jim Henson Foundation and Jim Henson's Creature Shop.", "He won the Emmy Award twice for his involvement in ''The StoryTeller'' (1987–1988) and ''The Jim Henson Hour'' (1989).Henson died in New York City at age 53 from streptococcal toxic shock syndrome caused by ''Streptococcus pyogenes''.", "At the time of his death, he was in negotiations to sell his company to The Walt Disney Company, but talks fell through after his passing.", "He posthumously received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1991, and was named a Disney Legend in 2011." ], [ "Early life", "James Maury Henson was born on September 24, 1936, in Greenville, Mississippi, the younger of two children of Paul Ransom Henson (1904–1994), an agronomist for the United States Department of Agriculture, and his wife Betty Marcella (née Brown, 1904–1972).", "Henson's older brother, Paul Ransom Henson Jr. (1932–1956), died in a car crash on April 15, 1956.He was raised as a Christian Scientist and spent his early childhood in nearby Leland, Mississippi, before moving with his family to University Park, Maryland, near Washington, D.C., in the late 1940s.", "He remembered the arrival of the family's first television as \"the biggest event of his adolescence\", being heavily influenced by radio ventriloquist Edgar Bergen and the early television puppets of Burr Tillstrom on ''Kukla, Fran and Ollie'' and Bil and Cora Baird.", "He remained a Christian Scientist at least into his twenties when he taught Sunday school, but he wrote to a Christian Science church in 1975 to inform them that he was no longer a practicing member." ], [ "Career", "===Education and early career===At age 18, Henson began working for WTOP-TV (now WUSA-TV) in 1954 while attending Northwestern High School, creating puppets for a Saturday morning children's show called ''The Junior Morning Show''.", "He enrolled at the University of Maryland, College Park as a studio arts major upon graduation, thinking that he might become a commercial artist.", "A puppetry class offered in the applied arts department introduced him to the craft and textiles courses in the College of Home Economics.", "He graduated in 1960 with a Bachelor of Science degree in home economics.", "As a freshman, he created ''Sam and Friends'', a five-minute puppet show for WRC-TV in Washington, D.C.", "The characters on ''Sam and Friends'' were forerunners of the Muppets, and the show included a prototype of Henson's most famous character Kermit the Frog.", "He remained at WRC until ''Sam and Friends'' aired its last episode on December 15, 1961.In the show, Henson began experimenting with techniques that changed the way in which puppetry was used on television, including eliminating the conventional proscenium arch and using the frame defined by the camera shot to allow the puppet performer to work from off-camera.", "He believed that television puppets needed to have \"life and sensitivity\" and began making characters from flexible, fabric-covered foam rubber, allowing them to express a wider array of emotions at a time when many puppets were made of carved wood.", "A marionette's arms are manipulated by strings, but Henson used rods to move his Muppets' arms, allowing greater control of expression.", "Additionally, he wanted the Muppet characters to \"speak\" more creatively than was possible for previous puppets, which had random mouth movements, so he used precise lip-sync mouth movements to match the dialogue.When Henson began work on ''Sam and Friends'', he asked fellow University of Maryland senior Jane Nebel to assist him.", "The show was a financial success, but he began to have doubts about going into a career performing with puppets once he graduated.", "He spent several months in Europe, where he was inspired by European puppet performers who looked on their work as an art form.", "He began dating Jane after his return to the United States.", "===Television and Muppets: 1961–1969===Reproductions built in the Muppets Workshop of the Wilkins (left) and Wontkins (right) muppetsHenson spent much of the next two decades working in commercials, talk shows, and children's projects before realizing his dream of the Muppets as \"entertainment for everybody\".", "The popularity of his work on ''Sam and Friends'' in the late 1950s led to a series of guest appearances on network talk and variety shows.", "He appeared as a guest on many shows, including ''The Steve Allen Show'', ''The Jack Paar Program'', and ''The Ed Sullivan Show''.", "(Sullivan introduced him as \"Jim Newsom and his Puppets\" on September 11, 1966.)", "These television broadcasts greatly increased his exposure, leading to hundreds of commercial appearances by Henson characters throughout the 1960s.Among the most popular of Henson's commercials was a series for the local Wilkins Coffee company in Washington, D.C., created for a campaign managed by advertising manager Helen Ver Standig.", "Most of the Wilkins advertisements followed a similar formula.", "Two Muppets, in this case named Wilkins and Wontkins (and usually both voiced by Henson), would appear.", "Wilkins would extol the product, while Wontkins would express his hatred for it, causing Wilkins to retaliate physically; examples included Wontkins being shot with a cannon, struck in the head with a hammer or baseball bat, and having a pie thrown in his face.", "The Jim Henson Company has posted a short selection of them.", "Henson later explained, \"Till then, advertising agencies believed that the hard sell was the only way to get their message over on television.", "We took a very different approach.", "We tried to sell things by making people laugh.", "\"The first seven-second commercials for Wilkins were an immediate hit and were later remade for other local coffee companies throughout the United States, such as Community Coffee, Red Diamond Coffee, La Touraine Coffee, Nash's Coffee, and Jomar Instant coffee.", "The characters were so successful in selling coffee that soon other companies began seeking them to promote their products, such as bakeries like Merita Breads, service station chains such as Standard Oil of Ohio and the downstream assets of Marathon Oil, and beverage bottlers such as Faygo.", "Over 300 \"Wilkins and Wontkins\" commercials were made.", "The ads were primarily produced in black and white, but some color examples also exist.Henson sold the rights to Wilkins and Wontkins to the Wilkins Company, who allowed marketing executive John T. Brady to sell the rights to some toymakers and film studios.", "However, in July 1992 Brady was sued by Jim Henson Productions for unfair competition in addition to copyright and trademark infringement.", "The Henson company claimed that Brady was incorrectly using Henson's name and likeness in their attempts to license the characters.In 1963, Henson and his wife moved to New York City where the newly formed Muppets, Inc. resided for some time.", "Jane quit performing to raise their children, and Henson hired writer Jerry Juhl in 1961 and puppet performer Frank Oz in 1963 to replace her.", "Henson credited them both with developing much of the humor and character of his Muppets.", "He and Oz developed a close friendship and a performing partnership that lasted until Henson's death; their teamwork is particularly evident in their portrayals of Bert and Ernie, Kermit and Miss Piggy, and Kermit and Fozzie Bear.", "In New York City, Henson formed a partnership with Bernie Brillstein, who managed Henson's career until the puppeteer's death.", "In the years that followed, more performers would join Henson's team, including Jerry Nelson, Fran Brill, Richard Hunt, Dave Goelz, Steve Whitmire, and Kevin Clash.In 1964 he and his family moved to Greenwich, Connecticut until 1971, when they moved to Bedford, New York.Henson's talk show appearances culminated when he devised Rowlf, a piano-playing anthropomorphic dog that became the first Muppet to make regular appearances on ''The Jimmy Dean Show''.", "Henson was so grateful for this break that he offered Jimmy Dean a 40-percent interest in his production company, but Dean declined, stating that Henson deserved all the rewards for his own work, a decision of conscience that Dean never regretted.", "From 1963 to 1966, Henson began exploring filmmaking and produced a series of experimental films.", "His nine-minute experimental film ''Time Piece'' was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film in 1965.He produced ''The Cube'' in 1969.Around this time, he wrote the first drafts of a live-action movie script with Jerry Juhl which became ''Tale of Sand''.", "The script remained in the Henson Company archives until it was adapted in the 2012 graphic novel ''Jim Henson's Tale of Sand''.During this time, Henson continued to work with various companies who sought out his Muppets for advertising purposes.", "Among his clients were Wilson Meats, Royal Crown Cola, Claussen's Bread, La Choy, and Frito-Lay, which featured an early version of his character Cookie Monster to promote their Munchos line of potato snacks.", "Like the Wilkins Coffee ads of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the formula stayed fairly similar.", "For instance, one of the Claussen's commercials featured Kermit the Frog dangling from a window while a character named Mack asks him if he brought a loaf of the company's bread; when Kermit says he did not, Mack closes the window on Kermit's fingers and causes him to fall, suggesting he \"drop down\" to the grocery store to buy a loaf.===''Sesame Street'': 1969===In 1969, television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and her staff at the Children's Television Workshop were impressed by the quality and creativity of the Henson-led team, so they asked Henson and staff to work full-time on ''Sesame Street'', a children's program for public television that premiered on National Educational Television on November 10, 1969.Part of the show was set aside for a series of funny, colorful puppet characters living on Sesame Street, including Grover, Cookie Monster, Bert and Ernie, Oscar the Grouch, and Big Bird (the latter two performed by Caroll Spinney, a performer discovered by Henson at a Puppeteers of America festival).", "Henson performed the characters of Ernie, game-show host Guy Smiley, and Kermit, who appeared as a roving television news reporter.Henson's Muppets initially appeared separately from the realistic segments on the Street, but the show was revamped to integrate the two segments, placing much greater emphasis on Henson's work.", "Cooney frequently praised Henson's work, and PBS called him \"the spark that ignited our fledgling broadcast service.\"", "The success of ''Sesame Street'' also allowed him to stop producing commercials, and he said that \"it was a pleasure to get out of that world\".Henson was also involved in producing various shows and animation inserts during the first two seasons.", "He produced a series of counting films for the numbers 1 through 10 which always ended with a baker (voiced by Henson) falling down the stairs while carrying the featured number of desserts.", "He also worked on a variety of inserts for the numbers 2 through 12, including the films \"Dollhouse\"; \"Number Three Ball Film\"; the stop-motions \"King of Eight\" and \"Queen of Six\"; the cut-out animation \"Eleven Cheer\"; and the computer animation \"Nobody Counts To 10.\"", "He also directed the original \"C Is For Cookie\" and ''Tales from Muppetland'', a short series of TV movie specials that were comic retellings of classic fairy tales aimed at a young audience and hosted by Kermit the Frog.", "The series included ''Hey, Cinderella!", "'', ''The Frog Prince'', and ''The Muppet Musicians of Bremen''.===Expansion of audience: 1970–1978===Henson, Oz, and his team were concerned that the company was becoming typecast solely as purveyors of children's entertainment, so they targeted an adult audience with a series of sketches on the first season of the late-night live television variety show ''Saturday Night Live''.", "Eleven ''Land of Gorch'' sketches were aired between October 1975 and January 1976 on NBC, with four additional appearances in March, April, May, and September 1976.Henson liked Lorne Michaels' work and wanted to be a part of it, but he ultimately concluded that \"what we were trying to do and what his writers could write for it never gelled\".", "The ''SNL'' writers were not comfortable writing for the characters, and they frequently disparaged Henson's creations.", "Michael O'Donoghue quipped, \"I won't write for felt.", "\"Henson began developing a Broadway show and a weekly television series both featuring the Muppets.", "The American networks rejected the series in 1976, believing that Muppets would appeal only to a child audience.", "Then, Henson pitched the show to British impresario Lew Grade to finance the show.", "The show would be shot in the United Kingdom and syndicated worldwide.", "That same year, he scrapped plans for his Broadway show and moved his creative team to England, where ''The Muppet Show'' began taping.", "The show featured Kermit as host and a variety of other characters, notably Miss Piggy, Gonzo the Great, and Fozzie Bear, along with other characters such as Animal.", "Henson's teammates sometimes compared his role to that of Kermit: a shy, gentle boss with \"a whim of steel\" who ran things like \"an explosion in a mattress factory.\"", "Caroll Spinney remembered that Henson would never say he did not like something.", "\"He would just go 'Hmm.'...", "And if he liked it, he would say, 'Lovely!'\"", "Henson recognized Kermit as an alter ego, though he thought that Kermit was bolder than he; he once said of the character: \"He can say things I hold back.", "\"Henson with Miss Piggy and Fozzie Bear in 1979.===Transition to the big screen: 1979–1986===The Muppets appeared in their first theatrical feature film ''The Muppet Movie'' in 1979.It was both a critical and financial success; it made $65.2 million domestically and was the 61st highest-grossing film at the time.", "Henson's idol Edgar Bergen died at age 75 during production of the film, and Henson dedicated it to his memory.", "Henson as Kermit sang \"Rainbow Connection\", and it hit number 25 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song.", "The Henson-directed ''The Great Muppet Caper'' (1981) followed, and Henson decided to end the ''Muppet Show'' to concentrate on making films, though the Muppet characters continued to appear in TV movies and specials.Henson also aided others in their work.", "During development on ''The Empire Strikes Back'' (1980), George Lucas asked him to aid make-up artist Stuart Freeborn in the creation and articulation of Yoda.", "Lucas had also wanted Henson to puppeteer the character, but Henson instead suggested Frank Oz for the role; Oz performed the role and continued in the subsequent ''Star Wars'' films.", "Lucas lobbied unsuccessfully to have Oz nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.In 1982, Henson founded the Jim Henson Foundation to promote and develop the art of puppetry in the United States.", "Around that time, he began creating darker and more realistic fantasy films that did not feature the Muppets and displayed \"a growing, brooding interest in mortality.\"", "He co-directed ''The Dark Crystal'' (1982) with Oz, \"trying to go toward a sense of realism—toward a reality of creatures that are actually alive\".", "To provide a visual style distinct from the Muppets, the puppets in ''The Dark Crystal'' were based on conceptual artwork by Brian Froud, and it was a critical success, winning several industry awards including the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film and the Grand Prize Winner at the Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival.", "The film was less financially successful in theaters, but later claimed an enormous following and revenue when it was introduced on VHS for home entertainment.Also in 1982, Henson co-founded Henson International Television with Peter Orton and Sophie Turner Laing as his partners.", "The company was a distribution company for children's, teens' and family television.Henson and producer George Lucas working on ''Labyrinth'' in 1986Oz directed ''The Muppets Take Manhattan'' (1984), which grossed $25.5 million domestically and ranked as one of the top 40 films of 1984.", "''Labyrinth'' (1986) was a fantasy that Henson directed by himself, but—despite some positive reviews; ''The New York Times'' called it \"a fabulous film\"—it was a commercial disappointment.", "This demoralized Henson; his son Brian Henson described it as \"the closest I've seen him to turning in on himself and getting quite depressed.\"", "The film later became a cult classic.In 1984 Henson traveled to Moscow, where he made a film about Sergei Obraztsov.", "To make this possible, he had studied Russian for a year at Yale and had spent a summer there in 1982.Henson also donated four dolls to the puppeteer to replenish the Moscow Museum of Obraztsov Puppets: Fraggle, Skeksi, Bugard, and Robin the Frog.", "Of the show's guests, the Henson Archivist points out that Jim Henson placed a special importance on meeting Obraztsov: \"As a teenager learning to make puppets, Jim checked out some books from the public library for instruction – one was Obraztsov’s 1950 book, ''My Profession''\"===Final years: 1987–1990===Henson at the 1989 Emmy AwardsHenson continued creating children's television, such as ''Fraggle Rock'' and the animated ''Muppet Babies''.", "He also continued to address darker, more mature themes with the folklore and mythology-oriented show ''The StoryTeller'' (1988), which won an Emmy for Outstanding Children's Program.", "The next year, he returned to television with ''The Jim Henson Hour'', which mixed lighthearted Muppet fare with more risqué material.", "It was critically well-received and won him another Emmy for Outstanding Directing in a Variety or Music Program, but it was canceled after 12 episodes due to poor ratings.", "Henson blamed its failure on NBC's constant rescheduling.In late 1989, Henson entered into negotiations to sell his company and characters (excluding those from ''Sesame Street'') to The Walt Disney Company for almost $150 million, hoping that he would \"be able to spend a lot more of my time on the creative side of things\" with Disney handling business matters.", "By 1990, he had completed production on the television special ''The Muppets at Walt Disney World'' and the Disney-MGM Studios attraction ''Muppet*Vision 3D'' and he was developing film ideas and a television series entitled ''Muppet High''." ], [ "Personal life", "Henson married Jane Nebel in 1959 and their children are Lisa (b.", "1960), Cheryl (b.", "1961), Brian (b.", "1963), John (1965–2014), and Heather (b.", "1970).", "Henson and his wife separated in 1986, although they remained close for the rest of his life.", "Jane said that Jim was so involved with his work that he had very little time to spend with her or their children.", "All five of his children began working with Muppets at an early age, partly because \"one of the best ways of being around him was to work with him\", according to Cheryl.", "Henson was a strong supporter of the civil rights movement." ], [ "Illness and death", "Henson appeared with Kermit on ''The Arsenio Hall Show'' on May 4, 1990.This would be his final television appearance.", "He disclosed to his publicist that he was tired and had a sore throat, but that he believed it would soon go away.", "On May 12, Henson traveled to Ahoskie, North Carolina, with his daughter Cheryl to visit his father and stepmother.", "They returned to their home in New York City the following day, and Henson cancelled a Muppet recording session that had been scheduled for May 14, 1990.His wife came to visit that night.Henson was having trouble breathing when he woke up at around 2:00 a.m. EST on May 15, and he began coughing up blood.", "He suggested to his wife that he might be dying, but he did not want to take time off from his schedule to visit a hospital.", "Two hours later, Henson agreed to be taken by taxi to the emergency room at New York–Presbyterian Hospital in Manhattan.", "Shortly after admission, he stopped breathing and was rushed into the intensive care unit.", "X-ray images of his chest revealed multiple abscesses in both of his lungs as a result of a previous bacterial infection.", "Henson was placed on a ventilator but quickly deteriorated over the next several hours despite increasingly aggressive treatment with multiple antibiotics.", "Although the medicine killed off most of the infection, it had already weakened many of Henson's organs, and he died at 1:21 a.m. the following morning at the age of 53.Dr.", "David Gelmont announced that Henson had died from ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', an infection that causes bacterial pneumonia.", "However, on May 29, Gelmont reclassified it as organ dysfunction resulting from streptococcal toxic shock syndrome caused by ''Streptococcus pyogenes''.", "Gelmont noted Henson might have been saved had he gone to the hospital even just a few hours sooner.", "Medical expert Lawrence D. Altman also stated that Henson's death \"may have shocked many Americans who believed that bacterial infections no longer could kill with such swiftness.\"", "Henson's closest collaborator and best friend, Frank Oz, believes that the stress of negotiating with Disney led to Henson's death, stating in a 2021 interview that \"The Disney deal is probably what killed Jim.", "It made him sick.", "\"=== Memorials ===Disney artists Joe Lanzisero and Tim Kirk drew a tribute of Mickey Mouse consoling Kermit the Frog, which appeared in the Summer 1990 issue of ''WD Eye.", "''|200x200pxNews of Henson's death spread quickly and admirers of his work responded from around the world with tributes and condolences.", "Many of Henson's co-stars and directors from ''Sesame Street'', the Muppets, and other works also shared their thoughts on his death.", "On May 21, 1990, Henson's public memorial service was conducted in Manhattan at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine.", "Another was conducted on July 2, at St Paul's Cathedral in London.", "In accordance with Henson's wishes, no one in attendance wore black, and the Dirty Dozen Brass Band finished the service by performing \"When the Saints Go Marching In\".", "Harry Belafonte sang \"Turn the World Around\", a song that he had debuted on ''The Muppet Show'', as each member of the congregation waved a brightly colored foam butterfly attached to a puppet performer's rod.", "Later, Big Bird (performed by Caroll Spinney) walked onto the stage and sang Kermit's signature song \"Bein' Green\" while fighting back tears.", "Dave Goelz, Frank Oz, Kevin Clash, Steve Whitmire, Jerry Nelson, and Richard Hunt sang a medley of Henson's favorite songs in their characters' voices, ending with a performance of \"Just One Person\" while performing their Muppets.", "The funeral was described by ''Life'' as \"an epic and almost unbearably moving event\".", "Henson was cremated and in 1992, his ashes were scattered near Taos in New Mexico." ], [ "Legacy", "The Jim Henson Company and the Jim Henson Foundation continued after his death, producing new series and specials.", "Jim Henson's Creature Shop also continues to create characters and special effects for both Henson-related and outside projects.", "Steve Whitmire, who had joined the Muppets cast in 1978, began performing Kermit the Frog six months after Henson's death.", "He was dismissed from the cast in October 2016, and Matt Vogel succeeded him in the role of Kermit.The Children's Television Workshop was renamed Sesame Workshop, which retained the ''Sesame Street'' characters in 2000.On February 17, 2004, the Muppets and the ''Bear in the Big Blue House'' properties were sold to Disney.One of Henson's last projects was the attraction ''Muppet*Vision 3D'', which opened at Disney's Hollywood Studios on May 16, 1991, exactly one year after his death.", "The Jim Henson Company retains the Creature Shop as well as the rest of its film and television library, including ''Fraggle Rock'', ''Farscape'', ''The Dark Crystal'', and ''Labyrinth''.", "Brian Jay Jones wrote the book ''Jim Henson: The Biography.''", "It was released on what would have been Henson's 77th birthday, September 24, 2013.The moving-image collection of Jim Henson, which contains the film work of Jim Henson and The Jim Henson Company, is held at the Academy Film Archive.Henson's characters are currently performed by the following puppeteers: Matt Vogel (Kermit), Peter Linz (Ernie, Link Hogthrob), Eric Jacobson (Guy Smiley, The Newsman), Dave Goelz (Waldorf) and Bill Barretta (Rowlf the Dog, The Swedish Chef, Dr. Teeth).In 2019, the YouTube channel Defunctland released a six-part miniseries on the life and legacy of Jim Henson.A biopic film based on Henson's life, known as ''Muppet Man'', has been in development at Walt Disney Pictures and The Jim Henson Company since 2010.In April 2021, it was reported that Michael Mitnick was hired to rewrite the screenplay, previously written by Aaron and Jordan Kandell.", "Lisa Henson will serve as producer.In March 2022, it was announced that Ron Howard planned to direct a documentary on Henson's life, with Brian Grazer's Imagine Entertainment collaborating with Disney Original Documentary to produce it.", "The project was reported to have \"the full participation and cooperation of the Henson family\".===Tributes===English Heritage blue plaque at Henson's former home in North London* In 1971, the University of Maryland's National Residence Hall Honorary chapter was founded as the Jim Henson Chapter.", "The UMD NRHH Chapter is still the Jim Henson Chapter to this day.", "The Michelle Smith Performing Arts Library created an exhibit from 2019 to 2020 highlighting Jim Henson's time at the university.", "*Henson is honored both as himself and as Kermit the Frog on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.", "Only three other people have received this honor: Walt Disney as both himself and Mickey Mouse; Mel Blanc as both himself and Bugs Bunny; and Mike Myers as both himself and Shrek.", "Henson was posthumously inducted into the Walk of Fame in 1991.", "*Henson received an Honorary Doctorate of Letters from Fordham University, Rose Hill Campus, Bronx, New York (June 1982)*Henson was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1987.", "* Henson received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1987.", "* The theater and Visual and Performing Arts Academy at his alma mater, Northwestern High School, in Hyattsville, MD, is named in his honor.", "* Henson featured in ''The American Adventure'' in Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort.", "* The Jim Henson Exhibit, located in Leland, Mississippi, features an assortment of original Muppet characters, official certificates from the Mississippi Legislature honoring Henson and his characters, and a statue of Kermit in the middle of the stream behind the museum.", "* The 1990 television special ''The Muppets Celebrate Jim Henson'' allowed the Muppets themselves to pay tribute to Henson.", "The special featured interviews with Steven Spielberg and others.", "* Tom Smith's Henson tribute song, \"A Boy and His Frog\", won the Pegasus Award for Best Filk Song in 1991.", "* The classes of 1994, 1998, and 1999 at the University of Maryland, College Park, Henson's alma mater, commissioned a life-size statue of Henson and Kermit the Frog, which was dedicated on September 24, 2003, on what would have been Henson's 67th birthday.", "The statue cost $217,000 and is displayed outside Maryland's student union.", "In 2006, the University of Maryland introduced 50 statues of its school mascot, Testudo the Terrapin, with various designs chosen by different sponsoring groups.", "Among them was Kertle, a statue designed to look like Kermit the Frog by Washington, DC-based artist Elizabeth Baldwin.", "* In 2003, Jim Henson was honored at the annual Norsk Høstfest in Minot, North Dakota.", "* Our Atlan, Thibaut Berland, and Damien Ferrie wrote, directed, and animated a 3D tribute to Henson entitled ''Over Time'' that was shown as part of the 2005 Electronic Theater at SIGGRAPH.", "* On September 28, 2005, the U.S.", "Postal Service issued a sheet of commemorative stamps honoring Henson and the Muppets.", "* On August 9, 2011, Jim Henson posthumously received the Disney Legends Award.", "Two of his characters, Kermit the Frog and Rowlf the Dog, performed \"Rainbow Connection\" in his honor.", "* On September 24, 2011, which what would have been Henson's 75th birthday, Mississippi town Leland renamed a local bridge to \"The Rainbow Connection\" to honor Henson and his work.", "He was also honored with a Google doodle to commemorate his 75th birthday; the Google logo had six Muppets that were clickable using the \"hand\" buttons.", "* The Center for Puppetry Arts in Atlanta opened a gallery of Muppets exhibits within the ''Worlds of Puppetry'' exhibition at the Center in November 2015, a greatly scaled-down version of what was announced in 2007 to have been a wing honoring Henson.", "* In July 2016, Hyattsville, Maryland installed a memorial to Jim Henson in the city's Magruder Park, featuring a large planter embossed with images of characters from ''Sam & Friends'' and benches inscribed with quotes from Henson.", "* ''The Jim Henson Exhibition: Imagination Unlimited'', an exhibition organized by the Museum of the Moving Image showcasing over 300 artifacts from Henson's career, premiered at the Museum of Pop Culture in Seattle before opening at its permanent home in New York City in 2017.A traveling version of the exhibition, featuring over 100 objects and 25 historic puppets, has been hosted by several cultural institutions across the U.S. including Skirball Cultural Center in Los Angeles (June–September 2018), Albuquerque Museum (November 2019–April 2020), Durham Museum in Omaha (October 2020–January 2021), The Henry Ford museum in Dearborn (June–September 2021), the Contemporary Jewish Museum in San Francisco (May–August 2022), and the Grand Rapids Art Museum in Michigan (October 2022–January 2023).", "The traveling exhibition's final stop will be the Maryland Center for History and Culture in Baltimore (May–December 2023).", "* In 2018, the American Banjo Museum inducted Henson into its hall of fame, for his positive portrayal of the banjo in his shows and in ''The Muppet Movie''.", "*In 2020, the 1979 song \"Rainbow Connection\" from ''The Muppet Movie'' (performed by Henson as Kermit) was deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry.", "* On September 7, 2021, a blue plaque was unveiled at Jim Henson's former Hampstead home, 50 Downshire Hill NW3 to honor his artistic creativity.", "Henson purchased his London home in 1979 after ITV commissioned the Muppet series, filmed at Elstree Studios.", "* An area outside Studio 6B at NBC's Rockefeller Center headquarters in New York City includes a set of pipes that Henson and his team of puppeteers had painted while waiting to perform on ''The Jack Paar Show'' in 1964.While the artwork has been preserved over time – Henson showed it to Gene Shalit on ''Today'' in 1980 and Paar took David Letterman over to see it during an appearance on ''Late Night'' which taped across the hall – it wasn't until Jimmy Fallon, host of the studio's current tenant ''The Tonight Show'', brought it up that NBC officially made the pipes part of its studio tour.", "Frank Oz attended the ribbon-cutting for the exhibit in 2010." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year FilmDirectorProducerScreenwriter Actor Role Notes 1965 ''Time Piece'' Man Short film 1979 ''The Muppet Movie'' Kermit the FrogRowlf the DogDr.", "TeethWaldorfSwedish ChefAdditional Muppets 1981 ''The Great Muppet Caper'' Kermit the FrogRowlf the DogDr.", "TeethWaldorfSwedish ChefThe NewsmanAdditional Muppets 1982 ''The Dark Crystal'' JenskekZok/The Ritual MasterskekSo/The Emperor Puppeteering onlyCo-directed with Frank Oz 1984 ''The Muppets Take Manhattan'' Kermit the FrogRowlf the DogDr.", "TeethWaldorfSwedish ChefThe NewsmanErnieAdditional Muppets 1985 ''Into the Night'' Man on the phone Cameo ''Sesame Street Presents: Follow That Bird'' Kermit the FrogErnie 1986 ''Labyrinth'' 1990 ''The Witches'' 1991 ''Muppet*Vision 3D'' Kermit the FrogWaldorfThe Swedish Chef 3D film attraction at Disney's Hollywood Studios, posthumous release===Television=== Year Film Director Producer Screenwriter Actor Role Notes1954 ''The Junior Morning Show'' Pierre the French RatAdditional Muppetsaired on WTOP-TV ''Saturday'' Additional Muppets 1955–1956 ''Afternoon with Inga'' Additional Muppets aired on WRC-TV 1955 ''In Our Town'' SamKermitYorickAdditional Muppets 1955–1961 ''Sam and Friends'' SamHarry the HipsterKermitProfessor MadcliffeOmarYorickPierre the French RatAdditional Muppets 1956 ''Footlight Theater'' SamAdditional Muppets 1962 ''Tales of the Tinkerdee'' Kermit the FrogAdditional Muppets Unaired Pilot available on YouTube 1963–1966 ''The Jimmy Dean Show'' Rowlf the Dog1969 ''The Cube'' ''The Wizard of Id'' test pilot Additional Muppets Pilot available on YouTube ''Hey, Cinderella!''", "Kermit the FrogAdditional Muppets 1969–1990 ''Sesame Street'' ErnieKermit the FrogGuy SmileyAdditional Muppets 1970 ''The Muppets on Puppets'' HimselfRowlf the DogKermitAdditional Muppets Filmed in 1968 1971 ''The Frog Prince'' Kermit the FrogAdditional Muppets 1972 ''The Muppet Musicians of Bremen'' 1974 ''The Muppets Valentine Show'' WallyKermit the FrogRowlf the DogErnieAdditional Muppets 1975 ''The Muppet Show: Sex and Violence'' NigelGeorge WashingtonThe Swedish ChefDr.", "TeethWaldorfKermit the FrogAdditional Muppets 1976–1981 ''The Muppet Show'' Kermit the FrogRowlf the DogDr.", "TeethWaldorfThe Swedish ChefLink HogthrobThe NewsmanAdditional Muppets 1977 ''Emmet Otter's Jug-Band Christmas'' Kermit the FrogHarvey BeaverHoward SnakeMayor Harrison FoxTelevision film 1978 ''Christmas Eve on Sesame Street'' Kermit the FrogErnie 1983–1987 ''Fraggle Rock'' Cantus the MinstrelConvincing John 1983 ''Big Bird in China'' ErnieTelevision film ''Don't Eat the Pictures'' 1985 ''Little Muppet Monsters'' Kermit the Frog (live-action puppet only)Dr. Teeth1986 ''The Muppets: A Celebration of 30 Years'' Kermit the FrogRowlf the DogDr.", "TeethWaldorfThe Swedish ChefLink HogthrobErnieHarry the HipsterThe NewsmanAdditional Muppets Television film ''The Tale of the Bunny Picnic'' The Dog ''The Christmas Toy'' Jack-in-the-BoxKermit the Frog 1987–1988 ''The StoryTeller'' 1987 ''Fraggle Rock: The Animated Series'' ''A Muppet Family Christmas'' Kermit the FrogRowlf the DogDr.", "TeethWaldorfSwedish ChefThe NewsmanErnieGuy SmileyBaby KermitBaby RowlfAdditional Muppets Television film 1988 ''Sing-Along, Dance-Along, Do-Along'' Rowlf the DogPenguinsKermit the Frog Entry in the Play-Along Video series 1984–1991 ''Muppet Babies'' 1989 ''Sesame Street... 20 Years & Still Counting'' ErnieKermit the FrogAdditional Muppets Television film ''The Jim Henson Hour'' HimselfKermit the FrogRowlf the DogAdditional Muppets 1990 ''The Earth Day Special'' Kermit the Frog segment: \"Kermit the Frog\" ''The Muppets at Walt Disney World'' Kermit the FrogRowlf the DogDr.", "TeethWaldorfLink HogthrobThe Swedish Chef Television special===Video games=== Year Title Role Notes1988 ''Oscar's Letter Party'' Kermit the Frog ''Let's Learn to Play Together'' Ernie1991 ''Sesame Street Numbers''ErnieKermit the FrogVoice only; Posthumous release ''Sesame Street Letters''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * The Jim Henson Legacy* * * * Art Directors Club biography and portrait* Jim Henson Biography – Book Summary and Quotes* The Jim Henson Works at the University of Maryland: 70+ digital videos available to students, scholars and visitors at the University of Maryland (College Park, MD)* Early Jim Henson films in the AT&T Archives: \"Robot\" and \"Charlie Magnetico\", two films that Henson created for the Bell Data Communications Seminar in the early 1960s* Jim Henson Documentary produced by the PBS Series ''In Their Own Words''* Documentary about Jim Henson on YouTube, produced by Defunctland** Sam and Friends** Sesame Street** The Muppet Show** Fraggle Rock** Muppet Babies** The Jim Henson HourSesame Street" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joystick" ], [ "Introduction", "video game joystick: 1.stick, 2.base, 3.trigger, 4.extra buttons, 5.autofire switch, 6.throttle, 7.hat switch (POV hat), 8.suction cups.A '''joystick''', sometimes called a '''flight stick''', is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling.", "A joystick, also known as the '''control column''', is the principal control device in the cockpit of many civilian and military aircraft, either as a centre stick (or side-stick).", "It has various switches to control the movements of the aircraft controlled by the Pilot and First Officer of the flight.Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more than one push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer.", "A popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the analog stick.", "Joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned vehicles, wheelchairs, surveillance cameras, and zero turning radius lawn mowers.", "Miniature finger-operated joysticks have been adopted as input devices for smaller electronic equipment such as mobile phones." ], [ "Aviation", "Cockpit of a glider with its joystick visibleJoysticks originated as controls for aircraft ailerons and elevators, and are first known to have been used as such on Louis Bleriot's Bleriot VIII aircraft of 1908, in combination with a foot-operated rudder bar for the yaw control surface on the tail." ], [ "Origins", "The name ''joystick'' is thought to originate with early 20th century French pilot Robert Esnault-Pelterie.", "There are also competing claims on behalf of fellow pilots Robert Loraine, James Henry Joyce, and A. E. George.", "Loraine is cited by the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' for using the term \"joystick\" in his diary in 1909 when he went to Pau to learn to fly at Blériot's school.", "George was a pioneer aviator who with his colleague Jobling built and flew a biplane at Newcastle in England in 1910.He is alleged to have invented the \"George Stick\" which became more popularly known as the joystick.", "The George and Jobling aircraft control column is in the collection of the Discovery Museum in Newcastle upon Tyne, England.Joysticks were present in early planes, though their mechanical origins are uncertain.", "The coining of the term \"joystick\" may actually be credited to Loraine, as his is the earliest known usage of the term, although he most certainly did not invent the device." ], [ "Electronic joysticks", "===History===The electrical two-axis joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and patented in 1926 (U.S. Patent no.", "1,597,416)\".", "NRL was actively developing remote controlled aircraft at the time and the joystick was possibly used to support this effort.", "In the awarded patent, Mirick writes: \"My control system is particularly applicable in maneuvering aircraft without a pilot.", "\"The Germans developed an electrical two-axis joystick around 1944.The device was used as part of the Germans' ''Funkgerät'' FuG 203 ''Kehl'' radio control transmitter system used in certain German bomber aircraft, used to guide both the rocket-boosted anti-ship missile ''Henschel Hs 293'', and the unpowered pioneering precision-guided munition ''Fritz-X'', against maritime and other targets.", "Here, the joystick of the ''Kehl'' transmitter was used by an operator to steer the missile towards its target.", "This joystick had on-off switches rather than analogue sensors.", "Both the Hs 293 and Fritz-X used FuG 230 ''Straßburg'' radio receivers in them to send the ''Kehl's'' control signals to the ordnance's control surfaces.", "A comparable joystick unit was used for the contemporary American Azon steerable munition, strictly to laterally steer the munition in the yaw axis only.This German invention was picked up by someone in the team of scientists assembled at the ''Heeresversuchsanstalt'' in Peenemünde.", "Here a part of the team on the German rocket program was developing the Wasserfall missile, a variant of the V-2 rocket, the first ground-to-air missile.", "The Wasserfall steering equipment converted the electrical signal to radio signals and transmitted these to the missile.A prototype Project Gemini joystick-type hand controller, 1962In the 1960s the use of joysticks became widespread in radio-controlled model aircraft systems such as the Kwik Fly produced by Phill Kraft (1964).", "The now-defunct Kraft Systems firm eventually became an important OEM supplier of joysticks to the computer industry and other users.", "The first use of joysticks outside the radio-controlled aircraft industry may have been in the control of powered wheelchairs, such as the Permobil (1963).", "During this time period NASA used joysticks as control devices as part of the Apollo missions.", "For example, the lunar lander test models were controlled with a joystick.In many modern airliners aircraft, for example all Airbus aircraft developed from the 1980s, the joystick has received a new lease on life for flight control in the form of a \"side-stick\", a controller similar to a gaming joystick but which is used to control the flight, replacing the traditional yoke.", "The sidestick saves weight, improves movement and visibility in the cockpit, and may be safer in an accident than the traditional \"control yoke\".===Electronic games===CH Products Mach II analog joystick for Apple II computers.", "The small knobs are for (mechanical) calibration, and the sliders engage the self-centering springs.Ralph H. Baer, inventor of the Magnavox Odyssey console, released in 1972, created the first video game joysticks in 1967.They were able to control the horizontal and vertical position of a spot displayed on a screen.", "The earliest known electronic game joystick with a fire button was released by Sega as part of their 1969 arcade game ''Missile'', a shooter simulation game that used it as part of an early dual-control scheme, where two directional buttons are used to move a motorized tank and a two-way joystick is used to shoot and steer the missile onto oncoming planes displayed on the screen; when a plane is hit, an explosion is animated on screen along with an explosion sound.", "In 1970, the game was released in North America as ''S.A.M.I.''", "by Midway Games.Taito released a four-way joystick as part of their arcade racing video game ''Astro Race'' in 1973, while their 1975 multidirectional shooter ''Western Gun'' introduced dual-stick controls with one eight-way joystick for movement and the other for changing the shooting direction.", "In North America, it was released by Midway under the title ''Gun Fight''.", "In 1976, Taito released ''Interceptor'', an early first-person combat flight simulator that involved piloting a jet fighter, using an eight-way joystick to aim with a crosshair and shoot at enemy aircraft.pot y), '''6.'''", "fire button, '''7.'''", "+5 V DC, '''8.'''", "ground, '''9.'''", "(pot x).The Atari CX40 joystick, developed for the 1977 Atari Video Computer System, is a digital controller with a single fire button.", "The Atari joystick port was for many years the ''de facto'' standard digital joystick specification.", "Joysticks were commonly used as controllers in first and second generation game consoles, but they gave way to the familiar game pad with the Nintendo Entertainment System and Master System during the mid-1980s, though joysticks—especially arcade-style ones—were and are popular after-market add-ons for any console.In 1985, Sega's third-person arcade rail shooter game ''Space Harrier'' featured a true analog flight stick, used for movement.", "The joystick could register movement in any direction as well as measure the degree of push, which could move the player character at different speeds depending on how far the joystick was pushed in a certain direction.A variation of the joystick is the rotary joystick.", "It is a type of joystick-knob hybrid, where the joystick can be moved in various direction while at the same time being able to rotate the joystick.", "It is mainly used in arcade shoot 'em up games, to control both the player's eight-directional movement and the gun's 360-degree direction.", "It was introduced by SNK, initially with the tank shooter ''TNK III'' (1985) before it was popularized by the run and gun video game ''Ikari Warriors'' (1986).", "SNK later used rotary joystick controls in arcade games such as ''Guerrilla War'' (1989).A distinct variation of an analog joystick is a positional gun, which works differently from a light gun.", "Instead of using light sensors, a positional gun is essentially an analog joystick mounted in a fixed location that records the position of the gun to determine where the player is aiming on the screen.", "It is often used for arcade gun games, with early examples including Sega's ''Sea Devil'' in 1972; Taito's ''Attack'' in 1976; ''Cross Fire'' in 1977; and Nintendo's ''Battle Shark'' in 1978.Saitek's Cyborg 3D Gold around the 2000s.", "Note its throttle, its extra buttons, and its hat switch.During the 1990s, joysticks such as the CH Products Flightstick, Gravis Phoenix, Microsoft SideWinder, Logitech WingMan, and Thrustmaster FCS were in demand with PC gamers.", "They were considered a prerequisite for flight simulators such as ''F-16 Fighting Falcon'' and ''LHX Attack Chopper''.", "Joysticks became especially popular with the mainstream success of space flight simulator games like ''X-Wing'' and ''Wing Commander'', as well as the \"Six degrees of freedom\" 3D shooter ''Descent''.", "VirPil Controls' MongoosT-50 joystick was designed to mimic the style of Russian aircraft (including the Sukhoi Su-35 and Sukhoi Su-57), unlike most flight joysticks.However, since the beginning of the 21st century, these types of games have waned in popularity and are now considered a \"dead\" genre, and with that, gaming joysticks have been reduced to niche products.", "In NowGamer's interview with Jim Boone, a producer at Volition Inc., he stated that ''FreeSpace 2''s poor sales could have been due to joysticks' being sold poorly because they were \"going out of fashion\" because more modern first-person shooters, such as ''Quake'', were \"very much about the mouse and the keyboard\".", "He went further on to state \"Before that, when we did ''Descent'' for example, it was perfectly common for people to have joysticks – we sold a lot of copies of Descent.", "It was around that time when the more modern FPS with mouse and keyboard came out, as opposed to just keyboard like ''Wolfenstein 3D|Wolfenstein 3D'' or something.", "\".Since the late 1990s, ''analog sticks'' (or ''thumbsticks'', due to their being controlled by one's thumbs) have become standard on controllers for video game consoles, popularized by Nintendo's Nintendo 64 controller, and have the ability to indicate the stick's displacement from its neutral position.", "This means that the software does not have to keep track of the position or estimate the speed at which the controls are moved.", "These devices usually use potentiometers to determine the position of the stick, though some newer models instead use a Hall effect sensor for greater reliability and reduced size.In 1997, ThrustMaster, Inc. introduced a 3D programmable controller, which was integrated into computer games to experience flight simulations.", "This line adapted several aspects of NASA's RHC (Rotational Hand Controller), which is used for landing and navigation methods.In 1997 the first gaming joystick with force feedback (haptics) was manufactured by CH Products under license from technology creator, Immersion Corporation.", "The product, called the Force FX joystick was followed by force feedback joysticks from Logitech, Thrustmaster, and others, also under license from Immersion.===Arcade sticks===An arcade stick is a large-format controller for use with home consoles or computers.", "They use the stick-and-button configuration of some arcade cabinets, such as those with particular multi-button arrangements.", "For example, the six button layout of the arcade games ''Street Fighter II'' or ''Mortal Kombat'' cannot be comfortably emulated on a console joypad, so licensed home arcade sticks for these games have been manufactured for home consoles and PCs.===Hat switch===Hat switch - at top, in greenA hat switch is a control on some joysticks.", "It is also known as a POV (point of view) switch.", "It allows one to look around in one's virtual world, browse menus, etc.", "For example, many flight simulators use it to switch the player's views, while other games sometimes use it as a substitute for the D-pad.", "Computer gamepads with both an analogue stick and a D-pad usually assign POV switch scancodes to the latter.The term hat switch is a shortening of the term \"Coolie hat switch\", named for the similar-looking headgear.In a real aircraft, the hat switch may control things like aileron or elevator trim.===Cameras===Apart from buttons, wheels and dials as well as touchscreens also miniature joysticks have been established for the efficient manual operation of cameras.Joystick.Kamera.P1078740.jpg|Miniature joystick to be operated by the right thumb, next to an electronic viewfinderJoystick.Kamera.P1078738.jpg|Detailed view" ], [ "Industrial applications", "In recent times, the employment of joysticks has become commonplace in many industrial and manufacturing applications, such as cranes, assembly lines, forestry equipment, mining trucks, and excavators.", "In fact, the use of such joysticks is in such high demand, that it has virtually replaced the traditional mechanical control lever in nearly all modern hydraulic control systems.", "Additionally, most unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and submersible remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) require at least one joystick to control either the vehicle, the on-board cameras, sensors and/or manipulators.Due to the highly hands-on, rough nature of such applications, the industrial joystick tends to be more robust than the typical video-game controller, and able to function over a high cycle life.", "This led to the development and employment of Hall effect sensing to such applications in the 1980s as a means of contactless sensing.", "Several companies produce joysticks for industrial applications using Hall effect technology.", "Another technology used in joystick design is the use of strain gauges to build force transducers from which the output is proportional to the force applied rather than physical deflection.", "Miniature force transducers are used as additional controls on joysticks for menu selection functions.Some larger manufacturers of joysticks are able to customize joystick handles and grips specific to the OEM needs while small regional manufacturers often concentrate on selling standard products at higher prices to smaller OEMs." ], [ "Assistive technology", "Specialist joysticks, classed as an assistive technology pointing device, are used to replace the computer mouse for people with fairly severe physical disabilities.", "Rather than controlling games, these joysticks control the pointer.", "They are often useful to people with athetoid conditions, such as cerebral palsy, who find them easier to grasp than a standard mouse.", "Miniature joysticks are available for people with conditions involving muscular weakness such as muscular dystrophy or motor neurone disease as well.", "They are also used on electric powered wheelchairs for control since they are simple and effective to use as a control method." ], [ "See also", "*Aircraft flight control system*The Arcade (joystick)*Flight simulator*Game controller*Gamepad*Glossary of computer hardware terms*Gravis PC GamePad*Kempston joystick*TAC-2*Yoke (aircraft)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (11 pages) (NB.", "This is based on an earlier German article published in 1996 in ''Lab.", "Jahrbuch 1995/1996 für Künste und Apparate'' (350 pages) by Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln mit dem Verein der Freunde der Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln; in Cologne, Germany.", ".)" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Juan Fernández Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Juan Fernández Islands''' () are a sparsely inhabited series of islands in the South Pacific Ocean reliant on tourism and fishing.", "Situated off the coast of Chile, they are composed of three main volcanic islands: Robinson Crusoe, Alejandro Selkirk and Santa Clara.", "The group is part of Insular Chile.The islands are primarily known for having been the home to the marooned sailor Alexander Selkirk for more than four years from 1704, which may have inspired English writer Daniel Defoe's ''Robinson Crusoe''.", "Most of the archipelago's present-day inhabitants reside on Robinson Crusoe Island, and mainly in the capital, San Juan Bautista, located at Cumberland Bay on the island's north coast.The group of islands is part of Chile's Valparaíso Region (which also includes Easter Island) and, along with the Desventuradas Islands, forms one of the nine communes of Valparaíso Province.", "The islands are named after Juan Fernández, the explorer who discovered them in the 1570s." ], [ "Geography", "Landsat 7 image of the Juan Fernández Islands on 15 September 1999, shows the unique pattern of clouds known as \"Kármán vortex street\" caused by the interaction of winds with the islands' mountains* Robinson Crusoe Island (), also known as Isla Más a Tierra, is located closest to the mainland of continental South America, and is surrounded by a number of islets, including Juanango, Viñilla, Los Chamelos, Los Claveles and El Verdugo.", "** Santa Clara (), lying southwest of Robinson Crusoe.", "* Alejandro Selkirk Island (), also known as Isla Más Afuera, is located further west.Alejandro Selkirk is the largest of the Juan Fernández Islands at , and its highest peak, Cerro de Los Inocentes, is also the highest point of the archipelago at .", "The island's population was 57 in 2012.Robinson Crusoe is the second largest island in the archipelago at ; its highest peak, El Yunque, is .", "The population of Robinson Crusoe was 843 in 2012.Santa Clara is in area and reaches a height of .", "Santa Clara is uninhabited.", "The maximum elevations of Juan Fernández, for Robinson Crusoe and for Alejandro Selkirk, respectively, are high enough to cause the phenomenon known as Kármán vortex street, which can be seen from space.The islands are volcanic in origin, produced by the movement of the Nazca Plate over the Juan Fernández hotspot.", "As the plate moved eastward over the hot spot, volcanic eruptions formed the Juan Fernández Ridge before being subducted under the South American continent at the Peru–Chile Trench.", "The islands occur where the peaks of the submarine ridge have protruded above sea level.", "Radiometric dating indicates that Santa Clara is the oldest of the islands, at 5.8 million years old, followed by Robinson Crusoe, 3.8 – 4.2 million years old, and Alexander Selkirk, 1.0 – 2.4 million years old.The seafloor around Juan Fernández Islands is rich in Manganese–Iron nodules, which might be of potential economic interest.Some consider the islands to be one of the easternmost points of Oceania, rather than an outlying region of South America.", "In their book ''Shore Fishes of Easter Island'', authors John E. Randall and Alfredo Cea Egana claim that the Juan Fernández Islands have \"great similarity in ichthyofauna with Oceania more so than with the nearing South America.\"" ], [ "Climate", "The islands have a subtropical climate with mediterranean influence (Cfa).", "moderated by the cold Humboldt Current, which flows northward to the east of the islands, and the southeast trade winds.", "Temperatures range from to , with an annual mean of .", "Higher elevations are generally cooler, with occasional frosts on Robinson Crusoe.Average annual precipitation is , varying from to year to year.", "Much of the variability in rainfall depends on the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.", "Rainfall is higher in the winter months, and varies with elevation and exposure; elevations above experience almost daily rainfall, while the western, leeward side of Robinson Crusoe and Santa Clara are quite dry." ], [ "Biota and ecology", "The Juan Fernández islands are home to a high percentage of rare and endemic plants and animals, and are recognized as a distinct ecoregion.", "The volcanic origin and remote location of the islands meant that the islands' flora and fauna had to reach the archipelago from far across the sea; as a result, the island is home to relatively few plant species and very few animal species.", "The closest relatives of the archipelago's plants and animals are found in the Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregions of southern South America, including the Valdivian temperate rain forests, Magellanic subpolar forests, and Desventuradas Islands.===Flora===There are 209 native species of vascular plants in the Juan Fernandez Islands, approximately 150 of which are flowering plants, and 50 are ferns.", "There are 126 species (62 percent) that are endemic, with 12 endemic genera and two endemic families, Lactoridaceae and Thyrsopteridaceae.", "Many plants are characteristic of the Antarctic flora, and are related to plants found in southern South America, New Zealand and Australia.", "Vegetation zones generally correspond to elevation, with grasslands and shrublands at lower elevations, tall and montane forests at middle elevations, and shrublands at the highest elevations.", "The two main islands have somewhat distinct plant communities.Alejandro Selkirk is mostly covered with grassland from 0 to , interspersed with wooded ravines ''(quebradas)'', home to dry forests of ''Myrceugenia'' and ''Zanthoxylum fagara''.", "From to are lower montane forests, with upper montane forest from to .", "The treeline is at approximately , above which is alpine shrubland and grassland, dominated by temperate Magellanic vegetation such as ''Acaena, Dicksonia, Drimys, Empetrum, Gunnera, Myrteola, Pernettya'', and ''Ugni''.", "On Robinson Crusoe, grasslands predominate from 0 to ; introduced shrubs from to ; tall forests from to ; montane forests from to , with dense tree cover of ''Cuminia fernandezia, Fagara'', and ''Rhaphithamnus venustus''; tree fern forests from to , and brushwood forests above .", "Santa Clara is covered with grassland.Three endemic species dominate the tall and lower montane forests of the archipelago, ''Drimys confertifolia'' on both main islands, ''Myrceugenia fernandeziana'' on Robinson Crusoe, and ''M.", "schulzei'' on Alexander Selkirk.", "Endemic tree fern species of southern hemisphere genus ''Dicksonia'' (''D.", "berteroana'' on Robinson Crusoe and ''D.", "externa'' on Alexander Selkirk) and the endemic genus ''Thyrsopteris'' ''(T. elegans)'' are the predominant species in the tree-fern forests.", "An endemic species of sandalwood, ''Santalum fernandezianum'', was overexploited for its fragrant wood, has not been seen since 1908, and is believed extinct.", "The Chonta palm (''Juania australis''), which is endemic to the Juan Fernández Islands, is endangered.File:Rob-cru.png|Map of Robinson Crusoe Island (including Santa Clara Island)File:Isla mas Afuera Juan Fernandez (Chili).jpg|Map of Alejandro Selkirk IslandFile:Juan fernandez 1927.jpg|Map of both islandsFile:Robinson Crusoe.JPG|Satellite images of Juan Fernández Islands (Alejandro Selkirk Island, inset left)File:CL Pacific islands.PNG|overview map===Fauna===The Juan Fernández Islands have a very limited fauna, with no native land mammals, reptiles, or amphibians.", "Seventeen land and sea-bird species breed on the islands.", "The island has three endemic bird species, and three endemic subspecies.", "Introduced fauna by humans include rats and goats.", "Robinson Crusoe Island is home to an endemic and endangered hummingbird, the Juan Fernández firecrown (''Sephanoides fernandensis'').", "This large hummingbird, about long, is thought to number only about 500 individuals.", "The other endemic bird species are the Juan Fernández tit-tyrant (''Anairetes fernandezianus'') of Robinson Crusoe Island, and the Masafuera rayadito (''Aphrastura masafuerae'') of Alejandro Selkirk Island.", "The islands support the entire known breeding populations of two petrel species, Stejneger's Petrel ''Pterodroma longirostris'' ( IUCN status VU) and the Juan Fernandez Petrel ''Pterodroma externa'' ( IUCN status VU).", "In addition, the Juan Fernandez Islands may still support a third breeding petrel species, De Filippi's Petrel ''Pterodroma defilippiana'' ( IUCN status VU), whose only other known breeding grounds are on the Desventuradas Islands.", "The Magellanic penguin breeds on Robinson Crusoe Island within the archipelago.", "All three islands of the Juan Fernandez archipelago have been recognised as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) by BirdLife International.The endemic Juan-Fernandez spiny lobster (without claws) lives in the marine waters (''Jasus frontalis'').", "The Juan Fernández fur seal (''Arctophoca philippii'') also lives on the islands.", "This species was nearly exterminated in the sixteenth to nineteenth century, but it was rediscovered in 1965.A census in 1970 found about 750 fur seals living there.", "Only two were sighted on the Desventuradas Islands, located some to the north.", "The actual population of the Desventuradas may be higher, because the species tends to hide in sea caves.", "There seems to be a yearly population increase of 16–17 percent." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===A 2008 report by archaeologists from the Australian National University states that, \"a combination of palaeoecology and archaeology in the Juan Fernández Islands showed it was unlikely there had been human activity in the islands before Europeans arrived.\"", "Ichthyologists Ingo Hahn and Uwe Römer wrote in 2002, \"the geographically isolated Juan Fernández Islands were probably untouched by man until their discovery by European sailors in 1574.Polynesians did not reach further east than Easter Island and native Americans perhaps not west of the South American continent.", "\"===Discovery===Robinson Crusoe Island, as seen in the late 19th or early 20th century.", "The ship in Cumberland Bay is the cruiser ''Esmeralda''.The archipelago was discovered on 22 November 1574, by the Spanish sailor Juan Fernández, who was sailing south between Callao and Valparaíso along a route which he also discovered, hundreds of miles west of the coast of Chile, which avoided the northerly Humboldt current.", "He called the islands Más Afuera, Más a Tierra, and Santa Clara.In the 17th and 18th centuries, the islands were used as a hideout for pirates and became the location of a penal colony.", "It was during this period that Alexander Selkirk became marooned on the islands.", "In the 1740s, they were visited by Commodore Anson's flotilla during his ill-fated venture to the South Seas.", "The location of the archipelago was fixed by Alessandro Malaspina in 1790; previous charts had differed on the location.", "British and American whaling vessels were regular visitors to the islands, starting with the ''London'' (Captain Joshua Coffin) in 1795.During the maritime fur trade era of the early 19th century the islands were a source of fur seal skins, and the Juan Fernández fur seal was nearly driven to extinction.", "In his book ''Two Years Before the Mast'' (Chapter VII), Richard Henry Dana Jr. described the islands as he found them circa 1834.At this time the main island was being used as a penal colony.", "However, when Dr John Coulter visited it in the early 1840s, he reported the island deserted after the approximately 1000 convicts had risen up, killing the soldiers and Governor who had held them captive.", "The prisoners fled to mainland Chile, where \"great numbers\" were later hunted down and shot.", "The story appears in Coulter's book ''Adventures in the Pacific'' (1845).", "In 1908, the islands were visited by the Swedish Magellanic Expedition and Carl Skottsberg is believed to have been the last to have seen the ''Santalum fernandezianum'' tree alive.", "in March 1915, shortly before its scuttling in Cumberland BayLate in 1914 the islands were the rendezvous for Admiral Maximilian von Spee's East Asia Squadron as he gathered his ships together before defeating the British under Admiral Christopher Cradock at the Battle of Coronel.", "Following the Royal Navy's win at the Battle of the Falkland Islands a month later, the only surviving German cruiser, , was hunted down and cornered illegally at Más a Tierra early in 1915, although she was in Chilean territorial waters, where it was scuttled after a brief battle with British cruisers.In 1966 the Chilean government renamed Más Afuera as Alejandro Selkirk Island and Más a Tierra as Robinson Crusoe Island, in order to promote tourism.", "Incidentally, Selkirk never set foot on Más Afuera, only on Más a Tierra.", "On 30 July 2007, a constitutional reform gave the Juan Fernández Islands and Easter Island the status of \"special territories\" of Chile.", "Pending the enactment of a charter the archipelago will continue to be governed as a commune of the Valparaíso Region.On 27 February 2010, a tsunami following the 8.8 magnitude earthquake off Maule, Chile struck the islands causing at least 8 deaths.", "Eleven people were reported as missing.", "Some early reports described the tsunami as being high, but later reports measured it at .", "Most of the town of San Juan Bautista on Robinson Crusoe Island was destroyed." ], [ "Government", "As a commune, the Juan Fernández Islands are a third-level administrative division of Chile governed by a municipal council, headed by a mayor () who is directly elected every four years.", "The current mayor for the term 2021–2024 is Pablo Andrés Manríquez Angulo.Within the electoral divisions of Chile, the commune was represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Joaquín Godoy (RN) and Aldo Cornejo (PDC) as part of the 13th electoral district, together with Valparaíso and Easter Island.", "It was represented in the Senate by Francisco Chahuán Chahuán (RN) and Ricardo Lagos Weber (PPD) as part of the 6th senatorial constituency (Valparaíso-Coast)." ], [ "Travel", "The islands are served by Robinson Crusoe Airfield, located on Robinson Crusoe Island." ], [ "See also", "*Endemic fauna of the Juan Fernández Islands*Endemic flora of the Juan Fernández Islands*Flora of the Juan Fernández Islands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Commune Juan Fernández official government website (in Spanish)* \"Images of the Juan Fernández Islands\" by W. Schipper in Travel Images* \"Map of Chili\" by S. Augustus Mitchell (1860) from the World Digital Library* \"Menaces et perspectives pour la préservation de la biodiversité de l'Archipel Juan Fernández (Chili)\" by J. Vanhulst (2009) on preserving the islands' biodiversity (in French)* The Natural history of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island By Skottsberg, Carl in three volumes from 1920 to 1956." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Maynard Smith" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Maynard Smith''' (6 January 1920 – 19 April 2004) was a British theoretical and mathematical evolutionary biologist and geneticist.", "Originally an aeronautical engineer during the Second World War, he took a second degree in genetics under the well-known biologist J.", "B. S. Haldane.", "Maynard Smith was instrumental in the application of game theory to evolution with George R. Price, and theorised on other problems such as the evolution of sex and signalling theory." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===John Maynard Smith was born in London, the son of the surgeon Sidney Maynard Smith, but following his father's death in 1928, the family moved to Exmoor, where he became interested in natural history.", "Quite unhappy with the lack of formal science education at Eton College, Maynard Smith took it upon himself to develop an interest in Darwinian evolutionary theory and mathematics, after having read the work of old Etonian J.", "B. S. Haldane, whose books were in the school's library despite the bad reputation Haldane had at Eton for his communism.", "He became an atheist at age 14.On leaving school, Maynard Smith joined the Communist Party of Great Britain and started studying engineering at Trinity College, Cambridge.", "When the Second World War broke out in 1939, he defied his party's line and volunteered for service.", "He was rejected, however, because of poor eyesight and was told to finish his engineering degree, which he did in 1941.He later quipped that \"under the circumstances, my poor eyesight was a selective advantage—it stopped me getting shot\".", "The year of his graduation, he married Sheila Matthew, and they later had two sons and one daughter (Tony, Carol, and Julian).", "Between 1942 and 1947, he applied his degree to military aircraft design.===Second degree===Maynard Smith, having decided that aircraft were \"noisy and old-fashioned\", then took a change of career, entering University College London to study fruit fly genetics under Haldane.", "After graduating he became a lecturer in zoology at his alma mater between 1952 and 1965, where he directed the ''Drosophila'' lab and conducted research on population genetics.", "He published a popular Penguin book, ''The Theory of Evolution'', in 1958 (with subsequent editions in 1966, 1975, 1993).He became gradually less attracted to communism and became a less active member, finally leaving the party in 1956 like many other intellectuals, after the Soviet Union brutally suppressed the Hungarian Revolution (Haldane had left the party in 1950 after becoming similarly disillusioned).", "He also admitted that a research program in evolutionary biology explicitly informed by Marxism seemed to bear little fruit.===University of Sussex===In 1962 he was one of the founding members of the University of Sussex and was a dean between 1965 and 1985.He subsequently became a professor emeritus.", "Prior to his death the building housing much of life sciences at Sussex was renamed the John Maynard Smith Building in his honour.===''Evolution and the Theory of Games''===In 1973 Maynard Smith formalised a central concept in evolutionary game theory called the evolutionarily stable strategy, based on a verbal argument by George R. Price.", "This area of research culminated in his 1982 book ''Evolution and the Theory of Games''.", "The Hawk-Dove game is arguably his single most influential game theoretical model.He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1977.In 1986 he was awarded the Darwin Medal.===Evolution of sex and other major transitions in evolution===Maynard Smith published a book titled ''The Evolution of Sex'' which explored in mathematical terms, the notion of the \"two-fold cost of sex\".", "During the late 1980s he also became interested in evolutionary transitions in individuality (ETIs) and worked with the evolutionary biologist Eörs Szathmáry.", "Together they wrote an influential 1995 book ''The Major Transitions in Evolution'', a seminal work which continues to contribute to ongoing issues in evolutionary biology.", "A popular science version of the book, ''The Origins of Life: From the birth of life to the origin of language'', was published in 1999.In 1991 he was awarded the Balzan Prize for genetics and evolution \"for his powerful analysis of evolutionary theory and of the role of sexual reproduction as a critical factor in evolution and in the survival of species; for his mathematical models applying the theory of games to evolutionary problems\" (motivation of the Balzan General Prize Committee).", "In 1995 he was awarded the Linnean Medal by the Linnean Society and in 1999 he was awarded the Crafoord Prize jointly with Ernst Mayr and George C. Williams.", "In 2001 he was awarded the Kyoto Prize.In his honour the European Society for Evolutionary Biology has an award for extraordinary young evolutionary biology researchers named ''The John Maynard Smith Prize''.===''Animal Signals''===His final book, ''Animal Signals'', co-authored with David Harper, on signalling theory was published in 2003.===Death===He died on 19 April 2004 sitting in a chair at home, surrounded by books.", "He was survived by his wife Sheila and their children.=== Controversy ===Another evolutionary biologist, William Donald Hamilton, harboured a grievance against Maynard Smith for his handling of an article that Hamilton submitted to ''The Journal of Theoretical Biology'' in 1963, which was eventually published as two papers in July 1964.Maynard Smith acted as a reviewer of the paper after two other reviewers had been unable to understand it, and requested that Hamilton revise it into two parts due to concerns about its accessibility, later describing it as \"deeply obscure\".", "In March 1964, Maynard Smith published the article \"Group Selection and Kin selection\" in ''Nature'', which covered concepts from Hamilton's article.", "Although Maynard Smith cited an earlier paper by Hamilton published in the ''American Naturalist'', Hamilton felt Maynard Smith had not given him sufficient credit.", "Hamilton also objected to an anecdote included by Maynard Smith in a review published in the ''New Scientist'' in 1976 which implied Maynard Smith's mentor Haldane had understood the concept of Hamilton's inclusive fitness in the 1950s.", "Hamilton replied to the review suggesting that the anecdote was false, but later apologised to Maynard Smith for having doubted it''.''" ], [ "Legacy", "The John Maynard Smith Archive is housed at the British Library (Add MS 86569-86840).", "The papers can be accessed through the British Library catalogue." ], [ "Awards and fellowships", "* Fellow, Royal Society (1977)* Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1977)* Member, American Philosophical Society (1980)* Member, United States National Academy of Sciences (1982)* Darwin Medal (1986)* Frink Medal (1990)* Balzan Prize (1991)* Linnean Medal (1995)* Royal Medal (1997)* Crafoord Prize (1999)* Copley Medal (1999)* Kyoto Prize (2001)* Darwin–Wallace Award (2008).", "This used to be bestowed every 50 years by the Linnean Society of London; Maynard Smith was one of thirteen co-recipients, and one of only two recipients ever awarded post-mortem.", "Since 2010, the medal has been awarded annually." ], [ "Publications", "* Maynard Smith, J.", "(1958).", "''The Theory of Evolution''.", "London, Penguin Books.", "** 1993 edn * Maynard Smith, J.", "(1968) ''Mathematical Ideas in Biology''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Maynard Smith, J.", "(1972) ''On Evolution''.", "Edinburgh University Press.", "* * Maynard Smith, J.", "(1974b) ''Models in Ecology''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Maynard Smith, J.", "(1978d) ''The Evolution of Sex''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Maynard Smith, J.", "(ed.)", "(1981d) ''Evolution Now''.", "London, Macmillan.", "* Maynard Smith, J.", "(1982d) ''Evolution and the Theory of Games''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Maynard Smith, J.", "(1986b) ''The Problems of Biology''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Maynard Smith, J.", "(1988a) ''Did Darwin Get it Right?", ": Essays on Games, Sex and Evolution''.", "London, Chapman & Hall.", "* Maynard Smith, J.", "(1989a) ''Evolutionary Genetics''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Maynard Smith, J. and Szathmáry, E. (1997) ''The Major Transitions in Evolution''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Maynard Smith, J. and Szathmáry, E. (1999) ''The Origins of Life: From the Birth of Life to the Origin of Language''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Maynard Smith, J. and Harper, D. (2003) ''Animal Signals''.", "Oxford University Press." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "===University of Sussex===* Press release announcing his death* Tribute from his colleagues * List of publications ===Media===* Freeview video 'The Origin of Life', A Royal Institution Discourse by the Vega Science Trust* Freeview video 'Flight in Birds and Aeroplanes', a Masterclass by the Vega Science Trust* In conversation with John Maynard Smith FRS* Five short videos* John Maynard Smith telling his life story at Web of Stories (video)* Interview of Smith by Robert Wright on MeaningofLife.tv (56min video)* ===Obituaries===* ''Guardian''* ''The Times''* Corante* John Maynard Smith 1920–2004 by Marek Kohn* ''Los Angeles Times''* ''New York Times''* DRAFT for Biology and Philosophy by Daniel Dennett* ''Ciência Hoje'' (28/6/2004) (In Portuguese)" ] ]
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[ [ "John Danforth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Claggett Danforth''' (born September 5, 1936) is an American politician, attorney and diplomat who began his career in 1968 as the Attorney General of Missouri and served three terms as United States Senator from Missouri.", "In 2004, he served briefly as United States Ambassador to the United Nations.", "Danforth is an ordained Episcopal priest.Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Danforth graduated from Princeton University and Yale University.", "George W. Bush considered selecting him as a vice-presidential running mate in 2000." ], [ "Early life and education", "Danforth was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the son of Dorothy (Claggett) and Donald Danforth.", "He is the grandson of William H. Danforth, founder of Ralston Purina.", "Danforth's brother, William Henry Danforth, was former chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis.Danforth attended St. Louis Country Day School and Princeton University, where he graduated with an A.B.", "in religion in 1958 after completing a 111-page senior thesis titled \"Christ and Meaning: An Interpretation of Reinhold Niebuhr's Christology.\"", "He received degrees from Yale Law School and Yale Divinity School in 1963." ], [ "Career", "Danforth practiced law at the New York law firm Davis Polk & Wardwell from 1964 to 1966.He was a partner at the law firm of Bryan, Cave, McPheeters and McRoberts in St. Louis from 1966 to 1968.Before Danforth entered Republican politics, Missouri was a reliably Democratic state with its U.S. senators and governors usually being Democrats.", "Danforth's seat in the Senate was previously held by Democrats Thomas Hart Benton, Harry S. Truman, and Stuart Symington.===Missouri Attorney General===Danforth as Attorney General, 1969In 1968 Danforth was elected Missouri Attorney General, the first Republican elected to the office in 40 years, and the first from his party elected to statewide office in 22 years.", "On his staff of assistant attorneys general were future Missouri Governor and U.S.", "Senator Kit Bond, future Missouri Governor, U.S.", "Senator and U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft, future Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, and future federal judge D. Brook Bartlett.", "Danforth was reelected in 1972.===United States Senate===President Ronald Reagan, 1981====Elections====In 1970 Danforth ran for the United States Senate for the first time, against Democratic incumbent Stuart Symington.", "He lost in a close race.In 1976 Danforth ran to succeed Symington, who was retiring.", "He had little opposition in the Republican primary.", "The Democrats had a three-way battle among Symington's son James W. Symington, former Missouri Governor Warren Hearnes and rising political star Congressman Jerry Litton.", "Litton won the primary, but he and his family were killed when the plane taking them to their victory party in Kansas City crashed on takeoff in Chillicothe, Missouri.", "Hearnes, who had finished second in the primary, was chosen to replace Litton as the Democratic nominee.", "In the general election, Danforth defeated Hearnes with nearly 57% of the vote.In 1982 the Democratic nominee for U.S. Senate was Harriett Woods, a relatively unknown state senator from the St. Louis suburb of University City.", "She was active in women's rights organizations and collected union support and was a cousin of Democratic Senator Howard Metzenbaum of Ohio.", "Her speeches denounced Ronald Reagan's policies so vigorously that she ran on the nickname \"Give 'em Hell, Harriett\" (a play on the famous Truman phrase).", "Danforth defeated Woods 51% to 49%, with Woods's pro-choice stance said to be the reason for her loss.In 1988 Danforth defeated Democrat Jay Nixon, 68%–32%.", "He chose not to run for a fourth term and retired from the Senate in 1995.He was succeeded by former Missouri governor John Ashcroft.", "Nixon was later elected Missouri Attorney General, and, in 2008, governor of Missouri.In January 2001, when Missouri Democrats opposed Ashcroft's nomination for U.S. Attorney General, Danforth's name was invoked.", "Former U.S.", "Senator Tom Eagleton reacted to the nomination by saying: \"John Danforth would have been my first choice.", "John Ashcroft would have been my last choice.", "\"====Tenure====During the 1991 Senate confirmation hearings for U.S. Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, Danforth used his clout to support Thomas, who had served Danforth during his state attorney general years and later as an aide in the Senate.Danforth portrayed himself as a political moderate, but voted like his right-wing Republican colleagues, including sustaining filibusters.", "He was once quoted as saying he joined the Republican Party for \"the same reason you sometimes choose which movie to see—it's the one with the shortest line.", "\"Danforth is a longtime opponent of capital punishment, as he made clear on the Senate floor in 1994.In 1988, George H. W. Bush's presidential campaign vetted Danforth as a potential running mate.", "Bush selected Senator Dan Quayle (whose middle name is \"Danforth\") instead.===UN Ambassador===Justice Clarence Thomas, his former assistant, 2004On July 1, 2004, Danforth was sworn in as the United States Ambassador to the United Nations, succeeding John Negroponte, who left the post after becoming the U.S.", "Ambassador to Iraq in June.", "He is best remembered for attempts to bring peace to the Sudan but stayed at the UN for just six months.", "Danforth was mentioned as a successor to Secretary of State Colin Powell.", "Six days after the announcement that Condoleezza Rice was going to take the position, Danforth submitted his resignation on November 22, 2004, effective January 20, 2005.His resignation letter said, \"Forty-seven years ago, I married the girl of my dreams, and, at this point in my life, what is most important to me is to spend more time with her.\"" ], [ "Post-Senate career", "Danforth talks with reporters about his investigation of the 1993 incident involving the FBI and the Branch Davidians in Waco, Texas, 1999Report to the Deputy Attorney General Concerning the 1993 Confrontation at the Mt.", "Carmel Complex, Waco, Texas, John Danforth, Independent Counsel, November 8, 2000.Federal government document.===Political activity===In 1999, Democratic U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno appointed Danforth to lead an investigation into the FBI's role in the 1993 Waco Siege.", "Danforth appointed Democratic U.S. Attorney Edward L. Dowd Jr. for the Eastern District of Missouri as his deputy special counsel.", "He also hired Bryan Cave partner Thomas A. Schweich as his chief of staff.", "Assistant U.S. Attorney James G. Martin served as Danforth's director of investigative operations for what became known as the \"Waco Investigation\" and its resulting \"Danforth Report\".In July 2000, Danforth's name was leaked as being on the short list of potential vice presidential nominees for Republican nominee George W. Bush, along with Michigan Governor John Engler, New York Governor George Pataki, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge, and former U.S. Secretary of Transportation, U.S. Secretary of Labor and former American Red Cross President Elizabeth Dole.", "One week before the 2000 Republican National Convention was held in Philadelphia, campaign sources said that Dick Cheney, the man charged with leading the selection process for the nominee, had recommended Danforth, but Bush selected Cheney himself.", "Bush wrote in his book ''Decision Points'' that Danforth would have been his choice if Cheney had not accepted.", "In September 2001, Bush appointed Danforth a special envoy to Sudan.", "He brokered a peace deal that officially ended the civil war in the South between Sudan's Islamic government and the U.S.-backed Christian rebels, but elements of that conflict still remain unresolved (as has the separate Darfur conflict).", "Known as the Second Sudanese Civil War, the conflict ended in January 2005 with the signing of a peace agreement.On June 11, 2004, Danforth presided over the funeral of Ronald Reagan, held at Washington National Cathedral.", "Danforth also officiated at the funerals of ''Washington Post'' executive Katharine Graham, former United States Senator Harry Flood Byrd Jr. of Virginia, and Missouri State Auditor Tom Schweich.On March 30, 2005, Danforth wrote an op-ed in ''The New York Times'' critical of the Republican party.", "The article began: \"By a series of recent initiatives, Republicans have transformed our party into the political arm of conservative Christians\".", "He also penned a June 17, 2005, piece headlined \"Onward, Moderate Christian Soldiers\".", "In 2015, Danforth joined 299 other Republicans in signing an amicus brief calling on the Supreme Court to legalize same-sex marriage.Contributing to the anthology ''Our American Story'' (2019), Danforth addressed the possibility of a shared American narrative and focused on the \"great American purpose\" of \"holding together in one nation a diverse and often contentious people.\"", "He encouraged continued work \"to demand a functioning government where compromise is the norm, to integrate all our people into one indivisible nation, and to incorporate separated individuals into the wholeness of the community.\"", "Danforth is a member of the Reformers Caucus of Issue One.Since the mid-2000s, Danforth was a mentor and political supporter of Josh Hawley, who became Attorney General of Missouri in 2017 and U.S.", "Senator in 2019 with Danforth's encouragement; Danforth also supported Hawley's presidential ambitions.", "In the wake of the January 6 United States Capitol attack and Hawley's efforts to challenge the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count, Danforth said that supporting Hawley in the 2018 election \"was the worst mistake I ever made in my life\".", "During the 2022 United States Senate election in Missouri, Danforth headed a PAC supporting independent candidate John Wood, considered a long shot to win.", "Wood collected enough signatures to get on the ballot but dropped out after 50 days when Eric Schmitt won the Republican primary.", "Danforth spent $6 million on the effort.===Private sector===In 1995, following his departure from the Senate, Danforth again became a partner at the Bryan Cave law firm.", "As of 2021 Danforth is a partner at Dowd Bennett, a Clayton law firm just outside Saint Louis.In May 2012, a group led by Danforth's son-in-law and Summitt Distributing CEO Tom Stillman, in which Danforth is a minority investor, took controlling ownership of the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League.", "The group acquired full ownership of the team in June 2019.Danforth has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.", "He is an honorary board member of the humanitarian organization Wings of Hope." ], [ "Personal life", "Danforth married the former Sally Dobson in 1957.They have five children and 15 grandchildren." ], [ "Author", "*''Resurrection: The Confirmation of Clarence Thomas,'' Viking, 1994*''Faith and Politics: How the \"Moral Values\" Debate Divides America and How to Move Forward Together'', Viking Press, 2006.", "*''The Relevance of Religion: How Faithful People Can Change Politics''.", "Description & preview.", "Random House, 2015." ], [ "See also", "* George H. W. Bush Supreme Court candidates* List of attorneys general of Missouri" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * UN Press release on becoming US Ambassador to the UN" ] ]
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[ [ "Jordanes" ], [ "Introduction", "The Mediterranean area 550 AD as Jordanes wrote his ''Getica''.", "The Eastern Roman Empire, whose capital was Constantinople, is shown in pink.", "Conquests of Justinian I shown in green.", "'''Jordanes''' (; Greek: Ιορδάνης), also written as '''Jordanis''' or '''Jornandes''', was a 6th-century Eastern Roman bureaucrat, widely believed to be of Gothic descent, who became a historian later in life.He wrote two works, one on Roman history (''Romana'') and the other on the Goths (''Getica'').", "The latter, along with Isidore of Seville's ''Historia Gothorum'', is one of only two extant ancient works dealing with the early history of the Goths.", "Other writers, such as Procopius, wrote works on the later history of the Goths.", "''Getica'' has been the object of much critical review.", "Jordanes wrote in Late Latin rather than the classical Ciceronian Latin.", "According to his own introduction, he had only three days to review what Cassiodorus had written and so he must also have relied on his own knowledge." ], [ "Life", "Jordanes writes about himself almost in passing:Paria was Jordanes's paternal grandfather.", "Jordanes writes that he was secretary to Candac, , an otherwise unknown leader of the Alans.Jordanes was asked by a friend to write ''Getica'' as a summary of a multi-volume history of the Goths by the statesman Cassiodorus that existed then but has since been lost.", "Jordanes was selected for his known interest in history and because of his own Gothic background.", "He had been a high-level , or secretary, of a small client state on the Roman frontier in Scythia Minor, modern southeastern Romania and northeastern Bulgaria.Jordanes was , or secretary to Gunthigis Baza, a nephew of Candac and a magister militum of the leading Ostrogoth clan of the Amali.That was (\"before my conversion\").", "The nature and the details of the conversion remain obscure.", "The Goths had been converted with the assistance of Ulfilas (a Goth), made bishop on that account.", "However, the Goths had adopted Arianism.", "Jordanes's conversion may have been a conversion to the trinitarian Nicene Creed, which may be expressed in anti-Arianism in certain passages in ''Getica''.", "In the letter to Vigilius he mentions that he was awakened – \"by your questioning\".Alternatively, Jordanes's may mean that he had become a monk, a or a member of the clergy.", "Some manuscripts say that he was a bishop, and some even say bishop of Ravenna, but the name Jordanes is not known in the lists of bishops of Ravenna." ], [ "Works", "The deeds of Dacians and Getae (here from Trajan's Column) were wrongly attributed to Goths by JordanesJordanes wrote ''Romana'', about the history of Rome, but his best-known work is his ''Getica'', which was written in Constantinople about 551 AD.Jordanes wrote his ''Romana'' at the behest of a certain Vigilius.", "Although some scholars have identified this person with Pope Vigilius, there is nothing else to support the identification besides the name.", "The form of address that Jordanes uses and his admonition that Vigilius \"turn to God\" would seem to rule out this identification.In the preface to his ''Getica'', Jordanes writes that he is interrupting his work on the ''Romana'' at the behest of a brother Castalius, who apparently knew that Jordanes possessed the twelve volumes of the History of the Goths by Cassiodorus.", "Castalius wanted a short book about the subject, and Jordanes obliged with an excerpt based on memory, possibly supplemented with other material to which he had access.", "The ''Getica'' sets off with a geography/ethnography of the North, especially of Scandza (16–24).He lets the history of the Goths commence with the emigration of Berig with three ships from Scandza to Gothiscandza (25, 94), in a distant past.", "In the pen of Jordanes, Herodotus's Getian demigod Zalmoxis becomes a king of the Goths (39).", "Jordanes tells how the Goths sacked \"Troy and Ilium\" just after they had recovered somewhat from the war with Agamemnon (108).", "They are also said to have encountered the Egyptian pharaoh Vesosis (47).", "The less fictional part of Jordanes's work begins when the Goths encounter Roman military forces in the third century AD.", "The work concludes with the defeat of the Goths by the Byzantine general Belisarius.", "Jordanes concludes the work by stating that he writes to honour those who were victorious over the Goths after a history spanning 2,030 years." ], [ "Controversy", "Several Romanian and American historians wrote about Jordanes's error who considered that Getae were Goths.", "According to that interpretation, many of the historical data about Dacians and Getae were wrongly attributed to Goths.Arne Søby Christensen and Michael Kulikowski argue in their works that Jordanes developed in ''Getica'' the history of Getic and Dacian peoples, which he supplemented with probably-invented events such as a Gothic war against Egypt.", "Caracalla in 214 received the titles \"Geticus Maximus\" and \"Quasi Gothicus\" after battles with Getae and Goths." ], [ "See also", "* History of the Roman Empire" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "****************" ], [ "External links", "* * * Jordanes, ''The Origins and Deeds of the Goths'', translated by Charles C. Mierow.", "alternative.", "* The Origins and Deeds of the Goths*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jim Bakker" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Orsen Bakker''' (; born January 2, 1940) is an American televangelist.", "Between 1974 and 1987, Bakker hosted the television program ''The PTL Club'' and its cable television platform, the PTL Satellite Network, with his then wife, Tammy Faye.", "He also developed Heritage USA, a now-defunct Christian theme park in Fort Mill, South Carolina.In the late 1980s, Bakker resigned from the PTL ministry over a cover-up of hush money to church secretary Jessica Hahn for an alleged rape.", "Subsequent revelations of accounting fraud brought about felony charges, conviction, imprisonment, and divorce.", "Bakker later remarried and returned to televangelism, founding Morningside Church in Blue Eye, Missouri, and reestablishing the PTL ministry.", "He currently hosts ''The Jim Bakker Show'', which focuses on the end times and the Second Coming of Christ while promoting emergency survival products.", "Bakker has written several books, including ''I Was Wrong'' and ''Time Has Come: How to Prepare Now for Epic Events Ahead''." ], [ "Personal life", "James Orsen Bakker was born in Muskegon, Michigan, the son of Raleigh Bakker and Furnia Lynette \"Furn\" Irwin.", "Bakker attended North Central University, a Minneapolis bible college affiliated with the Assemblies of God, where he met fellow student Tammy Faye LaValley in 1960.Bakker worked at a restaurant in the Young-Quinlan department store in Minneapolis; Tammy Faye worked at the Three Sisters, a nearby boutique.The Bakkers married on April 1, 1961, and left college to become itinerant evangelists.", "They had two children, Tammy Sue \"Sissy\" Bakker Chapman (born March 2, 1970) and Jamie Charles \"Jay\" Bakker (born December 18, 1975).", "The couple divorced on March 13, 1992.On September 4, 1998, Bakker married Lori Beth Graham, a former televangelist, fifty days after they met.", "In 2002, they adopted five children." ], [ "Career", "===Early career===In 1966, Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker began working at Pat Robertson's Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN) in Portsmouth, Virginia, which had an audience in the low thousands at the time.", "The Bakkers contributed to the network's growth, hosting a children's variety show called ''Come On Over'' that employed comic routines with puppets.", "Due to the success of ''Come On Over'', Robertson made Bakker the host of a new prime-time talk show, ''The 700 Club'', which gradually became CBN's flagship program.", "The Bakkers left CBN in 1972 and, the following year, joined with Paul and Jan Crouch to help co-found the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN) in California.", "However, this partnership lasted only eight months until a falling-out between Jim Bakker and Paul Crouch caused the Bakkers to leave the new network.===PTL===Heritage USA sign in 2007.The site is now mostly demolished.After their exit from TBN, the Bakkers moved to Charlotte, North Carolina, where in 1976 they debuted their own late night-style talk show, ''The PTL Club''.", "Bakker founded the PTL Satellite Network in 1974, which aired ''The PTL Club'' and other religious television programs through local affiliates across the U.S.Throughout the 1970s, Bakker built a headquarters for PTL in the Carolinas called Heritage Village.", "Over time, the Bakkers expanded the ministry to include the Heritage USA theme park in Fort Mill, South Carolina, which became the third most successful theme park in the U.S. at the time.", "Viewer contributions were estimated to exceed $1 million a week, with proceeds to expand the theme park and ''The PTL Club'' mission.", "Bakker responded to inquiries about his use of mass media by saying: \"I believe that if Jesus were alive today, he would be on TV\".Two scandals brought down PTL in 1987: Bakker was accused of sexual misconduct by church secretary Jessica Hahn, which led to his resignation, and his illegal misuse of ministry funds eventually led to his imprisonment.", "Bakker was dismissed as an Assemblies of God minister on May 6, 1987.In 1990, the biographic television movie ''Fall from Grace'', starring Kevin Spacey as Bakker, depicted his rise and fall.", "On January 18, 2019, ABC's ''20/20'' aired a two-hour special, entitled ''Unfaithfully Yours'', about the PTL scandal.==== Early investigations ====In 1979, Bakker and PTL came under investigation by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for allegedly misusing funds raised on the air.", "The FCC report was finalized in 1982 and found that Bakker had raised $350,000 that he told viewers would go towards funding overseas missions but that was actually used to pay for part of Heritage USA.", "The report also found that the Bakkers used PTL funds for personal expenses.", "FCC commissioners voted four to three to drop the investigation, after which they allowed Bakker to sell the only TV station that he owned, therefore bypassing future FCC oversight.", "The FCC forwarded its report to the U.S. Department of Justice, which declined to press charges, citing insufficient evidence.", "Bakker used the controversy to raise more funds from his audience, branding the investigation a \"witch-hunt\" and asking viewers to \"give the Devil a black eye\".A confidential 1985 Internal Revenue Service (IRS) report found that $1.3 million in ministry funds was used for the Bakkers' personal benefit from 1980 to 1983.The report recommended that PTL be stripped of its tax-exempt status, but no action was taken until after the Jessica Hahn scandal broke in 1987.Art Harris and Michael Isikoff wrote in ''The Washington Post'' that politics may have played a role in the three government agencies taking no action against PTL despite the evidence against them, as members of the Reagan administration were not eager to go after television ministers whose evangelical followers made up their base.====Sexual misconduct and resignation====A $279,000 payoff for the silence of Jessica Hahn, who alleged that Bakker and former ''PTL Club'' co-host John Wesley Fletcher drugged and raped her, was paid with PTL funds through Bakker's associate Roe Messner.", "Bakker, who made PTL's financial decisions, allegedly kept two sets of books to conceal accounting irregularities.", "Reporters for ''The Charlotte Observer'', led by Charles Shepard, investigated PTL's finances and published a series of articles.On March 19, 1987, after the disclosure of a payoff to Hahn, Bakker resigned from PTL.", "Although he acknowledged that he had a sexual encounter with Hahn at a hotel room in Clearwater, Florida, he denied raping her.", "Bakker was also the subject of homosexual and bisexual allegations made by Fletcher and PTL director Jay Babcock, which Bakker denied under oath.", "Rival televangelist John Ankerberg appeared on ''Larry King Live'' and made several allegations of moral impropriety against Bakker, which both Bakkers denied.Bakker was succeeded as PTL head by the Rev.", "Jerry Falwell of Thomas Road Baptist Church in Lynchburg, Virginia.", "Bakker chose Falwell as his successor because he feared that fellow televangelist Jimmy Swaggart, who had initiated an Assemblies of God investigation into Bakker's sexual misconduct, was attempting to take over his ministry.Bakker believed that Falwell would temporarily lead the ministry until the scandal died down, but on April 28, 1987, Falwell barred Bakker from returning to PTL upon hearing of allegations of illicit behavior which went beyond the Hahn allegations.", "Later that summer, as donations declined sharply in the wake of Bakker's resignation and the end of ''The PTL Club'', Falwell raised $20 million to keep Heritage USA solvent and took a promised water slide ride at the park.", "Falwell and the remaining members of the PTL board resigned in October 1987, stating that a ruling from a bankruptcy court judge made rebuilding the ministry impossible.In response to the scandal, Falwell called Bakker a liar, an embezzler, a sexual deviant, and \"the greatest scab and cancer on the face of Christianity in 2,000 years of church history\".", "On CNN, Swaggart stated that Bakker was a \"cancer in the body of Christ\".", "In February 1988, Swaggart became involved in a sex scandal of his own after being caught visiting prostitutes in New Orleans.", "The Bakker and Swaggart scandals had a profound effect on the world of televangelism, causing greater media scrutiny of TV ministers and their finances.", "Falwell said that the scandals had \"strengthened broadcast evangelism and made Christianity stronger, more mature and more committed.", "\"====Fraud conviction and imprisonment====''The PTL Club''s fundraising activities between 1984 and 1987 were reported by ''The Charlotte Observer'', eventually leading to criminal charges against Bakker.", "Bakker and his PTL associates sold $1,000 \"lifetime memberships\", entitling buyers to an annual three-night stay at a luxury hotel at Heritage USA during that period.", "According to the prosecution at Bakker's fraud trial, tens of thousands of memberships were sold but only one 500-room hotel was ever finished.", "Bakker sold \"exclusive partnerships\" which exceeded capacity, raising more than twice the money needed to build the hotel.", "Much of the money paid Heritage USA's operating expenses, and Bakker kept $3.4 million.After a 16-month federal grand jury probe, Bakker was indicted in 1988 on eight counts of mail fraud, 15 counts of wire fraud and one count of conspiracy.", "In 1989, after a five-week trial which began on August 28 in Charlotte, North Carolina, a jury found him guilty on all 24 counts.", "Judge Robert Daniel Potter sentenced Bakker to 45 years in federal prison and imposed a $500,000 fine.", "At the Federal Medical Center, Rochester in Rochester, Minnesota, he shared a cell with activist Lyndon LaRouche and skydiver Roger Nelson.The United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit upheld Bakker's conviction on the fraud and conspiracy charges, voided Bakker's 45-year sentence and $500,000 fine and ordered a new sentencing hearing in February 1991.The court ruled that Potter's sentencing statement about Bakker, that \"those of us who do have a religion are sick of being saps for money-grubbing preachers and priests\", was evidence that the judge had injected his religious beliefs into Bakker's sentence.A sentence-reduction hearing was held on November 16, 1992, and Bakker's sentence was reduced to eight years.", "In August 1993, he was transferred to a minimum-security federal prison in Jesup, Georgia.", "Bakker was paroled in July 1994, after serving almost five years of his sentence.", "His son, Jay, spearheaded a letter-writing campaign to the parole board advocating leniency.", "Celebrity lawyer Alan Dershowitz acted as Bakker's parole attorney, having said that he \"would guarantee that Mr. Bakker would never again engage in the blend of religion and commerce that led to his conviction.\"", "Bakker was released from Federal Bureau of Prisons custody on December 1, 1994, owing $6 million to the IRS.===Return to televangelism===The set of ''The Jim Bakker Show'' in Blue Eye, MissouriIn 2003, Bakker began broadcasting ''The Jim Bakker Show'' daily at Studio City Café in Branson, Missouri, with his second wife Lori; it has been carried on CTN, Daystar, Folk TV, Grace Network (Canada), Daystar Television Canada, GEB America, Hope TV (Canada), Impact Network, WGN, WHT, TCT Network, The Word Network, UpliftTV, and ZLiving networks.", "Most of Bakker's audience receives his program on DirecTV and Dish Network.", "Bakker condemned the prosperity theology in which he took part earlier in his career, and has embraced apocalypticism.", "His show has a millennial, survivalist focus and sells buckets of freeze-dried food, such as beans on toast, to his audience in preparation for the end of days.", "Elspeth Reeve wrote in ''The Atlantic'' that Bakker's \"doomsday survival gear\" is overpriced.", "A man named Jerry Crawford, who credits Bakker with saving his marriage, invested $25 million in a new ministry for Bakker in Blue Eye, Missouri, named Morningside USA.", "Production for ''The Jim Bakker Show'' moved to Morningside in 2008.====Prophecies and statements====In 2013, Bakker wrote ''Time Has Come: How to Prepare Now for Epic Events Ahead'' about end-time events.", "Bakker has changed his views on prosperity theology.", "In his 1980 book ''Eight Keys to Success'', he stated, \"God wants you to be happy, God wants you to be rich, God wants you to prosper.\"", "In his 1996 book, ''I Was Wrong'', he admitted that the first time he actually read the Bible all the way through was in prison.", "Bakker also wrote that he realized that he had taken passages out of context and used them as prooftexts to support his prosperity theology.Bakker's revived show features a number of ministers who bill themselves as \"prophets\".", "He now says that \"PTL\" stands for \"Prophets Talking Loud\".In an October 2017 video, Bakker said that \"God will punish those\" who ridicule him; he has said that Hurricane Harvey was a judgment of God, and he blamed Hurricane Matthew on then-President Barack Obama.", "Bakker predicted that if then-President Donald Trump was impeached, Christians would begin a Second American Civil War.", "He compared the 2017 Washington train derailment to the sinking of the RMS ''Titanic'' and stated the Amtrak train derailment was a warning from God.", "He also claimed that he predicted the September 11 attacks of 2001, stating that he \"saw 9/11 in 1999 before New Year's Eve\" and that there would \"be terrorism\" and bombings in New York City and Washington, D.C.\" A few days after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, he stated that \"God came to him in a dream... and he was wearing camouflage, a hunting vest and had an AR-15 strapped to his back\" and that God supported Trump's plan to arm teachers.", "Following the death of Billy Graham on February 21, 2018, Bakker attended Graham's funeral and paid his respects, stating that Graham was the greatest preacher since Jesus, and also remarking that Graham had visited him in prison.On the ''Stand in the Gap Today'' radio program, Pennsylvania Pastors Network president Sam Rohrer criticized Bakker's civil-war prediction.", "''Christian Today'' criticized Bakker's show for preying on \"the most vulnerable kinds of people\" and claimed that it had \"no place on our TV screens.", "\"====COVID-19 misinformation====Bakker sold colloidal silver supplements that he advertised as a panacea.", "In March 2020, the office of the Attorney General of New York ordered Bakker to cease making false medicinal claims about his supplements' alleged ability to cure the 2019–2020 strains of coronavirus, and the Federal Trade Commission and the Food and Drug Administration also sent a warning letter to Bakker about his claims regarding the supplements and coronavirus.Missouri attorney general Eric Schmitt and Arkansas attorney general Leslie Rutledge filed lawsuits against Bakker for allegedly pushing the supplements as a treatment for the virus.", "In the State lawsuit against him, Bakker is represented by former Missouri governor Jay Nixon, who has argued for the suit to be dismissed.", "Nixon says that the allegations made in the lawsuit are false, stating: \"Bakker is being unfairly targeted by those who want to crush his ministry and force his Christian television program off the air.", "\"In April 2020, prohibited from receiving credit card transactions, Bakker disclosed to his viewers that his ministry was on the brink of filing for bankruptcy and urgently petitioned them for donations.The following month, GEB America and World Harvest Television dropped Bakker's program from their networks after DirecTV owner AT&T asked channels to reconsider airing the show.", "AT&T made the request of its channels in response to a deplatforming campaign from the liberal Christian group Faithful America.On May 8, 2020, Lori Bakker announced that Jim Bakker had suffered a stroke that his son Jay described as “minor”.", "Lori stated that he would be taking a sabbatical from the program until he recovers.", "She blamed the stroke on Bakker's hard work on his show and wrote that he had described the criticism against him as “the most vicious attack that he has ever experienced”.", "Bakker returned to his program for the first time following his stroke on July 8, 2020.On June 23, 2021, Missouri Attorney General Eric Schmitt announced the settlement of the state's lawsuit against Bakker.", "Bakker and Morningside Church would be prohibited from saying silver solution could \"diagnose, prevent, mitigate, treat, or cure any disease or illness\".", "Restitution of about $157,000 would also be paid to those who bought silver solution between February 12, 2020, and March 10, 2020." ], [ "Works", "*''Move That Mountain'' (1976), *''Eight Keys to Success'' (1980), *''I Was Wrong'' (1996), *''Prosperity and the Coming Apocalypse'' (1998), *''The Refuge: The Joy of Christian Community in a Torn-Apart World'' (2000), *''Time Has Come: How to Prepare Now for Epic Events Ahead'' (2014), *''You Can Make It: God's Faithfulness in Dark Times-Past, Present and Future'' (2021)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jim Bakker Show" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jan and Dean" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jan and Dean''' were an American rock duo consisting of '''William Jan Berry''' (April 3, 1941 – March 26, 2004) and '''Dean Ormsby Torrence''' (born March 10, 1940).", "In the early 1960s, they were pioneers of the California Sound and vocal surf music styles popularized by the Beach Boys.Among their most successful songs was 1963's \"Surf City\", the first surf song ever to reach the #1 spot.", "Their other charting top 10 singles were \"Drag City\" (1963), \"Dead Man's Curve\" (1964; inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2008), and \"The Little Old Lady (from Pasadena)\" (1964).In 1972, Torrence won the Grammy Award for Best Album Cover for the psychedelic rock band Pollution's first eponymous 1971 album, and was nominated three other times in the same category for albums of the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band.", "In 2013, Torrence's design contribution of the Surf City Allstars' ''In Concert'' CD was named a Silver Award of Distinction at the Communicator Awards competition." ], [ "Early lives", "'''William Jan Berry''' (April 3, 1941 – March 26, 2004), was born in Los Angeles to Clara Lorentze Mustad (born September 2, 1919, Bergen, Norway – died July 9, 2009) and aeronautical engineer William L. Berry (born December 7, 1909, New York City – died December 19, 2004, Camarillo, California), He was raised in Bel Air, Los Angeles.", "Jan's father worked for Howard Hughes as a project manager of the \"Spruce Goose\" and flew on its only flight with Hughes.", "'''Dean Ormsby Torrence''' (born ) was born in Los Angeles, the son of Natalie Ormsby (April 10, 1911 – August 10, 2008) and Maurice Dean Torrence (December 5, 1907 – November 16, 1997).", "His father, Maurice, was a graduate of Stanford University, and was a sales manager at the Wilshire Oil Company." ], [ "History", "===1957–59: formation===Berry and Torrence met while both were students at Emerson Junior High School in Westwood, Los Angeles, and both were on the school's football team.", "By 1957, they were students in the class of 1958 at the nearby University High School, where again they were both on the school's football team, the Warriors.", "Berry and Torrence had adjoining lockers, and after football practice, they began harmonizing together in the showers with several other football players, including future actor James Brolin.====The Barons====In order to enter a talent competition at University High School, Berry and Torrence helped form a doo-wop group known as \"The Barons\" (named after their high school's Hi-Y club, of which they were members), which was composed of fellow University High students William \"Chuck\" Steele (lead singer), Arnold P. \"Arnie\" Ginsburg (born November 19, 1939; 1st tenor), Wallace S. \"Wally\" Yagi (born July 20, 1940; 2nd tenor), John 'Sagi\" Seligman (2nd tenor), with Berry singing bass and Torrence providing falsetto.During its short duration, Sandy Nelson, Torrence's neighbor, played drums, and future Beach Boy Bruce Johnston occasionally sang and played piano.", "The Barons rehearsed for hours in Berry's parents' garage, where Berry's father provided an upright piano and two two-track Ampex reel-to-reel tape recorders.In 1958, the Barons performed to popular acclaim at the talent competition at University High School, covering contemporary hits like \"Get a Job\", \"Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay\", and \"Short Shorts\".", "Following the contest, various members of the Barons drifted away, leaving only Berry and Torrence, who tried to write their own songs.====Jan & Arnie====After being inspired by a poster featuring a local Hollywood burlesque performer, Virginia Lee Hicks, who was then performing as Jennie Lee, the \"Bazoom Girl\", at the New Follies Burlesk at 548 S. Main St, Los Angeles, Ginsburg wrote a tribute song, \"Jennie Lee\", that he brought to Berry and Torrence.", "Berry adapted the Civil War tune \"Aura Lea\" and arranged the harmonies.", "After weeks of practice, Berry, Ginsburg, and Torrence planned to make a demo recording in Berry's garage, but Torrence was conscripted into the United States Army Reserve, forcing Berry and Ginsburg to record \"Jennie Lee\" without Torrence, with Berry's friend and fellow University High student Donald J. Altfeld (born March 18, 1940, in Los Angeles ) \"beating out the rhythm on a children's metal high chair\".", "The next day Berry took their recording to Radio Recorders, a small recording studio, to have it transferred to an acetate disc.", "Joe Lubin, Vice President and Head of A & R of Arwin Records, was impressed and offered to add instruments and to release it through Arwin.In March 1958, the fathers of Berry and Ginsburg signed contracts authorizing Lubin to produce, arrange, and manage their sons.Produced by Lubin, \"Jennie Lee\" (Arwin 108), backed with \"Gotta Get a Date\" (credited to Ginsburg, Berry & Lubin), became a surprise commercial success.", "According to Berry biographer Mark A. Moore, \"The song (with backing vocals, plus additional instruments added by the Ernie Freeman combo) had a raucous R&B flavor, with a bouncing bomp-bomp vocal hook that would become a signature from Jan on future recordings.\"", "Distributed by Dot Records, \"Jennie Lee\" was released in mid-April, entered the charts on May 10, 1958, the same day they appeared on ABC's ''Dick Clark Show''.", "\"Jennie Lee\" peaked at No.", "3 on the ''Cash Box'' charts on June 21, 1958, No.", "4 on the R&B charts, and No.", "8 on the Billboard charts on June 30, 1958.Billy Ward and his Dominoes's R&B cover of \"Jennie Lee\" reached No.", "55 in the Pop charts in June 1958, while other cover versions including that of Moon Mullican (Coral 9-61994) and Bobby Phillips & the Toppers (Tops 45-R422-49), released in 1958 failed to chart.In July 1958, Jan & Arnie released their second single, \"Gas Money\" backed with \"Bonnie Lou\" (Arwin 111), both written by Berry, Ginsburg, and Altfeld.", "Like \"Jennie Lee\", \"Gas Money\" contained a few elements of what would later become surf music.", "It entered the ''Billboard'' charts on August 24, 1958, and peaked at No.", "81 a week later.", "Jan & Arnie were a featured act on the Summer Dance Party that toured the US East Coast, including Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut in July 1958.By the end of the month, they traveled to Manhattan to appear on ''The Dick Clark Show''.On August 24, 1958, Jan & Arnie played in a live show hosted by Dick Clark that featured Bobby Darin, the Champs, Sheb Wooley, the Blossoms, the Six Teens, Jerry Wallace, Jack Jones, Rod McKuen and the Ernie Freeman Orchestra in front of nearly 12,000 fans at the first rock-n-roll show ever held at the Hollywood Bowl.By September 6, 1958, Jan & Arnie's third and final single, \"The Beat That Can't Be Beat\" backed with \"I Love Linda\" (Arwin 113), again composed by the Berry, Ginsburg, and Altfeld team, was released.", "However this single failed to chart, due in part to a lack of distribution.", "On October 19, 1958, Jan & Arnie performed \"The Beat That Can't Be Beat\" on CBS's ''Jack Benny Show''.Arnie Ginsburg recorded a one-off single with a band named the Rituals on the Arwin label.", "The single, \"Girl in Zanzibar\" b/w \"Guitarro\", was released on vinyl in January 1959, preceding Jan and Dean's first single \"Baby Talk\", released in May 1959.Other than Arnie, the single featured Richard Podolor on guitar, Sandy Nelson on drums, Bruce Johnston on piano, Dave Shostac on sax, Harper Cosby on bass, and Mike Deasy on guitar.", "It is unclear if the actual single was released for the general public but there are several promotional copies pressed to vinyl in existence.By the end of the year, when Torrence had completed his six-month stint at Fort Ord, Ginsburg had become disenchanted with the music business.", "Ginsburg enrolled in the School of Architecture and Design at the University of Southern California and graduated in the field of product design in 1966.After graduation Ginsburg worked for several noted Los Angeles architects, among them Charles Eames, and in December 1973 he was granted a U.S. patent for a table he designed.Ginsburg moved in 1975 to Santa Barbara, California, where he worked as an architectural designer.", "designing the innovative Ginsburg House.", "In September 1976, Ginsburg and Michael W. O'Neill were granted a patent for a portable batting cage.===1959–62: early records===After Torrence returned from a six-month compulsory stint in the US Army Reserve, Berry and Torrence began to make music as \"Jan and Dean\".", "With the help of record producers Herb Alpert and Lou Adler, Jan and Dean scored a No.", "10 hit on the Dore label with \"Baby Talk\" (1959) (which was incorrectly labeled as Jan & Arnie when it initially was released), then scored a series of hits over the next couple of years.", "Playing local venues, they met and performed with the Beach Boys, and discovered the appeal of the latter's \"surf sound\".", "By this time Berry was co-writing, arranging, and producing all of Jan and Dean's original material.During this time Berry co-wrote or arranged and produced songs for other artists outside of Jan and Dean, including the Angels (\"I Adore Him\", Top 30), the Gents, the Matadors (Sinners), Pixie (unreleased), Jill Gibson, Shelley Fabares, Deane Hawley, the Rip Chords (\"Three Window Coupe\", Top 30), and Johnny Crawford, among others.Unlike most other rock 'n roll acts of the period, Jan and Dean did not give music their full-time attention.", "Jan and Dean were college students, maintaining their studies while writing and recording music and making public appearances on the side.", "Torrence majored in advertising design in the school of architecture at USC, where he also was a member of the Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity.", "Berry took science and music classes at UCLA, became a member of Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, and entered the California College of Medicine (now the UC Irvine School of Medicine) in 1963.===1963–66: peak years===Jan and Dean reached their commercial peak in 1963 and 1964, after they met Brian Wilson.", "The duo scored sixteen Top 40 hits on the ''Billboard'' and ''Cash Box'' magazine charts, with a total of twenty-six chart hits over an eight-year period (1959-1966).", "Berry and Wilson collaborated on roughly a dozen hits and album cuts for Jan and Dean, including \"Surf City\", co-written by Jan Berry and Brian Wilson, (#1, 1963).", "Subsequent top 10 hits included \"Drag City\" (#10, 1964), the eerily portentous \"Dead Man's Curve\" (#8, 1964), and \"The Little Old Lady from Pasadena\" (#3, 1964).In 1964, at the height of their fame, Jan and Dean hosted and performed at ''The T.A.M.I.", "Show,'' a historic concert film directed by Steve Binder.", "The film also featured such acts as the Rolling Stones, Chuck Berry, Gerry & the Pacemakers, James Brown, Billy J. Kramer & the Dakotas, Marvin Gaye, the Supremes, Lesley Gore, Smokey Robinson & the Miracles and the Beach Boys.", "Also in 1964, the duo performed the title track for the Columbia Pictures film ''Ride the Wild Surf'', starring Fabian Forte, Tab Hunter, Peter Brown, Shelley Fabares, and Barbara Eden.", "The song, penned by Jan Berry, Brian Wilson and Roger Christian, was a Top 20 national hit.", "The pair were also to have appeared in the film, but their roles were cut following their friendship with Barry Keenan, who had engineered the Frank Sinatra Jr. kidnapping.Jan and Dean also filmed two unreleased television pilots: ''Surf Scene'' in 1963 and ''On the Run'' in 1966.Their feature film for Paramount Pictures ''Easy Come, Easy Go'' was canceled when Berry, as well as the film's director and other crew members, were seriously injured in a railroad accident while shooting the film in Chatsworth, California, in August 1965.After the surfing craze, Jan and Dean scored two Top-30 hits in 1965: \"You Really Know How to Hurt a Guy\" got up to 27 and \"I Found a Girl\" got to 30—the latter from the album ''Folk 'n Roll''.", "During this period, they also began to experiment with cutting-edge comedy concepts such as the original (unreleased) ''Filet of Soul'' and ''Jan & Dean Meet Batman''.", "The former's album cover shows Berry with his leg in a cast as a result of the accident while filming ''Easy Come, Easy Go''.In 1966, Jan Berry recorded \"The Universal Coward\", an angry response to Donovan’s anti-war single Universal Soldier (originally written by Buffy Sainte-Marie) even though Berry never served in the military.===1966–68: Berry's car wreck===On April 12, 1966, Berry received severe head injuries in an automobile accident on Whittier Drive, just a short distance from Dead Man's Curve in Beverly Hills, California, two years after the song had become a hit.", "He was en route to a business meeting when he crashed his Corvette into a parked truck on Whittier Drive, near the intersection of Sunset Boulevard, in Beverly Hills.", "Berry also had separated from his girlfriend of seven years, singer-artist Jill Gibson, later a member of the Mamas & the Papas for a short time, who also had co-written several songs with him.", "He was in a coma for more than two months before finally awakening on the morning of June 16.Berry recovered from brain damage and partial paralysis.", "He had limited use of his right arm, and had to learn to write with his left hand as well as learning to walk again.In Berry's absence, Torrence released several singles on the J&D Record Co. label and recorded ''Save for a Rainy Day'' in 1966, a concept album featuring all rain-themed songs.", "Torrence posed with Berry's brother Ken for the album cover photos.", "Columbia Records released one single from the project (\"Yellow Balloon\") as did the song's writer, Gary Zekley, with the group the Yellow Balloon.The album cover to ''Pollution'', designed by Torrence, won a Grammy Award for Best Album Cover in 1971.Besides his studio work, Torrence became a graphic artist, starting his own company, Kittyhawk Graphics, and designing and creating album covers and logos for other musicians and recording artists, including Harry Nilsson, Steve Martin, the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, Dennis Wilson, Bruce Johnston, the Beach Boys, Diana Ross and the Supremes, Linda Ronstadt, Canned Heat, the Ventures and many others.", "Torrence (with Gene Brownell) won a Grammy Award for \"Album Cover of the Year\" in 1971, for the album ''Pollution'' by Pollution on Prophesy Records.Berry returned to the studio in April 1967, almost one year to the day after his accident.", "Working with Alan Wolfson, he began writing and producing music again.", "In December 1967, Jan and Dean signed an agreement with Warner Bros. Records.", "Warner issued three singles under the name \"Jan and Dean\", but a 1968 Berry-produced album for Warner Bros., the psychedelic ''Carnival of Sound'', remained unreleased until February 2010, when Rhino Records' \"Handmade\" label put out CD and vinyl compilations of all tracks recorded for ''Carnival'', along with various outtakes and remixes from the project.===Later years===In 1971, Jan and Dean released the album ''Jan & Dean Anthology Album'' under the label United Artists Records.", "The album included many of their top hits, starting with 1958's \"Jennie Lee\" and ending with 1968's \"Vegetables\".Berry began to sing again in the early 1970s, touring with his Aloha band, while Dean began performing with a band called Papa Doo Run Run.On August 26, 1973, Torrence was scheduled to appear at the Hollywood Palladium as part of Jim Pewter's \"Surfer's Stomp\" reunion.", "Torrence had recently released some Jan & Dean songs with new vocal parts by Bruce Johnston (of the Beach Boys) and producer Terry Melcher under the moniker the Legendary Masked Surfers.", "Torrence arranged with Berry to join him lip-syncing on stage to a pre-recorded track.", "The two anticipated that the audience would know it was a tape recording, and they decided to make light of it during the performance.", "That night, they joked around and stopped lip-syncing on stage while the music continued, but the audience became angry and started booing.", "The duo's first live performance after Berry's accident occurred at the Palomino Nightclub in North Hollywood on June 5, 1976, ten years after the accident, as guests of Disneyland regulars Papa Doo Run Run.", "Their first actual multi-song concert billed as Jan and Dean took place in 1978 in New York City at the Palladium as part of the Murray the K Brooklyn Fox Reunion Show.", "This was followed by a handful of East Coast shows as guests of their longtime friends the Beach Boys.", "Four nationwide J & D headlining tours followed through 1980.Berry was still suffering the effects of his 1966 accident, with partial paralysis and aphasia.The duo experienced a resurgence after Paul Morantz's \"Road back from Deadman's Curve\" article appeared in ''Rolling Stone'' in 1974, writing the piece after spending extensive time with the two singers, their families, doctors and associates.", "Morantz first submitted the story to ''Playboy'', who recommended it to ''Rolling Stone''.", "He then wrote a film treatment from his story which was purchased by CBS.On February 3, 1978, CBS aired a made-for-TV film about the duo titled ''Deadman's Curve''.", "The biopic starred Richard Hatch as Jan Berry and Bruce Davison as Dean Torrence, with cameo appearances by Dick Clark, Wolfman Jack, Mike Love of the Beach Boys, and Bruce Johnston (who at that time was temporarily out of the Beach Boys), as well as Berry himself.", "Near the end of the film he can be seen sitting in the audience, watching \"himself\" (Richard Hatch) perform onstage.", "The part of Jan and Dean's band was played by Papa Doo Run Run, which included Mark Ward and Jim Armstrong, who went on to form Jan and Dean and the Bel-Air Bandits.", "Johnston and Berry had known each other since high school, and had played music together in Berry's garage in Bel Air — long before Jan and Dean or the Beach Boys were formed.", "Following the release of the film, the duo made steps toward an official comeback that year, including touring with the Beach Boys, and performing with Papa Doo Run Run at Cupertino High School.", "In the Netherlands the showing on television of the movie by Veronica in August 1979 earned them a huge hit record of the re-recorded \"Surf City\" and \"Deadman's Curve\" songs as a double A-sided single record release, and a golden oldies record having \"The Little Old Lady From Pasadena\" as its flip side reached a lower position in the charts.In the early 1980s, Papa Doo Run Run left to explore other performance and recording ventures.", "Berry struggled to overcome drug addiction.", "In 1979, Berry had performed over 100 concerts of Jan and Dean songs with another front man from Hawaii, Randy Ruff.", "Torrence also toured briefly as \"Mike & Dean\", with Mike Love of the Beach Boys.", "Later, the duo reunited for good.", "In \"Phase II\" of their career, Torrence led the touring operation.Torrence and Berry in 1985Jan and Dean continued to tour on their own throughout the 1980s, the 1990s, and into the new millennium – with 1960s nostalgia providing them with a ready audience, headlining oldies shows throughout North America.", "Sundazed Records reissued Torrence's ''Save for a Rainy Day'' in 1996 in CD and vinyl formats, as well as the collector's vinyl 45 rpm companion EP, \"Sounds For A Rainy Day\", featuring four instrumental versions of the album's tracks.Between the 1970s and the early 2000s, Torrence issued a number of re-recordings of classic Jan and Dean and Beach Boys hits.", "A double album titled ''One Summer Night / Live'' was issued by Rhino Records in 1982.Torrence released the album ''Silver Summer'' with the help of Mike Love in 1985 for Jan & Dean's 25th anniversary.", "''Silver Summer'' was officially released as a Jan & Dean album, but falsely gives credit to Berry as co-producer and singer; Berry did not contribute to the album.", "Torrence participated with Berry on ''Port to Paradise'', released as a cassette on the J&D Records label in 1986.In 1997, after many years of hard work, Berry released a solo album called ''Second Wave'' on One Way Records.", "June 11, 2002, Torrence released a solo album titled ''Anthology: Legendary Masked Surfer Unmasked''.On August 31, 1991, Berry married Gertie Filip at the Stardust Convention Centre in Las Vegas, Nevada.", "Torrence was Berry's best man at the wedding.====Berry's death====Berry died March 26, 2004, after a seizure.", "He was an organ donor and his body was cremated.", "On April 18, a \"Celebration of Life\" was held in Berry's memory at the Roxy Theatre on the Sunset Strip in West Hollywood, California.", "Attendees included Torrence, Lou Adler, Jill Gibson, and Nancy Sinatra, along with many family members, friends, and musicians associated with Jan and Dean and the Beach Boys, including the original members of Papa Doo Run Run.In February 2010, the Jan and Dean album ''Carnival of Sound'' was released on the Rhino Handmade label.", "The album cover was designed by Torrence.", "Along with the CD, there was a limited edition (1500 copies), which included a 10-track LP.", "The album was released in Europe in April 2010 in its original US form.In 2012, Torrence reunited with Bruce Davison, who portrayed him in the 1978 film ''Deadman's Curve'', to perform with the Bamboo Trading Company on their ''From Kitty Hawk To Surf City'' album.", "The songs were \"Shrewd Awakening\" and \"Tonga Hut\", which was featured on the film ''Return of the Killer Shrews'', a sequel to the 1959 film ''The Killer Shrews'' and also \"Tweet (Don't Talk Anymore)\", \"Drinkin' In the Sunshine\", and \"Star Of The Beach\".", "The album also features Dean's two daughters, Jillian and Katie Torrence.", "Torrence and his two daughters were featured in the music video of \"Shrewd Awakening\".After Berry's death, Torrence began touring occasionally with the Surf City All-Stars.", "He serves as a spokesman for the City of Huntington Beach, California, which, thanks in part to his efforts, is nationally recognized as \"Surf City USA\".", "Torrence's website features—among other things—rare images, a complete Jan and Dean discography, a biography, and a timeline of his career with cohort Jan Berry.", "He currently resides in Huntington Beach, California, with his wife and two daughters." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1964, Jan and Dean were signed to host what became the first multi-act rock and roll show that was edited into a motion picture designed for wide distribution.", "''The T.A.M.I.", "Show'' became a seminal and original production – in essence one of the first rock videos – on its release in 1964.Using a high-resolution videotape process called Electronovision (transferred from television directly onto 35mm motion picture stock as a kinescope), new sound recording techniques and having a remarkable cast, ''The T.A.M.I.", "Show'' set the standard for all succeeding music film and video work, including many of the early videos shown by MTV 17 years later.", "The revolutionary technical achievements of ''The T.A.M.I.", "Show'' and the list of performers (including a performance by James Brown that many critics have called the best of his career) marked a high point for Jan and Dean, as they were the hosts and one of the main featured acts as well.", "They became one of the main faces of mid-1960s music, until Berry's auto accident two years later, through their ''T.A.M.I.", "Show ''appearance.According to rock critic Dave Marsh, the attitude and public persona of punk rock can be traced to Jan and Dean.Brian Wilson has cited Berry as having a direct impact on his own growth as a record producer.In an interview conducted by Jan and Dean fan and historian David Beard for the Collectors' Choice release, ''Jan & Dean, the Complete Liberty Singles'', Dean Torrence stated that he felt the duo should be in the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame: \"We have the scoreboard if you just want to compare number of hits and musical projects done.", "We beat 75 percent of the people in there.", "So what else is it?", "I've got to think that we were pretty irreverent when it came to the music industry.", "They kind of always held that against us.", "That's okay with me.", "\"Jan and Dean were inducted into the Hollywood Rock Walk of Fame on April 12, 1996, exactly 30 years after Jan Berry had his near fatal car accident.On January 28, 2023, Jan and Dean were inducted into the California Music Hall Of Fame.The Who covered Jan and Dean's \"Bucket T\" on their UK EP ''Ready Steady Who'' from 1966.It is one of only a few songs the group performed where surf-fan Keith Moon provided the lead vocals.Alternative rock group the Red Hot Chili Peppers referenced the duo in their song \"Did I Let You Know\", on the album ''I'm with You''." ], [ "Discography" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * Berry, Torrence, Jan & Dean Archives Volume 1.White Lighting Publishing (2013) * Berry, Torrence, Jan & Dean Archives Volume 2.White Lighting Publishing (2013) * Berry, Torrence and Kelly, Mike, Jan & Dean Archives Volume 1.White Lighting Publishing (2014) * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Official website* Official Jan Berry Website* Jan & Dean Officially Endorsed Website * Surf City Allstars Web Site* Dean Torrence interview" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jawaharlal Nehru" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jawaharlal Nehru''' ( or ; ; ; 14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was an Indian anti-colonial nationalist, statesman, secular humanist, social democrat, and author who was a central figure in India during the middle of the 20th century.", "Nehru was a principal leader of the Indian nationalist movement in the 1930s and 1940s.", "Upon India's independence in 1947, he served as the country's first prime minister for 16 years.", "Nehru promoted parliamentary democracy, secularism, and science and technology during the 1950s, powerfully influencing India's arc as a modern nation.", "In international affairs, he steered India clear of the two blocs of the Cold War.", "A well-regarded author, his books written in prison, such as ''Letters from a Father to His Daughter'' (1929), ''An Autobiography'' (1936) and ''The Discovery of India'' (1946), have been read around the world.", "The honorific '''Pandit''' has been commonly applied before his name.The son of Motilal Nehru, a prominent lawyer and Indian nationalist, Jawaharlal Nehru was educated in England—at Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge, and trained in the law at the Inner Temple.", "He became a barrister, returned to India, enrolled at the Allahabad High Court and gradually began to take an interest in national politics, which eventually became a full-time occupation.", "He joined the Indian National Congress, rose to become the leader of a progressive faction during the 1920s, and eventually of the Congress, receiving the support of Mahatma Gandhi who was to designate Nehru as his political heir.", "As Congress president in 1929, Nehru called for complete independence from the British Raj.Nehru and the Congress dominated Indian politics during the 1930s.", "Nehru promoted the idea of the secular nation-state in the 1937 provincial elections, allowing the Congress to sweep the elections, and to form governments in several provinces.", "In September 1939, the Congress ministries resigned to protest Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's decision to join the war without consulting them.", "After the All India Congress Committee's Quit India Resolution of 8 August 1942, senior Congress leaders were imprisoned and for a time the organisation was suppressed.", "Nehru, who had reluctantly heeded Gandhi's call for immediate independence, and had desired instead to support the Allied war effort during World War II, came out of a lengthy prison term to a much altered political landscape.", "The Muslim League, under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, had come to dominate Muslim politics in the interim.", "In the 1946 provincial elections, Congress won the elections but the League won all the seats reserved for Muslims, which the British interpreted to be a clear mandate for Pakistan in some form.", "Nehru became the interim prime minister of India in September 1946, with the League joining his government with some hesitancy in October 1946.Upon India's independence on 15 August 1947, Nehru gave a critically acclaimed speech, \"Tryst with Destiny\"; he was sworn in as the Dominion of India's prime minister and raised the Indian flag at the Red Fort in Delhi.", "On 26 January 1950, when India became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, Nehru became the Republic of India's first prime minister.", "He embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social, and political reforms.", "Nehru promoted a pluralistic multi-party democracy.", "In foreign affairs, he played a leading role in establishing the Non-Aligned Movement, a group of nations that did not seek membership in the two main ideological blocs of the Cold War.Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress emerged as a catch-all party, dominating national and state-level politics and winning elections in 1951, 1957 and 1962.His premiership, spanning 16 years and 286 days—which is, to date, the longest in India—ended with his death in 1964 from a heart attack.", "Hailed as the \"architect of Modern India\", his birthday is celebrated as Children's Day in India." ], [ "Early life and career (1889–1912)", "=== Birth and family background ===Anand Bhawan the Nehru family home in AllahabadJawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889 in Allahabad in British India.", "His father, Motilal Nehru (1861–1931), a self-made wealthy barrister who belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community, served twice as president of the Indian National Congress, in 1919 and 1928.His mother, Swarup Rani Thussu (1868–1938), who came from a well-known Kashmiri Brahmin family settled in Lahore, was Motilal's second wife, his first having died in childbirth.", "Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children.", "The elder of his two sisters, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first female president of the United Nations General Assembly.", "His youngesr sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a noted writer and authored several books on her brother.=== Childhood ===Jawaharlal with his parents Swarup Rani Nehru (left) and Motilal Nehru in the 1890sNehru described his childhood as a \"sheltered and uneventful one\".", "He grew up in an atmosphere of privilege in wealthy homes, including a palatial estate called the Anand Bhavan.", "His father had him educated at home by private governesses and tutors.", "Influenced by the Irish theosophist Ferdinand T. Brooks' teaching, Nehru became interested in science and theosophy.", "A family friend, Annie Besant subsequently initiated him into the Theosophical Society at age thirteen.", "However, his interest in theosophy did not prove to be enduring, and he left the society shortly after Brooks departed as his tutor.", "He wrote: \"For nearly three years Brooks was with me and in many ways, he influenced me greatly\".Nehru's theosophical interests induced him to study the Buddhist and Hindu scriptures.", "According to B. R. Nanda, these scriptures were Nehru's \"first introduction to the religious and cultural heritage of India....They provided Nehru the initial impulse for his long intellectual quest which culminated…in ''The Discovery of India''.", "\"=== Youth ===A young Nehru dressed in a cadet's uniform at Harrow School in EnglandNehru became an ardent nationalist during his youth.", "The Second Boer War and the Russo-Japanese War intensified his feelings.", "Of the latter he wrote, \"The Japanese victories had stirred up my enthusiasm.", "...Nationalistic ideas filled my mind. ...", "I mused of Indian freedom and Asiatic freedom from the thraldom of Europe.\"", "Later, in 1905, when he had begun his institutional schooling at Harrow, a leading school in England where he was nicknamed \"Joe\", G. M. Trevelyan's Garibaldi books, which he had received as prizes for academic merit, influenced him greatly.", "He viewed Garibaldi as a revolutionary hero.", "He wrote: \"Visions of similar deeds in India came before, of my gallant fight for Indian freedom and in my mind, India and Italy got strangely mixed together.", "\"=== Graduation ===Krishna (b. November 1907), Vijaya Lakshmi (b. August 1900) and JawaharlalNehru went to Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1907 and graduated with an honours degree in natural science in 1910.During this period, he studied politics, economics, history and literature with interest.", "The writings of Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, John Maynard Keynes, Bertrand Russell, Lowes Dickinson and Meredith Townsend moulded much of his political and economic thinking.After completing his degree in 1910, Nehru moved to London and studied law at the Inner Temple (one of the four Inns of Court to which English barristers must belong).", "During this time, he continued to study Fabian Society scholars including Beatrice Webb.", "He was called to the Bar in 1912.=== Advocate practice ===Jawaharlal Nehru, Barrister-at-LawAfter returning to India in August 1912, Nehru enrolled as an advocate of the Allahabad High Court and tried to settle down as a barrister.", "But, unlike his father, he had very little interest in his profession and relished neither the practice of law nor the company of lawyers: \"Decidedly the atmosphere was not intellectually stimulating and a sense of the utter insipidity of life grew upon me.\"", "His involvement in nationalist politics was to gradually replace his legal practice." ], [ "Nationalist movement (1912–1938)", "=== Britain and return to India: 1912–1913 ===Nehru had developed an interest in Indian politics during his time in Britain as a student and a barrister.", "Within months of his return to India in 1912, Nehru attended an annual session of the Indian National Congress in Patna.", "Congress in 1912 was the party of moderates and elites, and he was disconcerted by what he saw as \"very much an English-knowing upper-class affair\".", "Nehru doubted the effectiveness of Congress but agreed to work for the party in support of the Indian civil rights movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa, collecting funds for the movement in 1913.Later, he campaigned against indentured labour and other such discrimination faced by Indians in the British colonies.=== World War I: 1914–1915 ===When World War I broke out, sympathy in India was divided.", "Although educated Indians \"by and large took a vicarious pleasure\" in seeing the British rulers humbled, the ruling upper classes sided with the Allies.", "Nehru confessed he viewed the war with mixed feelings.", "As Frank Moraes writes, \"if Nehru's sympathy was with any country it was with France, whose culture he greatly admired\".", "During the war, Nehru volunteered for the St. John Ambulance and worked as one of the organisation's provincial secretaries Allahabad.", "He also spoke out against the censorship acts passed by the British government in India.Nehru emerged from the war years as a leader whose political views were considered radical.", "Although the political discourse at the time had been dominated by the moderate, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who said that it was \"madness to think of independence,\" Nehru had spoken, \"openly of the politics of non-cooperation, of the need of resigning from honorary positions under the government and of not continuing the futile politics of representation\".", "He ridiculed the Indian Civil Service for supporting British policies.", "He noted someone had once defined the Indian Civil Service, \"with which we are unfortunately still afflicted in this country, as neither Indian, nor civil, nor a service\".", "Motilal Nehru, a prominent moderate leader, acknowledged the limits of constitutional agitation but counselled his son that there was no other \"practical alternative\" to it.", "Nehru, however, was dissatisfied with the pace of the national movement.", "He became involved with aggressive nationalists leaders demanding Home Rule for Indians.The influence of moderates on Congress' politics waned after Gokhale died in 1915.Anti-moderate leaders like Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak took the opportunity to call for a national movement for Home Rule.", "However, in 1915, the proposal was rejected because of the reluctance of the moderates to commit to such a radical course of action.=== Home rule movement: 1916–1917 ===Nehru and Kamala Kaul at their wedding in Delhi, 1916Kamala and daughter IndiraNehru married Kamala Kaul in 1916.Their only daughter Indira was born a year later in 1917.Kamala gave birth to a boy in November 1924, but he lived for only a week.Nevertheless, Besant formed a league for advocating Home Rule in 1916.Tilak, after releasing from a term in prison, had formed his own league in April 1916.Nehru joined both leagues, but worked primarily for the former.", "He remarked later that \"Besant had a very powerful influence on me in my childhood  ... even later when I entered political life her influence continued.\"", "Another development that brought about a radical change in Indian politics was the espousal of Hindu-Muslim unity with the Lucknow Pact at the annual meeting of the Congress in December 1916.The pact had been initiated earlier in the year at Allahabad at a meeting of the All India Congress Committee, which was held at the Nehru residence at Anand Bhawan.", "Nehru welcomed and encouraged the rapprochement between the two Indian communities.Several nationalist leaders banded together in 1916 under the leadership of Annie Besant to voice a demand for self-governance, and to obtain the status of a Dominion within the British Empire as enjoyed at the time by Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Newfoundland.", "Nehru joined the movement and rose to become secretary of Besant's Home Rule League.In June 1917, the British government arrested and interned Besant.", "The Congress and other Indian organisations threatened to launch protests if she was not freed.", "Subsequently, the British government was forced to release Besant and make significant concessions after a period of intense protest.=== Non-co-operation: 1920–1927 ===Nehru's first big national involvement came at the onset of the non-co-operation movement in 1920.He led the movement in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).", "Nehru was arrested on charges of anti-governmental activities in 1921 and released a few months later.", "In the rift that formed within the Congress following Gandhi's sudden halting of the non-Cooperation movement after the Chauri Chaura incident, Nehru remained loyal to him and did not join the Swaraj Party formed by his father Motilal Nehru and CR Das.", "In 1923, Nehru was imprisoned in Nabha, a princely state, when he went there to see the struggle that was being waged by the Sikhs against the corrupt Mahants.", "He was released after his sentence was suspended by the British administration under the criminal procedure code.==== Internationalising the struggle for Indian independence: 1927 ====Nehru played a leading role in the development of the internationalist outlook of the Indian independence struggle.", "He sought foreign allies for India and forged links with movements for independence and democracy around the world.", "In 1927, his efforts paid off, and the Congress was invited to attend the Congress of oppressed nationalities in Brussels, Belgium.", "The meeting was called to coordinate and plan a common struggle against imperialism.", "Nehru represented India and was elected to the Executive Council of the League against Imperialism which was born at this meeting.Increasingly, Nehru saw the struggle for independence from British imperialism as a multinational effort by the various colonies and dominions of the Empire; some of his statements on this matter, however, were interpreted as complicity with the rise of Hitler and his espoused intentions.", "Faced with these allegations, Nehru responded:We have sympathy for the national movement of Arabs in Palestine because it is directed against British Imperialism.", "Our sympathies cannot be weakened by the fact that the national movement coincides with Hitler's interests.=== Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy: 1929 ===Nehru, President-elect of the Lahore session of the Indian National Congress in 1929, with the outgoing President, his father MotilalNehru and Mahatma Gandhi in 1929Nehru drafted the policies of the Congress and a future Indian nation in 1929.He declared the aims of the congress were freedom of religion; right to form associations; freedom of expression of thought; equality before the law for every individual without distinction of caste, colour, creed, or religion; protection of regional languages and cultures, safeguarding the interests of the peasants and labour; abolition of untouchability; introduction of the adult franchise; imposition of prohibition, nationalisation of industries; socialism; and the establishment of a secular India.", "All these aims formed the core of the \"Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy\" resolution drafted by Nehru in 1929–1931 and were ratified in 1931 by the Congress party session at Karachi chaired by Vallabhbhai Patel.==== Declaration of independence ====Nehru was one of the first leaders to demand that the Congress Party should resolve to make a complete and explicit break from all ties with the British Empire.", "The Madras session of Congress in 1927, approved his resolution for independence despite Gandhi's criticism.", "At that time, he formed the Independence for India League, a pressure group within the Congress.", "In 1928, Gandhi agreed to Nehru's demands and proposed a resolution that called for the British to grant Dominion status to India within two years.", "If the British failed to meet the deadline, the Congress would call upon all Indians to fight for complete independence.", "Nehru was one of the leaders who objected to the time given to the British—he pressed Gandhi to demand immediate actions from the British.", "Gandhi brokered a further compromise by reducing the time given from two years to one.The British rejected demands for Dominion status in 1929.Nehru assumed the presidency of the Congress party during the Lahore session on 29 December 1929 and introduced a successful resolution calling for complete independence.", "Nehru drafted the Indian Declaration of Independence, which stated:We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities for growth.", "We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it.", "The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually.", "We believe, therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence.At midnight on New Year's Eve 1929, Nehru hoisted the tricolour flag of India upon the banks of the Ravi in Lahore.", "A pledge of independence was read out, which included a readiness to withhold taxes.", "The massive gathering of the public attending the ceremony was asked if they agreed with it, and the majority of people were witnessed raising their hands in approval.", "172 Indian members of central and provincial legislatures resigned in support of the resolution and in accordance with Indian public sentiment.", "The Congress asked the people of India to observe 26 January as Independence Day.", "Congress volunteers, nationalists, and the public hoisted the flag of India publicly across India.", "Plans for mass civil disobedience were also underway.After the Lahore session of the Congress in 1929, Nehru gradually emerged as the paramount leader of the Indian independence movement.", "Gandhi stepped back into a more spiritual role.", "Although Gandhi did not explicitly designate Nehru as his political heir until 1942, as early as the mid-1930s, the country saw Nehru as the natural successor to Gandhi.=== Salt March: 1930 ===Nehru and most of the Congress leaders were ambivalent initially about Gandhi's plan to begin civil disobedience with a ''satyagraha'' aimed at the British salt tax.", "After the protest had gathered steam, they realised the power of salt as a symbol.", "Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, \"It seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released\".", "He was arrested on 14 April 1930 while on a train from Allahabad to Raipur.", "Earlier, after addressing a huge meeting and leading a vast procession, he had ceremoniously manufactured some contraband salt.", "He was charged with breach of the salt law and sentenced to six months of imprisonment at Central Jail.He nominated Gandhi to succeed him as the Congress president during his absence in jail, but Gandhi declined, and Nehru nominated his father as his successor.", "With Nehru's arrest, the civil disobedience acquired a new tempo, and arrests, firing on crowds and lathi charges grew to be ordinary occurrences.==== Salt satyagraha success ====The salt satyagraha (\"pressure for reform through passive resistance\") succeeded in attracting world attention.", "Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly recognised the legitimacy of the claims by the Congress party for independence.", "Nehru considered the salt satyagraha the high-water mark of his association with Gandhi, and felt its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians:Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery.", "But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses. ...", "Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self-respect and self-reliance. ...", "They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole. ...", "It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhi's leadership, must have the credit for it.=== Electoral politics, Europe, and economics: 1936–1938 ===Nehru in Karachi after returning from Lausanne, Switzerland with the ashes of his wife Kamla Nehru in March 1936Nehru with Indian Nobel-prize-winning poet Rabindranath Tagore in 1936Nehru in a procession at Peshawar, North-West Frontier Province, 14 October 1937Nehru on a visit to Egypt in June 1938Nehru's trip to Europe in 1936 happened to be the turning point in his political and economic mindset.", "The visit sparked his interest in Marxism and his socialist thought pattern.", "Time later spent incarcerated enabled him to research Marxism more deeply.", "Appealed by its ideas but repelled by some of its tactics, he never could bring himself to buy Karl Marx's words as revealed gospel.", "However, from that time on, the benchmark of his economic view remained Marxist, adapted, where necessary, to Indian circumstances.Nehru spent the early months of 1936 in Switzerland visiting his ailing wife in Lausanne, where she died in March.", "While in Europe, he became very concerned with the possibility of another world war.", "At that time, he emphasised that, in the event of war, India's place was alongside the democracies, though he insisted India could only fight in support of Great Britain and France as a free country.At its 1936 Lucknow session, despite opposition from the newly elected Nehru as the party president, the Congress party agreed to contest the provincial elections to be held in 1937 under the Government of India Act 1935.The elections brought the Congress party to power in a majority of the provinces with increased popularity and power for Nehru.", "Since the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah (who was to become the creator of Pakistan) had fared badly at the polls, Nehru declared that the only two parties that mattered in India were the British colonial authorities and the Congress.", "Jinnah's statements that the Muslim League was the third and \"equal partner\" within Indian politics were widely rejected.In the 1930s, under the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan, Narendra Deo, and others, the Congress Socialist Party group was formed within the INC.", "Though Nehru never joined the group, he acted as a bridge between them and Gandhi.", "He had the support of left-wing Congressmen Maulana Azad and Subhas Chandra Bose.", "The trio combined to oust Rajendra Prasad as the Congress president in 1936.Nehru was elected in his place and held the presidency for two years (1936–37).", "His socialist colleagues Bose (1938–39) and Azad (1940–46) succeeded him.", "During Nehru's second term as general secretary of the Congress, he proposed certain resolutions concerning the foreign policy of India.", "From then on, he was given ''carte blanche'' (\"blank cheque\") in framing the foreign policy of any future Indian nation.", "Nehru worked closely with Bose in developing good relations with governments of free countries all over the world.Nehru was one of the first nationalist leaders to realise the sufferings of the people in the states ruled by Indian princes.", "The nationalist movement had been confined to the territories under direct British rule.", "He helped to make the struggle of the people in the princely states a part of the nationalist movement for independence.", "Nehru was also given the responsibility of planning the economy of a future India and appointed the National Planning Commission in 1938 to help frame such policies.", "However, many of the plans framed by Nehru and his colleagues would come undone with the unexpected partition of India in 1947.The All India States Peoples Conference (AISPC) was formed in 1927 and Nehru, who had supported the cause of the people of the princely states for many years, was made the organisation's president in 1939.He opened up its ranks to membership from across the political spectrum.", "AISPC was to play an important role during the political integration of India, helping Indian leaders Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon (to whom Nehru had delegated integrating the princely states into India) negotiate with hundreds of princes." ], [ "Nationalist movement (1939–1947)", "Gandhi, Nehru, and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan at the Congress Working Committee meeting in Wardha in September 1939When World War II began, Viceroy Linlithgow unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side of Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives.", "Nehru hurried back from a visit to China, announcing that, in a conflict between democracy and fascism, \"our sympathies must inevitably be on the side of democracy, ...", "I should like India to play its full part and throw all her resources into the struggle for a new order\".After much deliberation, the Congress under Nehru informed the government that it would co-operate with the British but on certain conditions.", "First, Britain must give an assurance of full independence for India after the war and allow the election of a constituent assembly to frame a new constitution; second, although the Indian armed forces would remain under the British Commander-in-chief, Indians must be included immediately in the central government and given a chance to share power and responsibility.", "When Nehru presented Lord Linlithgow with these demands, he chose to reject them.", "A deadlock was reached: \"The same old game is played again,\" Nehru wrote bitterly to Gandhi, \"the background is the same, the various epithets are the same and the actors are the same and the results must be the same\".On 23 October 1939, the Congress condemned the Viceroy's attitude and called upon the Congress ministries in the various provinces to resign in protest.", "Before this crucial announcement, Nehru urged Jinnah and the Muslim League to join the protest, but Jinnah declined.As Nehru had firmly placed India on the path of democracy and freedom at a time when the world was under the threat of Fascism, he and Bose split in the late 1930s when the latter agreed to seek the help of Fascists in driving the British out of India.", "At the same time, Nehru supported the Republicans who were fighting against Francisco Franco's forces in the Spanish Civil War.", "Nehru and his aide V. K. Krishna Menon visited Spain and declared support for the Republicans.", "When Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy, expressed his desire to meet, Nehru refused him.=== Civil disobedience, Lahore Resolution, August Offer: 1940 ===Nehru with the Seva Dal volunteer corps in Allahabad, 1940In March 1940, Muhammad Ali Jinnah passed what came to be known as the Pakistan Resolution, declaring that, \"Muslims are a nation according to any definition of a nation, and they must have their homelands, their territory and their State.\"", "This state was to be known as Pakistan, meaning 'Land of the Pure'.", "Nehru angrily declared that \"all the old problems ... pale into insignificance before the latest stand taken by the Muslim League leader in Lahore\".", "Linlithgow made Nehru an offer on 8 October 1940, which stated that Dominion status for India was the objective of the British government.", "However, it referred neither to a date nor a method to accomplish this.", "Only Jinnah received something more precise: \"The British would not contemplate transferring power to a Congress-dominated national government, the authority of which was denied by various elements in India's national life\".In October 1940, Gandhi and Nehru, abandoning their original stand of supporting Britain, decided to launch a limited civil disobedience campaign in which leading advocates of Indian independence were selected to participate one by one.", "Nehru was arrested and sentenced to four years imprisonment.", "On 15 January 1941, Gandhi stated:Some say Jawaharlal and I were estranged.", "It will require much more than a difference of opinion to estrange us.", "We had differences from the time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say so now that not Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my successor.", "After spending a little more than a year in jail, Nehru was released, along with other Congress prisoners, three days before the bombing of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.=== Japan attacks India, Cripps' mission, Quit India: 1942 ===Gandhi and Nehru during the drafting of Quit India Resolution in Bombay, August 1942, When the Japanese carried their attack through Burma (now Myanmar) to the borders of India in the spring of 1942, the British government, faced with this new military threat, decided to make some overtures to India, as Nehru had originally desired.", "Prime Minister Winston Churchill dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the War Cabinet who was known to be politically close to Nehru and knew Jinnah, with proposals for a settlement of the constitutional problem.", "As soon as he arrived, he discovered that India was more deeply divided than he had imagined.", "Nehru, eager for a compromise, was hopeful; Gandhi was not.", "Jinnah had continued opposing the Congress: \"Pakistan is our only demand, and by God, we will have it,\" he declared in the Muslim League newspaper ''Dawn''.", "Cripps' mission failed as Gandhi would accept nothing less than independence.", "Relations between Nehru and Gandhi cooled over the latter's refusal to co-operate with Cripps, but the two later reconciled.In 1942, Gandhi called on the British to leave India; Nehru, though reluctant to embarrass the allied war effort, had no alternative but to join Gandhi.", "Following the Quit India resolution passed by the Congress party in Bombay on 8 August 1942, the entire Congress working committee, including Gandhi and Nehru, was arrested and imprisoned.", "Most of the Congress working committee including Nehru, Abdul Kalam Azad, and Sardar Patel were incarcerated at the Ahmednagar Fort until 15 June 1945.=== In prison 1943–1945 ===Nehru's room at Ahmednagar fort where he was incarcerated from 1942 to 1945, and where he wrote ''The Discovery of India''During the period when all the Congress leaders were in jail, the Muslim League under Jinnah grew in power.", "In April 1943, the League captured the governments of Bengal and, a month later, that of the North-West Frontier Province.", "In none of these provinces had the League previously had a majority—only the arrest of Congress members made it possible.", "With all the Muslim-dominated provinces except Punjab under Jinnah's control, the concept of a separate Muslim State was turning into a reality.", "However, by 1944, Jinnah's power and prestige were waning.A general sympathy towards the jailed Congress leaders was developing among Muslims, and much of the blame for the disastrous Bengal famine of 1943–44 during which two million died had been laid on the shoulders of the province's Muslim League government.", "The numbers at Jinnah's meetings, once counted in thousands, soon numbered only a few hundred.", "In despair, Jinnah left the political scene for a stay in Kashmir.", "His prestige was restored unwittingly by Gandhi, who had been released from prison on medical grounds in May 1944 and had met Jinnah in Bombay in September.", "There, he offered the Muslim leader a plebiscite in the Muslim areas after the war to see whether they wanted to separate from the rest of India.", "Essentially, it was an acceptance of the principle of Pakistan—but not in so many words.", "Jinnah demanded that the exact words be used.", "Gandhi refused and the talks broke down.", "Jinnah, however, had greatly strengthened his own position and that of the League.", "The most influential member of the Congress had been seen to negotiate with him on equal terms.=== Cabinet mission, Interim government 1946–1947 ===Nehru and the Congress party members of his interim government after being sworn in by the Viceroy, Lord Wavell, 2 September 1946Nehru and his colleagues were released prior to the arrival of the British 1946 Cabinet Mission to India to propose plans for the transfer of power.", "The agreed plan in 1946 led to elections to the provincial assemblies.", "In turn, the members of the assemblies elected members of the Constituent Assembly.", "Congress won the majority of seats in the assembly and headed the interim government, with Nehru as the prime minister.", "The Muslim League joined the government later with Liaquat Ali Khan as the Finance member." ], [ "Prime Minister of India (1947–1964)", "Teen Murti Bhavan, Nehru's official residence as prime minister, is now a museum.Nehru served as prime minister for 16 years, initially as the interim prime minister, then from 1947 as the prime minister of the Dominion of India and then from 1950 as the prime minister of the Republic of India.=== Republicanism ===In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.", "In January 1947, he said that independent India would not accept the divine right of kings.", "In May 1947, he declared that any princely state which refused to join the Constituent Assembly would be treated as an enemy state.", "Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon were more conciliatory towards the princes, and as the men charged with integrating the states, were successful in the task.", "During the drafting of the Indian constitution, many Indian leaders (except Nehru) were in favour of allowing each princely state or covenanting state to be independent as a federal state along the lines suggested originally by the Government of India Act 1935.But as the drafting of the constitution progressed, and the idea of forming a republic took concrete shape, it was decided that all the princely states/covenanting states would merge with the Indian republic.In 1963, Nehru brought in legislation making it illegal to demand secession and introduced the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution which makes it necessary for those running for office to take an oath that says \"I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India\".=== Independence, Dominion of India: 1947–1950 ===Lord Mountbatten swears in Nehru as the first Prime Minister of independent India on 15 August 1947The period before independence in early 1947 was impaired by outbreaks of communal violence and political disorder, and the opposition of the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who were demanding a separate Muslim state of Pakistan.==== Independence ====He took office as the prime minister of India on 15 August and delivered his inaugural address titled \"Tryst with Destiny\".Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially.", "At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom.", "A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history when we step out from the old to the new when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.", "It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity.==== Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi: 1948 ====Nehru visiting an Indian soldier recovering from injuries at the Brigade Headquarters Military Hospital in Srinagar, KashmirOn 30 January 1948, Gandhi was shot while he was walking in the garden of Birla House on his way to address a prayer meeting.", "The assassin, Nathuram Godse, was a Hindu nationalist with links to the extremist Hindu Mahasabha party, who held Gandhi responsible for weakening India by insisting upon a payment to Pakistan.", "Nehru addressed the nation by radio:Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it.", "Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more.", "Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me but for millions and millions in this country.Yasmin Khan argued that Gandhi's death and funeral helped consolidate the authority of the new Indian state under Nehru and Patel.", "The Congress tightly controlled the epic public displays of grief over a two-week period—the funeral, mortuary rituals and distribution of the martyr's ashes with millions participating in different events.", "The goal was to assert the power of the government, legitimise the Congress party's control and suppress all religious paramilitary groups.", "Nehru and Patel suppressed the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Muslim National Guards, and the Khaksars, with some 200,000 arrests.", "Gandhi's death and funeral linked the distant state with the Indian people and helped them to understand the need to suppress religious parties during the transition to independence for the Indian people.", "In later years, there emerged a revisionist school of history which sought to blame Nehru for the partition of India, mostly referring to his highly centralised policies for an independent India in 1947, which Jinnah opposed in favour of a more decentralised India.==== Integration of states and Adoption of New Constitution: 1947–1950 ====Indira Gandhi, Nehru, Rajiv Gandhi and Sanjay Gandhi in June 1949The British Indian Empire, which included present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, was divided into two types of territories: the provinces of British India, which were governed directly by British officials responsible to the Viceroy of India; and princely states, under the rule of local hereditary rulers who recognised British suzerainty in return for local autonomy, in most cases as established by a treaty.", "Between 1947 and about 1950, the territories of the princely states were politically integrated into the Indian Union under Nehru and Sardar Patel.", "Most were merged into existing provinces; others were organised into new provinces, such as Rajputana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, and Vindhya Pradesh, made up of multiple princely states; a few, including Mysore, Hyderabad, Bhopal and Bilaspur, became separate provinces.", "The Government of India Act 1935 remained the constitutional law of India the pending adoption of a new Constitution.Nehru signing the Indian Constitution c.1950The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950 (Republic Day), made India a sovereign democratic republic.", "The new republic was declared to be a \"Union of States\".=== Election of 1952 ===Nehru as the main campaigner of the Indian National Congress, 1951–52 electionsAfter the adoption of the constitution on 26 November 1949, the Constituent Assembly continued to act as the interim parliament until new elections.", "Nehru's interim cabinet consisted of 15 members from diverse communities and parties.", "The first elections to Indian legislative bodies (National parliament and State assemblies ) under the new constitution of India were held in 1952.The Congress party under Nehru's leadership won a large majority at both state and national levels.===Prime Minister: 1952–1957 ===In December 1953, Nehru appointed the States Reorganisation Commission to prepare for the creation of states on linguistic lines.", "Headed by Justice Fazal Ali, the commission itself was also known as the Fazal Ali Commission.", "Govind Ballabh Pant, who served as Nehru's home minister from December 1954, oversaw the commission's efforts.", "The commission created a report in 1955 recommending the reorganisation of India's states.Under the Seventh Amendment, the existing distinction between Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D states was abolished.", "The distinction between Part A and Part B states was removed, becoming known simply as ''states'''.", "A new type of entity, the ''union territory'', replaced the classification as a Part C or Part D state.", "Nehru stressed commonality among Indians and promoted pan-Indianism, refusing to reorganise states on either religious or ethnic lines.=== Subsequent elections: 1957, 1962 ===In the 1957 elections, under Nehru's leadership, the Indian National Congress easily won a second term in power, taking 371 of the 494 seats.", "They gained an extra seven seats (the size of the Lok Sabha had been increased by five) and their vote share increased from 45.0% to 47.8%.", "The INC won nearly five times more votes than the Communist Party, the second-largest party.In 1962, Nehru led the Congress to victory with a diminished majority.", "The numbers who voted for the Communist and socialist parties grew, although some right-wing groups like Bharatiya Jana Sangh also did well.=== 1961 annexation of Goa ===After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorised the Indian Army to invade Portuguese-controlled Portuguese India (Goa) in 1961, and then he formally annexed it to India.", "It increased his popularity in India, but he was criticised by the communist opposition in India for the use of military force.=== Sino-Indian War of 1962 ===From 1959, in a process that accelerated in 1961, Nehru adopted the \"Forward Policy\" of setting up military outposts in disputed areas of the Sino-Indian border, including 43 outposts in territory not previously controlled by India.", "China attacked some of these outposts, and the Sino-Indian War began, which India lost.", "The war ended with China announcing a unilateral ceasefire and with its forces withdrawing to 20 kilometers behind the line of actual control of 1959.The war exposed the unpreparedness of India's military, which could send only 14,000 troops to the war zone in opposition to the much larger Chinese Army, and Nehru was widely criticised for his government's insufficient attention to defence.", "In response, defence minister V. K. Krishna Menon resigned and Nehru sought US military aid.", "Nehru's improved relations with the US under John F. Kennedy proved useful during the war, as in 1962, the president of Pakistan (then closely aligned with the Americans) Ayub Khan was made to guarantee his neutrality regarding India, threatened by \"communist aggression from Red China\".", "India's relationship with the Soviet Union, criticised by right-wing groups supporting free-market policies, was also seemingly validated.", "Nehru would continue to maintain his commitment to the non-aligned movement, despite calls from some to settle down on one permanent ally.disputed territories of IndiaThe unpreparedness of the army was blamed on Defence Minister Menon, who \"resigned\" from his government post to allow for someone who might modernise India's military further.", "India's policy of weaponisation using indigenous sources and self-sufficiency began in earnest under Nehru, completed by his daughter Indira Gandhi, who later led India to a crushing military victory over rival Pakistan in 1971.Toward the end of the war, India had increased her support for Tibetan refugees and revolutionaries, some of them having settled in India, as they were fighting the same common enemy in the region.", "Nehru ordered the raising of an elite Indian-trained \"Tibetan Armed Force\" composed of Tibetan refugees, which served with distinction in future wars against Pakistan in 1965 and 1971.=== Popularity ===Nehru with Albert Einstein in Princeton, New Jersey, 1949Nehru with Indonesian president Sukarno in Jakarta in 1950Nehru playing with a tiger cub at his home in 1955To date, Nehru is considered the most popular prime minister winning three consecutive elections with around 45% of the vote.", "A Pathé News archive video reporting Nehru's death remarks \"Neither on the political stage nor in moral stature was his leadership ever challenged\".", "In his book ''Verdicts on Nehru,'' Ramachandra Guha cited a contemporary account that described what Nehru's 1951–52 Indian general election campaign looked like:Almost at every place, city, town, village or wayside halt, people had waited overnight to welcome the nation's leader.", "Schools and shops closed; milkmaids and cowherds had taken a holiday; the kisan and his helpmate took a temporary respite from their dawn-to-dusk programme of hard work in field and home.", "In Nehru's name, stocks of soda and lemonade sold out; even water became scarce .", ".", ".", "Special trains were run from out-of-the-way places to carry people to Nehru's meetings, enthusiasts travelling not only on footboards but also on top of carriages.", "Scores of people fainted in milling crowds.In the 1950s, Nehru was admired by world leaders such as British prime minister Winston Churchill, and US President Dwight D. Eisenhower.", "A letter from Eisenhower to Nehru, dated 27 November 1958, read: Universally you are recognised as one of the most powerful influences for peace and conciliation in the world.", "I believe that because you are a world leader for peace in your individual capacity, as well as a representative of the largest neutral nation....", "In 1955, Churchill called Nehru, the light of Asia, and a greater light than Gautama Buddha.", "Nehru is time and again described as a charismatic leader with a rare charm." ], [ "Vision and governing policies", "Nehru with schoolchildren at the Durgapur Steel Plant.", "Durgapur, Rourkela and Bhilai were three integrated steel plants set up under India's Second Five-Year Plan in the late 1950s.According to Bhikhu Parekh, Nehru can be regarded as the founder of the modern Indian state.", "Parekh attributes this to the national philosophy Nehru formulated for India.", "For him, modernisation was the national philosophy, with seven goals: national unity, parliamentary democracy, industrialisation, socialism, development of the scientific temper, and non-alignment.", "In Parekh's opinion, the philosophy and the policies that resulted from this benefited a large section of society such as public sector workers, industrial houses, and middle and upper peasantry.", "However, it failed to benefit the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the Hindu fundamentalists.After the exit of Subhash Chandra Bose from mainstream Indian politics (because of his support of violence in driving the British out of India), the power struggle between the socialists and conservatives in the Congress party balanced out.", "However, the death of Vallabhbhai Patel in 1950 left Nehru as the sole remaining iconic national leader, and soon the situation became such that Nehru could implement many of his basic policies without hindrance.", "Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, was able to fulfil her father's dream through the 42nd amendment (1976) of the Indian constitution by which India officially became \"socialist\" and \"secular\", during the state of emergency she imposed.=== Economic policies ===Nehru meeting with Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and Deutsche Bank chairman Hermann Josef Abs during a state visit to West Germany in June 1956.Nehru during the construction of the Bhakra Dam in the Punjab, 1953Nehru at an antibiotics manufacturing facility, Poona, 1956Nehru implemented policies based on import substitution industrialisation and advocated a mixed economy where the government-controlled public sector would co-exist with the private sector.", "He believed the establishment of basic and heavy industry was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy.", "The government, therefore, directed investment primarily into key public sector industries—steel, iron, coal, and power—promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies.The policy of non-alignment during the Cold War meant that Nehru received financial and technical support from both power blocs in building India's industrial base from scratch.", "Steel mill complexes were built at Bokaro and Rourkela with assistance from the Soviet Union and West Germany.", "There was substantial industrial development.", "The industry grew 7.0% annually between 1950 and 1965—almost trebling industrial output and making India the world's seventh-largest industrial country.", "Nehru's critics, however, contended that India's import substitution industrialisation, which continued long after the Nehru era, weakened the international competitiveness of its manufacturing industries.", "India's share of world trade fell from 1.4% in 1951–1960 to 0.5% between 1981 and 1990.However, India's export performance is argued to have shown actual sustained improvement over the period.", "The volume of exports grew at an annual rate of 2.9% in 1951–1960 to 7.6% in 1971–1980.GDP and GNP grew 3.9 and 4.0% annually between 1950 and 1951 and 1964–1965.It was a radical break from the British colonial period, but the growth rates were considered anaemic at best compared to other industrial powers in Europe and East Asia.", "India lagged behind the miracle economies (Japan, West Germany, France, and Italy).", "State planning, controls, and regulations were argued to have impaired economic growth.", "While India's economy grew faster than both the United Kingdom and the United States, low initial income and rapid population increase meant that growth was inadequate for any sort of catch-up with rich income nations.=== Agriculture policies ===Under Nehru's leadership, the government attempted to develop India quickly by embarking on agrarian reform and rapid industrialisation.", "A successful land reform was introduced that abolished giant landholdings, but efforts to redistribute land by placing limits on landownership failed.", "Attempts to introduce large-scale cooperative farming were frustrated by landowning rural elites, who formed the core of the powerful right-wing of the Congress and had considerable political support in opposing Nehru's efforts.", "Agricultural production expanded until the early 1960s, as additional land was brought under cultivation and some irrigation projects began to have an effect.", "The establishment of agricultural universities, modelled after land-grant colleges in the United States, contributed to the development of the economy.", "These universities worked with high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice, initially developed in Mexico and the Philippines, that in the 1960s began the Green Revolution, an effort to diversify and increase crop production.", "At the same time, a series of failed monsoons would cause serious food shortages, despite the steady progress and an increase in agricultural production.=== Social policies ======= Education ====Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it essential for India's future progress.", "His government oversaw the establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institutes of Management and the National Institutes of Technology.", "Nehru also outlined a commitment in his five-year plans to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children.", "For this purpose, Nehru oversaw the creation of mass village enrolment programs and the construction of thousands of schools.", "Nehru also launched initiatives such as the provision of free milk and meals to children to fight malnutrition.", "Adult education centres and vocational and technical schools were also organised for adults, especially in the rural areas.==== Hindu code bills and marriage laws====Under Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many changes to Hindu law through the Hindu code bills to criminalise caste discrimination and increase the legal rights and social freedoms of women.", "The Nehru administration saw such codification as necessary to unify the Hindu community, which ideally would be a first step towards unifying the nation.", "They succeeded in passing four Hindu code bills in 1955–56: the Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, and Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act.", "Those who practise Sikhism, Jainism, and Buddhism are categorised as Hindus under the jurisdiction of the Code Bill.Nehru specifically wrote Article 44 of the Indian constitution under the Directive Principles of State Policy which states: \"The State shall endeavor to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India.\"", "The article has formed the basis of secularism in India.", "However, Nehru has been criticised for the inconsistent application of the law.", "Most notably, he allowed Muslims to keep their personal law in matters relating to marriage and inheritance.", "In the small state of Goa, a civil code based on the old Portuguese Family Laws was allowed to continue, and Nehru prohibited Muslim personal law.", "This resulted from the annexation of Goa in 1961 by India, when Nehru promised the people that their laws would be left intact.", "This has led to accusations of selective secularism.While Nehru exempted Muslim law from legislation and they remained unreformed, he passed the Special Marriage Act in 1954.The idea behind this act was to give everyone in India the ability to marry outside the personal law under a civil marriage.", "In many respects, the act was almost identical to the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, demonstrating how secularised the law regarding Hindus had become.", "The Special Marriage Act allowed Muslims to marry under it and keep the protections, generally beneficial to Muslim women, that could not be found in the personal law.", "Under the act, polygamy was illegal, and inheritance and succession would be governed by the Indian Succession Act, rather than the respective Muslim personal law.", "Divorce would be governed by secular law, and maintenance of a divorced wife would be along the lines set down in civil law.==== Reservations for socially-oppressed communities ====A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created to eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages faced by peoples of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.", "Nehru convincingly succeeded in secularism and religious harmony, increasing the representation of minorities in government.==== Language policy ====Nehru led the faction of the Congress party, which promoted Hindi as the lingua franca of the Indian nation.", "After an exhaustive and divisive debate with the non-Hindi speakers, Hindi was adopted as the official language of India in 1950, with English continuing as an associate official language for 15 years, after which Hindi would become the sole official language.", "Efforts by the Indian Government to make Hindi the sole official language after 1965 were unacceptable to many non-Hindi Indian states, which wanted the continued use of English.", "The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a descendant of Dravidar Kazhagam, led the opposition to Hindi.", "To allay their fears, Nehru enacted the Official Languages Act in 1963 to ensure the continuing use of English beyond 1965.The text of the Act did not satisfy the DMK and increased their scepticism that future administrations might not honour his assurances.=== Foreign policy ===Throughout his long tenure as the prime minister, Nehru also held the portfolio of External Affairs.", "His idealistic approach focused on giving India a leadership position in nonalignment.", "He sought to build support among the newly independent nations of Asia and Africa in opposition to the two hostile superpowers contesting the Cold War.==== The Commonwealth ====Queen Elizabeth II with Nehru and other Commonwealth leaders, taken at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference, Windsor CastleAfter independence, Nehru wanted to maintain good relations with Britain and other British Commonwealth countries.", "As prime minister of the Dominion of India, he signed the 1949 London Declaration, under which India agreed to remain within the Commonwealth of Nations after becoming a republic in January 1950, and to recognise the British monarch as a \"symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth\".", "The other nations of the Commonwealth recognised India's continuing membership of the association.==== Non-aligned movement ====Nehru with Gamal Abdel Nasser and Josip Broz Tito in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1961On the international scene, Nehru was an opponent of military action and military alliances.", "He was a strong supporter of the United Nations, except when it tried to resolve the Kashmir question.", "He pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the US and the USSR.", "Recognising the People's Republic of China soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc continued relations with Taiwan), Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea.", "He sought to establish warm and friendly relations with China in 1950 and hoped to act as an intermediary to bridge the gulf and tensions between the communist states and the Western bloc.Nehru was a key organiser of the Bandung Conference of April 1955, which brought 29 newly independent nations together from Asia and Africa, and was designed to galvanise the nonalignment movement under Nehru's leadership.", "He envisioned it as his key leadership opportunity on the world stage, where he would bring together emerging nations.", "He was one of the key participants of the 1st Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961 in Belgrade, FPR Yugoslavia.==== Defence and nuclear policy ====While averse to war, Nehru led the campaigns against Pakistan in Kashmir.", "He used military force to annex Hyderabad in 1948 and Goa in 1961.While laying the foundation stone of the National Defence Academy in 1949, he stated:We, who for generations had talked about and attempted in everything a peaceful way and practised non-violence, should now be, in a sense, glorifying our army, navy and air force.", "It means a lot.", "Though it is odd, yet it simply reflects the oddness of life.", "Though life is logical, we have to face all contingencies, and unless we are prepared to face them, we will go under.", "There was no greater prince of peace and apostle of non-violence than Mahatma Gandhi...but yet, he said it was better to take the sword than to surrender, fail or run away.", "We cannot live carefree assuming that we are safe.", "Human nature is such.", "We cannot take the risks and risk our hard-won freedom.", "We have to be prepared with all modern defence methods and a well-equipped army, navy, and air force.", "\"Nehru entrusted Homi J. Bhabha, a nuclear physicist, with complete authority over all nuclear-related affairs and programs and answerable only to the prime minister.Many hailed Nehru for working to defuse global tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons after the Korean War (1950–1953).", "He commissioned the first study of the effects of nuclear explosions on human health and campaigned ceaselessly for the abolition of what he called \"these frightful engines of destruction\".", "He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearization, fearing a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own.==== Defending Kashmir ====Nehru inspecting the troops on a visit to the Srinagar Brigade Headquarters Military Hospital, April 1948At Lord Mountbatten's urging, in 1948, Nehru had promised to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir under the auspices of the UN.", "Kashmir was a disputed territory between India and Pakistan, the two have gone to war over it in 1947.However, as Pakistan failed to pull back troops in accordance with the UN resolution, and as Nehru grew increasingly wary of the UN, he declined to hold a plebiscite in 1953.His policies on Kashmir and the integration of the state into India were frequently defended before the United Nations by his aide, V. K. Krishna Menon, who earned a reputation in India for his passionate speeches.In 1953, Nehru orchestrated the ouster and arrest of Sheikh Abdullah, the prime minister of Kashmir, whom he had previously supported but was now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad replaced him.Menon was instructed to deliver an unprecedented eight-hour speech defending India's stand on Kashmir in 1957; to date, the speech is the longest ever delivered in the United Nations Security Council, covering five hours of the 762nd meeting on 23 January, and two hours and forty-eight minutes on the 24th, reportedly concluding with Menon's collapse on the Security Council floor.", "During the filibuster, Nehru moved swiftly and successfully to consolidate Indian power in Kashmir (then under great unrest).", "Menon's passionate defence of Indian sovereignty in Kashmir enlarged his base of support in India and led to the Indian press temporarily dubbing him the \"Hero of Kashmir\".", "Nehru was then at the peak of his popularity in India; the only (minor) criticism came from the far right.==== China ====Nehru and Mao Zedong in Beijing, China, October 1954In 1954, Nehru signed with China the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, known in India as the Panchsheel (from the Sanskrit words, ''panch'': five,'' sheel'': virtues), a set of principles to govern relations between the two states.", "Their first formal codification in treaty form was in an agreement between China and India in 1954, which recognised Chinese sovereignty over Tibet.", "They were enunciated in the preamble to the \"Agreement (with the exchange of notes) on Trade and Intercourse between Tibet Region of China and India\", which was signed at Peking on 29 April 1954.Negotiations took place in Delhi from December 1953 to April 1954 between the Delegation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) Government and the Delegation of the Indian Government on the relations between the two countries regarding the disputed territories of Aksai Chin and South Tibet.", "By 1957, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai had also persuaded Nehru to accept the Chinese position on Tibet, thus depriving Tibet of a possible ally, and of the possibility of receiving military aid from India.", "The treaty was disregarded in the 1960s, but in the 1970s, the Five Principles again came to be seen as important in China–India relations, and more generally as norms of relations between states.", "They became widely recognised and accepted throughout the region during the premiership of Indira Gandhi and the three-year rule of the Janata Party (1977–1980).", "Although the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence were the basis of the 1954 Sino-Indian border treaty, in later years, Nehru's foreign policy suffered from increasing Chinese assertiveness over border disputes and his decision to grant asylum to the 14th Dalai Lama.==== United States ====Nehru receiving US President Dwight D. Eisenhower at Parliament House, 1959Nehru with John F. Kennedy at the White House, 7 November 1961In 1956, Nehru criticised the joint invasion of the Suez Canal by the British, French, and Israelis.", "His role, both as Indian prime minister and a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, was significant; he tried to be even-handed between the two sides while vigorously denouncing Anthony Eden and co-sponsors of the invasion.", "Nehru had a powerful ally in the US President Dwight Eisenhower who, if relatively silent publicly, went to the extent of using America's clout at the International Monetary Fund to make Britain and France back down.", "During the Suez crisis, Nehru's right-hand man, Menon attempted to persuade a recalcitrant Gamal Nasser to compromise with the West and was instrumental in moving Western powers towards an awareness that Nasser might prove willing to compromise." ], [ "Assassination attempts and security", "There were various assassination attempts on Nehru.", "The first attempt was made during partition in 1947 while he was visiting the North-West Frontier Province (now in Pakistan) in a car.", "Second attempt was came from Baburao Laxman Kochale, a knife-wielding rickshaw-puller, near Nagpur in 1955.The third attempt was a plot by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1955.The fourth attempt took place in Bombay in 1956, and the fifth was a failed bombing attempt on train tracks in Maharashtra in 1961.Despite threats to his life, Nehru despised having too much security around him and did not like to disrupt traffic because of his movements." ], [ "Death", "If any people choose to think of me then I should like them to say, \"This was the man who with all his mind and heart loved India and the Indian people.", "And they in turn were indulgent to him and gave him of their love most abundantly and extravagantly.", "\"– Jawaharlal Nehru, 1954.Nehru's health began declining steadily in 1962.In the spring of 1962, he was affected with a viral infection over which he spent most of April in bed.", "In the next year, through 1963, he spent months recuperating in Kashmir.", "Some writers attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust.", "Upon his return from Dehradun on 26 May 1964, he was feeling quite comfortable and went to bed at about 23:30 as usual.", "He had a restful night until about 06:30.Soon after he returned from the bathroom, Nehru complained of pain in the back.", "He spoke to the doctors who attended to him for a brief while, and almost immediately he collapsed.", "He remained unconscious until he died at 13:44.His death was announced in the Lok Sabha at 14:00 local time on 27 May 1964; the cause of death was believed to be a heart attack.", "Draped in the Indian national Tri-colour flag, the body of Jawaharlal Nehru was placed for public viewing.", "\"''Raghupati Raghava Rajaram''\" was chanted as the body was placed on the platform.", "On 28 May, Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivan on the banks of the Yamuna, witnessed by 1.5 million mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds.US President Lyndon B. Johnson remarked on his death:-History has already recorded his monumental contribution to the molding of a strong and independent India.", "And yet, it is not just as a leader of India that he has served humanity.", "Perhaps more than any other world leader he has given expression to man's yearning for peace.", "This is the issue of our age.", "In his fearless pursuit of a world free from war he has served all humanity.Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev remarked:-He was a passionate fighter for peace in the whole world and an ardent champion of the realization of the principles of peaceful coexistence of states; he was the inspirer of the policy of Non-Alignment promoted by the Indian Government.", "This reasonable policy won India respect and due to it, India is now occupying a worthy place in the international arena.Nehru's death left India with no clear political heir to his leadership.", "Lal Bahadur Shastri later succeeded Nehru as the prime minister.The death was announced to the Indian parliament in words similar to Nehru's own at the time of Gandhi's assassination: \"The light is out.\"", "India's future prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee famously delivered Nehru an acclaimed eulogy.", "He hailed Nehru as Bharat Mata's \"favourite prince\" and likened him to the Hindu god Rama." ], [ "Positions held", " Year Description 1946 - 1950 Elected to Constituent Assembly of India* Vice President of Executive Council * Prime Minister of India * Union Minister for External Affairs 1952 - 1957 Elected to 1st Lok Sabha* Prime Minister of India * Union Minister for External Affairs 1957 - 1962 Elected to 2nd Lok Sabha * Prime Minister of India * Union Minister for External Affairs 1962 - 1964 Elected to 3rd Lok Sabha * Prime Minister of India * Union Minister for External Affairs" ], [ "Key cabinet members and associates", "Nehru served as the prime minister for eighteen years, first as interim prime minister during 1946–1947 during the last year of the British Raj and then as prime minister of independent India from 15 August 1947 to 27 May 1964.B.", "R. Ambedkar, the law minister in the interim cabinet, also chaired the Constitution Drafting Committee.Vallabhbhai Patel served as home minister in the interim government.", "He was instrumental in getting the Congress party working committee to vote for partition.", "He is also credited with integrating peacefully most of the princely states of India.", "Patel was a long-time comrade to Nehru but died in 1950, leaving Nehru as the unchallenged leader of India until his own death in 1964.Maulana Azad was the First Minister of Education in the Indian government Minister of Human Resource Development (until 25 September 1958, Ministry of Education).", "His contribution to establishing the education foundation in India is recognised by celebrating his birthday as National Education Day across India.Jagjivan Ram became the youngest minister in Nehru's Interim Government of India, a labour minister and also a member of the Constituent Assembly of India, where, as a member of the Dalit caste, he ensured that social justice was enshrined in the Constitution.", "He went on to serve as a minister with various portfolios during Nehru's tenure and in Shastri and Indira Gandhi governments.Morarji Desai was a nationalist with anti-corruption leanings but was socially conservative, pro-business, and in favour of free enterprise reforms, as opposed to Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru's socialistic policies.", "After serving as chief minister of Bombay State, he joined Nehru's cabinet in 1956 as the finance minister of India.", "he held that position until 1963 when he along with other senior ministers in the Nehru cabinet resigned under the Kamaraj plan.The plan, as proposed by Madras Chief Minister K.Kamaraj, was to revert government ministers to party positions after a certain tenure and vice versa.", "With Nehru's age and health failing in the early 1960s, Desai was considered a possible contender for the position of Prime Minister.", "Later Desai alleged that Nehru used the Kamaraj Plan to remove all possible contenders 'from the path of his daughter, Indira Gandhi.", "Desai succeeded Indira Gandhi as the prime minister in 1977 when he was selected by the victorious Janata alliance as their parliamentary leader.Govind Ballabh Pant (1887–1961) was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and later a pivotal figure in the politics of Uttar Pradesh (UP) and in the Indian Government.", "Pant served in Nehru's cabinet as Union home minister from 1955 until his death in 1961.As home minister, his chief achievement was the re-organisation of states along linguistic lines.", "He was also responsible for the establishment of Hindi as the official language of the central government and a few states.", "During his tenure as the home minister, Pant was awarded the Bharat Ratna.C.", "D. Deshmukh was one of five members of the Planning Commission when it was constituted in 1950 by a cabinet resolution.", "Deshmukh succeeded John Mathai as the Union Finance Minister in 1950 after Mathai resigned in protest over the transfer of certain powers to the Planning Commission.", "As finance minister, Deshmukh remained a member of the Planning Commission.", "Deshmukh's tenure—during which he delivered six budgets and an interim budget—is noted for the effective management of the Indian economy and its steady growth which saw it recover from the impacts of the events of the 1940s.", "During Deshmukh's tenure, the State Bank of India was formed in 1955 through the nationalisation and amalgamation of the Imperial Bank with several smaller banks.", "He accomplished the nationalisation of insurance companies and the formation of the Life Insurance Corporation of India through the Life Insurance Corporation of India Act, 1956.Deshmukh resigned over the Government's proposal to move a bill in Parliament bifurcating Bombay State into Gujarat and Maharashtra while designating the city of Bombay a Union territory.V.", "K. Krishna Menon (1896–1974) was a close associate of Nehru and has been described by some as the second most powerful man in India during Nehru's tenure as prime minister.", "Under Nehru, he served as India's high commissioner to the UK, UN ambassador, and Union minister of defence.", "He resigned after the debacle of the 1962 China War.In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira Gandhi for managing his personal affairs.", "Indira moved into Nehru's official residence to attend to him and became his constant companion in his travels across India and the world.", "She would virtually become Nehru's chief of staff.", "Towards the end of the 1950s, Indira Gandhi served as the president of the Congress.", "In that capacity, she was instrumental in getting the Communist-led Kerala State Government dismissed in 1959.Indira was elected as Congress party president in 1959, which aroused criticism for alleged nepotism, although Nehru had actually disapproved of her election, partly because he considered that it smacked of \"dynasticism\"; he said, indeed it was \"wholly undemocratic and an undesirable thing\", and refused her a position in his cabinet.", "Indira herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party of India government in the state of Kerala, over his own objections.", "Nehru began to be embarrassed by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition and was \"hurt\" by what he saw as an assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father." ], [ "Relationships", "After Kamala's death in 1936, Nehru was rumoured to have relationships with several women.", "These included Shraddha Mata, Padmaja Naidu and Edwina Mountbatten.", "Countess Mountbatten's daughter Lady Pamela Hicks acknowledged Nehru's platonic relationship with Lady Mountbatten.Prime Minister Nehru with Edwina Mountbatten in 1951British historian Philip Ziegler, with access to the private letters and diaries, concludes the relationship:was to endure until Edwina Mountbatten's death: intensely loving, romantic, trusting, generous, idealistic, even spiritual.", "If there was any physical element it can only have been of minor importance to either party.", "India's Governor-General Mountbatten's reaction was one of pleasure....He liked and admired Nehru, it was useful to him that the Prime Minister should find such attractions in the Governor-General's home, it was agreeable to find Edwina almost permanently in good temper: the advantages of the alliance were obvious.Nehru's sister, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit told Pupul Jayakar, Indira Gandhi's friend and biographer, that Padmaja Naidu and Nehru lived together for many years." ], [ "Religion and personal beliefs", "Nehru distributes sweets among children at Nongpoh, MeghalayaDescribed as a Hindu agnostic, and styling himself as a \"scientific humanist\", Nehru thought that religious taboos were preventing India from moving forward and adapting to modern conditions: \"No country or people who are slaves to dogma and dogmatic mentality can progress, and unhappily our country and people have become extraordinarily dogmatic and little-minded.", "\"As a humanist, Nehru considered that his afterlife was not in some mystical heaven or reincarnation but in the practical achievements of a life lived fully with and for his fellow human beings: \"…Nor am I greatly interested in life after death.", "I find the problems of this life sufficiently absorbing to fill my mind,\" he wrote.", "In his Last Will and Testament, he wrote: \"I wish to declare with all earnestness that I do not want any religious ceremonies performed for me after my death.", "I do not believe in such ceremonies, and to submit to them, even as a matter of form, would be hypocrisy and an attempt to delude ourselves and others.", "\"In his autobiography, he analysed Abrahamic and Indian religions and their impact on India.", "He wanted to model India as a secular country; his secularist policies remain a subject of debate." ], [ "Legacy", " Nehru was a great man... Nehru gave to Indians an image of themselves that I don't think others might have succeeded in doing.", "– Sir Isaiah BerlinBust of Nehru at Aldwych, LondonBust of Nehru at Peace Palace, The HagueJawaharlal Nehru, next to Mahatma Gandhi, is regarded as the most significant figure of the Indian independence movement that successfully ended British rule over the Indian subcontinent.As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, Nehru played a major role in shaping modern India's government and political culture along with the sound foreign policy.", "He is praised for creating a system providing universal primary education, reaching children in the farthest corners of rural India.", "Nehru's education policy is also credited for the development of world-class educational institutions like the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Indian Institutes of Technology, and the Indian Institutes of Management.Following the independence, Nehru popularized the credo of 'unity in diversity' and implemented it as state policy.", "This proved particularly important as post-Independence differences surfaced since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a common adversary.", "While differences in culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional works of literatures between languages and organised the transfer of materials between regions.", "In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru warned, \"Integrate or perish.", "\"Called an \"architect of Modern India\", he is widely recognized as the greatest figure of modern India after Mahatma Gandhi.", "On the occasion of his first death anniversary in 1965, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Lal Bahadur Shastri and others described Nehru as the greatest figure of India after Gandhi.Nehru's study in Teen Murti Bhavan, which is now converted into a museum.Writing in 2005, Ramachandra Guha wrote that while no other Indian prime minister was ever close to the challenges that Nehru dealt with and if Nehru had died in 1958 then he would be remembered as the greatest statesman of the 20th century.", "However, in recent years, Nehru's reputation has seen re-emergence and he is credited for keeping India together contrary to predictions of many that the country was bound to fall apart.=== Commemoration ===USSR commemorative stampIn his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was generally admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship.", "Nehru's ideals and policies continue shaping the Congress Party's manifesto and core political philosophy.", "His birthday, 14 November is celebrated in India as ''Bal Divas'' (\"Children's Day\") in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfare, education and development of children and young people.", "Children across India remember him as ''Chacha Nehru'' (\"Uncle Nehru\").", "Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress Party which frequently celebrates his memory.", "people often emulate his style of clothing, especially the Gandhi cap and the Nehru jacket.", "Nehru's preference for the sherwani ensured it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today.Indian 5 rupees coin, commemorating the birth centenary of Nehru in 1989.Many public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory.", "The Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India.", "The Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and dock designed to handle a huge cargo and traffic load.", "Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the Teen Murti House now has the Nehru Memorial Museum & Library, and one of five Nehru Planetariums that were set in Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Allahabad and Pune.", "The complex also houses the offices of the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, established in 1964 under the chairmanship of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, then president of India.", "The foundation also gives away the prestigious Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fellowship, established in 1968.The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and Swaraj Bhavan are also preserved to commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy.", "In 1997, Nehru was voted as the greatest Indian since independence in ''India Today'''s poll.", "In 2012, he ranked number four in ''Outlook''s poll of The Greatest Indian.=== In popular culture ===There have been many documentaries about Nehru's life, and he has been portrayed in fictionalised films.", "The canonical performance is probably that of Roshan Seth, who played him three times: in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film ''Gandhi'', Shyam Benegal's 1988 television series ''Bharat Ek Khoj'', based on Nehru's ''The Discovery of India'', and in a 2007 TV film entitled ''The Last Days of the Raj''.", "Benegal directed the 1984 documentary film, ''Nehru'', covering his political career.", "Indian film director Kiran Kumar made a film about Nehru titled ''Nehru: The Jewel of India'' in 1990 starring Partap Sharma in the titular role.", "In Ketan Mehta's film ''Sardar'', Benjamin Gilani portrayed Nehru.", "''Naunihal'' (), a 1967 Indian Hindi-language drama film by Raj Marbros, follows Raju, an orphan, who believes that Jawaharlal Nehru is his relative and sets out to meet him.Similarly, in the 1957 film ''Ab Dilli Dur Nahin'' () by Amar Kumar, Rattan, a young boy, travels to Delhi and seeks to avert the death sentence of his wrongly convicted father by asking Prime Minister Nehru for help.", "Another 1957 English language short documentary ''Our Prime Minister'' was produced, compiled and directed by Ezra Mir, who also directed ''Three weeks in the life of Prime Minister Nehru'' in 1962.Girish Karnad's historical play, ''Tughlaq'' (1962) is an allegory about the Nehruvian era.", "It was staged by Ebrahim Alkazi with the National School of Drama Repertory at Purana Qila, Delhi in the 1970s and later at the Festival of India, London in 1982." ], [ "Writings", "Nehru was a prolific writer in English who wrote ''The Discovery of India'', ''Glimpses of World History'', ''An Autobiography'' (released in the United States as \"Toward Freedom,\") and ''Letters from a Father to His Daughter'', all written in jail.", "''Letters'' comprised 30 letters written to his daughter Indira Priyadarshani Nehru (later Gandhi) who was then 10 years old and studying at a boarding school in Mussoorie.", "It attempted to instruct her about natural history and world civilisations.Nehru's books have been widely read.", "''An Autobiography'', in particular, has been critically acclaimed.", "John Gunther, writing in ''Inside Asia'', contrasted it with Gandhi's autobiography: The Mahatma's placid story compares to Nehru's as a cornflower to an orchid, a rhyming couplet to a sonnet by MacLeish or Auden, a water pistol to a machine gun.", "Nehru's autobiography is subtle, complex, discriminating, infinitely cultivated, steeped in doubt, suffused with intellectual passion.", "Lord Halifax once said that no one could understand India without reading it; it is a kind of 'Education of Henry Adams,' written in superlative prose—hardly a dozen men alive write English as well as Nehru ...Michael Brecher, who considered Nehru to be an intellectual for whom ideas were important aspects of Indian nationalism, wrote in ''Political Leadership and Charisma: Nehru, Ben-Gurion, and Other 20th-Century Political Leaders'': Nehru's books were not scholarly, nor were they intended to be.", "He was not a trained historian, but his feel for the flow of events and his capacity to weave together a wide range of knowledge in a meaningful pattern give to his books qualities of a high order.", "In these works, he also revealed a sensitive literary style.", "... ''Glimpses of World History'' is the most illuminating on Nehru as an intellectual.", "The first of the trilogy, ''Glimpses'', was a series of thinly connected sketches of the story of mankind in the form of letters to his teenage daughter, Indira, later prime minister of India.", "...", "Despite its polemical character in many sections and its shortcomings as an impartial history, ''Glimpses'' is a work of great artistic value, a worthy precursor of his noble and magnanimous ''Autobiography''.Michael Crocker thought ''An Autobiography'' would have given Nehru literary fame had the political fame eluded him:It is to his years in prison that we owe his three main books, ... Nehru's writings illustrate a cerebral life, and a power of self-discipline, altogether out of the ordinary.", "Words by the million bubbled up out of his fullness of mind and spirit.", "Had he never been prime minister of India he would have been famous as the author of the ''Autobiography'' and the autobiographical parts of ''The Discovery of India''.", "''An Autobiography'', at least with some excisions here and there, is likely to be read for generations.", "...", "There are, for instance, the characteristic touches of truism and anticlimax, strange in a man who could both think and, at his best, write so well ...Nehru's speech ''A Tryst With Destiny'' was rated by the British newspaper ''The Guardian'' to be among the great speeches of the 20th-century.", "Ian Jack wrote in his introduction to the speech: Dressed in a golden silk jacket with a red rose in the buttonhole, Nehru rose to speak.", "His sentences were finely made and memorable – Nehru was a good writer; his Discovery of India stands well above the level reached by most politician-writers.", "...", "The nobility of Nehru's words – their sheer sweep – provided the new India with a lodestone that was ambitious and humane.", "Post-colonialism began here as well as Indian democracy, which has since outlived many expectations of its death." ], [ "Awards and honours", "In 1948, Nehru was conferred an honorary doctorate by the University of Mysore.", "He later received honorary doctorates from the University of Madras, Columbia University, and Keio University.", "The Hamburg University had awarded Nehru two honorary degrees of the Faculties of Law and Agriculture.", "In 1955, he was awarded with ''Honorary citizen of Belgrade'' by the Yugoslavian government.In 1955, Nehru was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.", "President Rajendra Prasad awarded him the honour without taking advice from the Prime Minister and added that \"I am taking this step on my own initiative\".He was posthumously awarded the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo by the Government of South Africa in 2005.=== State honours === Decoration Country Date Note Ref.", "100x100px '''Bharat Ratna''' 1955 The highest civilian honour of India.100x100px'''Star of the Republic of Indonesia''' 1995''First Class'', the highest civilian honour of Indonesia.", "100x100px'''Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo''' 2005 ''Grand Companion'', the highest honour of South Africa awarded to foreign dignitaries." ], [ "See also", "* Foreign relations of India* List of political families* List of Indian writers* Scientific temper, a phrase popularised by Nehru" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ======Sources===* * *" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Gopal, S. and Uma Iyengar, eds ''The Essential Writings of Jawaharlal Nehru'' (Oxford University Press, 2003) * ''Autobiography: Toward freedom'', Oxford University Press* ''Letters for a Nation: From Jawaharlal Nehru to His Chief Ministers 1947–1963'' (Penguin UK, 2015).", "* ''Letters from a father to his daughter'' by Jawaharlal Nehru, Children's Book Trust* '' Independence and After: A collection of the more important speeches of Jawaharlal Nehru from September 1946 to May 1949'' (1949).", "Delhi: The Publications Division, Government of India.", "* ''A Tryst With Destiny'' historic speech made by Jawaharlal Nehru on 14 August 1947* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bayly, C. A.", "\"The Ends of Liberalism and the Political Thought of Nehru's India.\"", "''Modern Intellectual History'' 12.3 (2015): 605–626.", "* ''Nehru: A Political Biography'' by Michael Brecher (1959).", "London:Oxford University Press.", "* \"Nehru, Jawaharlal.\"", "in Ainslie T. Embree, ed., ''Encyclopedia of Asian History.''", "Vol.", "3.Charles Scribner's Sons.", "New York.", "(1988): 98–100.", "* Fonseca, Rena.", "\"Nehru and the Diplomacy of Nonalignment.\"", "''The Diplomats, 1939–1979'' (Princeton University Press, 2019) pp.", "371–397.online* Gopal, Sarvapelli.", "\"Nehru and minorities.\"", "''Economic and Political Weekly'' (1988): 2463–2466.online* Gopal, Sarvepalli.", "\"The Formative Ideology of Jawaharlal Nehru.\"", "''Economic and Political Weekly'' (1976): 787–792 online.", "* Gopal, Sarvepalli. ''", "Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography Volume 1 1889–1947'' (1975); ''Jawaharlal Nehru Vol.2 1947–1956'' (1979); ''Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography Volume 3 1956–1964'' (2014), a major scholarly biography; excerpt vol 1* Guha, Ramachandra.", "\"Jawaharlal Nehru.\"", "in ''Makers of Modern Asia'' (Harvard University Press, 2014) pp. 117–146.", "* Heimsath, C.H.", "and Surjit Mansingh.", "''A diplomatic history of modern India'' (1971) online* Louro, Michele L. ''Comrades against imperialism: Nehru, India, and interwar internationalism'' (Cambridge UP, 2018).", "* Malone, David et al.", "eds.", "''The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy.''", "(2015) excerpt; a comprehensive overview by over 50 leading experts.", "* Purushotham, Sunil.", "\"World history in the atomic age: Past, present and future in the political thought of Jawaharlal Nehru.\"", "''Modern Intellectual History'' 14.3 (2017): 837–867.", "* Raghavan, Srinath.", "''War and peace in modern India'' (Springer, 2016); focus on Nehru's foreign policy* Raghavan, Srinath.", "''The Most Dangerous Place: A History of the United States in South Asia.''", "(Penguin Random House India, 2018); also published as ''Fierce Enigmas: A History of the United States in South Asia.''(2018).", "online review* * Tharoor, Shashi.", "''Nehru: The Invention of India'' (2003) Arcade Books * Tyson, Geoffrey.", "''Nehru: The Years of Power'' (1966).", "London: Pall Mall Press.", "* Zachariah, Benjamin.", "''Nehru'' (2004) excerpt" ], [ "External links", "* Jawaharlal Nehru at official website of Indian National Congress* Jawaharlal Nehru at Encyclopædia Britannica* Jawaharlal Nehru at official website of Prime Minister's Office (India)* 70th Anniversary of Indian Independence – Nehru's Birthday Dinner Programme – UK Parliament Living Heritage* Profile of Nehru in ''India Today''* Nehru on Communalism* Jawaharlal Nehru materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)* * * Jawaharlal Nehru at BBC" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Janis Joplin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Janis Lyn Joplin''' (January 19, 1943 – October 4, 1970) was an American singer and songwriter.", "One of the most successful and widely known rock performers of her era, she was noted for her powerful mezzo-soprano vocals, as well as her \"electric\" stage presence.In 1967, Joplin rose to prominence following an appearance at Monterey Pop Festival, where she was the lead singer of the then little-known San Francisco psychedelic rock band Big Brother and the Holding Company.", "After releasing two albums with the band, she left Big Brother to continue as a solo artist with her own backing groups, first the Kozmic Blues Band and then the Full Tilt Boogie Band.", "She appeared at the 1969 Woodstock festival and on the ''Festival Express'' train tour.", "Five singles by Joplin reached the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100, including a cover of the Kris Kristofferson song \"Me and Bobby McGee\", which posthumously reached number one in March 1971.Her most popular songs include her cover versions of \"Piece of My Heart\", \"Cry Baby\", \"Down on Me\", \"Ball and Chain\", \"Summertime\", and her original song \"Mercedes Benz\", her final recording.Joplin died of a heroin overdose in 1970, at the age of 27, after releasing three albums (two with Big Brother and the Holding Company and one solo album).", "A second solo album, ''Pearl'', was released in January 1971, just over three months after her death.", "It reached number one on the ''Billboard'' charts.", "She was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995.", "''Rolling Stone'' ranked Joplin number 46 on its 2004 list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time and number 28 on its 2008 list of 100 Greatest Singers of All Time.", "NPR dubbed Joplin as \"The Queen of Rock\" and named her one of the 50 Great Voices.", "She remains one of the top-selling musicians in the United States, with Recording Industry Association of America certifications of 18.5 million albums sold." ], [ "Early life", "Joplin in 1960 as a graduating senior in high schoolJanis Joplin was born in Port Arthur, Texas, on , to Dorothy Bonita East (1913–1998), a registrar at a business college, and her husband, Seth Ward Joplin (1910–1987), an engineer at Texaco.", "She had two younger siblings, Laura and Michael.", "The family attended First Christian Church of Port Arthur, a church belonging to the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) denomination.Her parents felt that Janis needed more attention than their other children.", "As a teenager, Joplin befriended a group of outcasts, one of whom had albums by blues artists Bessie Smith, Ma Rainey, and Lead Belly, which Joplin later credited with influencing her decision to become a singer.", "She began singing blues and folk music with friends at Thomas Jefferson High School.", "In high school, she was a classmate of Pro Football Hall of Fame coach Jimmy Johnson.Joplin stated that she was ostracized and bullied in high school.", "As a teen, she became overweight and suffered from acne, leaving her with deep scars that required dermabrasion.", "Other kids at high school would routinely taunt her and call her names like \"pig,\" \"freak,\" \"nigger lover,\" or \"creep.\"", "She stated, \"I was a misfit.", "I read, I painted, I thought.", "I didn't hate niggers.", "\"Joplin graduated from high school in 1960 and attended Lamar State College of Technology in Beaumont, Texas, during the summer and later the University of Texas at Austin (UT), though she did not complete her college studies.", "The campus newspaper, ''The Daily Texan'', ran a profile of her in the issue dated July 27, 1962, headlined \"She Dares to Be Different.\"", "The article began, \"She goes barefooted when she feels like it, wears Levi's to class because they're more comfortable, and carries her autoharp with her everywhere she goes so that in case she gets the urge to break into song, it will be handy.", "Her name is Janis Joplin.", "\"While at UT she performed with a folk trio called the Waller Creek Boys and frequently socialized with the staff of the campus humor magazine ''The Texas Ranger''.", "According to Freak Brothers cartoonist Gilbert Shelton, who befriended her, she used to sell ''The Texas Ranger'', which contained some of Shelton's early comic books, on the campus." ], [ "Career", "=== 1962–1965: Early recordings ===Joplin cultivated a rebellious manner and styled herself partly after her female blues heroines and partly after the Beat poets.", "Her first song, \"What Good Can Drinkin' Do\", was recorded on tape in December 1962 at the home of a fellow University of Texas student.She left Texas in January 1963, \"Just to get away,\" she said, \"because my head was in a much different place\", hitchhiking with her friend Chet Helms to North Beach, San Francisco.", "Still in San Francisco in 1964, Joplin and future Jefferson Airplane guitarist Jorma Kaukonen recorded a number of blues standards, which incidentally featured Kaukonen's wife Margareta using a typewriter in the background.", "This session included seven tracks: \"Typewriter Talk\", \"Trouble in Mind\", \"Kansas City Blues\", \"Hesitation Blues\", \"Nobody Knows You When You're Down and Out\", \"Daddy, Daddy, Daddy\", and \"Long Black Train Blues\", and was released long after Joplin's death as the bootleg album ''The Typewriter Tape''.In 1963, Joplin was arrested in San Francisco for shoplifting.", "During the two years that followed, her drug use increased and she acquired a reputation as a \"speed freak\" and occasional heroin user.", "She also used other psychoactive drugs and was a heavy drinker throughout her career; her favorite alcoholic beverage was Southern Comfort.In May 1965, Joplin's friends in San Francisco, noticing the detrimental effects on her from regularly injecting methamphetamine, she was described as \"skeletal\" and \"emaciated\", persuaded her to return to Port Arthur.", "During that month, her friends threw her a bus-fare party so she could return to her parents in Texas.", "Five years later, Joplin told ''Rolling Stone'' magazine writer David Dalton the following about her first stint in San Francisco: \"I didn't have many friends and I didn't like the ones I had.", "\"Back in Port Arthur in the spring of 1965, after Joplin's parents noticed her weight of , she changed her lifestyle.", "She avoided drugs and alcohol, adopted a beehive hairdo, and enrolled as an anthropology major at Lamar University in nearby Beaumont, Texas.", "Her sister Laura said in a 2016 interview that social work was her major during her year at Lamar.", "During her time at Lamar University, she commuted to Austin to sing solo, accompanying herself on acoustic guitar.", "One of her performances was at a benefit by local musicians for Texas bluesman Mance Lipscomb, who was suffering with ill health.Joplin became engaged to Peter de Blanc in the fall of 1965.She had begun a relationship with him toward the end of her first stint in San Francisco.", "Now living in New York where he worked with IBM computers, he visited her to ask her father for her hand in marriage.", "Joplin and her mother began planning the wedding.", "De Blanc, who traveled frequently, ended the engagement soon afterward.In 1965 and 1966, Joplin commuted from her family's Port Arthur home to Beaumont, Texas, where she had regular sessions with a psychiatric social worker named Bernard Giarritano at a counseling agency that was funded by the United Fund, which after her death changed its name to the United Way.", "Interviewed by biographer Myra Friedman after his client's death, Giarritano said Joplin had been baffled by how she could pursue a professional career as a singer without relapsing into drugs, and her drug-related memories from immediately prior to returning to Port Arthur continued to frighten her.", "Joplin sometimes brought an acoustic guitar with her to her sessions with Giarritano, and people in other offices within the building could hear her singing.Giarritano tried to reassure her that she did not have to use narcotics to succeed in the music business.", "She also said that if she were to avoid singing professionally, she would have to become a keypunch operator, as she had done a few years earlier, or a secretary, and then a wife and mother, and she would have to become similar to all the other women in Port Arthur.Approximately a year before Joplin joined Big Brother and the Holding Company, she recorded seven studio tracks with her acoustic guitar.", "Among the songs she recorded were her original composition of the song \"Turtle Blues\" and an alternate version of \"Cod'ine\" by Buffy Sainte-Marie.", "These tracks were later issued as a new album in 1995, titled ''This is Janis Joplin 1965'' by James Gurley.=== 1966–1969: Big Brother and the Holding Company ===alt=In 1966, Joplin's bluesy vocal style attracted the attention of the San Francisco-based psychedelic rock band Big Brother and the Holding Company, which had gained some renown among the nascent hippie community in Haight-Ashbury.", "She was recruited to join the group by Chet Helms, a promoter who was managing Big Brother and with whom she had hitchhiked from Texas to San Francisco a few years earlier.", "Helms sent his friend Travis Rivers to find her in Austin, Texas, where she had been performing with her acoustic guitar, and to accompany her to San Francisco.Aware of her previous nightmare with drug addiction in San Francisco, Rivers insisted that she inform her parents face-to-face of her plans, and he drove her from Austin to Port Arthur (he waited in his car while she talked with her startled parents) before they began their long drive to San Francisco.", "She gave her parents the impression Austin was her final destination and it was the location of the rock band she was joining.", "Joplin joined Big Brother on June 4, 1966.Her first public performance with them was at the Avalon Ballroom in San Francisco.", "Soon after that, her parents received a letter from her, and that was how they learned she was in San Francisco, not Austin.In June 1966, Joplin was photographed at an outdoor concert in San Francisco that celebrated the summer solstice.", "The image, which was later published in two books by David Dalton, shows her before she relapsed into drugs.", "Due to persistent persuading by keyboardist and close friend Stephen Ryder, Joplin avoided drugs for several weeks.", "She shared an apartment with Travis Rivers upon their arrival in San Francisco, and made him promise that using needles would not be allowed there.When bandmate Dave Getz accompanied her from a rehearsal to her home, Rivers was not there, but \"two or three\", according to Getz' recollection 25 years later, guests whom Rivers had invited were in the process of injecting drugs.", "\"One of them was about to tie off,\" recalled Getz.", "\"''Janis went nuts!''", "I had never seen anybody explode like that.", "She was screaming and crying and Travis walked in.", "She screamed at him: 'We had a pact!", "You promised me!", "There wouldn't be any of that in front of me!'", "I was over my head and I tried to calm her down.", "I said, 'They're just doing mescaline,' because that's what I thought it was.", "She said, 'You don't understand!", "I can't see that!", "I just can't stand to see that!", "'\"A San Francisco concert from that summer (1966) was recorded and released on the 1984 album ''Cheaper Thrills''.", "In July, all five bandmates and guitarist James Gurley's wife Nancy moved to a house in Lagunitas, California, where they lived communally.", "The band often partied with the Grateful Dead, the members of whom lived less than two miles away.", "She had a short relationship and longer friendship with founding member Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan.The band went to Chicago for a four-week engagement in August 1966, then found itself stranded after the promoter ran out of money when its concerts did not attract the expected audience levels, and he was unable to pay them.", "In the unfortunate circumstances the band signed with Bob Shad's record label Mainstream Records; recordings for the label took place in Chicago in September, but these were not satisfactory, and the band returned to San Francisco, continuing to perform live, including at the Love Pageant Rally.", "The band recorded two tracks, \"Blindman\" and \"All Is Loneliness\", in Los Angeles, and these were released by Mainstream as a single that did not sell well.", "After playing at a happening in Stanford in early December 1966, the band traveled back to Los Angeles to record ten tracks between December 12 and 14, 1966, produced by Bob Shad, which appeared on the band's debut album in August 1967.In late 1966, Big Brother switched managers from Chet Helms to Julius Karpen.", "One of Joplin's earliest major performances in 1967 was at the Mantra-Rock Dance, a musical event held on January 29 at the Avalon Ballroom by the San Francisco Hare Krishna temple.", "Janis Joplin and Big Brother performed there along with the Hare Krishna founder Bhaktivedanta Swami, Allen Ginsberg, Moby Grape, and the Grateful Dead, donating proceeds to the Krishna temple.", "In early 1967, Joplin met Country Joe McDonald of the group Country Joe and the Fish.", "The pair lived together as a couple for a few months in her Lyon Street apartment.", "A driver's license, issued to Joplin in 1967, shows her residence as 122 Lyon Street No.", "3, in San Francisco.Joplin and Big Brother began playing clubs in San Francisco, at the Fillmore West, Winterland, and the Avalon Ballroom.", "They also played at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, as well as in Seattle, Washington; Vancouver, British Columbia; the Psychedelic Supermarket in Boston, Massachusetts; and the Golden Bear Club in Huntington Beach, California.==== Debut Album and Rise in Popularity ====The band's debut studio album, ''Big Brother & the Holding Company'', was released by Mainstream Records in August 1967, shortly after the group's breakthrough appearance in June at the Monterey Pop Festival.", "Two tracks, \"Coo Coo\" and \"The Last Time,\" were released separately as singles, while the tracks from the previous single, \"Blindman\" and \"All Is Loneliness\", were added to the remaining eight tracks.", "When Columbia Records took over the band's contract and re-released the album, they included \"Coo Coo\" and \"The Last Time\", and put \"featuring Janis Joplin\" on the cover.", "The debut album spawned four minor hits with the singles \"Down on Me\", a traditional song arranged by Joplin, \"Bye Bye Baby\", \"Call On Me\" and \"Coo Coo\", on all of which Joplin sang lead vocals.Two songs from the second of Big Brother's two sets at Monterey, which they played on Sunday, were filmed (their first set, which was on Saturday, was not filmed, though it was audio-recorded).", "Some sources, including a Joplin biography by Ellis Amburn, claim that she was dressed in thrift store hippie clothes or second-hand Victorian clothes during the band's Saturday set, but still photographs do not appear to have survived.", "Digitized color film of two songs in the Sunday set, \"Combination of the Two\" and a version of Big Mama Thornton's \"Ball and Chain,\" appear in the DVD and Blu-ray boxed set of D. A. Pennebaker's documentary ''Monterey Pop'' released by The Criterion Collection.", "She is seen wearing an expensive gold tunic dress with matching pants.", "They were created for her by San Francisco clothing designer Colin Rose.Documentary filmmaker Pennebaker inserted two cutaway shots of Cass Elliot of the Mamas & the Papas seated in the audience during Joplin's performance of \"Ball and Chain\", one in the middle of the song as her eyes, covered by sunglasses, are fixed on Joplin, and also a shot during the applause as she silently mouths \"Oh, wow!\"", "and looks at the person seated next to her.", "Elliot and the audience are seen in sunlight, but Sunday's Big Brother performance was filmed in the evening.", "An explanation came from Big Brother's road manager John Byrne Cooke, who remembers that Pennebaker discreetly filmed the audience (including Elliot) during Big Brother's Saturday performance when he was not allowed to point a camera at the band.The prohibition of Pennebaker from filming on Saturday afternoon came from Big Brother's manager Julius Karpen.", "The band had a bitter argument with Karpen and overruled him as they prepared for their second set that the festival organizers had added on the spur of the moment.", "Backstage at the festival, the band became acquainted with New York-based talent manager Albert Grossman but did not sign with him until several months later, firing Karpen at that time.Only \"Ball and Chain\" was included in the ''Monterey Pop'' film that was released to theaters throughout the United States in 1969 and shown on television in the 1970s.", "Those who did not attend the Monterey Pop Festival saw the band's performance of \"Combination of the Two\" for the first time in 2002 when The Criterion Collection released the boxed set.For the remainder of 1967, even after Big Brother signed with Albert Grossman, the band performed mainly in California.", "On February 16, 1968, the group began its first East Coast tour in Philadelphia, and the following day gave their first performance in New York City at the Anderson Theater.", "On April 7, 1968—three days after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the last day of their East Coast tour—Joplin and Big Brother performed with Jimi Hendrix, Buddy Guy, Joni Mitchell, Richie Havens, Paul Butterfield, and Elvin Bishop at the Wake for Martin Luther King Jr. concert in New York.", "''Live at Winterland '68'', recorded at the Winterland Ballroom on April 12 and 13, 1968, features Joplin and Big Brother and the Holding Company at the height of their mutual career working through a selection of tracks from their albums.", "A recording became available to the public for the first time in 1998 when Columbia/Sony Music Entertainment released the compact disc.", "One month after the Winterland concert, Owsley Stanley recorded them at the Carousel Ballroom, released in 2012 as ''Live at the Carousel Ballroom 1968''.On July 31, 1968, Joplin made her first nationwide television appearance when the band performed on ''This Morning'', an ABC daytime 90-minute variety show that was hosted by Dick Cavett.", "Shortly thereafter, network employees wiped the videotape, though the audio survives.", "In 1969 and 1970, Joplin made three appearances on Cavett's prime-time program.", "Audio of her 1968 appearance has not been used since then.Sometime in 1968, the band's billing was changed to \"Janis Joplin and Big Brother and the Holding Company,\" and the media coverage given to Joplin generated resentment within the band.", "The other members of Big Brother thought that Joplin was on a \"star trip\", while others were telling Joplin that Big Brother was a terrible band and that she ought to dump them.", "''Time'' magazine called Joplin \"probably the most powerful singer to emerge from the white rock movement\", and Richard Goldstein wrote for the May 1968 issue of ''Vogue'' magazine that Joplin was \"the most staggering leading woman in rock...she slinks like tar, scowls like war...clutching the knees of a final stanza, begging it not to leave.... Janis Joplin can sing the chic off any listener.", "\"For her first major studio recording, Joplin played a major role in the arrangement and production of the songs that would comprise Big Brother and the Holding Company's second album, ''Cheap Thrills''.", "Producer John Simon tried recording the band in concert, to capture their energy in a live album, but several attempts showed the band was prone to mistakes.", "Their imprecision was not helped by moving the sessions to a recording studio.", "Joplin sang take after take of the same song, with her performances consistently good, and she grew frustrated with the band's sloppiness.", "Simon was replaced by Elliot Mazer who fixed the songs by overdubbing certain parts.", "The album featured a cover design by counterculture cartoonist Robert Crumb.==== Cheap Thrills ====Although ''Cheap Thrills'' sounded as if it consisted of concert recordings, like on \"Combination of the Two\" and \"I Need a Man to Love\", only \"Ball and Chain\" was actually recorded in front of a paying audience; the rest of the tracks were studio recordings.", "The album had a raw quality, including the sound of a drinking glass breaking and the broken shards being swept away during the song \"Turtle Blues\".", "''Cheap Thrills'' produced popular hits with \"Piece of My Heart\" and \"Summertime\".", "Together with the premiere of the documentary film ''Monterey Pop'' at New York's Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts on December 26, 1968, the album launched Joplin as a star.", "''Cheap Thrills'' reached number one on the ''Billboard'' 200 album chart eight weeks after its release, and was number one for eight (nonconsecutive) weeks.", "The album was certified gold at release and sold over a million copies in the first month of its release.", "The lead single from the album, \"Piece of My Heart\", reached number 12 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in the fall of 1968.The band made another East Coast tour during July–August 1968, performing at the Columbia Records convention in Puerto Rico and the Newport Folk Festival.", "After returning to San Francisco for two hometown shows at the Palace of Fine Arts Festival on August 31 and September 1, Joplin announced that she would be leaving Big Brother.", "On September 14, 1968, culminating a three-night engagement together at Fillmore West, fans thronged to a concert that Bill Graham publicized as the last official concert of Janis Joplin with Big Brother and the Holding Company.", "The opening acts on this night were Chicago, then still called Chicago Transit Authority, and Santana.Despite Graham's announcement that the Fillmore West gig was Big Brother's last concert with Joplin, the band—with Joplin still as lead vocalist—toured the U.S. that fall.", "Reflecting Joplin's crossover appeal, two October 1968 performances at a roller rink in Alexandria, Virginia, were reviewed by John Segraves of the conservative ''Washington Evening Star'' at a time when the Washington metropolitan area's hard rock scene was in its infancy.", "An opera buff at the time, he wrote:Later in October 1968, Big Brother performed at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and played at the Syracuse War Memorial as part of Syracuse University's Fall Homecoming on October 11, with Janis joining openers the Butterfield Blues Band for their closing song.", "Aside from two 1970 reunions, Joplin's last performance with Big Brother was at a Chet Helms benefit in San Francisco on December 1, 1968.===1969–1970: Solo career===Tom Jones on ''This Is Tom Jones'' in late 1969====1969: January 1969 to December 1969====After splitting from Big Brother and the Holding Company, Joplin formed a new backup group, the Kozmic Blues Band, composed of session musicians like keyboardist Stephen Ryder and saxophonist Cornelius \"Snooky\" Flowers, as well as former Big Brother and the Holding Company guitarist Sam Andrew and future Full Tilt Boogie Band bassist Brad Campbell.", "The band was influenced by the Stax-Volt rhythm and blues (R&B) and soul bands of the 1960s, as exemplified by Otis Redding and the Bar-Kays.", "The Stax-Volt R&B sound was typified by the use of horns and had a funky, pop-oriented sound in contrast to many of the psychedelic/hard rock bands of the period.By early 1969, Joplin was allegedly shooting at least $200 worth of heroin per day () although efforts were made to keep her clean during the recording of ''I Got Dem Ol' Kozmic Blues Again Mama!''", "Gabriel Mekler, who produced the album, told publicist-turned-biographer Myra Friedman after Joplin's death that she had lived in his Los Angeles house during the June 1969 recording sessions at his insistence so he could keep her away from drugs and her drug-using friends.Joplin's appearances with the Kozmic Blues Band in Europe were released in theaters, in multiple documentaries.", "''Janis'', which was reviewed by ''The Washington Post'' on March 21, 1975, shows Joplin arriving in Frankfurt by plane and waiting inside a bus next to the Frankfurt venue, while an American female fan who is visiting Germany expresses enthusiasm to the camera.", "No security was used in Frankfurt, so by the end of the concert, the stage was so packed with people the band members could not see each other.", "''Janis'' includes interviews with Joplin in Stockholm and from her visit to London, for her gig at Royal Albert Hall.", "The London interview was dubbed with a voiceover in the German language for broadcast on German television.", "John Byrne Cooke, road manager for Joplin and the Kozmic Blues Band, wrote a book published in 2014 in which he discussed her knowledge of the risks of her ongoing use of narcotics, particularly when she was outside the United States.On the episode of ''The Dick Cavett Show'' that was telecast in the United States on the night of July 18, 1969, Joplin and her band performed \"Try (Just a Little Bit Harder)\" as well as \"To Love Somebody\".Newspaper review of Joplin's 1969 concert at Vets Memorial Auditorium in Columbus, Ohio includes the fact that before it started she walked to the lobby and watched audience members arrive.Released in September 1969, the ''Kozmic Blues'' album was certified gold later that year but did not match the success of ''Cheap Thrills''.", "Reviews of the new group were mixed.", "Some music critics, including Ralph J. Gleason of the ''San Francisco Chronicle'', were negative.", "Gleason wrote that the new band was a \"drag\" and Joplin should \"scrap\" her new band and \"go right back to being a member of Big Brother ... (if they'll have her).\"", "Other reviewers, such as reporter Carl Bernstein of ''The Washington Post'', devoted entire articles to celebrating the singer's magic.", "Bernstein's review said that Joplin \"has finally assembled a group of first-rate musicians with whom she is totally at ease and whose abilities complement the incredible range of her voice.", "\"Columbia Records released \"Kozmic Blues\" as a single, which peaked at number 41 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, and a live rendition of \"Raise Your Hand\" was released in Germany and became a top ten hit there.", "Containing other hits like \"Try (Just a Little Bit Harder)\", \"To Love Somebody\", and \"Little Girl Blue\", ''I Got Dem Ol' Kozmic Blues Again Mama!''", "reached number five on the ''Billboard'' 200 soon after its release.Joplin appeared at Woodstock starting at approximately 2:00 am, on Sunday, August 17, 1969.Joplin informed her band that they would be performing at the concert as if it were just another gig.", "On Saturday afternoon, when she and the band were flown by helicopter with the pregnant Joan Baez and Baez's mother from a nearby motel to the festival site and Joplin saw the enormous crowd, she instantly became extremely nervous and giddy.", "Upon landing and getting off the helicopter, Joplin was approached by reporters asking her questions.", "She referred them to her friend and sometime lover Peggy Caserta as she was too excited to speak.Initially, Joplin was eager to get on the stage and perform but was repeatedly delayed as bands were contractually obliged to perform ahead of Joplin.", "Faced with a ten-hour wait after arriving at the backstage area, Joplin spent some of that time shooting heroin and drinking alcohol with Caserta in a tent.", "The director's cut of the Woodstock movie shows Joplin and Jefferson Airplane singer Grace Slick standing together near amplifiers watching the band Canned Heat's performance, which started at 7:30 pm.", "Saturday.", "Caserta does not appear within camera range.", "When Joplin reached the stage at approximately 2:00 am.", "Sunday, she was \"three sheets to the wind\", according to biographer Alice Echols.", "During her performance, Joplin's voice became slightly hoarse and wheezy, and she struggled to dance.Joplin pulled through, and engaged frequently with the crowd, asking them if they had everything they needed and if they were staying stoned.", "The audience cheered for an encore, to which Joplin replied and sang \"Ball and Chain\".", "Pete Townshend, who performed with the Who later in the same morning after Joplin finished, witnessed her performance and said the following in his 2012 memoir: \"She had been amazing at Monterey, but tonight she wasn't at her best, due, probably, to the long delay, and probably, too, to the amount of booze and heroin she'd consumed while she waited.", "But even Janis on an off-night was incredible.", "\"Janis remained at Woodstock for the remainder of the festival.", "Starting at approximately 3:00 a.m. on Monday, August 18, Joplin was among many Woodstock performers who stood in a circle behind Crosby, Stills & Nash during their performance, which was the first time anyone at Woodstock ever had heard the group perform.", "This information was published by David Crosby in 1988.Later in the morning of August 18, Joplin and Joan Baez sat in Joe Cocker's van and witnessed Hendrix's close-of-show performance, according to Baez's memoir ''And a Voice to Sing With'' (1989).Still photographs in color show Joplin backstage with Grace Slick the day after Joplin's performance, wherein Joplin appears to be very happy.", "She was ultimately unhappy with her performance, however, and blamed Caserta.", "Her singing was not included, by her own insistence, in the 1970 documentary film or the soundtrack for ''Woodstock: Music from the Original Soundtrack and More'', although the 25th anniversary director's cut of ''Woodstock'' includes her performance of \"Work Me, Lord\".", "The documentary film of the festival that was released in theaters during 1970 includes, on the left side of a split screen, 37 seconds of footage of Joplin and Caserta walking toward Joplin's dressing room tent.In addition to Woodstock, Joplin had problems at Madison Square Garden, in 1969.Biographer Myra Friedman said she had witnessed a duet Joplin sang with Tina Turner during the Rolling Stones concert at the Garden on Thanksgiving Day.", "Friedman said Joplin was \"so drunk, so stoned, so out of control, that she could have been an institutionalized psychotic rent by mania.\"", "An audio recording of the duet exists online.", "During another Garden concert where she had solo billing on December 19, some observers believed Joplin tried to incite the audience to riot.", "For part of this concert she was joined onstage by Johnny Winter and Paul Butterfield.Joplin was arrested for \"vulgar and indecent language\" on November 16, 1969, at the Curtis Hixon Hall after yelling \"Don't fuck with those people\" towards the police doing crowd control during her performance.", "An hour after being booked, Joplin was released on a $504 bond.", "Joplin failed to attend the trial, and was subsequently found guilty and fined $200 plus court cost.Joplin told rock journalist David Dalton that Garden audiences watched and listened to \"every note she sang with 'Is she gonna make it?'", "in their eyes.\"", "In her interview with Dalton she added that she felt most comfortable performing at small, cheap venues in San Francisco that were associated with the counterculture.====1970: January 1970 to October 1970====At the time of the June 1970 interview with Dalton, she had already performed in the Bay Area for what turned out to be the last time.", "Sam Andrew, the lead guitarist who had left Big Brother with Joplin in December 1968 to form her back-up band, quit in late summer 1969 and returned to Big Brother.", "At the end of the year, the Kozmic Blues Band broke up.", "Their final gig with Joplin was the one at Madison Square Garden with Winter and Butterfield.In February 1970, Joplin traveled to Brazil, where she stopped her drug and alcohol use.", "She was accompanied on vacation there by her friend Linda Gravenites (wife of songwriter Nick Gravenites), who had designed Janis's stage costumes from 1967 to 1969.In Brazil, Joplin was romanced by a fellow American tourist named David (George) Niehaus, who was traveling around the world.", "A Joplin biography written by her sister Laura said, \"David was an upper-middle-class Cincinnati kid who had studied communications at Notre Dame.", "... and had joined the Peace Corps after college and worked in a small village in Turkey.", "...", "He tried law school, but when he met Janis he was taking time off.", "\"Niehaus and Joplin were photographed by the press at Rio Carnival in Rio de Janeiro.", "Gravenites also took color photographs of the two during their Brazilian vacation.", "According to Joplin biographer Ellis Amburn, in Gravenites' snapshots they \"look like a carefree, happy, healthy young couple having a tremendously good time.", "\"''Rolling Stone'' magazine interviewed Joplin during an international phone call, quoting her: \"I'm going into the jungle with a big bear of a beatnik named David Niehaus.", "I finally remembered I don't have to be on stage twelve months a year.", "I've decided to go and dig some other jungles for a couple of weeks.\"", "Amburn added in 1992, \"Janis was trying to kick heroin in Brazil, and one of the nicest things about David was that he wasn't into drugs.", "\"When Joplin returned to the U.S., she began using heroin again.", "Her relationship with Niehaus soon ended because he witnessed her shooting drugs at her new home in Larkspur, California.", "The relationship was also complicated by her ongoing romantic relationship with Peggy Caserta, who also was an intravenous addict, and Joplin's refusal to take some time off and travel the world with him.Around this time, she formed her new band, known for a short time as Main Squeeze, then renamed the Full Tilt Boogie Band.", "The band comprised mostly young Canadian musicians previously associated with Ronnie Hawkins and featured an organ, but no horn section.", "Joplin took a more active role in putting together the Full Tilt Boogie band than she had with her prior group.", "She was quoted as saying, \"It's ''my'' band.", "Finally it's ''my'' band!\"", "In May 1970, after performing under the name Main Squeeze at a Hells Angels event, the renamed Full Tilt Boogie Band began a nationwide tour.", "Joplin became very happy with her new group, which eventually received mostly positive feedback from both her fans and the critics.Prior to beginning a summer tour with Full Tilt Boogie, she performed in a reunion with Big Brother at the Fillmore West, in San Francisco, on April 4, 1970.Recordings from this concert were included on ''Joplin in Concert'' released posthumously in 1972.She again appeared with Big Brother on April 12 at Winterland, where she and Big Brother were reported to be in excellent form.", "She performed with the band, billed as Main Squeeze, at a party for the Hells Angels at a venue in San Rafael, California on May 21, 1970, according to a web site maintained by Big Brother guitarist Sam Andrew.", "Andrew's web site quotes him as saying, \"This will be the first time that Janis' old band and her new band will be at the same venue, so everyone is a little on edge.", "\"According to Joplin's biographer Ellis Amburn, Big Brother with its lead singer Nick Gravenites was the opening act at the party that was attended by 2,300 people.", "The Hells Angels, who had known Joplin since 1966, paid her a fee of $240 to perform.", "Gravenites and Sam Andrew (who had resumed playing guitar with Big Brother) differed in their opinions of her performance and how substance abuse affected it.", "Gravenites described her singing as \"stupendous,\" according to Amburn.", "Amburn quoted Andrew twenty years later: \"She was visibly deteriorating and she looked bloated.", "She was like a parody of what she was at her best.", "I put it down to her drinking too much and I felt a tinge of fear for her well-being.", "Her singing was real flabby, no edge at all.", "\"Shortly thereafter, Joplin began wearing multi-colored feather boas in her hair.", "(She had not worn them at the May 21 Hells Angels party / concert in San Rafael).", "By the time she began touring with Full Tilt Boogie, Joplin told people she was drug-free, but her drinking increased.From June 28 to July 4, 1970, during the Festival Express tour, Joplin and Full Tilt Boogie performed alongside Buddy Guy, The Band, the Flying Burrito Brothers, Ten Years After, the Grateful Dead, Delaney & Bonnie, Eric Andersen, and Ian & Sylvia.", "They played concerts in Toronto, Winnipeg, and Calgary.", "Joplin jammed with the other performers on the train, and her performances on this tour are considered to be among her greatest.Joplin headlined the festival on all three nights.", "At the last stop in Calgary, she took to the stage with Jerry Garcia while her band was tuning up.", "Film footage shows her telling the audience how great the tour was and shows her and Garcia presenting the organizers with a case of tequila.", "She then burst into a two-hour set, starting with \"Tell Mama\".", "Throughout this performance, Joplin engaged in several banters about her love life.", "In one, she reminisced about living in a San Francisco apartment and competing with a female neighbor in flirting with men on the street.", "She finished the Calgary concert with long versions of \"Get It While You Can\" and \"Ball and Chain\".Footage of her performance of \"Tell Mama\" in Calgary became an MTV video in the early 1980s, and the audio from the same film footage was included on the ''Farewell Song'' (1982) album.", "The audio of other ''Festival Express'' performances was included on Joplin's ''In Concert'' (1972) album.", "Video of the performances was also included on the ''Festival Express'' DVD.In the \"Tell Mama\" video shown on MTV in the 1980s, Joplin wore a psychedelically colored, loose-fitting costume and feathers in her hair.", "This was her standard stage costume in the spring and summer of 1970.She chose the new costumes after her friend and designer, Linda Gravenites (whom Joplin had praised in ''Vogue''s profile of her in its May 1968 edition), cut ties with Joplin shortly after their return from Brazil, due largely to Joplin's continued use of heroin.Among Joplin's last public appearances were two broadcasts of ''The Dick Cavett Show''.", "In her June 25, 1970, appearance, she announced that she would attend her ten-year high school class reunion.", "When asked if she had been popular in school, she admitted that when in high school, her schoolmates \"laughed me out of class, out of town and out of the state\" (during the year she had spent at the University of Texas at Austin, Joplin had been voted \"Ugliest Man on Campus\" by frat boys).", "In the subsequent ''Cavett Show'' broadcast, on August 3, 1970, and featuring Gloria Swanson, Joplin discussed her upcoming performance at the Festival for Peace to be held at Shea Stadium in Queens, New York, three days later.On July 11, 1970, Full Tilt Boogie and Big Brother and the Holding Company both performed at the same concert in the San Diego Sports Arena, which was decades later renamed the Valley View Casino Center.", "Joplin sang with Full Tilt Boogie and appeared briefly onstage with Big Brother without singing, according to a July 13 review of the concert in the ''San Diego Union''.On August 7, 1970, a tombstone—jointly paid for by Joplin and Juanita Green, who as a child had done housework for Bessie Smith—was erected at Smith's previously unmarked grave.", "The following day, the Associated Press circulated this news, and the August 9 edition of ''The New York Times'' carried it.", "The lead paragraph of the AP story said Joplin and Green had \"shared the cost of a stone for the 'Empress of the Blues,'\" but, according to publicist/biographer Myra Friedman, the two women never met.", "Joplin had been at home in Larkspur, California when she had received a long-distance phone call with an explanation of the need to finance a gravestone for Bessie Smith, whom Joplin had frequently cited as a musical influence.", "Joplin immediately wrote a check and mailed it to the name and address provided by the phone caller.On August 8, 1970, as the Associated Press circulated the news about Smith's new gravestone, Joplin performed at the Capitol Theatre in Port Chester, New York.", "It was there that she first performed \"Mercedes Benz\", a song partially inspired by a Michael McClure poem, that she had composed with fellow musician and friend Bob Neuwirth a very short time earlier.", "According to Myra Friedman's account, Joplin performed two shows at the Capitol Theatre, the first of which was attended by actors Geraldine Page and her husband Rip Torn.", "Between the shows, at a \"gin mill\" Friedman's words close to this concert venue, Joplin and Neuwirth penned the lyrics to the song and she performed it at the second show, according to Friedman.Neuwirth was quoted by ''The Wall Street Journal'' in 2015: \"Around 7 p.m., after the Capitol sound check, we had a couple of hours to kill before acts that opened for Joplin Seatrain and Runt finished their sets.", "So the four of us Joplin, Neuwirth, Geraldine Page, Rip Torn walked to a bar about three minutes away called Vahsen’s at 30 Broad Street in Port Chester.\"", "While in Vahsen's, \"Janis came up with words for the first verse.", "I was in charge of writing them down on bar napkins with a ballpoint pen.", "She came up with the second verse, too, about a color TV.", "I suggested words here and there, and came up with the third verse—about asking the Lord to buy us a night on the town and another round.", "\"Joplin's last public performance with the Full Tilt Boogie Band took place on August 12, 1970, at the Harvard Stadium in Boston.", "''The Harvard Crimson'' gave the performance a positive, front-page review, despite the fact that Full Tilt Boogie had performed with makeshift amplifiers after their regular sound equipment was stolen in Boston.Joplin attended her high school reunion on August 14, accompanied by Neuwirth, road manager John Cooke, and sister Laura, but it was reportedly an unhappy experience for her.", "Joplin held a press conference in Port Arthur during her reunion visit.", "When asked by a reporter if she ever entertained at Thomas Jefferson High School when she was a student there, Joplin replied, \"Only when I walked down the aisles.\"", "Joplin denigrated Port Arthur and the classmates who had humiliated her a decade earlier.During late August, September, and early October 1970, Joplin and her band rehearsed and recorded a new album in Los Angeles with producer Paul A. Rothchild, best known for his lengthy relationship with The Doors.", "Although Joplin died before all the tracks were fully completed, there was enough usable material to compile an LP.The posthumous ''Pearl'' (1971) became the biggest-selling album of her career and featured her biggest hit single, a cover of Kris Kristofferson and Fred Foster's \"Me and Bobby McGee\" (Kristofferson had previously been one of Joplin's lovers).", "The opening track, \"Move Over\", was written by Joplin, reflecting the way that she felt men treated women in relationships.", "Also included was the social commentary of \"Mercedes Benz\", presented in an ''a cappella'' arrangement; the track on the album features the only take that Joplin recorded.", "A cover of Nick Gravenites's \"Buried Alive in the Blues\", to which Joplin had been scheduled to add her vocals on the day she was found dead, was included as an instrumental.Janis Joplin performing at the Newport Folk Festival in Rhode Island in July 1968Joplin checked into the Landmark Motor Hotel in Hollywood on August 24, 1970, near Sunset Sound Recorders, where she began rehearsing and recording her album.", "During the sessions, Joplin continued a relationship with Seth Morgan, a 21-year-old UC Berkeley student, cocaine dealer, and future novelist who had visited her new home in Larkspur in July and August.", "She and Morgan were engaged to be married in early September, although he visited Sunset Sound Recorders for just eight of Joplin's many rehearsals and sessions.Morgan later told biographer Myra Friedman that, as a non-musician, he had felt excluded whenever he had visited Sunset Sound Recorders.", "Instead, he stayed at Joplin's Larkspur home while she stayed alone at the Landmark, although several times she visited Larkspur to be with him and to check the progress of renovations she was having done on the house.", "She told her construction crew to design a carport to be shaped like a flying saucer, according to biographer Ellis Amburn, the concrete foundation for which was poured the day before she died.Peggy Caserta claimed in her book, ''Going Down With Janis'' (1973), that she and Joplin had decided mutually in April 1970 to stay away from each other to avoid enabling each other's drug use.", "Caserta, a former Delta Air Lines flight attendant and owner of ''Mnasidika'', one of the first clothing boutiques in the Haight Ashbury, said in the book that by September 1970, she was smuggling cannabis throughout California and had checked into the Landmark Motor Hotel because it attracted drug users.For approximately the first two weeks of Joplin's stay at the Landmark, she did not know Caserta was in Los Angeles.", "Joplin learned of Caserta's presence at the Landmark from a heroin dealer who made deliveries there.", "Joplin begged Caserta for heroin, and when Caserta refused to provide it, Joplin reportedly admonished her by saying, \"Don't think if you can get it, I can't get it.\"", "Joplin's publicist Myra Friedman was unaware during Joplin's lifetime that this had happened.", "Later, while Friedman was working on her book ''Buried Alive'', she determined that the time frame of the Joplin-Caserta encounter was one week before Jimi Hendrix's death.Within a few days, Joplin became a regular customer of the same heroin dealer who had been supplying Caserta.Joplin's manager Albert Grossman and his assistant/publicist Friedman had staged an intervention with Joplin the previous winter while Joplin was in New York.", "In September 1970, Grossman and Friedman, who worked out of a New York office, knew Joplin was staying at a Los Angeles hotel, but were unaware it was a haven for drug users and dealers.Grossman and Friedman knew during Joplin's lifetime that her friend Caserta, whom Friedman met during the New York sessions for ''Cheap Thrills'' and on later occasions, used heroin.", "During the many long-distance telephone conversations that Joplin and Friedman had in September 1970 and on October 1, Joplin never mentioned Caserta, and Friedman assumed Caserta had been out of Joplin's life for a while.", "Friedman, who had more time than Grossman to monitor the situation, never visited California.", "She thought Joplin sounded on the phone like she was less depressed than she had been over the summer.When Joplin was not at Sunset Sound Recorders, she liked to drive her Porsche over the speed limit \"on the winding part of Sunset Blvd.", "\", according to a statement made by her attorney Robert Gordon in 1995 at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony.", "Friedman wrote that the only Full Tilt Boogie member who rode as her passenger, Ken Pearson, often hesitated to join her, though he did on the night she died.", "He was not interested in using hard drugs.On September 26, 1970, Joplin recorded vocals for \"Half Moon\" and \"Cry Baby\".", "The session ended with Joplin, organist Ken Pearson, and drummer Clark Pierson making a special one-minute recording as a birthday gift to John Lennon.", "Joplin was among several singers who had been contacted by Yoko Ono with a request for a taped greeting for Lennon's 30th birthday, on October 9.Joplin, Pearson, and Pierson chose the Dale Evans composition \"Happy Trails\" as part of the greeting.", "Lennon told Dick Cavett on-camera the following year that Joplin's recorded birthday wishes arrived at his home after her death.On October 1, 1970, Joplin completed her last recording, \"Mercedes Benz\", which was recorded in a single take.", "On Saturday, October 3, Joplin visited Sunset Sound Recorders to listen to the instrumental track for Nick Gravenites's song \"Buried Alive in the Blues\", which the band had recorded earlier that day.", "She and Paul Rothchild agreed she would record the vocal the following day.At some point on Saturday, she learned by telephone, to her dismay, that Seth Morgan had met other women at a Marin County, California, restaurant, invited them to her home, and was shooting pool with them using her pool table.", "People at Sunset Sound Recorders overheard Joplin expressing anger about the state of her relationship with Morgan, as well as joy about the progress of the sessions.Joplin and Ken Pearson later left the studio together and she drove him in her Porsche to the West Hollywood landmark called Barney's Beanery.", "Friedman wrote, \"At the bar, she drank vodka and orange juice, only two.\"", "Bennett Glotzer, a business partner of Joplin's manager Albert Grossman, was present at Barney's Beanery, according to what he told John Byrne Cooke immediately after he (Glotzer) learned of her death.", "Evidently, Joplin had a friendly conversation with a young man whom she did not know, and he expressed admiration for her music.After midnight, she drove Ken Pearson and the male fan to the Landmark where she and Pearson were staying in separate rooms.", "During the car ride, the fan asked Joplin questions \"about her singing style,\" according to Friedman, and \"she mostly ignored him\" so she could converse with Pearson.", "As Joplin and Pearson prepared to part in the lobby of the Landmark, she expressed a fear, possibly in jest, that he and the other Full Tilt Boogie musicians might decide to stop making music with her.", "Pearson was the second-to-last person to see her alive.", "The last was the Landmark's night shift desk clerk.", "He had met her several times but did not know her." ], [ "<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Sexuality\"></span><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Sexuality and relationships\"></span><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Same-sex relationships\"></span><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Romance\"></span>Personal life", "Joplin's significant relationships with men included ones with Peter de Blanc, Country Joe McDonald (who wrote the song \"Janis\" at Joplin's request), David (George) Niehaus, Kris Kristofferson, and Seth Morgan (from July 1970 until her death, at which time they were allegedly engaged).She also had relationships with women.", "During her first stint in San Francisco in 1963, Joplin met and briefly lived with Jae Whitaker, a woman whom she had met while playing pool at the bar Gino & Carlo in North Beach.", "Whitaker broke off their relationship because of Joplin's hard drug use and sexual relationships with other people.", "Whitaker was first identified by name in connection with Joplin in 1999, when Alice Echols' biography ''Scars of Sweet Paradise'' was published.Joplin had an on-again-off-again romantic relationship with Peggy Caserta.", "They first met in November 1966 when Big Brother performed at a San Francisco venue called The Matrix.", "Caserta was one of 15 people in the audience, and at the time, she ran ''Mnasidika'', a clothing boutique in the Haight Ashbury.", "Approximately a month after Caserta attended the concert, Joplin visited her boutique and said she could not afford to buy a pair of jeans that was for sale, instead asking to put down the first 50 cents on the $5 item.Caserta was amazed that such a talented singer could not afford a $5 item, and gave her a pair for free.", "Their friendship was platonic for more than a year.", "Before it moved to the next level, Caserta was in love with Big Brother guitarist Sam Andrew, and sometime during the first half of 1968 traveled from San Francisco to New York to be with him.", "He did not want a serious relationship, and Joplin sympathized with Caserta's disappointment.The ''Woodstock'' concert film includes 37 seconds of Joplin and Caserta walking together before they reached the tent where Joplin waited for her turn to perform.", "By the time the festival took place in August 1969, both were intravenous heroin addicts.According to Caserta's book ''Going Down With Janis'', which Caserta has since disowned, Joplin introduced her to her boyfriend Seth Morgan in Joplin's room at the Landmark Motor Hotel on September 29, 1970.Caserta \"had seen him around\" in San Francisco but had not met him before.", "At some point, an agreement was made for a threesome to take place the following Friday, although Caserta later said that she immediately abandoned the idea once she understood that it was Morgan who would be with Joplin.", "Morgan made alternate plans, believing that Caserta would be with Joplin that evening.", "Each one, however, was unaware that the other had bowed out.The day after Joplin introduced Caserta to Morgan, Caserta saw Joplin briefly, again in Joplin's room, when Caserta accommodated her new Los Angeles friend Debbie Nuciforo, age 19, an aspiring hard rock drummer who wanted to meet Joplin.", "Nuciforo was high on heroin at the time, and the three women's encounter was brief and unpleasant.", "Caserta suspected that the reason for Joplin's foul mood was that Morgan had abandoned her earlier that day after having spent less than 24 hours with her.Caserta did not see nor communicate by phone with Joplin again, although she later claimed she had made several attempts to reach her by phone at the Landmark Motor Hotel and at Sunset Sound Recorders.", "Caserta and Morgan lost touch with each other; each had independently made alternate plans for Friday night, October 2.Joplin mentioned her disappointment over both of her friends' bailing out of their ménage à trois to her drug dealer on Saturday, while he was selling her the dose of heroin that killed her, as Caserta later learned from the drug dealer.Biographer Myra Friedman commented in her original version of ''Buried Alive'' (1973):Given the near-infinite potentials of infancy, it is really impossible to make generalizations about what lies behind sexual practices.", "This, however, is probable: to become clearly homosexual, to make the choice that one honestly prefers relations with one's own sex, no matter the origins of such preference, requires a certain integration, a stability of psychic development, a tidiness of personality organization.", "The ridicule and the humiliation that took place at that most delicate period in Joplin's early teens, her own inability to surmount the obstacles to regular growth, devastated her a great deal more than most people comprehended.", "Janis was not heir to an ego so cohesive as to permit her an identity one way or the other.", "She was, as the psychiatric social worker she saw regularly in Beaumont, Texas in 1965 and 1966 Mr. Bernard Giarritano put it in an interview with Friedman, \"diffused\" -- spewing, splattering, splaying all over, without a center to hold.", "That had as much to do with her original use of drugs before she first met Giarritano as did the critical component of guilt and its multiplicity of sources above and beyond the contribution made by her relationships with women.", "Were she so simple as the lesbians wished her to be or so free as her associates imagined!Kim France reported in her May 2, 1999, ''The New York Times'' article, \"Nothin' Left to Lose\" : \"Once she became famous, Joplin cursed like a truck driver, did not believe in wearing undergarments, was rarely seen without her bottle of Southern Comfort and delighted in playing the role of sexual predator.", "\"On July 11, 1970, Joplin made a revealing statement about her sexuality to her friend Richard Hundgen, the Grateful Dead's San Francisco-based road manager whom she had known since 1966.When Joplin and Hundgen were offstage during a San Diego gig for both Full Tilt Boogie and Big Brother and the Holding Company, she said the following that he later repeated to Myra Friedman: I hear a rumor that somebody in San Francisco is spreading stories that I'm a dyke.", "You go back there and find out who it is and tell them that Janis says she's gotten it on with a couple of thousand cats in her life and a few hundred chicks and see what they can do with ''that''!" ], [ "Death", "Jim Marshall in 1969, one year before her deathOn Sunday evening, October 4, 1970, Joplin was found dead on the floor of her room at the Landmark Motor Hotel by her road manager and close friend John Byrne Cooke.Alcohol was present in the room.", "Newspapers reported that no other drugs or paraphernalia were present.", "According to a 1983 book authored by Joseph DiMona and Los Angeles County coroner Thomas Noguchi, evidence of narcotics was removed from the scene by a friend of Joplin and later put back after the person realized that an autopsy was going to reveal that narcotics were in her system.", "The book adds that prior to Joplin's death, Noguchi had investigated other fatal drug overdoses in Los Angeles where friends believed they were doing favors for decedents by removing evidence of narcotics, then they \"thought things over\" and returned to put back the evidence.", "Noguchi performed an autopsy on Joplin and determined the cause of death to be a heroin overdose, possibly compounded by alcohol.John Byrne Cooke believed Joplin had been given heroin that was much more potent than what she and other L.A. heroin users had received on previous occasions, as was indicated by overdoses of several of her dealer's other customers during the same weekend.", "Her death was ruled accidental.Both Peggy Caserta, Joplin's close friend, and Seth Morgan, Joplin's fiancé, had failed to meet Joplin the Friday immediately prior to her death, October 2; Joplin had been expecting both of them to keep her company that night.", "According to Caserta, Joplin was saddened that neither of her friends visited her at the Landmark as they had promised.", "During the 24 hours Joplin lived after this disappointment, Caserta did not phone her to explain why she had failed to show up.Caserta admitted to waiting until late Saturday night to dial the Landmark switchboard, only to learn that Joplin had instructed the desk clerk not to accept any incoming phone calls for her after midnight.", "Morgan did speak to Joplin via telephone within the 24 hours prior to her death, but little is known about that call.", "She used a phone at Sunset Sound Recorders where her colleagues (\"there were perhaps twenty to twenty-five people present,\" wrote biographer Myra Friedman) noticed that whatever Morgan said to her made her very angry.Peggy Caserta has insisted that Joplin's death was not an accidental overdose, but rather a result of a head gash suffered after the \"hourglass heel\" of her slingback sandal caught in the shag carpet, causing her to lose her balance.", "Caserta does concede, however, that drugs and/or alcohol may have played a role in hastening her death that night.Joplin was cremated at Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park and Mortuary in Los Angeles, and her ashes were scattered from a plane into the Pacific Ocean." ], [ "Legacy", "===Legacy in the 1970s===Joplin's death in October 1970 at age 27 stunned her fans and shocked the music world, especially when coupled with the deaths of Canned Heat singer Alan Wilson a month earlier, and rock icon Jimi Hendrix, just 16 days earlier, both aged 27.All three musicians performed at the two biggest rock festivals of the 1960s: Monterey Pop Festival and Woodstock.", "(This would later cause some people to attribute significance to the death of musicians at the age of 27, as celebrated in the \"27 Club.\")", "Music historian Tom Moon wrote that Joplin had \"a devastatingly original voice,\" music columnist Jon Pareles of ''The New York Times'' wrote that Joplin as an artist was \"overpowering and deeply vulnerable\" and author Megan Terry said that Joplin was the female version of Elvis Presley in her ability to captivate an audience.A book about Joplin by her publicist Myra Friedman titled ''Buried Alive: The Biography of Janis Joplin'' (1973) was excerpted in many newspapers.", "At the same time, Peggy Caserta's memoir, ''Going Down With Janis'' (1973), attracted much attention; its provocative title is a reference to Caserta's claim that she had engaged in oral sex with Joplin while they were high on heroin in September 1970.The description provided by Dan Knapp, Caserta's co-author whom she denounced decades later, repelled many people in 1973 when few books or filmed interviews of Joplin or her loved ones were accessible to the public.", "Joplin's bandmate Sam Andrew described Caserta as \"halfway between a groupie and a friend\" in an interview with writer Ellis Amburn.", "Soon after the 1973 publication of ''Going Down With Janis'', Joplin's friends learned that graphic descriptions of sexual acts and intravenous drug use were not the only portions of the book that would haunt them.According to Kim Chappell, a close friend of Caserta and Joplin, Caserta's book angered the Los Angeles heroin dealer whom she had described in detail in her book, including the make and model of his car.", "According to Amburn, in 1973 a \"carful of dope dealers\" visited a Los Angeles lesbian bar that Caserta had been frequenting.", "Chappell, who was in the alley behind the bar, stated: \"I was stabbed because, when Peggy's book came out, her dealer, the same one who'd given Janis her last fix, didn't like it that he was referred to and was out to get Peggy.", "He couldn't find her, so he went for her lover.", "When they realized who I was, they felt that my death would also hit Peggy, and so they stabbed me.\"", "Despite being \"stabbed three times in the chest, puncturing both lungs,\" Chappell eventually recovered.According to Joplin's biographers, Caserta was among many friends of Joplin who did not become clean and sober until a long time after Joplin's death, while others died from overdoses.", "Although the wife of Big Brother guitarist James Gurley, who was Joplin's close friend, died from a heroin overdose in 1969, devastating Joplin, Gurley himself did not become clean and sober until 1984.Caserta survived \"a near-fatal OD in December 1995,\" wrote Alice Echols.", "On January 13, 2000, Caserta appeared during a segment about Joplin on ''20/20''.", "In 2018, Caserta denounced ''Going Down With Janis'' as the pornographic fantasy of Dan Knapp, her co-author, and largely unreliable.", "During that year, the public had its first access to her own story via a memoir she co-wrote with Maggie Falcon titled ''I Ran into Some Trouble''.", "It describes a long, friendly relationship with Joplin that only occasionally featured sexuality.Joplin's body art, with a wristlet and a small heart on her left breast by the San Francisco tattoo artist Lyle Tuttle, marked an early moment in the popular culture's acceptance of tattoos as art.", "Another trademark was her flamboyant hair styles, which often included colored streaks and accessories such as scarves, beads and feathers.The Mamas & the Papas' song \"Pearl\" (1971), from their ''People Like Us'' album, was a tribute.", "Leonard Cohen's song \"Chelsea Hotel#2\" (1974) is about Joplin.", "Lyricist Robert Hunter has commented that Jerry Garcia's \"Birdsong\" from his first solo album, ''Garcia'' (1972), is about Joplin and the end of her suffering through death.", "Mimi Farina's composition \"In the Quiet Morning\", most famously covered by Joan Baez on her ''Come from the Shadows'' (1972) album, was a tribute to Joplin.", "Another song by Baez, \"Children of the Eighties,\" mentioned Joplin.", "A Serge Gainsbourg-penned French language song by English singer Jane Birkin, \"Ex fan des sixties\" (1978), references Joplin along with other disappeared \"idols\" such as Jimi Hendrix, Brian Jones and Marc Bolan.", "When Joplin was alive, Country Joe McDonald released a song called \"Janis\" on his band's album ''I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die'' (1967).The film ''The Rose'' (1979) is loosely based on Joplin's life.", "Originally planned to be titled ''Pearl''—Joplin's nickname and the title of her last album—the film was fictionalized after her family declined to allow the producers the rights to her story.", "Bette Midler won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture-Female and earned nominations for the Academy Award for Best Actress, the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress, and the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actress for her performance in the film.===Legacy in 1980s and 1990s===In 1988, on what would have been Joplin's 45th birthday, the Janis Joplin Memorial, with an original gold, multi-image sculpture of Joplin by Douglas Clark, was dedicated during a ceremony in Port Arthur, Texas.In 1992, the first major biography of Joplin in two decades, ''Love, Janis'', authored by her younger sister Laura Joplin, was published.", "In an interview, Laura stated that Joplin enjoyed being on the ''Dick Cavett Show'', that Joplin had difficulties with some, but not all, people at Thomas Jefferson High School and that Joplin enthusiastically talked about Woodstock with her parents and siblings during a visit to their Texas home a few weeks after she had performed at the festival.In 1995, Joplin was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "In 2005, she received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.", "In November 2009, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum honored her as part of its annual American Music Masters Series; among the artifacts at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum exhibition are Joplin's scarf and necklaces, her psychedelically painted 1965 Porsche 356 Cabriolet and a sheet of LSD blotting paper designed by Robert Crumb, designer of the ''Cheap Thrills'' cover.", "Also in 2009, Joplin was the honoree at the Rock Hall's American Music Master concert and lecture series.In the late 1990s, the musical play ''Love, Janis'' was created and directed by Randal Myler, with input from Janis' younger sister Laura and Big Brother guitarist Sam Andrew, with an aim to take it to Off-Broadway.", "Opening in the summer of 2001 and scheduled for only a few weeks of performances, the show won acclaim, played to packed houses and was held over several times.===Legacy after 2010===In 2013, Washington's Arena Stage featured a production of ''A Night with Janis Joplin'', starring Mary Bridget Davies.", "In it, Joplin performs a concert for the audience while telling stories of her past inspirations, including those of Odetta and Aretha Franklin.", "The production transferred to Broadway, then went on tour in 2016.On November 4, 2013, Joplin was awarded with the 2,510th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contributions to the music industry.", "Her star is located at 6752 Hollywood Boulevard, in front of Musicians Institute.On August 8, 2014, the U.S.", "Postal Service revealed a commemorative stamp honoring Joplin as part of its Music Icons stamp series during a first-day-of-issue ceremony at the Outside Lands Music Festival at Golden Gate Park.Among the memorabilia Joplin left behind is a Gibson Hummingbird guitar.In 2015, the biographical documentary film ''Janis: Little Girl Blue'', directed by Amy J. Berg and narrated by Cat Power, was released.", "It was a ''New York Times'' Critics' Pick.In 2023, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked Joplin at number 78 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time." ], [ "Influence", "Joplin had a profound influence on many singers.Pink said about Joplin: \"She was so inspiring by singing blues music when it wasn't culturally acceptable for white women, and she wore her heart on her sleeve.", "She was so witty and charming and intelligent, but she also battled an ugly-duckling syndrome.", "I would love to play her in a movie.\"", "In a tribute performance on her Try This Tour, Pink called Joplin \"a woman who inspired me when everyone else ...", "didn't!\"" ], [ "Discography", "Janis Joplin recorded four albums in her four-year career.", "The first two albums were recorded with and credited to Big Brother and the Holding Company; the later two were recorded with different backing bands and released as solo albums.", "Posthumous releases have included previously unreleased studio and live material.=== Studio albums ======= As lead singer of Big Brother and the Holding Company ====TitleAlbum detailsPeak chart positionsCertificationsUS''Big Brother & the Holding Company''* Released: 1967* Label: Mainstream 60''Cheap Thrills''* Released: 1968* Label: Columbia 1* US: 2× Platinum==== As solo artist ====TitleAlbum detailsPeak chart positionsCertificationsUSAUSCANGERITANLNORPORUK''I Got Dem Ol' Kozmic Blues Again Mama!", "''* Released: 1969* Label: Columbia 5 — 4 — — — — — —* US: Platinum* CAN: Gold''Pearl'' * Released: 1971* Label: Columbia 1 1 1 3 83 1 1 24 20* US: 4× Platinum* CAN: 4× Platinum* JPN: Gold* UK: Silver=== Live albums ===TitleAlbum detailsPeak chart positionsCertificationsUSAUSCANGERNORUK''In Concert''* Released: 1972* Label: Columbia 4 9 5 28 7 30* US: Gold* CAN: Gold''Wicked Woman''* Released: 1976* Label: Memory — — — — — —''Cheaper Thrills''* Released: 1984* Label: Fan Club — — — — — —''Live at Winterland '68''* Released: 1998* Label: Columbia/Legacy — — — — — —''The Woodstock Experience''* Released: 2009* Label: Sony BMG/Legacy — — — — — —''Live at the Carousel Ballroom 1968''* Released: 2012* Label: Columbia/Legacy — — — — — —''Woodstock: Sunday August 17, 1969''* Released: 2019* Label: Legacy — — — — — —=== Compilation albums ===TitleAlbum detailsPeak chart positionsCertificationsUSAUSCANGERITANLNORPORSWEUK''Janis Joplin's Greatest Hits''* Released: 1973* Label: Columbia 37 — 35 — 71 — — 47 — —* US: 9× Platinum*AUT: Platinum* CAN: Platinum*SWI: Gold* UK: Gold''Janis (1975)'' * Released: 1975* Label: Columbia 54 36 54 — — — — — — —* US: Gold''Farewell Song''* Released: 1982* Label: Columbia 104 — — — — — 31 — — —''Janis (1993)''* Released: 1993* Label: Columbia/Legacy — — — — — — — — — —''This Is Janis Joplin''* Released: 1995* Label: no label (bootleg) — — — — — — — — — —''18 Essential Songs''* Released: 1995* Label: Columbia — — — — — — — — 52 —* US: Gold''The Ultimate Collection''* Released: 1998* Label: Columbia — — — — — — — — 27 26''Box of Pearls (The Janis Joplin Collection)''* Released: 1999* Label: Columbia — — — — — — — — — —''Super Hits''* Released: 2000* Label: Columbia 113 — — — — — — — — —* US: Platinum''Love, Janis''* Released: 2001* Label: Columbia — — — — — — — — — —''The Essential Janis Joplin''* Released: 2003* Label: Columbia — — — — 32 100 15 — 26 —''The Lost Tapes''* Released: 2008* Label: Airline — — — — — — — — — —''Playlist: The Very Best of Janis Joplin''* Released: 2010* Label: Columbia — — — — — — — — — —''Move Over!", "''* Released: 2011* Label: Columbia — — — — — — — — — —''Blow All My Blues Away''* Released: 2012* Label: no label (bootleg) — — — — — — — — — —''The Pearl Sessions''* Released: 2012* Label: Columbia — — — — — — — — — —''Janis: Little Girl Blue'' * Released: 2016* Label: Columbia — — — — — — — — — —=== Singles ======= As lead of Big Brother and the Holding Company ====TitleYearPeak chart positionsCertificationsAlbumUSCANFRA\"Blindman\" Mainstream 657 1966 — — —''Big Brother & the Holding Company''\"Down on Me\" Mainstream 6621967 43 — —\"Bye, Bye Baby\" Mainstream 666 — — —\"Women Is Losers\" Mainstream 675 — — —\"Coo Coo\" Mainstream 678 1968 84 — —\"Piece of My Heart\" Columbia 4-44626 12 9 50* US: Platinum*ITA: Gold''Cheap Thrills''==== As solo artist ====TitleYearPeak chart positionsCertificationsAlbumUSAUSAUTCANFRAGERNLSWI\"Kozmic Blues\"1969 41 — — 33 136 — — —''I Got Dem Ol' Kozmic Blues Again Mama!", "''\"Try (Just a Little Bit Harder)\"1970 103* — — 89 — — — —\"Maybe\" — — — — — — — —\"Me and Bobby McGee\" 1971 1 1 7 6 — 8 11 3* US: Platinum''Pearl''\"Cry Baby\" 42 — — 22 — — 12 —\"Get It While You Can\" 78 — — 51 — — — —\"Down on Me\" 1972 91 — — 74 — — — —''In Concert''" ], [ "Filmography", "* ''Monterey Pop'' (1968)* ''Petulia'' (1968)* ''Janis Joplin Live in Frankfurt'' (1969)* ''Janis'' (1974)* ''Janis: The Way She Was'' (1974)* ''Comin' Home'' (1988)* ''Woodstock – The Lost Performances'' (1991)* ''Woodstock: 3 Days of Peace & Music (Director's Cut)'' (1994)* ''Festival Express'' (2003)* ''Nine Hundred Nights'' (2004)* ''The Dick Cavett Show: Rock Icons'' (2005) Shout Factory* ''Rockin' at the Red Dog: The Dawn of Psychedelic Rock'' (2005)* ''This is Tom Jones'' (2007) 1969 appearance on TV show* ''Woodstock: 3 Days of Peace & Music (Director's Cut) 40th Anniversary Edition'' (2009)* ''Janis Joplin with Big Brother: Ball and Chain'' (DVD) Charly (2009)* ''Janis: Little Girl Blue'' (2015)" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * – an encounter with Janis Joplin at the wheel." ], [ "External links", "* * Janis Joplin at the Grammy Awards* * * Janis Joplin on the Music-Map* * as Kozmic Blues Band" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Fink" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Fink''' (born February 11, 1940) is an American film and television actor.He is known for his roles in two ''Batman'' movies, ''Batman Forever'' (1995) and ''Batman & Robin'' (1997), and his other film credits include ''Loving'' (1970), ''The Carey Treatment'' (1972), ''Home for the Holidays'' (1972), ''The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case'' (1976), ''Flatliners'' (1990), ''What's Love Got to Do with It'' (1993) and ''The Client'' (1994).", "He has also had minor roles in ''Saved by the Bell'', ''Ally McBeal'', ''McMillan & Wife'', ''Columbo'', and various other series since the 1970s.While he was billed as a supporting actor in the 1978 ''Battlestar Galactica'' pilot, a majority of his scenes were cut mainly because those scenes dealt with Serina's (Jane Seymour) \"space cancer\" B-story which had been excised from the final cut." ], [ "Filmography", " Year Title Role Notes1970 ''Loving'' Brad 1972 ''The Carey Treatment'' Chief Surgeon Andrew Murphy 1972 ''Home for the Holidays'' Dr. Ted Lindsay TV movie1976 ''The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case'' Mr. Anderson TV movie1976 ''The Waltons'' Glen Oldfield Season 5 Episode \"The Last Mustang”1978 ‘’Three’s Company’’ Barry Gates Episode “The Rivals”1978 ''Battlestar Galactica'' Dr. Paye 1990 ''Flatliners'' Doctor 1990 ''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' French Restaurant Patron No.", "3 1993 ''Falling Down'' Guy Behind Woman Driver 1993 ''What's Love Got to Do with It'' Anna's Lawyer 1994 ''The Client'' Lieutenant 1995 ''Batman Forever'' Deputy 1997 ''Batman & Robin'' Aztec Museum Guard 1998 ''BASEketball'' Surgeon 1999 ''Flawless'' Gay Republican Lawyer 1999 ''Starry Night'' Alex Manners 2002 ''Bad Company'' Officer Fink 2007 ''The Number 23'' Young Walter's Father / Young Fingerling's Father (final film role)" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jacques Cousteau" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacques-Yves Cousteau''', (, also , ; 11 June 191025 June 1997) was a French naval officer, oceanographer, filmmaker and author.", "He co-invented the first successful open-circuit self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA), called the Aqua-Lung, which assisted him in producing some of the first underwater documentaries.Cousteau wrote many books describing his undersea explorations.", "In his first book, ''The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure'', Cousteau surmised the existence of the echolocation abilities of porpoises.", "The book was adapted into an underwater documentary called ''The Silent World''.", "Co-directed by Cousteau and Louis Malle, it was one of the first films to use underwater cinematography to document the ocean depths in color.", "The film won the 1956 at the Cannes Film Festival and remained the only documentary to do so until 2004 (when ''Fahrenheit 9/11'' received the award).", "It was also awarded the Academy Award for Best Documentary in 1957.From 1966 to 1976, he hosted ''The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau'', a documentary television series, presented on American commercial television stations.", "A second documentary series, ''The Cousteau Odyssey'', ran from 1977 to 1982 on public television stations." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Cousteau was born on 11 June 1910, in Saint-André-de-Cubzac, Gironde, France, to Daniel and Élisabeth Cousteau.", "He had one brother, Pierre-Antoine.", "Cousteau completed his preparatory studies at the Collège Stanislas in Paris.", "In 1930, he entered the École navale and graduated as a gunnery officer.", "However, an automobile accident, which broke both his arms, cut short his career in naval aviation.", "The accident forced Cousteau to change his plans to become a naval pilot, so he then indulged his passion for the ocean.In Toulon, where he was serving on the ''Condorcet'', Cousteau carried out his first underwater experiments, thanks to his friend Philippe Tailliez who in 1936 lent him some Fernez underwater goggles, predecessors of modern swimming goggles.", "Cousteau also belonged to the information service of the French Navy, and was sent on missions to Shanghai and Japan (1935–1938) and in the USSR (1939).On 12 July 1937, he married Simone Melchior, his business partner, with whom he had two sons, Jean-Michel (born 1938) and Philippe (1940–1979).", "His sons took part in the adventures of the ''Calypso''.", "In 1991, six months after his wife Simone's death from cancer, he married Francine Triplet.", "They already had a daughter Diane Cousteau (born 1980) and a son, Pierre-Yves Cousteau (born 1982, during Cousteau's marriage to his first wife).===Early 1940s: innovation of modern underwater diving===The years of World War II were decisive for the history of diving.", "After the armistice of 1940, the family of Simone and Jacques-Yves Cousteau took refuge in Megève, where he became a friend of the Ichac family who also lived there.", "Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Marcel Ichac shared the same desire to reveal to the general public unknown and inaccessible places — for Cousteau the underwater world and for Ichac the high mountains.", "The two neighbors took the first ex-aequo prize of the Congress of Documentary Film in 1943, for the first French underwater film: ''Par dix-huit mètres de fond'' (''18 meters deep''), made without breathing apparatus the previous year in the Embiez islands in Var, with Philippe Tailliez and Frédéric Dumas, using a depth-pressure-proof camera case developed by mechanical engineer Léon Vèche, an engineer of Arts and Measures at the Naval College.In 1943, they made the film ''Épaves'' (''Shipwrecks''), in which they used two of the very first Aqua-Lung prototypes.", "These prototypes were made in Boulogne-Billancourt by the Air Liquide company, following instructions from Cousteau and Émile Gagnan.", "When making ''Épaves'', Cousteau could not find the necessary blank reels of movie film, but had to buy hundreds of small still camera film reels the same width, intended for a make of child's camera, and cemented them together to make long reels.Having kept bonds with the English speakers (he spent part of his childhood in the United States and usually spoke English) and with French soldiers in North Africa (under Admiral Lemonnier), Jacques-Yves Cousteau (whose villa \"Baobab\" at Sanary (Var) was opposite Admiral Darlan's villa \"Reine\"), helped the French Navy to join again with the Allies; he assembled a commando operation against the Italian espionage services in France, and received several military decorations for his deeds.", "At that time, he kept his distance from his brother Pierre-Antoine Cousteau, a \"pen anti-semite\" who edited the collaborationist newspaper ''Je suis partout'' (''I am everywhere'') and who received the death sentence in 1946.However, this was later commuted to a life sentence, and Pierre-Antoine was released in 1954.During the 1940s, Cousteau is credited with improving the Aqua-Lung design which gave birth to the open-circuit scuba technology used today.", "According to his first book, ''The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure'' (1953), Cousteau started diving with Fernez goggles in 1936, and in 1939 used the self-contained underwater breathing apparatus invented in 1926 by Commander Yves le Prieur.", "Cousteau was not satisfied with the length of time he could spend underwater with the Le Prieur apparatus so he improved it to extend underwater duration by adding a demand regulator, invented in 1942 by Émile Gagnan.", "In 1943 Cousteau tried out the first prototype Aqua-Lung which finally made extended underwater exploration possible.===Late 1940s: GERS and ''Élie Monnier''===In 1946, Cousteau and Tailliez showed the film ''Épaves'' (\"Shipwrecks\") to Admiral Lemonnier, who gave them the responsibility of setting up the GRS (''Groupement de Recherches Sous-marines'', Underwater Research Group) of the French Navy in Toulon.", "A little later it became the GERS (''Groupe d'Études et de Recherches Sous-Marines'', Underwater Studies and Research Group), then the COMISMER (''Commandement des Interventions Sous la Mer'', Undersea Interventions Command), and finally the CEPHISMER (''Centre Expert Plongée Humaine et Intervention Sous la Mer'', Expert Centre for Human Diving and Undersea Intervention).", "In 1947, Chief Petty Officer Maurice Fargues became the first diver to die using an Aqua-Lung, while attempting a new depth record to 120 m with the GERS near Toulon.In 1948, between missions of mine clearance, underwater exploration and technological and physiological tests, Cousteau undertook a first campaign in the Mediterranean on board the sloop ''Élie Monnier'', with Philippe Tailliez, Frédéric Dumas, Jean Alinat and the scenario writer Marcel Ichac.", "The small team also undertook the exploration of the Roman wreck of Mahdia (Tunisia).", "It was the first underwater archaeology operation using autonomous diving, opening the way for scientific underwater archaeology.", "Cousteau and Marcel Ichac brought back from there the Carnets diving film (presented and preceded with the Cannes Film Festival 1951).Cousteau and the ''Élie Monnier'' then took part in the rescue of Professor Jacques Piccard's bathyscaphe, the FNRS-2, during the 1949 expedition to Dakar.", "Thanks to this rescue, the French Navy was able to reuse the sphere of the bathyscaphe to construct the FNRS-3.The adventures of this period are told in the two books ''The Silent World'' (1953, by Cousteau and Dumas) and ''Plongées sans câble'' (1954, by Philippe Tailliez).===1950–1970s===In 1949, Cousteau left the French Navy.In 1950, he founded the French Oceanographic Campaigns (FOC), and leased a ship called ''Calypso'' from Thomas Loel Guinness for a symbolic one franc a year.", "Cousteau refitted the ''Calypso'' as a mobile laboratory for field research and as his principal vessel for diving and filming.", "He also carried out underwater archaeological excavations in the Mediterranean, in particular at Grand-Congloué (1952).With the publication of his first book in 1953, ''The Silent World'', Cousteau correctly predicted the existence of the echolocation abilities of porpoises.", "He reported that his research vessel, the ''Élie Monier'', was heading to the Straits of Gibraltar and noticed a group of porpoises following them.", "Cousteau changed course a few degrees off the optimal course to the center of the strait, and the porpoises followed for a few minutes, then diverged toward mid-channel again.", "It was evident that they knew where the optimal course lay, even if the humans did not.", "Cousteau concluded that the cetaceans had something like sonar, which was a relatively new feature on submarines.In 1954, Cousteau conducted a survey of Abu Dhabi waters on behalf of British Petroleum.", "Among those accompanying him was Louis Malle who made a black-and-white film of the expedition for the company.", "Cousteau won the at the Cannes Film Festival in 1956 for ''The Silent World'' co-produced with Malle.", "In 1957, Cousteau took over as leader of the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco.", "Afterward, with the assistance of Jean Mollard, he made a \"diving saucer\" SP-350, an experimental underwater vehicle which could reach a depth of 350 meters.", "The successful experiment was quickly repeated in 1965 with two vehicles which reached 500 meters.In 1957, he was elected as director of the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco.", "He directed Précontinent, about the experiments of diving in saturation (long-duration immersion, houses under the sea), and was admitted to the United States National Academy of Sciences.He was involved in the creation of Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques and served as its inaugural president from 1959 to 1973.Cousteau also took part in inventing the \"SP-350 Denise Diving Saucer\" in 1959 which was an invention best for exploring the ocean floor, as it allowed one to explore on solid ground.In October 1960, a large amount of radioactive waste was going to be discarded in the Mediterranean Sea by the Commissariat à l'énergie atomique (CEA).", "The CEA argued that the dumps were experimental in nature, and that French oceanographers such as Vsevelod Romanovsky had recommended it.", "Romanovsky and other French scientists, including Louis Fage and Jacques Cousteau, repudiated the claim, saying that Romanovsky had in mind a much smaller amount.", "The CEA claimed that there was little circulation (and hence little need for concern) at the dump site between Nice and Corsica, but French public opinion sided with the oceanographers rather than with the CEA atomic energy scientists.", "The CEA chief, Francis Perrin, decided to postpone the dump.", "Cousteau organized a publicity campaign which in less than two weeks gained wide popular support.", "The train carrying the waste was stopped by women and children sitting on the railway tracks, and it was sent back to its origin.Cousteau on the ''Calypso''In the 1960s, Cousteau was involved with a set of three projects to build underwater \"villages\"; the projects were named Precontinent I, Precontinent II and Precontinent III.", "Each ensuing project was aimed at increasing the depth at which people continuously lived under water, and were an attempt at creating an environment in which men could live and work on the sea floor.", "The projects are best known as Conshelf I (1962), Conshelf II (1963), and Conshelf III (1965).", "The names \"Precontinent\", and \"Continental Shelf Station\" (Conshelf) were used interchangeably by Cousteau.A meeting with American television companies (ABC, Métromédia, NBC) created the series ''The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau'', with the character of the commander in the red bonnet inherited from standard diving dress intended to give the films a \"personalized adventure\" style.", "This documentary television series ran for ten years from 1966 to 1976.A second documentary series, ''The Cousteau Odyssey'', ran from 1977 to 1982 on public television stations.In 1970, he wrote the book ''The Shark: Splendid Savage of the Sea'' with his son Philippe.", "In this book, Cousteau described the oceanic whitetip shark as \"the most dangerous of all sharks\".In December 1972, two years after the volcano's last eruption, The Cousteau Society was filming ''Voyage au bout du monde'' on Deception Island, Antarctica, when Michel Laval, ''Calypso''s second in command, was struck and killed by a rotor of the helicopter that was ferrying between ''Calypso'' and the island.In 1973, along with his two sons and Frederick Hyman, he created the Cousteau Society for the Protection of Ocean Life, Frederick Hyman being its first President.In 1975, John Denver released the tribute song \"Calypso\" on his album ''Windsong'', and on the B-side of his hit song \"I'm Sorry\".", "\"Calypso\" became a hit on its own and was later considered the new A-side, reaching No.", "2 on the charts.In 1976, Cousteau located the wreck of HMHS ''Britannic''.", "He also found the wreck of the French 17th-century ship-of-the-line ''La Therese'' in coastal waters of Crete.In 1977, together with Peter Scott, he received the UN International Environment prize.On 28 June 1979, while the ''Calypso'' was on an expedition to Portugal, his second son Philippe, his preferred and designated successor and with whom he had co-produced all his films since 1969, died in a PBY Catalina flying boat crash in the Tagus river near Lisbon.", "Cousteau was deeply affected.", "He called his eldest son, the architect Jean-Michel, to his side.", "This collaboration lasted 14 years.===1980–1990s===From 1980 to 1981, he was a regular on the animal reality show ''Those Amazing Animals'', along with Burgess Meredith, Priscilla Presley, and Jim Stafford.Cousteau's Diving SaucerIn 1980, Cousteau traveled to Canada to make two films on the Saint Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, ''Cries from the Deep'' and ''St.", "Lawrence: Stairway to the Sea''.In 1985, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from U.S. President Ronald Reagan.From 1986 to 1992, Cousteau released ''Rediscovery of the World''.On 24 November 1988, he was elected to the Académie française, chair 17, succeeding Jean Delay.", "His official reception under the cupola took place on 22 June 1989, the response to his speech of reception being given by Bertrand Poirot-Delpech.", "After his death, he was replaced by Érik Orsenna on 28 May 1998.In June 1990, the composer Jean Michel Jarre paid homage to the commander by entitling his new album ''Waiting for Cousteau''.", "He also composed the music for Cousteau's documentary \"Palawan, the last refuge\".On 2 December 1990, his wife, Simone Cousteau died of cancer.In June 1991, in Paris, Jacques-Yves Cousteau remarried, to Francine Triplet, with whom he had (before this marriage) two children, Diane and Pierre-Yves.", "Francine Cousteau currently continues her husband's work as the head of the Cousteau Foundation and Cousteau Society.", "From that point, the relations between Jacques-Yves and his elder son, who is 8 years older than Francine, worsened.In November 1991, Cousteau gave an interview to the ''UNESCO Courier'', in which he stated that he was in favour of human population control and population decrease.", "Widely quoted on the Internet are these two paragraphs from the interview: \"What should we do to eliminate suffering and disease?", "It's a wonderful idea but perhaps not altogether a beneficial one in the long run.", "If we try to implement it we may jeopardize the future of our species...It's terrible to have to say this.", "World population must be stabilized and to do that we must eliminate 350,000 people per day.", "This is so horrible to contemplate that we shouldn't even say it.", "But the general situation in which we are involved is lamentable\".In 1992, he was invited to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for the United Nations' International Conference on Environment and Development, and then he became a regular consultant for the UN and the World Bank.In 1993, a brief biography, as well as an introduction by Cousteau was featured in interactive educational software program Undersea Adventure, developed by former game developer Knowledge Adventure.In 1995, Cousteau became involved in a legal battle with his son Jean-Michel, who was advertising the \"Cousteau Fiji Islands Resort\" in the South Pacific, to prevent him from using the Cousteau name for business purposes in the United States.", "This resulted in Jean-Michel Cousteau being ordered by the court to not encourage confusion between his for-profit business and his father's non-profit endeavours.On 11 January 1996, ''Calypso'' was accidentally rammed and sunk in the port of Singapore by a barge.", "The ''Calypso'' was refloated and towed home to France.=== Religious views ===Archbishop Jean-Marie Lustiger celebrated his funeral Mass at Notre-Dame in Paris.", "In his homily he stated, \"Without betraying any confidences, Father Carré told me of his respect for Jacques-Yves Cousteau.", "He discovered in him a man of prayer whom he accompanied in his last months of his life, giving him, through the sacraments of the Church, the strength of his passage towards eternity.", "\"In a chapter entitled \"The Holy Scriptures and the Environment\" in the posthumous work ''The Human, the Orchid, and the Octopus'', he is quoted as stating that \"The glory of nature provides evidence that God exists\".", "=== Opinion on recreational fishing ===Cousteau said that just because fish are cold-blooded does not mean they do not feel pain, and that recreational fishermen only say so to reassure their conscience." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Jacques-Yves Cousteau died of a heart attack on 25 June 1997 in Paris, two weeks after his 87th birthday.", "He was buried in the family vault at Saint-André-de-Cubzac, his birthplace.", "An homage was paid to him by the town by naming the street which runs out to the house of his birth \"rue du Commandant Cousteau\", where a commemorative plaque was placed.Cousteau's submarine near Oceanographic Museum in MonacoCousteau's legacy includes more than 120 television documentaries, more than 50 books, and an environmental protection foundation with 300,000 members.Cousteau liked to call himself an \"oceanographic technician\".", "He was, in reality, a sophisticated showman, teacher, and lover of nature.", "His work permitted many people to explore the resources of the oceans.His work also created a new kind of scientific communication, criticized at the time by some academics.", "The so-called \"divulgationism\", a simple way of sharing scientific concepts, was soon employed in other disciplines and became one of the most important characteristics of modern television broadcasting.His Oceanographic Museum in Monaco, and perhaps even he himself, has been identified as introducing the \"Killer Algae\" ''Caulerpa taxifolia'', which is negatively affecting the Mediterranean's ecosystem.The Cousteau Society and its French counterpart, ''l'Équipe Cousteau'', both of which Jacques-Yves Cousteau founded, are still active today.", "The Society is currently attempting to turn the original ''Calypso'' into a museum and it is raising funds to build a successor vessel, the ''Calypso II''.In 2007, the International Watch Company introduced the IWC Aquatimer Chronograph \"Cousteau Divers\" Special Edition.", "The timepiece incorporated a sliver of wood from the interior of Cousteau's Calypso research vessel.", "Having developed the diver's watch, IWC offered support to The Cousteau Society.", "The proceeds from the timepieces' sales were partially donated to the non-profit organization involved in conservation of marine life and preservation of tropical coral reefs.Fabien Cousteau, the grandson of Jacques Cousteau, is in the process of constructing a community of ocean flooring analysis stations, called Proteus, off Curaçao at a depth of about 20 m in a marine-protected area.", "Aquanauts could reside and work in these underwater habitats.", "Front-end engineering has started in 2022 with the habitat put on the sea bottom in 2025." ], [ "Awards and honors", "President Kennedy awards the National Geographic Society's Gold Medal to Jacques Cousteau, 1961During his lifetime, Jacques-Yves Cousteau received these distinctions:* Cross of War 1939–1945 (1945)* National Geographic Society's Special Gold Medal in 1961* Commander of the Legion of Honour (1972)* BAFTA Fellowship (1975)* Officer of the Order of Maritime Merit (1980)* Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (1985)* U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom (1985)* Induction into the Television Hall of Fame (1987)* Elected to the Académie Française (1988)* Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters* Honorary Companion of the Order of Australia (26 January 1990)" ], [ "Filmography", " No Year (Fr/En) French English Cousteau Film '''1.Early Short Films''' 1S 1942 Par dix-huit mètres de fond 2S 1943 Épaves Shipwrecks 3S 1944 Paysages du silence Silent Lands... 4S 1948 Phoques au Sahara 5S 1949 Autour d'un récif 6S 1949 Une plongée du Rubis A Dive on Board the Rubis 7S 1949 Carnet de plongée (avec Marcel Ichac) 8S 1955 La Fontaine de Vaucluse (avec Louis Malle) 9S 1955 Station 307 10S 1955 Récifs de coraux 11S 1957 La Galère engloutie (avec Jacques Ertaud) 12S 1959 Histoire d'un poisson rouge The Golden Fish 13S 1960 Vitrines sous la mer (avec Georges Alépée) 14S 1960 Prince Albert I '''2.Movies I''' 1F 1956 Le Monde du silence The Silent World 2F 1964 Le Monde sans soleil World Without Sun '''3.The Odyssey of the Cousteau Team I''' (also known as \"The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau\") 1 1966 L'aventure Précontinent Conshelf Adventure 2 1967/1968 Les Requins Sharks 3 1967/1968 La jungle de corail The Savage World of the Coral Jungle 4 1967/1968 Le Destin des tortues de mer Search in the Deep 5 1968 Baleines et cachalots Whales 6 1968/1969 Le voyage surprise de Pepito et Cristobal The Unexpected Voyage of Pepito and Cristobal 7 1968/1969 Trésor englouti Sunken Treasure 8 1968/1969 La légende du lac Titicaca The Legend of Lake Titicaca 9 1969 Les baleines du désert The Desert Whales 10 1969/1970 La nuit des calmars The Night of the Squid 11 1969/1970 La retour des Éléphants de mer The Return of the Sea Elephants 12 1970 Ces incroyables machines plongeantes Those Incredible Diving Machines 13 1970 La mer vivante The Water Planet 14 1970 La tragédie des Saumons rouges The Tragedy of the Red Salmon 15 1970/1971 Le lagon des navires perdus Lagoon of Lost Ships 16 1971 Les Dragons des Galápagos The Dragons of the Galapagos 17 1971 Cavernes englouties Secrets of the Sunken Caves 18 1971 Le sort des Loutres de mer The Unsinkable Sea Otter 19 1971/1972 Les dernières Sirènes The Forgotten Mermaids 20 1972/1971 Pieuvre, petite pieuvre Octopus, Octopus 21 1972 Le chant des dauphins A Sound of Dolphins 22 1973 500 millions d'années sous la mer 500 Million Years Beneath the Sea 23 1973/1972 Le sourire du Morse A Smile of the Walrus 24 1973 Hippo, Hippo Hippo!", "25 1973 La baleine qui chante The Singing Whale 26 1974/1973 Mission Cousteau en Antarctique.", "Partie I.", "La glace et le feu Cousteau in the Antarctic.", "Part I.", "South to Fire and Ice 27 1974 Mission Cousteau en Antarctique.", "Partie II.", "Le vol du Pingouin Cousteau in the Antarctic.", "Part II.", "The Flight of Penguins 28 1974 Mission Cousteau en Antarctique.", "Partie III.", "La vie sous un océan de glace Cousteau in the Antarctic.", "Part III.", "Beneath the Frozen World 29 1974 Mission Cousteau en Antarctique.", "Partie IV.", "Blizzard à Esperanza Cousteau in the Antarctic.", "Part IV.", "Blizzard at Hope Bay 30 1975/1974 Patagonie: La vie au bout du monde Life at the End of the World 31 1975 L'hiver des Castors Beavers of the North Country 32 1975 Les Fous du Corail The Coral Divers of Corsica 33 1975 Les requins dormeurs du Yucatán The Sleeping Sharks of Yucatán 34 1976/1975 Coup d'aile sous la mer: Isabella The Sea Birds of Isabella 35 1976 Au cœur des récifs des Caraïbes Mysteries of the Hidden Reefs 36 1976 Le Poisson qui a gobé Jonas / El Gran Pez que se tragó a Jonás The Fish That Swallowed Jonah 37 1976 La Marche des langoustes The Incredible March of the Spiny Lobsters '''4.Movies II''' 3F 1975 / 1976 Voyage au bout du monde Voyage to the Edge of the World '''5.Oasis in Space''' 1S 1977 What Price Progress?", "2S 1977 Troubled Waters 3S 1977 Grain of Conscience 4S 1977 Population Time Bomb 5S 1977 The Power Game 6S 1977 Visions of Tomorrow '''6.The Cousteau Odyssey II''' (also known as \"The Jacques Cousteau Odyssey\", continue \"The Odyssey of the Cousteau Team\") 38 1977 L'énigme du Britannic Calypso's Search for the Britannic 39 1978 Le butin de Pergame sauvé des eaux Diving for Roman Plunder 40 1978 À la recherche de l'Atlantide.", "Partie I Calypso's Search for Atlantis.", "Part I 41 1978 À la recherche de l'Atlantide.", "Partie II Calypso's Search for Atlantis.", "Part II 42 1978 Le testament de l'île de Pâques Blind Prophets of Easter Island 43 1978 Ultimatum sous la mer Time Bomb at Fifty Fathoms 44 1979 Le sang de la mer Mediterranean: Cradle or Coffin?", "45 1979 Le Nil.", "Partie I The Nile.", "Part I 46 1979 Le Nil.", "Partie II The Nile.", "Part II 47 1980 Fortunes de mer Lost Relics of the Sea 48 1980/1981 Clipperton: île de la solitude Clipperton: The Island Time Forgot 49 1981/1982 Sang chaud dans la mer Warm-Blooded Sea: Mammals of the Deep '''7.North American Adventures''' 1F 1981 Les Pièges de la mer Cries from the Deep 2F 1982 Du grand large aux grands lac Saint Lawrence: Stairway to the Sea '''8.Cousteau's Amazon Series''' 1S 1982 Objectif Amazone: Branle-bas sur la Calypso Calypso Countdown: Rigging for the Amazon 2 1983 Au pays des milles rivières Journey to a Thousand Rivers 3 1983 La rivière enchantée The Enchanted River 4 1983 Ombres fuyantes — Indiens de l'Amazonie Shadows in the Wilderness — Indians of the Amazon 5 1983/1984 La rivière de l'or River of Gold 6 1984 Message d'un monde perdu Legacy of a Lost World 7 1984 Un avenir pour l'Amazonie Blueprints for Amazonia 8 1984 Tempête de neige sur la jungle Snowstorm in the Jungle '''9.Other releases I''' 1 1985 Le Mississippi.", "Partie I. Un Allié récalcitrant Cousteau at Mississippi.", "The Reluctant Ally 2 1985 Le Mississippi.", "Partie II.", "Allié et adversaire Cousteau at Mississippi.", "The Friendly Foe 3 1985 Jacques-Yves Cousteau: mes premier 75 ans (1) Jacques Cousteau: The First 75 Years (1) 4 1985 Jacques-Yves Cousteau: mes premier 75 ans (2) Jacques Cousteau: The First 75 Years (2) 5 1985 Alcyone, fille du vent Riders of the Wind 6S 1988 Island of Peace '''10.Cousteau's Rediscovery of the World I''' (also known as \"Rediscover the World\") 1 1986 Haïti: L'eau de chagrin Haiti: Waters of Sorrow 2 1986 Cuba: les eaux du destin Cuba: Waters of Destiny 3 1986 Cap Horn: les eaux du vent Cape Horn: Waters of the Wind 4 1986 L'héritage de Cortez Sea of Cortez: Legacy of Cortez 5 1987 Les Îles Marquises: montagnes de la mer The Marquesas Islands: Mountains from the Sea 6 1987 Îles du Détroit: les eaux de la discorde Channel Islands: Waters of Contention 7 1987 Îles du Détroit: à l'approche d'une marée humaine Channel Islands: Days of Future Past 8 1988 Nouvelle-Zélande: la Rose et le dragon New Zealand: The Rose and the Dragon 9 1988 Nouvelle-Zélande: au pays du long nuage blanc New Zealand: The Heron of the Single Flight 10 1988 Nouvelle-Zélande: le Péché et la Rédemption New Zealand: The Smoldering Sea 11 1988 Au pays des totems vivants Pacific Northwest: Land of the Living Totems 12 1988 Tahiti: l'eau de feu Tahiti: Fire Waters 13 1988 Les Requins de l'île au trésor Cocos Island: Sharks of Treasure Island 14 1988/1989 Mer de Béring: Le crépuscule du chasseur en Alaska Bering Sea: Twilight of the Alaskan Hunter 15 1988/1989 Australie: l'ultime barrière Australia: The Last Barrier 16 1989 Bornéo: Le spectre de la tortue Borneo: The Ghost of the Sea Turtle 17 1989 Papouasie Nouvelle-Guinée I: La machine à remonter le temps Papua New Guinea I: Into the Time Machine 18 1989 Papouasie Nouvelle-Guinée II: La rivière des hommes crocodiles Papua New Guinea II: River of Crocodile Men 19 1989 Papouasie Nouvelle-Guinée III: La coeur de feu Papua New Guinea III: Center of Fire 20 1989 Thaïlande: les forçats de la mer Thailand: Convicts of the Sea 21 1989/1990 Bornéo: la Forêt sans terre Borneo: Forests Without Land '''11.Other releases II''' 7 1990 Scandale à Valdez Outrage at Valdez 8 1990 Lilliput en Antarctique Lilliput in Antarctica '''12.Cousteau's Rediscovery of the World II''' (also known as \"Rediscover the World\") 22 1990 Andaman, les îles invisibles Andaman Islands: Invisible Islands 23 1990/1991 Australie: à l'ouest du bout du monde Australia: Out West, Down Under 24 1991 Australie: le peuple de la mer desséchée Australia: People of the Dry Sea 25 1991 Australie: le peuple de l'eau et du feu Australia: People of Fire and Water 26 1991 Australie: les trésors de la mer Australia: Fortunes in the Sea 27 1991 Tasmanie, une île s'éveille Tasmania: Australia's Awakening Island 28 1991 Indonésie: les vergers de l'enfer Indonesia I: The Devil's Orchard 29 1991 Sumatra: le cœur de la mer Indonesia II: Sumatra, the Heart of the Sea 30 1991/1992 Nauru, îlot ou planète Nauru: The Island Planet 31 1991/1992 La grand requin blanc, seigneur solitaire des mers The Great White Shark — Lonely Lord of the Sea 32 1991 Palawan, le dernier refuge Palawan: The Last Refuge 33 1992 Danube I: le lever de rideau Danube I: The Curtain Rises 34 1992 Danube II: le rêve de Charlemagne Danube II: Charlemagne's Dream 35 1992 Danube III: les Cris du Fleuve Danube III: The River Cries Out 36 1992 Danube IV: les Débordements du Fleuve Danube IV: Rivalries Overflow 37 1993 La société secrète des Cétacés Bahamas: The Secret Societies of Dolphins and Whales 38 1993 Mékong: le don de l'eau Mekong: The Gift of Water 39 1993 Vietnam et Cambodge: le riz et les fusils Vietnam and Cambodia: Children of Rice and Guns '''13.Other releases III''' 9 1995 La Légende de Calypso Calypso's Legend 10 1995 Profond, loin, longtemps Deeper, Farther, Longer 11 1996 Les promisses de la mer The Mirage of the Sea '''14.Cousteau's Rediscovery of the World III''' (also known as \"Rediscover the World\") 40 1995 Madagascar I: l'île des esprits Madagascar I: Island of Heart and Soul 41 1995 Madagascar II: l'île des esprits Madagascar II: Island of Heart and Soul 42 1996 Afrique du Sud: les diamants du désert South Africa: Diamonds of the Desert 43 1996 Afrique du Sud: sanctuaires pour la vie South Africa: Sanctuaries for Life 44 1996/1997 À travers la Chine par le fleuve Jaune China: Across China with the Yellow River 45 1997/1999 Le lac Baïkal Lake Baikal: Beneath the Mirror ===Legend===" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''The Silent World'' (1953, with Frédéric Dumas)* ''Captain Cousteaus Underwater Treasury'' (1959, with James Dugan)* ''The Living Sea'' (1963, with James Dugan)* ''World Without Sun'' (1965)* ''The Undersea Discoveries of Jacques-Yves Cousteau'' (1970–1975, 8-volumes, with Philippe Diolé)** ''The Shark: Splendid Savage of the Sea'' (1970)** ''Diving for Sunken Treasure'' (1971)** ''Life and Death in a Coral Sea'' (1971)** ''The Whale: Mighty Monarch of the Sea'' (1972)** ''Octopus and Squid: The Soft Intelligence'' (1973)** ''Three Adventures: Galápagos, Titicaca, the Blue Holes'' (1973)** ''Diving Companions: Sea Lion, Elephant Seal, Walrus'' (1974)** ''Dolphins'' (1975)* ''The Ocean World of Jacques Cousteau'' (1973–78, 21 volumes)** ''Oasis in Space'' (vol 1)** ''The Act of Life'' (vol 2)** ''Quest for Food'' (vol 3)** ''Window in the Sea'' (vol 4)** ''The Art of Motion'' (vol 5)** ''Attack and Defense'' (vol 6)** ''Invisible Messages'' (vol 7)** ''Instinct and Intelligence'' (vol 8)** ''Pharaohs of the Sea'' (vol 9)** ''Mammals in the Sea'' (vol 10)** ''Provinces of the Sea'' (vol 11)** ''Man Re-Enters Sea'' (vol 12)** ''A Sea of Legends'' (vol 13)** ''Adventure of Life'' (vol 14)** ''Outer and Inner Space'' (vol 15)** ''The Whitecaps'' (vol 16)** ''Riches of the Sea'' (vol 17)** ''Challenges of the Sea'' (vol 18)** ''The Sea in Danger'' (vol 19)** ''Guide to the Sea and Index'' (vol 20)** ''Calypso'' (1978, vol 21)* ''A Bill of Rights for Future Generations'' (1979)* ''Life at the Bottom of the World'' (1980)* ''The Cousteau United States Almanac of the Environment'' (1981, a.k.a. ''", "The Cousteau Almanac of the Environment: An Inventory of Life on a Water Planet'')* ''Jacques Cousteau's Calypso'' (1983, with Alexis Sivirine)* ''Marine Life of the Caribbean'' (1984, with James Cribb and Thomas H. Suchanek)* ''Jacques Cousteau's Amazon Journey'' (1984, with Mose Richards)* ''Jacques Cousteau: The Ocean World'' (1985)* ''The Whale'' (1987, with Philippe Diolé)* ''Jacques Cousteau: Whales'' (1988, with Yves Paccalet)* ''The Human, The Orchid and The Octopus'' (and Susan Schiefelbein, coauthor; Bloomsbury 2007)" ], [ "Media portrayals", "Jacques Cousteau has been portrayed in films:* The American comedy film ''The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou'', directed by Wes Anderson and first released in December 2004, portrays Steve Zissou, a fictional oceanographer strongly inspired by Jacques Cousteau.", "* The French film ''The Odyssey'', directed by Jérôme Salle and first released in October 2016, focuses on Cousteau's life, especially regarding his relation with his first wife, Simone Melchior, and his second son, Philippe Cousteau.", "*Jacques Cousteau was featured in Epic Rap Battle of History's sixth season, and was portrayed by Peter Shukoff.", "He faced off against Steve Irwin, portrayed by Lloyd Ahlquist.", "*Jacques Cousteau is depicted in the music video for the Plastic Bertrand song titled “Jacques Cousteau.” In the video Jacques Cousteau is depicted as wearing nautical attire and living in a fish bowl." ], [ "See also", "* ''Becoming Cousteau'', a 2021 full-length film biography* * * * * List of Legion of Honour recipients by name (C)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Undersea Explorer: The Story of Captain Cousteau'' (1957) by James Dugan* ''Jacques Cousteau and the Undersea World'' (2000) by Roger King* ''Jacques-Yves Cousteau: His Story Under the Sea'' (2002) by John Bankston* ''Jacques Cousteau: A Life Under the Sea'' (2008) by Kathleen Olmstead" ], [ "External links", " * The Cousteau Society* * * Jacques Cousteau centennial: 'The sea is everything'* Ocean Treasures Memorial Library* Ocean Treasures Memorial Library/Jacques-Yves Cousteau Memorial* Ocean Treasures Memorial Library/His Legacy* Ocean Treasures Memorial Library/Photos" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "J. Philippe Rushton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Philippe Rushton''' (December 3, 1943 – October 2, 2012) was a Canadian psychologist and author.", "He taught at the University of Western Ontario until the early 1990s, and became known to the general public during the 1980s and 1990s for research on race and intelligence, race and crime, and other purported racial correlations.Rushton's work has been heavily criticized by the scientific community for the questionable quality of its research, with many academics arguing that it was conducted under a racist agenda.", "From 2002 until his death, he served as the head of the Pioneer Fund, an organization founded in 1937 to promote eugenics, which has been described as racist and white supremacist in nature, and as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center.", "He also published articles in and spoke at conferences organized by the white supremacist magazine ''American Renaissance''.Rushton was a Fellow of the Canadian Psychological Association and a onetime Fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.", "In 2020, the Department of Psychology of the University of Western Ontario released a statement stating that \"much of Rushton's research was racist\", was \"deeply flawed from a scientific standpoint\", and \"Rushton's legacy shows that the impact of flawed science lingers on, even after qualified scholars have condemned its scientific integrity.\"", "As of 2021, Rushton has had six research publications retracted for being scientifically flawed, unethical, and not replicable, and for advancing a racist agenda despite contradictory evidence." ], [ "Early life and education", "Rushton was born in Bournemouth, England.", "During his childhood, he emigrated with his family to South Africa, where he lived from age four to eight (1948–1952).", "His father was a building contractor and his mother came from France.", "The family moved to Canada, where Rushton spent most of his teen years.", "He returned to England for university, receiving a B.Sc.", "in psychology from Birkbeck College at the University of London in 1970, and, in 1973, his Ph.D. in social psychology from the London School of Economics for work on altruism in children.", "He continued his work at the University of Oxford until 1974." ], [ "Later life and career", "Rushton taught at York University in Canada from 1974 to 1976 and the University of Toronto until 1977.He moved to the University of Western Ontario and was made full professor (with tenure) in 1985.He received a D.Sc.", "from the University of London in 1992.His controversial research has sparked political debates, and Ontario Premier David Peterson called Rushton a racist.", "In 2005, ''The Ottawa Citizen'' described Rushton as the most famous university professor in Canada.He published more than 250 articles and six books, including two on altruism, and one on scientific excellence, and co-authored an introductory psychology textbook.", "He was a signatory of the opinion piece \"Mainstream Science on Intelligence.", "\"Rushton died of cancer on October 2, 2012, at the age of 68." ], [ "Work and opinions", "===Genetic similarity theory===Early in his career, Rushton did research on altruism.", "He theorized a heritable component in altruism and developed ''Genetic Similarity Theory'', which is an extension of W.D.", "Hamilton's theory of kin selection.", "It holds that individuals tend to be more altruistic to individuals who are genetically similar to themselves even if they are not kin, and less altruistic, and sometimes outwardly hostile, to individuals who are less genetically similar.", "Rushton describes \"ethnic conflict and rivalry\" as \"one of the great themes of historical and contemporary society\", and suggests that this may have its roots in the evolutionary impact on individuals from groups \"giving preferential treatment to genetically similar others\".", "According to Rushton: \"the makeup of a gene pool i.e., a human population's total reservoir of alternative genes causally affects the probability of any particular ideology being adopted\".Articles in a 1989 issue of ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences'' criticized the theory.", "Judith Anderson said his work was based on statistically flawed evidence, John Archer and others said that Rushton failed to understand and misapplied the theory of kin selection, Judith Economos said that Rushton's analysis was speculative, that he failed to define the concept of altruistic behavior in a way that it can become manifest, and that he failed to show any plausible mechanism by which members of a species can detect the \"altruism gene\" in other members of the species.", "Steven Gangestad criticized Rushton's theory for not being compelling in terms of its attractiveness as an explanatory model.", "C.R.", "Hallpike said Rushton's theory failed to take into account that many other traits, ranging from age, sex, social and political group membership, are observably more important in predicting altruistic behavior between non-kin than genetic similarity.", "John Hartung criticized Rushton for failing to conduct an adequate control group study and for ignoring contradictory evidence.Littlefield and Rushton (1984) examined degree of bereavement among parents after the death of a child.", "They found that children perceived as more physically similar to their parents were grieved for more intensely than less similar children.Russell, Wells, and Rushton (1985) reanalyzed several previous studies on similarities between spouses and concluded there is higher similarity on the more heritable characteristics.", "Rushton examined blood group genes and found that sexually interacting couples had more similar blood group genes than randomly paired individuals.Rushton and Bons (2005) examined personality, attitude, and demographic characteristics for similarity among different groups of people.", "Monozygotic twins resembled one another (''r'' = 0.53) more than dizygotic twins (''r'' = 0.32), pairs of spouses (''r'' = 0.32), and pairs of best friends (''r'' = 0.20).", "The monozygotic twins also chose spouses and best friends who were more similar to their co-twins' friends and spouses than did dizygotic twins.", "The authors said there was a substantial genetic contribution to these effects in the twins.", "Similarity to social partners was higher on more heritable characteristics than on less.===Race and intelligence===Rushton spent much of his career arguing that average IQ differences between racial groups are due to genetic causes, a view that was controversial at the time and is now broadly rejected by the scientific consensus.", "His research areas included studying brain size and the effects of racial admixture.In a 2020 statement, his former department at Western Ontario University stated: \"Rushton's works linking race and intelligence are based on an incorrect assumption that fuels systemic racism, the notion that racialized groups are concordant with patterns of human ancestry and genetic population structure.\"", "Furthermore, they stated that Rushton's work on the topic is \"characterized by a complete misunderstanding of population genetic measures, including fundamental misconceptions about the nature of heritability.", "\"===Application of ''r''/''K'' selection theory to race===Rushton's book ''Race, Evolution, and Behavior'' (1995) attempted to use ''r''/''K'' selection theory to explain what he described as an evolutionary scale of characteristics indicative of nurturing behavior in which East Asian people consistently averaged high, black people low, and white people in the middle.", "He first published this theory in 1984.Rushton argued that East Asians and their descendants average a larger brain size, greater intelligence, more sexual restraint, slower rates of maturation, and greater law abidingness and social organization than do Europeans and their descendants, whom he argued average higher scores on these measures than Africans and their descendants.", "He hypothesized that ''r''/''K'' selection theory explains these differences.Rushton's application of ''r''/''K'' selection theory to explain differences among racial groups has been widely criticized.", "Differential K theory in particular was described in a 2020 statement by Rushton's former department at Western Ontario University as \"thoroughly debunked.", "\"One of his many critics is the evolutionary biologist Joseph L. Graves, who has done extensive testing of the ''r''/''K'' selection theory with species of Drosophila flies.", "Graves argues that not only is ''r''/''K'' selection theory considered to be virtually useless when applied to human life history evolution, but Rushton does not apply the theory correctly, and displays a lack of understanding of evolutionary theory in general.", "Graves also says that Rushton misrepresented the sources for the biological data he gathered in support of his hypothesis, and that much of his social science data was collected by dubious means.", "Other scholars have argued against Rushton's hypothesis on the basis that the concept of race is not supported by genetic evidence about the diversity of human populations, and that his research was based on folk taxonomies.Later studies by Rushton and other researchers have argued that there is empirical support for the theory, though these studies too have been criticized.Psychologist David P. Barash observed that ''r''- and ''K''-selection may have some validity when considering the so-called demographic transition, whereby economic development characteristically leads to reduced family size and other ''K'' traits.", "\"But this is a pan-human phenomenon, a flexible, adaptive response to changed environmental conditions ... Rushton wields ''r''- and ''K''-selection as a Procrustean bed, doing what he can to make the available data fit ... Bad science and virulent racial prejudice drip like pus from nearly every page of this despicable book.", "\"===Dimensional structure of personality===Beginning in 2008, Rushton researched the structure of personality.", "Over about a dozen papers, he argued that variation in personality can be explained by variation in a single underlying \"general factor,\" similar to the g factor of psychometrics.===Opinions===In 2009 Rushton spoke at the ''Preserving Western Civilization'' conference in Baltimore.", "It was organized by Michael H. Hart for the stated purpose of \"addressing the need\" to defend \"America's Judeo-Christian heritage and European identity\" from immigrants, Muslims, and African Americans.", "The Anti-Defamation League described the conference attendees as \"racist academics, conservative pundits and anti-immigrant activists\"." ], [ "Reception", "===Press coverage===Rushton prompted controversy for years, attracting coverage from the press as well as comments and criticism by scientists of his books and journal articles.First-year psychology students who took Rushton's classes said that he had conducted a survey of students' sexual habits in 1988, asking \"such questions as how large their penises are, how many sex partners they have had, and how far they can ejaculate\".", "First-year psychology students at the University of Western Ontario are required \"to participate in approved surveys as a condition of their studies.", "If they choose not to, they must write one research paper.", "Also, many students feel subtle pressure to participate in order not to offend professors who may later be grading their work.", "However, if a study is not approved, these requirements do not apply at all.\"", "For his failing to tell students they had the option not to participate in his studies without incurring additional work, the university barred Rushton for two years from using students as research subjects.", "He had tenure at UWO.In a 2005 ''Ottawa Citizen'' article, Rushton stated that the public perceives disproportionately negative effects caused by black residents \"in every bloody city in Canada where you have blackpeople.\"", "In the same article, Rushton suggested that equalizing outcomes across groups was \"impossible\".", "The Southern Poverty Law Center called the piece \"yet another attack\" by Rushton, and it criticized those who published his work and that of other \"race scientists\".===Academic opinion=======Favorable====In a 1991 work, the Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson (one of the two co-founders of the ''r''/''K'' selection theory which Rushton uses) was quoted as having said about him:Three years after the publication of Wilson's 1975 book ''Sociobiology: The New Synthesis'', Rushton had already begun a long correspondence with Wilson.", "The letters became particularly extensive between 1987 and 1995 (Wilson's letters have now been archived by the Library of Congress).", "After Wilson's death at the end of 2021, historians of science Mark Borrello and David Sepkoski have reassessed how Wilson's thinking on issues of race and evolution was influenced by Rushton.In a 1995 review of Rushton's ''Race, Evolution, and Behavior'', anthropologist and population geneticist Henry Harpending expressed doubt as to whether all of Rushton's data fit the ''r''/''K'' model he proposed, but nonetheless praised the book for its proposing of a theoretical model that makes testable predictions about differences between human groups.", "He concludes that \"Perhaps there will ultimately be some serious contribution from the traditional smoke-and-mirrors social science treatment of IQ, but for now Rushton's framework is essentially the only game in town.\"", "In their 2009 book ''The 10,000 Year Explosion'', Harpending and Gregory Cochran later described Rushton as one of the researchers to whom they are indebted.The psychologists Arthur Jensen, Hans Eysenck, Richard Lynn, Linda Gottfredson and Thomas Bouchard had a high opinion of Rushton's ''Race, Evolution and Behavior'', describing Rushton's work as rigorous and impressive.", "However, many of these researchers are themselves controversial and they all received money from the Pioneer Fund, which had funded much of Rushton's work when these reviews were written.Some criminologists who study the relationship between race and crime regard Rushton's ''r''/''K'' theory as one of several possible explanations for racial disparities in crime rates.", "Others, such as the criminologist Shaun L. Gabbidon, think that Rushton has developed one of the more controversial biosocial theories related to race and crime; he says that it has been criticized for failing to explain all of the data and for its potential to support racist ideologies.", "The criminologist Anthony Walsh has defended Rushton, claiming that none of Rushton's critics has supplied data indicating anything other than the racial gradient he identifies, and that it is unscientific to dismiss Rushton's ideas on the basis of their political implications.====Unfavorable====On 22 June 2020, the Department of Psychology at the University of Western Ontario issued a statement regarding their former faculty member, which read in part:Also in 2020, Andrew Winston summarized Rushton's scholarly reception as follows: \"Rushton's work was heavily criticized by psychologists, evolutionary biologists, anthropologists, and geneticists for severe scientific inadequacies, fundamental errors, inappropriate conceptualization of race, inappropriate statistical comparisons, misuse of sources, and serious logical errors and flaws.", "\"In 1989, geneticist and media personality David Suzuki criticized Rushton's racial theories in a live televised debate at the University of Western Ontario.", "He said: \"There will always be Rushtons in science, and we must always be prepared to root them out\".", "At the same occasion, Rushton rejected believing in racial superiority, saying \"we've got to realize that each of these populations is perfectly, beautifully adapted to their own ancestral environments\".Also in 1989, Michael Lynn published a paper in the ''Journal of Research in Personality'' criticizing a study by Rushton & Bogaert that had been published in the same journal two years earlier.", "Lynn cited four reasons he considered Rushton & Bogaert's study to be flawed: Marvin Zuckerman, psychology professor of the University of Delaware, criticized Rushton's research on methodological grounds, observing that more variation exists in personality traits within racial groups than between them and arguing that Rushton selectively cited data from the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.Critical psychologist Thomas Teo argued that Rushton's \"substantial success and influence in the discipline\" and use of \"accepted usage of empirical mainstream methods\" pointed to broader problems in academic psychology.Biologist Garland E. Allen argued in 1990 that Rushton \"selectively cites and misrepresents his sources to support his conclusions.", "Far from being an 'honest attempt' to follow the Truth wherever it leads, Rushton seems to be putting a ring through Truth's nose and leading it toward his own barn...He has used, abused, distorted, and in some cases virtually falsified his sources.", "\"According to Charles Lane, in 1988, Rushton conducted a survey at the Eaton Centre mall in Toronto, where he paid 50 whites, 50 blacks, and 50 Asians to answer questions about their sexual habits.", "Because he did not clear his survey and proposed to pay for answers with the university committee at UWO, the administration reprimanded Rushton, calling his transgression \"a serious breach of scholarly procedure\", said University President, George Pederson.A 1993 study reanalyzed data from a study Rushton had published on the relationship between race and crime and found no strong relationship between the two.Rushton's work was criticized in the scholarly literature; he generally responded, sometimes in the same journal.", "In 1995, in the ''Journal of Black Studies'', Zack Cernovsky wrote: \"some of Rushton's references to scientific literature with respects to racial differences in sexual characteristics turned out to be references to a nonscientific semi-pornographic book and to an article by Philip Nobile in the ''Penthouse'' magazine's Forum.", "\"In 1995, two researchers published a review and meta-analysis concluding that racial differences in behavior were accounted for entirely by environmental factors, which contradicts Rushton's evolutionary theory for the origin of such differences.Anti-racism activist Tim Wise criticized Rushton's application of ''r''/''K'' selection theory to crime rates and IQ, charging that Rushton ignored things such as systematic/institutional discrimination, racial profiling, economic disparities and unequal access to judicial defense in his attempt to apply ''r''/''K'' Theory and IQ theories to explain racial disparities in American crime rates.", "He also criticized Rushton and others like him of ignoring things like white-collar crime rates, The biological anthropologist C. Loring Brace criticized Rushton in his 1996 review of the book, ''Race, Evolution, and Behavior'' (1996):Robert Sussman, an evolutionary anthropologist and the editor-in-chief of ''American Anthropologist'', explained why the journal did not accept ads for Rushton's 1998 book:In 2000, after Rushton mailed a booklet on his work to psychology, sociology, and anthropology professors across North America, Hermann Helmuth, a professor of anthropology at Trent University, said: \"It is in a way personal and political propaganda.", "There is no basis to his scientific research.\"", "Rushton responded, \"It's not racist; it's a matter of science and recognizing variation in all groups of people.", "\"From 2002, Rushton was the president of the Pioneer Fund.", "Tax records show that in 2002 his Charles Darwin Research Institute was awarded $473,835, or 73% of the fund's total grants that year.", "The Southern Poverty Law Center, an American civil rights organization, characterizes the Pioneer Fund as a hate group.", "Rushton had spoken on eugenics several times at conferences of the ''American Renaissance'' magazine, a monthly white supremacist magazine, in which he had also published a number of general articles.Rushton published articles on the website VDARE, which advocates for reduced immigration into the United States.", "Stefan Kühl wrote in his book, ''The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism'' (2002), that Rushton was part of the revival in the 1980s of public interest in scientific racism.William H. Tucker, a professor of psychology and expert on the history of scientific racism, observed in 2002:A 2003 study in ''Evolution and Human Behavior'' found no evidence to support Rushton's hypothesized relationship between race and behavior.In 2005, Lisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University wrote an article for ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'' noting that Rushton ignored evidence that failed to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent a genetic racial hierarchy.", "He did not change his position on this matter for 30 years.", "Rushton replied in the same issue of the journal.In a paper for the ''International Journal of Selection and Assessment'' in 2006, Steven Cronshaw and colleagues wrote that psychologists need to critically examine the science used by Rushton in his \"race-realist\" research.", "Their re-analysis of the validity criteria for test bias, using data reported in the ''Rushton et al.''", "paper, led them to conclude that the testing methods were biased against Black Africans.", "They disagree with other aspects of Rushton's methodology, such as his use of non-equivalent groups in test samples.", "Rushton responded in the next issue of the journal.", "He said why he believed his results were valid, and why he thought the criticisms incorrect.Scott McGreal (2012) in ''Psychology Today'' criticized the science of Rushton's \"Race Differences in Sexual Behavior: Testing an Evolutionary Hypothesis\".", "He cited Weizmann, Wiener, Wiesenthal, & Ziegle, which argued that Rushton's theory relied on flawed science.", "McGreal faulted Rushton and his use of Nobile's penis size study.On 17 June 2020, Elsevier announced it was retracting an article that Rushton and Donald Templer had published in 2012 in the Elsevier journal ''Personality and Individual Differences''.", "The article falsely claimed that there was scientific evidence that skin color was related to aggression and sexuality in humans.On 24 December 2020, the academic journal ''Psychological Reports'' retracted two Rushton articles about intelligence and race.", "Review of the articles, which were originally published in the 1990s, \"found that the research was unethical, scientifically flawed, and based on racist ideas and agenda\".", "On 23 August 2021, it retracted three more." ], [ "See also", "* History of the race and intelligence controversy* Race and intelligence* Scientific racism" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Further reading'''**" ], [ "External links", "* Remembrance page* Selected papers * Memorial site with free copies of most of his work.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph Smith (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph''' or '''Joe Smith''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "*Joseph Smith (art collector) (1682–1770), British art collector and consul at Venice*Joseph A. Smith (artist) (born 1936), American artist and professor at the Pratt Institute *Joseph Lindon Smith (1863–1950), American painter*Joe Smith (comedian) (1884–1981), American comedian*Joseph C. Smith (1883–1965), American violinist, composer and band leader*Joseph Smith (dancer) (1875–1932), American dancer*Joe Smith (musician) (1902–1937), American jazz trumpeter*Joe Smith (music industry executive) (1928–2019), American music industry executive*Sonny Knight or Joseph C. Smith (1934–1998), American R&B singer and author*Pepe Smith or Joseph William Feliciano Smith (1947–2019), Filipino musician*Joseph Smith (pianist) (1948–2015), American pianist, author, and lecturer*''Joe Smith, American'', a 1942 American spy film" ], [ "Military", "*Joseph Smith (East India Company officer) (1732/3–1790), British East India Company Army Brigadier General*Joseph Smith (admiral) (1790–1877), American admiral during the American Civil War*Joseph B. Smith (1826–1861), U.S. Navy officer*Joseph Sewall Smith (1836–1919), Union Army soldier and Medal of Honor recipient" ], [ "Politics", "*Joseph Smith (Michigan politician) (1809–1880), American businessman and politician in the Michigan House of Representatives*Joseph Crowther Smith (1818–1886), mayor of Wolverhampton, 1865–66*Joseph Showalter Smith (1824–1884), U.S. Representative from Oregon*Joe L. Smith (1880–1962), American Democratic Party politician from West Virginia*J. Joseph Smith (1904–1980), U.S. Representative from Connecticut*Joseph Smith (Australian politician) (1904–1993), member of the Victorian Parliament*Joe F. Smith (1918–2013), American Democratic Party politician from West Virginia*Joseph F. Smith (Pennsylvania politician) (1920–1999), United States Representative from Pennsylvania*Joseph A. Smith (sheriff) (1911–2003), American politician; Sheriff of Worcester County, Massachusetts, 1962–1977*Joseph Henry Smith (born 1945), Minister for Defence of Ghana*Joe Smith (Missouri politician) (born c. 1973), Republican member of the Missouri House of Representatives" ], [ "Religion", "*Joseph Smith (academic) (1670–1756), English churchman and Provost of the Queen's College, Oxford*Joseph Smith (Presbyterian minister, born 1796) (1796–?", "), Presbyterian minister, author, and academic*Joseph Smith (Presbyterian minister, born 1736) (1736–1792), Presbyterian minister and founder of Washington & Jefferson College*Joseph Smith Sr. (1771–1840), father of Joseph Smith, and first Presiding Patriarch in the Latter Day Saint movement*Joseph Smith (1805–1844), an American religious leader and the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, which gave rise to Mormonism*Joseph Smith III (1832–1914), Prophet-President of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints*Joseph F. Smith (1838–1918), nephew of Joseph Smith; sixth president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints*Joseph Fielding Smith (1876–1972), son of Joseph F. Smith and tenth president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints*Joseph Fielding Smith (patriarch) (1899–1964), Patriarch to the Church of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints from 1942 to 1946" ], [ "Sports", "===Association football===*Joe Smith (footballer, born 1886) (1886–?", "), English footballer for Hull City, Everton and Bury*Joseph Smith (footballer, born 1888) (1888–1928), English footballer with Sheffield United and Derby County*Joe Smith (football forward, born 1889) (1889–1971), England international footballer with Bolton Wanderers and manager of Blackpool*Joe Smith (football halfback, born 1889) (1889–1916), English footballer with Birmingham and Chesterfield, killed in action during the First World War*Joe Smith (footballer, born 1890) (1890–1956), England international footballer with West Bromwich Albion*Joe Smith (footballer, born 1908) (1908–1993), English footballer with Watford*Joe Smith (winger), English professional footballer with Burnley*Joe Smith (footballer, born 1953), Scottish footballer with Aberdeen===Baseball===*Joe Smith (1910s pitcher), American baseball player*Joe Smith (catcher) (1893–1974), American baseball catcher*Joe Smith (2010s pitcher) (born 1984), American baseball player===Gridiron football===*Joe Smith (American football coach) (1873–1923), American football player and coach*Joseph Smith (American football) (fl.", "1989–present), American college football player and coach, head football coach at Linfield College*Joe Smith (running back) (born 1979), American professional gridiron football player*Joe Bob Smith, (1934–2011) American-born Canadian football player===Other sports===*Joe Smith (athlete) (1917–1993), American marathon runner*Joseph Smith (bobsleigh) (1925–1983), American bobsledder*Joseph Smith (cricketer) (born 1946), Jamaican-born former English cricketer*Joe Smith (basketball) (born 1975), American basketball player*Joe Troy Smith (born 1977), American basketball player*Joe Smith Jr. (born 1989), American boxer*Joe Smith (rugby union) (born 1991), South African rugby union player and powerlifter" ], [ "Other people", "*Joseph Smith (explorer) (died 1764), British fur trader and explorer*Joseph Lee Smith (1776–1846), American lawyer, soldier, and jurist*Joe Frazer Smith (1897–1957), American architect and author*Joseph Smith (aircraft designer) (1897–1956), English aircraft designer who took over from R.J. Mitchell as Chief Designer for Supermarine*Joseph A. Smith Jr. (fl.", "1974–present), professor of urology, editor-in-chief of ''Journal of Urology''*Joseph Saumarez Smith (born 1971), British entrepreneur, journalist and gambling expert*Joseph Colin Smith (1931–2016), British urologist*Joseph Victor Smith (1928-2007), British crystallographer and mineralogist" ], [ "See also", "*Joel Smith (disambiguation)*Joseph Smit, Dutch zoological illustrator*Smith (surname)*Smith family (Latter Day Saints)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Juliana Hatfield" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Juliana Hatfield''' (born July 27, 1967) is an American musician and singer-songwriter from the Boston area, formerly of the indie rock bands Blake Babies, Some Girls, and The Lemonheads.", "She also fronted her own band, '''The Juliana Hatfield Three''', along with bassist Dean Fisher and drummer Todd Philips, which was active in the mid-1990s and again in the mid-2010s.", "It was with the Juliana Hatfield Three that she produced her best-charting work, including the critically acclaimed albums ''Become What You Are'' (1993) and ''Whatever, My Love'' (2015) and the singles \"My Sister\" (1993) and \"Spin the Bottle\" (1994).She has performed and recorded as a solo artist and as one half of Minor Alps with Matthew Caws of Nada Surf.", "In December 2014, ''Paste'' named her cover of Elliott Smith’s \"Needle in the Hay\" number 10 in a list of the 20 Best Cover Songs of 2014.In 2014, she reformed The Juliana Hatfield Three, announcing the new album ''Whatever, My Love'' for 2015.In late December, ''Stereogum'' named the album \"one of their most anticipated albums of 2015\", and on January 4, 2015, ''Consequence of Sound'' named it \"one of the 50 most anticipated albums of 2015.", "\"In 2016, she formed a collaboration with Paul Westerberg under the moniker The I Don't Cares to release the album ''Wild Stab''.", "More recently, she has released an album of original work titled ''Weird'' in 2019, sandwiched between two albums of cover songs, ''Juliana Hatfield Sings Olivia Newton-John'' (2018) and ''Juliana Hatfield Sings The Police'' (2019)." ], [ "Early life", "Hatfield was born in Wiscasset, Maine, to Phillip M. Hatfield, a radiologist, and Julie Hatfield, a former fashion editor for ''The Boston Globe''.", "She grew up in the Boston suburb of Duxbury, Massachusetts.", "Despite recording a song titled \"My Sister\", Hatfield has no sisters but she does have two brothers.Her father claimed his family descended from the West Virginia Hatfields of the Hatfield–McCoy feud following the Civil War.", "Her father served in the U.S. Navy during the Vietnam War.Hatfield went to Duxbury High School in Duxbury, Massachusetts.", "She attended Boston University before transferring to Berklee College of Music in Boston, Massachusetts.Hatfield also attended art school at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston in 2012 in a year-long, post-baccalaureate certificate program, to study painting." ], [ "Music career", "=== First bands and solo album ===Hatfield acquired a love of rock music during the 1970s, having been introduced by a babysitter to the music of the Los Angeles punk rock band X, which proved a life-changing experience.", "She was also attracted to the music of more mainstream artists like Olivia Newton-John and The Police.While still at Berklee College of Music in 1986, she formed the band Blake Babies with John Strohm and Freda Love.", "The band released 4 albums between 1987 and 1991, and gained critical notice in ''Rolling Stone'' and the Village Voice, local radio airplay and press, and label support from Mammoth Records in North Carolina.", "The band broke up in 1992, but had a brief reunion in 2001 to produce another album.After the break-up of the Blake Babies, she joined The Lemonheads as their bass player, replacing founding bassist Jesse Peretz, and played on their breakthrough album ''It's a Shame About Ray'' in 1992.She left the band after about a year, but returned in 1993 as a guest vocalist on several tracks of ''Come on Feel the Lemonheads''.In 1992, she released her debut solo album ''Hey Babe''.=== The Juliana Hatfield Three ===Her commercial breakthrough came in 1993 with the formation of the band The Juliana Hatfield Three along with high-school friend Dean Fisher on bass and former Bullet LaVolta drummer Todd Philips, with herself performing lead vocal and lead guitar duties.", "The band produced the album ''Become What You Are'' and two hit singles, \"My Sister\" and \"Spin the Bottle\".", "\"My Sister\" was based on Hatfield's older brother's girlfriend, Maggie Rafferty, who lived with the family while Hatfield was in high school.", "She enjoyed Rafferty's eclectic record collection.", "Rafferty also took Hatfield to see the Del Fuegos and the Violent Femmes, which inspired her to form a band.", "\"Spin the Bottle\" was used in the soundtrack of the Hollywood film ''Reality Bites'' (1994).", "Hatfield also made the cover of ''Spin'' magazine.Hatfield was profiled in a number of girls' magazines, most notably ''Sassy,'' at this time and addressed serious issues faced by young women in her songs and interviews.", "About this period she says: \"I was never comfortable with the attention.", "I thought it had come too soon.", "I hadn’t earned it yet.\"", "She gained notoriety in 1992 for saying that she was still a virgin in her mid-twenties in ''Interview'' magazine.", "In a 1994 interview for the magazine ''Vox'', she said she was surprised by the effect 'outing' herself had: \"I think there are a lot of people out there who don't care about sex, but who you never hear from, so I thought I should say it.", "The magazine I did the interview for is full of beef-cake hunky guys and scantily-clad models, so I thought it would be really funny to say that I didn't care about sex in a magazine that's full of sex and beauty – but no one really got the joke.", "\"Over the years Hatfield's virginity became a recurring theme in her press coverage, often accompanied by speculation that she had lost her virginity to The Lemonheads' leader Evan Dando who had referred to her as his \"friend and sometimes girlfriend.\"", "In 2006, Hatfield sent a letter to ''The Weekly Dig'' in critique of writer Debbie Driscoll's scathing review of Soul Asylum's latest album, ''The Silver Lining''.", "Kevin Dean from the newspaper responded by bringing up the subject of Hatfield losing her virginity to Dando; Hatfield fired back at Dean for bringing up her sex life, while stating that she and Dando never had sex, and that it was in fact Spike Jonze that she had lost her virginity to.", "She later admitted that she lost her virginity when she was 26 and \"damn ready.", "\"=== Return to solo career ===The Juliana Hatfield Three only remained together through 1994, by 1995 she had returned to solo status and released the album ''Only Everything'', in which she \"turned up the volume and the distortion and had a lot of fun\".", "One reviewer describes it as \"a fun, engaging pop album\".", "The album spawned another alternative radio hit for Hatfield in \"Universal Heartbeat\".", "In the video Hatfield portrayed a demanding aerobics instructor.", "Before the tour for ''Only Everything'', she released Phillips and hired Jason Sutter on drums, Ed Slanker on guitar, and Lisa Mednick on keyboards.", "Two weeks into the tour, she canceled the tour due to depression.In her memoir, Hatfield writes that she was suffering from depression severe enough to be suicidal.", "She disagreed with the decision to avoid talking about her depression.", "The drummer was replaced by Phillips, and touring resumed with Jeff Buckley as the opening act.In 1996, she traveled to Woodstock, New York where she recorded tracks for ''God's Foot'', which was to be her fourth solo album (third if not counting ''Become What You Are'', which was recorded with the Juliana Hatfield Three), intended for 1997 release.", "After three failures to satisfy requests by Atlantic Records to come up with a single, she asked to be released from her contract.", "The label obliged but kept the rights to the songs recorded during these sessions.", "Atlantic had paid $180,000 on the recordings.", "\"Mountains of Love\" and \"Fade Away\" were released on a greatest hits collection entitled ''Gold Stars'', while \"Can't Kill Myself\" was available for download from Hatfield's website.", "The remaining tracks surfaced on bootlegs, which she disapproved of, and she has rarely played them live.In 1997 Hatfield toured with Lilith Fair, an all-female rock festival founded by singer Sarah McLachlan.After the experience of ''God's Foot'', and freed from her label obligations, Hatfield recorded the EP ''Please Do Not Disturb'' for the independent label Bar/None.", "Produced by Hatfield, the album included drummer Todd Phillips, guitarists Ed Slanker and Mike Leahy, and bassist Mikey Welsh of Weezer.", "The EP included \"Trying Not to Think About It,\" a tribute to her friend, deceased musician Jeff Buckley.Almost as a reaction to the seemingly endless studio sessions surrounding ''God's Foot'', Hatfield recorded the album ''Bed'' in 1998 in six days, about which she said on her website, \"It sounds as raw as I felt.", "It has no pretty sheen.", "The mistakes and unattractive parts were left in, not erased.", "Just like my career.", "Just like life.", "\"In 2000, she released ''Beautiful Creature''.", "This album left the rockier side of Hatfield's musical personality unexpressed, however, so simultaneously she released ''Juliana's Pony: Total System Failure'' with Zephan Courtney and Mikey Welsh.", "She called the latter album \"a loud release of tension\" with \"lots of long sloppy guitar solos.", "And no love songs...a not-at-all attractive reaction to the ugly side of humanity, specifically American culture.\"", "''Billboard'' called the first \"a collection of plaintive demos\" and the second \"chock-a-block with punk guitar missives.\"", "''Juliana's Pony: Total System Failure'' was panned by some critics who preferred the more acoustic ''Beautiful Creature''.", "On ''Beautiful Creature'', Hatfield worked with musician Davíd Garza who co-produced much of the album.", "Wally Gagel, a producer for Sebadoh and Tanya Donelly, helped Hatfield record her most electronica-influenced songs, \"Cool Rock Boy\" and \"Don't Rush Me\", which added texture to the otherwise acoustic album.In 2002, Hatfield released ''Gold Stars 1992–2002: The Juliana Hatfield Collection''.", "It contained singles from her solo albums, two songs from the unreleased ''God's Foot'', a cover of Neil Young's \"Only Love Can Break Your Heart\", and new songs.In 2004, Hatfield released ''In Exile Deo'', an attempt at a more commercial sound with input from producers and engineers who had worked with Pink and Avril Lavigne.", "Hatfield produced the album with David Leonard, receiving co-production credits on \"Jamie's in Town\" and the bright rocker \"Sunshine\".", "The critics praised it, with some calling it her best work since the start of her solo career.=== Ye Olde Records ===By contrast, the 2005 album ''Made in China'' was recorded in Bellows Falls, Vermont and Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was released on her own record label, Ye Olde Records.", "The record had a much rawer feel, with Hatfield playing instruments accompanied by the band Unbusted and other contributors.", "For the first time, Hatfield also played drums on at least one track.John Doe of the band X described the disc as \"a frighteningly dark and beautiful record filled with stark, angular, truly brutal songs and guitars.", "This is surely a 'Woman Under the Influence', though I'm not sure of what.\"", "Reviews were mixed, with some liking the lo-fi sound and others seeing it as slackness.The release of ''Made in China'' started a trend where Hatfield licensed her music, selling it via her website and with a distribution deal through Red Eye.In December 2005, Hatfield toured the United States with the band X, whom she idolized during her teenage years.In 2006, Hatfield released her first live album.", "Titled ''The White Broken Line: Live Recordings'', the album featured performances from her tour with X.", "It was Hatfield's third release for her record label.Hatfield's 9th studio album, ''How to Walk Away'', was released on August 19, 2008, on Ye Olde Records.", "The album's heartfelt subject on the break-up of a relationship resonated with critics, who gave the album largely positive reviews, with some hailing it as her best album since ''In Exile Deo''.Hatfield returned two years later as her 10th studio album ''Peace & Love'' was released on Ye Olde Records, February 16, 2010.The album's composition, arrangement, performance, production, engineering, and mixing were solely credited to Hatfield.", "The album received mixed reviews, with several complaining the album's low-key moody nature working against the potential of the songs.Hatfield offered, via her website, to write custom songs in order to fund a couple of projects; one of which was to release archive material.", "About halfway through the project, Hatfield stated that it had \"completely re-energized and inspired\" her again.In October 2010, Hatfield and Evan Dando played two sold-out acoustic live shows together at The Mercury Lounge in New York.", "The following month, the duo played sold-out shows in Allston.", "This tour was followed in January 2011 by five dates on the American East Coast.=== PledgeMusic ===In April 2011, Hatfield announced her intention to work on a new album via fan-funding platform website PledgeMusic, from which she asked fans to help fund the project in exchange for personal artwork and memorabilia ranging from posters, CDs, and demos to one of Juliana's First Act guitars (used during the recording sessions) and even locks of her hair.", "The project also included donations for the Save a Sato foundation to which Hatfield is a major contributor.", "Fan response was enthusiastic, going over 400% of the original project cost.", "The album was originally going to be titled ''Speeches Delivered to Animals and Plants'', in reference to a passage in the John Irving novel ''The World According to Garp'', but later Hatfield herself changed it to ''There's Always Another Girl'', in reference to a song in the album of the same name she had written as a defense for Lindsay Lohan after watching her flop ''I Know Who Killed Me''.", "''There's Always Another Girl'' was released on August 30, 2011, again independently on her Ye Olde Records label, though a downloadable version was made available to contributors a month before on July 27, which was Juliana's birthday.", "The album has received mostly positive reviews from critics.On August 28, 2012, Juliana Hatfield released a covers record titled ''Juliana Hatfield'' on her Ye Olde Records label.", "The album features covers of songs originally performed by The Who, Liz Phair, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Ryan Adams, I Blame Coco, and Led Zeppelin.As of July 2013, Juliana Hatfield has finished recording her thirteenth solo album, ''Wild Animals'', with crowd-funding—for the third time—through PledgeMusic.In December 2014, ''Paste Magazine'' named her track \"Needle in the Hay,\" an Elliott Smith cover, as No.", "10 one of the \"20 Best Cover Songs of 2014.\"", "The review called the cover \"a more upbeat, approachable take on Smith’s disparate, wrought-iron classic.", "But even though it now employs bass, drums, tambourine and synth, the songs stays true to the sorrowful, tension-riddled original.\"", "Also that month, ''SPIN Magazine'' named the cover one of the \"40 Best 2014 Songs by 1994 Artists ,\" where it came it at No.", "36.The review stated \"The tempo's a bit quicker, and she double-tracks herself for the song’s entirety.", "But the (tasteful) inclusion of chintzy drum programming and mellotron cleverly point to Smith's eventual creative direction.", "\"=== Reformation of The Juliana Hatfield Three ===In 2014, The Juliana Hatfield Three reunited two decades after it disbanded.", "She used PledgeMusic to raise funds for the new album, titled ''Whatever, My Love'', the trio's first since 1993's ''Become What You Are''.", "Hatfield said, \"We haven't totally reinvented the wheel or anything,\" and that the tracks exhibit the \"stuff I am sort of known for, I guess.", "But I am a lot more confident now than I was then with the first album.", "And I had more fun recording this one.\"", "The twelve tracks for ''Whatever, My Love'' were recorded at Nuthouse Recording in Hoboken, New Jersey with Beaujour and Hatfield co-producing.", "The lead single, \"If I Could,\" was released in December 2014 and was premiered in ''Rolling Stone''.", "That month the album was made available for pre-order on American Laundromat Records with an announced release date of February 17, 2015.The band announced they would tour the album in the United States throughout February, visiting cities on both coasts and in the midwest, and appearing at the Bowery Ballroom in New York City, and The Roxy Theatre in Los Angeles.In late December 2014, ''Stereogum'' named the album \"one of their most anticipated albums of 2015,\" and on January 4, 2015, ''Consequence of Sound'' named it \"one of the 50 most anticipated albums of 2015.\"", "On January 9, 2015, Hatfield was featured at Nylon.com, which wrote that the upcoming album came off as \"unforced, and with its sly lyrics and mega-hooky coffeehouse-grunge aesthetic.\"", "The album's second single \"Ordinary Guy\" premiered on ''Consequence of Sound'' on January 14, 2015.=== Recent collaborations and solo work ===In 2015, Hatfield and Paul Westerberg announced that they have formed a new group, called the I Don't Cares.", "They released the album ''Wild Stab'' in 2016.Since then, Hatfield has released a number of solo albums, including two albums of all cover songs, ''Juliana Hatfield Sings Olivia Newton-John'' (2018) and ''Juliana Hatfield Sings The Police'' (2019) and three albums of original work, ''Pussycat'' (2017), ''Weird'' (2019) and ''Blood'' (2021).In 2019, Hatfield hinted that her next covers album would take on the work of an American artist, having already done an Australian (Newton-John) and an English band (The Police).", "In an interview for the book ''I'm Your Fan: The Songs of Leonard Cohen'', Hatfield revealed that she was considering R.E.M.", "for her next cover album installment.", "The follow-up ended up being Electric Light Orchestra.", "The album, ''Juliana Hatfield Sings ELO'', was released on November 17, 2023." ], [ "Musical style", "=== Style and influences ===From her work with the Blake Babies to the present, Hatfield's output has been characterized by an alternation between heavy, rocking tunes and songs written in a gentler, more melodic or folk-oriented style.", "Hatfield has stated that in the 1990s she tried smoking cigarettes for a short time in the hope of giving her voice a rougher quality, but eventually reconciled herself with her distinctive vocal instrument.Hatfield's musical influences are diverse, ranging from punk groups like X, The Stooges, and The Replacements to more folk-oriented rock artists like Neil Young, whose songs the Blake Babies frequently covered in live shows.", "Her work has also cross-fertilized with some other contemporaneous indie rock bands such as Dinosaur Jr. and Lemonheads, whose musicians are also friends of Hatfield's.", "From an early age, she has also had a special love for pretty-sounding pop music.", "In a 1998 interview, she stated, \"I just always liked pop music and really good melodies and major chords.", "That's just the type of music that comes naturally to me\".", "In a 1993 interview in ''Melody Maker'' magazine, Hatfield stated that her enthusiasm for the music of the pop group Wilson Phillips apparently led, at least in part, to the breakup of the Blake Babies.=== Lyrics ===Hatfield nonetheless describes herself as very shy and somewhat of a loner, and has said that \"happy lyrics don't come naturally to me.\"", "She has described her music and songwriting as a form of therapy, an outlet that helps her to overcome rough periods and depression." ], [ "Collaborations", "Hatfield has also recorded with The Lemonheads, living for a time with Evan Dando in the college neighborhood of Allston in Boston, and contributed backing vocals to recordings by Belly, Giant Sand, Susanna Hoffs, Aimee Mann, and Mary Lou Lord.", "She teamed up with Dando in 1999 to record Gram Parsons's song \"$1,000 Wedding\" on the compilation, ''Return of the Grievous Angel: A Tribute to Gram Parsons''.=== Some Girls ===In 2001, she joined with Freda Love and Heidi Gluck (of The Pieces and The Only Children) to form the trio Some Girls, with which she performs in addition to her solo work; the group has toured the United States twice and has released two albums.", "The trio is another outlet for Hatfield's more lighthearted material.", "Their first album, entitled ''Feel It'', was released by Koch Records in 2003.The lead single \"Necessito\" is a funky affirmation of the power of music, sung in a mixture of English and Spanish.", "Some Girls' second album, ''Crushing Love'', was released in July 2006.=== Frank Smith ===In 2007 Hatfield signed the Boston (now Austin)-based band Frank Smith to her record label, Ye Olde Records.", "Along with releasing their 2007 album ''Heavy Handed Peace and Love'', Hatfield also recorded an EP with the band titled ''Sittin' in a Tree''.", "The EP, produced by Frank Smith's Aaron Sinclair, features banjos, pedal steel, and other instruments normally associated with country music.=== Minor Alps ===Hatfield and Matthew Caws of Nada Surf formed a band called Minor Alps whose first album, ''Get There'', was released October 29, 2013, on Barsuk Records.Julie Gayet appears in the Minor Alps music video for their song \"Waiting For You.", "\"=== The I Don't Cares ===Hatfield and Paul Westerberg formed The I Don't Cares, releasing \"Wild Stab\" January 22, 2016, on Dry Wood Records." ], [ "Writing and acting", "Beyond her musical accomplishments, Hatfield has also guest-starred on several television shows, including ''The Adventures of Pete & Pete'' as a lunch lady and on the cult classic ''My So-Called Life's'' 1994 Christmas episode as a deceased homeless girl who has become an angel.", "During the mid-1990s, she was a staple on MTV's ''120 Minutes'' alternative music program, and she performed on the ''Late Show with David Letterman'' and ''Late Night with Conan O'Brien'' in 1995.On March 25, 2008, Hatfield began her own blog through her website titled An Arm and A Leg.", "The blogs lasted about a year before being removed.", "Each week, or thereabouts, she revealed the influences behind one of her songs.Hatfield briefly appeared on an episode of ''Space Ghost Coast to Coast'' entitled \"Surprise\", which aired on June 19, 1996.Instead of being interviewed, she simply said \"uhh\" and then was zapped by Zorak.Hatfield released the book ''When I Grow Up: A Memoir'' on September 22, 2008." ], [ "Personal life", "Hatfield has been a vegetarian for many years.", "She has been open about her struggles with depression, anorexia, and disordered eating.", "In 2008, she briefly dated musician and collaborator Ryan Adams.", "In 2006, she moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where she continues to live." ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums===* ''Hey Babe'' (1992)* ''Become What You Are'' (1993)* ''Only Everything'' (1995)* God's foot (unreleased by Atlantic) (1996)* ''Bed'' (1998)* ''Beautiful Creature'' (2000)* ''Juliana's Pony: Total System Failure'' (2000)* ''In Exile Deo'' (2004)* ''Made in China'' (2005)* ''How to Walk Away'' (2008)* ''Peace & Love'' (2010)* ''There's Always Another Girl'' (2011)* ''Juliana Hatfield'' (2012)* ''Wild Animals'' (2013)* ''Whatever, My Love'' (2015)* ''Pussycat'' (2017)* ''Juliana Hatfield Sings Olivia Newton-John'' (2018)* ''Weird'' (2019)* ''Juliana Hatfield Sings The Police'' (2019)* ''Blood'' (2021)*''Juliana Hatfield Sings ELO'' (2023)=== Blake Babies ===* ''Nicely, Nicely'' (1987)* ''Earwig'' (1989)* ''Sunburn'' (1990)* ''God Bless the Blake Babies'' (2001)=== The Lemonheads ===* ''It's a Shame About Ray'' (1992)* ''Come on Feel the Lemonheads'' (1993)=== Some Girls ===* ''Feel It'' (2003)* ''Crushing Love'' (2006)=== Minor Alps ===* ''Get There'' (2013)=== The I Don't Cares ===* ''Wild Stab'' (2016)" ], [ "Books", "* Hatfield, Juliana (2008).", "''When I Grow Up: A Memoir''.", "Wiley Publishing.", ".", "336 pp." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* LeRoy, Dan (2007).", "''The Greatest Music Never Sold: Secrets of Legendary Lost Albums by David Bowie, Seal, Beastie Boys, Chicago, Mick Jagger, and More!''.", "Backbeat Books.", ".", ".", "* Reisfeld, Randi (1996).", "''This Is the Sound!", ": The Best of Alternative Rock''.", "New York: Simon Pulse.", "." ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joint Political Military Group" ], [ "Introduction", "On November 29, 1983 a memorandum of agreement was set up between Israel and the United States regarding political, military and economic cooperation.", "Part of the agreement was for a '''Joint Political Military Group''' (JPMG) as a high-level planning forum to discuss and implement combined planning, joint exercises, and logistics.", "The JPMG is co-chaired by the director general of the Israeli Ministry of Defense and the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Political-Military Affairs.", "The JPMG meets biannually, alternating between Israel and the United States.The JPMG was originally intended to discuss means of countering Soviet involvement in the Middle East.", "But more recently the concern has been over the spread of chemical weapons and ballistic missiles." ], [ "History", "Military relations between the United States and Israel improved under the Reagan Administration.", "The Reagan Administration sought to build an \"anti-Soviet strategic consensus in the Middle East.\"", "At the time, Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and Israeli Minister of Defense Ariel Sharon signed a memorandum of understanding in 1981 \"establishing a framework for continued consultation and cooperation to enhance\" national security.", "This agreement led to the establishment of the Joint Political Military Group, which has since met regularly to \"address\" foreign military sales to Israel, joint exercises and simulations, and logistical arrangements.", "Joint air and sea exercises started in 1984.===Present status===As part of the agreement, the United States and Israel meet twice a year to honor the obligations of the memorandum of understanding.", "In 2001 an annual \"inter-agency strategic dialogue\" including representatives from all areas of defense and intelligence was created." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jug (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''jug''' is a type of container commonly used to hold a liquid.", "'''Jug''' or '''JUG''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* The Jug, an island in West Virginia, United States* Jug Rock, a natural geological formation outside of Shoals, Indiana, United States* Jug Sport Hall, an indoor arena in Osijek, Croatia* Cepotina, a Serbian Army base also known as Jug* Jug II, a city district of Osijek, Croatia" ], [ "Slang", "* Jugs, a slang term for women's breasts, especially large ones* Jug, a slang term for prison* Australian term for an electric kettle, New Zealand term for a kettle" ], [ "People", "* Jug (nickname)* Jug Suraiya, Indian journalist, author and columnist* Jug (surname)" ], [ "Other uses", "* Jug, a crossbreed between a Jack Russell terrier and a pug* Jug, a nickname for the P-47 Thunderbolt fighter aircraft* VK Jug, a water polo club from Dubrovnik, Croatia* Jug (instrument), used for rhythmic bass accompaniment* Jug wine, a term used for inexpensive table wine* Jug Tavern, a historic structure in Ossining, New York, United States* ''Jug'' (album), by jazz saxophonist Gene Ammons* Jug fishing, a method of fishing that uses lines suspended from floating jugs" ], [ "See also", "* Yug (disambiguation)* ''Juggs'', a U.S. soft-core pornographic magazine* Jugging" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John William Polidori" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John William Polidori''' (7 September 1795 – 24 August 1821) was a British writer and physician.", "He is known for his associations with the Romantic movement and credited by some as the creator of the vampire genre of fantasy fiction.", "His most successful work was the short story \"The Vampyre\" (1819), the first published modern vampire story.", "Although the story was at first erroneously credited to Lord Byron, both Byron and Polidori affirmed that the author was Polidori." ], [ "Family", "John William Polidori was born on 7 September 1795 in Westminster, the eldest son of Gaetano Polidori, an Italian political émigré scholar, and his wife Anna Maria Pierce, an English governess.", "He had three brothers and four sisters.His sister Frances Polidori, married the exiled Italian scholar Gabriele Rossetti, and thus Polidori, posthumously, became the uncle of Maria Francesca Rossetti, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Michael Rossetti, and Christina Georgina Rossetti.", "William Michael Rossetti published Polidori's journal in 1911." ], [ "Biography", "Polidori was one of the earliest pupils at the recently established Ampleforth College in North Yorkshire from 1804.In 1810 he went up to the University of Edinburgh, where he wrote a thesis on sleepwalking and received his degree as a doctor of medicine on 1 August 1815, at the age of 19.In 1816, which became known as the Year Without a Summer, Polidori entered Lord Byron's service as his personal physician and accompanied him on a trip through Europe.", "Publisher John Murray offered Polidori 500 English pounds to keep a diary of their travels, which Polidori's nephew William Michael Rossetti later edited.", "At the Villa Diodati, a house Byron rented by Lake Geneva in Switzerland, the pair met with Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, her husband-to-be, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and their companion (Mary's stepsister) Claire Clairmont.One night in June after the company had read aloud from ''Fantasmagoriana'', a French collection of German horror tales, Byron suggested they each write a ghost story.", "Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote \"A Fragment of a Ghost Story\" and wrote down five ghost stories recounted by Matthew Gregory \"Monk\" Lewis, published posthumously as the ''Journal at Geneva (including ghost stories) and on Return to England, 1816'', the journal entries beginning on 18 August 1816.Mary Shelley worked on a tale that would later evolve into ''Frankenstein''.", "Byron wrote (and quickly abandoned) a fragment of a story, \"A Fragment\", featuring the main character Augustus Darvell, which Polidori used later as the basis for his own tale, \"The Vampyre\", the first published modern vampire story in English.Polidori's conversation with Percy Bysshe Shelley on 15 June 1816, as recounted in ''The Diary'', is regarded as the origin or genesis of ''Frankenstein''.", "They discussed \"the nature of the principle of life\": \"June 15 - ... Shelley etc.", "came in the evening ...", "Afterwards, Shelley and I had a conversation about principles — whether man was to be thought merely an instrument.", "\"Dismissed by Byron, Polidori travelled in Italy and then returned to England.", "His story, \"The Vampyre\", which featured the main character Lord Ruthven, was published in the April 1819 issue of ''New Monthly Magazine'' without his permission.", "Whilst in London he lived on Great Pulteney Street in Soho.", "Much to both his and Byron's chagrin, \"The Vampyre\" was released as a new work by Byron.", "Byron's own vampire story \"Fragment of a Novel\" or \"A Fragment\" was published in 1819 in an attempt to clear up the confusion, but, for better or worse, \"The Vampyre\" continued to be attributed to him.Polidori's long, Byron-influenced theological poem ''The Fall of the Angels'' was published anonymously in 1821." ], [ "Death", "Polidori died at his father's London house on 24 August 1821, weighed down by depression and gambling debts.", "Despite conjecture from his family that he died by suicide by means of prussic acid, the coroner gave a verdict of death by natural causes." ], [ "Works", "===Plays===* ''Cajetan'', a play (1816)* ''Boadicea'', a play (1816)===Poems===* ''Ximenes, the Wreath and Other Poems'' (1819)*''The Fall of the Angels: A Sacred Poem'' (1821)===Novellas===''The Vampyre; A Tale'', 1819* ''The Vampyre: A Tale'' (1819) - a text that is \"often even cited as almost folkloric sources on vampirism\".", "* ''Ernestus Berchtold; or, The Modern Oedipus: A Tale'' (1819)===Non-fiction===* ''A Medical Inaugural Dissertation which deals with the disease called Oneirodynia, for the degree of Medical Doctor'', Edinburgh (1815)* ''The Diary of Dr. John William Polidori'' (1816, published posthumously in 1911)* ''On the Punishment of Death'' (1816)* ''An Essay Upon the Source of Positive Pleasure'' (1818)* ''Sketches Illustrative of the Manners and Costumes of France, Switzerland and Italy'' (1821)" ], [ "Posthumous editions", "His sister Charlotte transcribed Polidori's diaries, but censored \"peccant passages\" and destroyed the original.", "Based only on the transcription, ''The Diary of John Polidori'' was edited by William Michael Rossetti and first published in 1911 by Elkin Mathews (London).", "Reprints of this book, ''The Diary of Dr. John William Polidori, 1816, relating to Byron, Shelley, etc.", "'', was published by Folcroft Library Editions (Folcroft, PA) in 1975, and by Norwood Editions (Norwood, PA) in 1978.A new edition of ''The Diary of John William Polidori'' was reprinted by Cornell University in 2009." ], [ "Legacy", "===Memorials===A memorial plaque on Polidori's home at 38 Great Pulteney Street was unveiled on 15 July 1998 by the Italian Ambassador, Paolo Galli.===Appearances in other media=======Film ====Multiple films have depicted John Polidori, and the genesis of the ''Frankenstein'' and \"Vampyre\" stories in 1816:*''Gothic'' (1986), directed by Ken Russell, with Timothy Spall as Polidori *''Haunted Summer'' (1988), directed by Ivan Passer, with Alex Winter as Polidori *''Remando al viento'' (1988; English title: ''Rowing with the Wind'') directed by Gonzalo Suárez*''Mary Shelley'' (2017), directed by Haifaa Al-MansourAdditionally, Polidori's name was used for fictional characters in the following films:*''Frankenstein: The True Story'' (1973), a television movie featuring a character named Dr. Polidori*''Vampires vs. the Bronx'' (2020), a film featuring a character named Frank Polidori====Literature====*Polidori appears as one of several minor characters killed off by Frankenstein's creature in Peter Ackroyd's novel ''The Casebook of Victor Frankenstein''.", "*Polidori is a central character in Federico Andahazi's novel ''The Merciful Women'' (''Las Piadosas'' in the original Argentine edition).", "In it, he receives ''The Vampyre'' written by the fictional character of Annette Legrand, in exchange for some \"favours\".", "*Polidori appears as a character in Howard Brenton's play ''Bloody Poetry'' (though for some reason Brenton calls him William.", ")*Polidori is a prominent character and the catalyst in events in Brooklyn Ann's historical paranormal romance novel, ''Bite Me, Your Grace''.", "*Polidori is a central character in Emmanuel Carrère's 1984 novel ''Gothic Romance'' (''Bravoure'' in the original French edition), which, amongst other things, presents a fictionalised account of the events of 1816.", "*Polidori appears as a character in Susanna Clarke's novel ''Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell''.", "*Polidori appears as an enemy of Lord Byron (who is a vampire) in Tom Holland's novel ''Lord of the Dead''.", "*Polidori is also the 'hero' of the novel ''Imposture'' (2007) by Benjamin Markovits.", "*Polidori is also the central character in Derek Marlowe's novel ''A Single Summer With L.", "B.", "'', which presents an account (fictionalised) of the summer of 1816.", "*Polidori appears as a minor and unsympathetic character in the Tim Powers' horror novel ''The Stress of Her Regard'' (1989), in which Polidori does not write about vampires but becomes directly involved with them.", "In Powers' sequel (of sorts), ''Hide Me Among the Graves'' (2012), Polidori is a vampire and a central villain menacing the novel's protagonists, his nieces and nephews in the Rossetti family.", "*Paul West's novel ''Lord Byron's Doctor'' (1989) is a recreation, and ribald fictionalization, of Polidori's diaries.", "West depicts him as a literary groupie whose attempts to emulate Byron eventually unhinge and destroy him.", "*(2013): Polidori is a prominent character in P.J.", "Parker's internationally acclaimed historic fiction ''Fire on the Water: A Companion to Mary Shelley's Frankenstein''*(2019): P.J.", "Parker's historic fiction ''Origin of the Vampyre'' pulls back the shroud of mystery surrounding the publication of Polidori's novel.", "*(2011): In Ben Aaronovitch's ''Rivers of London'' and the other Peter Grant books, Polidori is often cited as a source of information about the supernatural.====Opera====*Polidori functions as narrator in John Mueter's one-act opera ''Everlasting Universe'' and has a speaking role in several scenes.====Television====*In the ''Highlander: The Series'' episode \"The Modern Prometheus\", which featured Lord Byron, one of the series regulars, Methos, serves as a stand-in for Polidori.", "Methos, who was immortal, was Byron's mentor, friend, and physician, and experienced the same events as the real Polidori did on that (in)famous night.", "*In the stop-motion animated series ''Mary Shelley's Frankenhole'', Polidori is a regular character portrayed as the immortal lab assistant of Dr. Victor Frankenstein.", "*Polidori was mentioned in the ''Tales from the Crypt'' episode \"Ritual\".*Dr.", "John Polidori (portrayed by John O'Hurley) was the antagonist of the fifth season ''The X-Files'' episode, \"The Post-Modern Prometheus\".", "* Polidori was also portrayed by Noah McLaughlin in the 2016 web series ''A Ungenial Summer'', which fictionalized the events of the summer of 1816 in the modern day.", "In this version, Polidori serves as a personal assistant to Lord Byron, rather than physician.", "* In the episode of CBBC children's television show Horrible Histories entitled Staggering Storytellers, Polidori was portrayed by Jalaal Hartley in the sketch about the original of his story, ''The Vampyre'' and Mary Shelley's (portrayed by Jessica Ransom) story ''Frankenstein'' while at Lord Byron's Villa Diodati in Switzerland.", "* Polidori is portrayed by Maxim Baldry in the 2020 ''Doctor Who'' episode \"The Haunting of Villa Diodati\", which depicts him as a sleepwalker." ], [ "Bibliography", "* ." ], [ "See also", "* Rossetti–Polidori family tree" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Nigel Leask, \"Polidori, John William (1795–1821)\", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press, 2004 Retrieved 30 April 2006.", "* Rieger, James.", "\"Dr. Polidori and the Genesis of ''Frankenstein''.\"", "''Studies in English Literature'' 3 (1963): 461–72.The origin of ''Frankenstein'' was in a conversation between John William Polidori and Percy Bysshe Shelley on 15 June 1816.", "* Rossetti, William Michael, ''The Diary of Dr. John William Polidori'', Elkin Matthews, 1911 Retrieved 2 October 2015.", "* Stott, Andrew McConnell.", "\"The Poet, the Physician and the Birth of the Modern Vampire\", ''The Public Domain Review''.", "Retrieved 7 August 2017.", "*Stott, Andrew McConnell.", "''The Poet and the Vampyre: The Curse of Byron and the Birth of Literature's Greatest Monsters.''", "New York: Canongate/Pegasus, 2013." ], [ "Further reading", "* .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "** ** Project Gutenberg's E-Text of \"The Vampyre\"* * * .", "The web's first link portal devoted entirely to John William Polidori, author of \"The Vampyre\".", "* .", "* , starring Paul Naschy.", "* A Vampyre Tale* John Polidori Life at Keats-Shelley House.org" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Joke" ], [ "Introduction", "Boris Yeltsin and Bill Clinton enjoying a jokeA '''joke''' is a display of humour in which words are used within a specific and well-defined narrative structure to make people laugh and is usually not meant to be interpreted literally.", "It usually takes the form of a story, often with dialogue, and ends in a punch line, whereby the humorous element of the story is revealed; this can be done using a pun or other type of word play, irony or sarcasm, logical incompatibility, hyperbole, or other means.", "Linguist Robert Hetzron offers the definition:It is generally held that jokes benefit from brevity, containing no more detail than is needed to set the scene for the punchline at the end.", "In the case of riddle jokes or one-liners, the setting is implicitly understood, leaving only the dialogue and punchline to be verbalised.", "However, subverting these and other common guidelines can also be a source of humour—the shaggy dog story is an example of an anti-joke; although presented as a joke, it contains a long drawn-out narrative of time, place and character, rambles through many pointless inclusions and finally fails to deliver a punchline.", "Jokes are a form of humour, but not all humour is in the form of a joke.", "Some humorous forms which are ''not'' verbal jokes are: involuntary humour, situational humour, practical jokes, slapstick and anecdotes.Identified as one of the simple forms of oral literature by the Dutch linguist André Jolles, jokes are passed along anonymously.", "They are told in both private and public settings; a single person tells a joke to his friend in the natural flow of conversation, or a set of jokes is told to a group as part of scripted entertainment.", "Jokes are also passed along in written form or, more recently, through the internet.Stand-up comics, comedians and slapstick work with comic timing and rhythm in their performance, and may rely on actions as well as on the verbal punchline to evoke laughter.", "This distinction has been formulated in the popular saying \"A comic says funny things; a comedian says things funny\"." ], [ "History in print", "The Westcar Papyrus, dating to 1600 BC, contains an example of one of the earliest surviving jokes.Any joke documented from the past has been saved through happenstance rather than design.", "Jokes do not belong to refined culture, but rather to the entertainment and leisure of all classes.", "As such, any printed versions were considered ephemera, i.e., temporary documents created for a specific purpose and intended to be thrown away.", "Many of these early jokes deal with scatological and sexual topics, entertaining to all social classes but not to be valued and saved.Various kinds of jokes have been identified in ancient pre-classical texts.", "The oldest identified joke is an ancient Sumerian proverb from 1900 BC containing toilet humour: \"Something which has never occurred since time immemorial; a young woman did not fart in her husband's lap.\"", "Its records were dated to the Old Babylonian period and the joke may go as far back as 2300 BC.", "The second oldest joke found, discovered on the Westcar Papyrus and believed to be about Sneferu, was from Ancient Egypt : \"How do you entertain a bored pharaoh?", "You sail a boatload of young women dressed only in fishing nets down the Nile and urge the pharaoh to go catch a fish.\"", "The tale of the three ox drivers from Adab completes the three known oldest jokes in the world.", "This is a comic triple dating back to 1200 BC Adab.", "It concerns three men seeking justice from a king on the matter of ownership over a newborn calf, for whose birth they all consider themselves to be partially responsible.", "The king seeks advice from a priestess on how to rule the case, and she suggests a series of events involving the men's households and wives.", "The final portion of the story (which included the punch line), has not survived intact, though legible fragments suggest it was bawdy in nature.Jokes can be notoriously difficult to translate from language to language; particularly puns, which depend on specific words and not just on their meanings.", "For instance, Julius Caesar once sold land at a surprisingly cheap price to his lover Servilia, who was rumoured to be prostituting her daughter Tertia to Caesar in order to keep his favour.", "Cicero remarked that \"''conparavit Servilia hunc fundum tertia deducta.\"''", "The punny phrase, \"tertia deducta\", can be translated as \"with one-third off (in price)\", or \"with Tertia putting out.", "\"The earliest extant joke book is the ''Philogelos'' (Greek for ''The Laughter-Lover''), a collection of 265 jokes written in crude ancient Greek dating to the fourth or fifth century AD.", "The author of the collection is obscure and a number of different authors are attributed to it, including \"Hierokles and Philagros the ''grammatikos''\", just \"Hierokles\", or, in the ''Suda'', \"Philistion\".", "British classicist Mary Beard states that the ''Philogelos'' may have been intended as a jokester's handbook of quips to say on the fly, rather than a book meant to be read straight through.", "Many of the jokes in this collection are surprisingly familiar, even though the typical protagonists are less recognisable to contemporary readers: the absent-minded professor, the eunuch, and people with hernias or bad breath.", "The ''Philogelos'' even contains a joke similar to Monty Python's \"Dead Parrot Sketch\".1597 engraving of Poggio Bracciolini, author of one of the first joke anthologiesDuring the 15th century, the printing revolution spread across Europe following the development of the movable type printing press.", "This was coupled with the growth of literacy in all social classes.", "Printers turned out Jestbooks along with Bibles to meet both lowbrow and highbrow interests of the populace.", "One early anthology of jokes was the ''Facetiae'' by the Italian Poggio Bracciolini, first published in 1470.The popularity of this jest book can be measured on the twenty editions of the book documented alone for the 15th century.", "Another popular form was a collection of jests, jokes and funny situations attributed to a single character in a more connected, narrative form of the picaresque novel.", "Examples of this are the characters of Rabelais in France, Till Eulenspiegel in Germany, Lazarillo de Tormes in Spain and Master Skelton in England.", "There is also a jest book ascribed to William Shakespeare, the contents of which appear to both inform and borrow from his plays.", "All of these early jestbooks corroborate both the rise in the literacy of the European populations and the general quest for leisure activities during the Renaissance in Europe.The practice of printers using jokes and cartoons as page fillers was also widely used in the broadsides and chapbooks of the 19th century and earlier.", "With the increase in literacy in the general population and the growth of the printing industry, these publications were the most common forms of printed material between the 16th and 19th centuries throughout Europe and North America.", "Along with reports of events, executions, ballads and verse, they also contained jokes.", "Only one of many broadsides archived in the Harvard library is described as \"1706.Grinning made easy; or, Funny Dick's unrivalled collection of curious, comical, odd, droll, humorous, witty, whimsical, laughable, and eccentric jests, jokes, bulls, epigrams, &c. With many other descriptions of wit and humour.\"", "These cheap publications, ephemera intended for mass distribution, were read alone, read aloud, posted and discarded.There are many types of joke books in print today; a search on the internet provides a plethora of titles available for purchase.", "They can be read alone for solitary entertainment, or used to stock up on new jokes to entertain friends.", "Some people try to find a deeper meaning in jokes, as in \"Plato and a Platypus Walk into a Bar... Understanding Philosophy Through Jokes\".", "However a deeper meaning is not necessary to appreciate their inherent entertainment value.", "Magazines frequently use jokes and cartoons as filler for the printed page.", "''Reader's Digest'' closes out many articles with an (unrelated) joke at the bottom of the article.", "''The New Yorker'' was first published in 1925 with the stated goal of being a \"sophisticated humour magazine\" and is still known for its cartoons." ], [ "Telling jokes", "Telling a joke is a cooperative effort; it requires that the teller and the audience mutually agree in one form or another to understand the narrative which follows as a joke.", "In a study of conversation analysis, the sociologist Harvey Sacks describes in detail the sequential organisation in the telling of a single joke.", "\"This telling is composed, as for stories, of three serially ordered and adjacently placed types of sequences … the preface framing, the telling, and the response sequences.\"", "Folklorists expand this to include the context of the joking.", "Who is telling what jokes to whom?", "And why is he telling them when?", "The context of the joke-telling in turn leads into a study of joking relationships, a term coined by anthropologists to refer to social groups within a culture who engage in institutionalised banter and joking.=== Framing: \"Have you heard the one…\" ===Framing is done with a (frequently formulaic) expression which keys the audience in to expect a joke.", "\"Have you heard the one…\", \"Reminds me of a joke I heard…\", \"So, a lawyer and a doctor…\"; these conversational markers are just a few examples of linguistic frames used to start a joke.", "Regardless of the frame used, it creates a social space and clear boundaries around the narrative which follows.", "Audience response to this initial frame can be acknowledgement and anticipation of the joke to follow.", "It can also be a dismissal, as in \"this is no joking matter\" or \"this is no time for jokes\".The performance frame serves to label joke-telling as a culturally marked form of communication.", "Both the performer and audience understand it to be set apart from the \"real\" world.", "\"An elephant walks into a bar…\"; a person sufficiently familiar with both the English language and the way jokes are told automatically understands that such a compressed and formulaic story, being told with no substantiating details, and placing an unlikely combination of characters into an unlikely setting and involving them in an unrealistic plot, is the start of a joke, and the story that follows is not meant to be taken at face value (i.e.", "it is non-bona-fide communication).", "The framing itself invokes a play mode; if the audience is unable or unwilling to move into play, then nothing will seem funny.=== Telling ===Following its linguistic framing the joke, in the form of a story, can be told.", "It is not required to be verbatim text like other forms of oral literature such as riddles and proverbs.", "The teller can and does modify the text of the joke, depending both on memory and the present audience.", "The important characteristic is that the narrative is succinct, containing only those details which lead directly to an understanding and decoding of the punchline.", "This requires that it support the same (or similar) divergent scripts which are to be embodied in the punchline.The narrative always contains a protagonist who becomes the \"butt\" or target of the joke.", "This labelling serves to develop and solidify stereotypes within the culture.", "It also enables researchers to group and analyse the creation, persistence and interpretation of joke cycles around a certain character.", "Some people are naturally better performers than others; however, anyone can tell a joke because the comic trigger is contained in the narrative text and punchline.", "A joke poorly told is still funny, unless errors or omissions make the intended relationship between the narrative and the punchline unintelligible.=== Punchline ===The punchline is intended to make the audience laugh.", "A linguistic interpretation of this punchline/response is elucidated by Victor Raskin in his Script-based Semantic Theory of Humour.", "Humour is evoked when a trigger contained in the punchline causes the audience to abruptly shift its understanding of the story from the primary (or more obvious) interpretation to a secondary, opposing interpretation.", "\"The punchline is the pivot on which the joke text turns as it signals the shift between the semantic scripts necessary to interpret re-interpret the joke text.\"", "To produce the humour in the verbal joke, the two interpretations (i.e.", "scripts) need to both be compatible with the joke text and opposite or incompatible with each other.", "Thomas R. Shultz, a psychologist, independently expands Raskin's linguistic theory to include \"two stages of incongruity: perception and resolution.\"", "He explains that \"… incongruity alone is insufficient to account for the structure of humour.", "… Within this framework, humour appreciation is conceptualized as a biphasic sequence involving first the discovery of incongruity followed by a resolution of the incongruity.\"", "In the case of a joke, that resolution generates laughter.This is the point at which the field of neurolinguistics offers some insight into the cognitive processing involved in this abrupt laughter at the punchline.", "Studies by the cognitive science researchers Coulson and Kutas directly address the theory of script switching articulated by Raskin in their work.", "The article \"Getting it: Human event-related brain response to jokes in good and poor comprehenders\" measures brain activity in response to reading jokes.", "Additional studies by others in the field support more generally the theory of two-stage processing of humour, as evidenced in the longer processing time they require.", "In the related field of neuroscience, it has been shown that the expression of laughter is caused by two partially independent neuronal pathways: an \"involuntary\" or \"emotionally driven\" system and a \"voluntary\" system.", "This study adds credence to the common experience when exposed to an off-colour joke; a laugh is followed in the next breath by a disclaimer: \"Oh, that's bad…\" Here the multiple steps in cognition are clearly evident in the stepped response, the perception being processed just a breath faster than the resolution of the moral/ethical content in the joke.=== Response ===Expected response to a joke is laughter.", "The joke teller hopes the audience \"gets it\" and is entertained.", "This leads to the premise that a joke is actually an \"understanding test\" between individuals and groups.", "If the listeners do not get the joke, they are not understanding the two scripts which are contained in the narrative as they were intended.", "Or they do \"get it\" and do not laugh; it might be too obscene, too gross or too dumb for the current audience.", "A woman might respond differently to a joke told by a male colleague around the water cooler than she would to the same joke overheard in a women's lavatory.", "A joke involving toilet humour may be funnier told on the playground at elementary school than on a college campus.", "The same joke will elicit different responses in different settings.", "The punchline in the joke remains the same, however, it is more or less appropriate depending on the current context.=== Shifting contexts, shifting texts ===The context explores the specific social situation in which joking occurs.", "The narrator automatically modifies the text of the joke to be acceptable to different audiences, while at the same time supporting the same divergent scripts in the punchline.", "The vocabulary used in telling the same joke at a university fraternity party and to one's grandmother might well vary.", "In each situation, it is important to identify both the narrator and the audience as well as their relationship with each other.", "This varies to reflect the complexities of a matrix of different social factors: age, sex, race, ethnicity, kinship, political views, religion, power relationships, etc.", "When all the potential combinations of such factors between the narrator and the audience are considered, then a single joke can take on infinite shades of meaning for each unique social setting.The context, however, should not be confused with the function of the joking.", "\"Function is essentially an abstraction made on the basis of a number of contexts\".", "In one long-term observation of men coming off the late shift at a local café, joking with the waitresses was used to ascertain sexual availability for the evening.", "Different types of jokes, going from general to topical into explicitly sexual humour signalled openness on the part of the waitress for a connection.", "This study describes how jokes and joking are used to communicate much more than just good humour.", "That is a single example of the function of joking in a social setting, but there are others.", "Sometimes jokes are used simply to get to know someone better.", "What makes them laugh, what do they find funny?", "Jokes concerning politics, religion or sexual topics can be used effectively to gauge the attitude of the audience to any one of these topics.", "They can also be used as a marker of group identity, signalling either inclusion or exclusion for the group.", "Among pre-adolescents, \"dirty\" jokes allow them to share information about their changing bodies.", "And sometimes joking is just simple entertainment for a group of friends." ], [ "Relationships", "The context of joking in turn leads to a study of joking relationships, a term coined by anthropologists to refer to social groups within a culture who take part in institutionalised banter and joking.", "These relationships can be either one-way or a mutual back and forth between partners.", "Joking relationships were first described by anthropologists within kinship groups in Africa.", "But they have since been identified in cultures around the world, where jokes and joking are used to mark and reinforce appropriate boundaries of a relationship." ], [ "Electronic", "The advent of electronic communications at the end of the 20th century introduced new traditions into jokes.", "A verbal joke or cartoon is emailed to a friend or posted on a bulletin board; reactions include a replied email with a :-) or LOL, or a forward on to further recipients.", "Interaction is limited to the computer screen and for the most part solitary.", "While preserving the text of a joke, both context and variants are lost in internet joking; for the most part, emailed jokes are passed along verbatim.", "The framing of the joke frequently occurs in the subject line: \"RE: laugh for the day\" or something similar.", "The forward of an email joke can increase the number of recipients exponentially.Internet joking forces a re-evaluation of social spaces and social groups.", "They are no longer only defined by physical presence and locality, they also exist in the connectivity in cyberspace.", "\"The computer networks appear to make possible communities that, although physically dispersed, display attributes of the direct, unconstrained, unofficial exchanges folklorists typically concern themselves with\".", "This is particularly evident in the spread of topical jokes, \"that genre of lore in which whole crops of jokes spring up seemingly overnight around some sensational event … flourish briefly and then disappear, as the mass media move on to fresh maimings and new collective tragedies\".", "This correlates with the new understanding of the internet as an \"active folkloric space\" with evolving social and cultural forces and clearly identifiable performers and audiences.A study by the folklorist Bill Ellis documented how an evolving cycle was circulated over the internet.", "By accessing message boards that specialised in humour immediately following the 9/11 disaster, Ellis was able to observe in real-time both the topical jokes being posted electronically and responses to the jokes.", "Access to archived message boards also enables us to track the development of a single joke thread in the context of a more complicated virtual conversation." ], [ "Joke cycles", "A '''joke cycle''' is a collection of jokes about a single target or situation which displays consistent narrative structure and type of humour.", "Some well-known cycles are elephant jokes using nonsense humour, dead baby jokes incorporating black humour, and light bulb jokes, which describe all kinds of operational stupidity.", "Joke cycles can centre on ethnic groups, professions (viola jokes), catastrophes, settings (…walks into a bar), absurd characters (wind-up dolls), or logical mechanisms which generate the humour (knock-knock jokes).", "A joke can be reused in different joke cycles; an example of this is the same Head & Shoulders joke refitted to the tragedies of Vic Morrow, Admiral Mountbatten and the crew of the Challenger space shuttle.", "These cycles seem to appear spontaneously, spread rapidly across countries and borders only to dissipate after some time.", "Folklorists and others have studied individual joke cycles in an attempt to understand their function and significance within the culture.Why did the chicken cross the road?", "To get to the other side.Joke cycles circulated in the recent past include:=== Tragedies and catastrophes ===As with the 9/11 disaster discussed above, cycles attach themselves to celebrities or national catastrophes such as the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, the death of Michael Jackson, and the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.", "These cycles arise regularly as a response to terrible unexpected events which command the national news.", "An in-depth analysis of the Challenger joke cycle documents a change in the type of humour circulated following the disaster, from February to March 1986.", "\"It shows that the jokes appeared in distinct 'waves', the first responding to the disaster with clever wordplay and the second playing with grim and troubling images associated with the event…The primary social function of disaster jokes appears to be to provide closure to an event that provoked communal grieving, by signalling that it was time to move on and pay attention to more immediate concerns\".=== Ethnic jokes ===The sociologist Christie Davies has written extensively on ethnic jokes told in countries around the world.", "In ethnic jokes he finds that the \"stupid\" ethnic target in the joke is no stranger to the culture, but rather a peripheral social group (geographic, economic, cultural, linguistic) well known to the joke tellers.", "So Americans tell jokes about Polacks and Italians, Germans tell jokes about Ostfriesens, and the English tell jokes about the Irish.", "In a review of Davies' theories it is said that \"For Davies, ethnic jokes are more about how joke tellers imagine themselves than about how they imagine those others who serve as their putative targets…The jokes thus serve to center one in the world – to remind people of their place and to reassure them that they are in it.", "\"=== Absurdities and gallows humour ===A third category of joke cycles identifies absurd characters as the butt: for example the grape, the dead baby or the elephant.", "Beginning in the 1960s, social and cultural interpretations of these joke cycles, spearheaded by the folklorist Alan Dundes, began to appear in academic journals.", "Dead baby jokes are posited to reflect societal changes and guilt caused by widespread use of contraception and abortion beginning in the 1960s.", "Elephant jokes have been interpreted variously as stand-ins for American blacks during the Civil Rights Era or as an \"image of something large and wild abroad in the land capturing the sense of counterculture\" of the sixties.", "These interpretations strive for a cultural understanding of the themes of these jokes which go beyond the simple collection and documentation undertaken previously by folklorists and ethnologists." ], [ "Classification systems", "As folktales and other types of oral literature became collectables throughout Europe in the 19th century (Brothers Grimm et al.", "), folklorists and anthropologists of the time needed a system to organise these items.", "The Aarne–Thompson classification system was first published in 1910 by Antti Aarne, and later expanded by Stith Thompson to become the most renowned classification system for European folktales and other types of oral literature.", "Its final section addresses anecdotes and jokes, listing traditional humorous tales ordered by their protagonist; \"This section of the Index is essentially a classification of the older European jests, or merry tales – humorous stories characterized by short, fairly simple plots.", "…\" Due to its focus on older tale types and obsolete actors (e.g., numbskull), the Aarne–Thompson Index does not provide much help in identifying and classifying the modern joke.A more granular classification system used widely by folklorists and cultural anthropologists is the Thompson Motif Index, which separates tales into their individual story elements.", "This system enables jokes to be classified according to individual motifs included in the narrative: actors, items and incidents.", "It does not provide a system to classify the text by more than one element at a time while at the same time making it theoretically possible to classify the same text under multiple motifs.The Thompson Motif Index has spawned further specialised motif indices, each of which focuses on a single aspect of one subset of jokes.", "A sampling of just a few of these specialised indices have been listed under other motif indices.", "Here one can select an index for medieval Spanish folk narratives, another index for linguistic verbal jokes, and a third one for sexual humour.", "To assist the researcher with this increasingly confusing situation, there are also multiple bibliographies of indices as well as a how-to guide on creating your own index.Several difficulties have been identified with these systems of identifying oral narratives according to either tale types or story elements.", "A first major problem is their hierarchical organisation; one element of the narrative is selected as the major element, while all other parts are arrayed subordinate to this.", "A second problem with these systems is that the listed motifs are not qualitatively equal; actors, items and incidents are all considered side-by-side.", "And because incidents will always have at least one actor and usually have an item, most narratives can be ordered under multiple headings.", "This leads to confusion about both where to order an item and where to find it.", "A third significant problem is that the \"excessive prudery\" common in the middle of the 20th century means that obscene, sexual and scatological elements were regularly ignored in many of the indices.The folklorist Robert Georges has summed up the concerns with these existing classification systems: It has proven difficult to organise all different elements of a joke into a multi-dimensional classification system which could be of real value in the study and evaluation of this (primarily oral) complex narrative form.The General Theory of Verbal Humour or GTVH, developed by the linguists Victor Raskin and Salvatore Attardo, attempts to do exactly this.", "This classification system was developed specifically for jokes and later expanded to include longer types of humorous narratives.", "Six different aspects of the narrative, labelled Knowledge Resources or KRs, can be evaluated largely independently of each other, and then combined into a concatenated classification label.", "These six KRs of the joke structure include:# '''Script Opposition (SO)''' references the script opposition included in Raskin's SSTH.", "This includes, among others, themes such as real (unreal), actual (non-actual), normal (abnormal), possible (impossible).# '''Logical Mechanism (LM)''' refers to the mechanism which connects the different scripts in the joke.", "These can range from a simple verbal technique like a pun to more complex LMs such as faulty logic or false analogies.# '''Situation (SI)''' can include objects, activities, instruments, props needed to tell the story.# '''Target (TA)''' identifies the actor(s) who become the \"butt\" of the joke.", "This labelling serves to develop and solidify stereotypes of ethnic groups, professions, etc.# '''Narrative strategy (NS)''' addresses the narrative format of the joke, as either a simple narrative, a dialogue, or a riddle.", "It attempts to classify the different genres and subgenres of verbal humour.", "In a subsequent study Attardo expands the NS to include oral and printed humorous narratives of any length, not just jokes.# '''Language (LA) ''' \"…contains all the information necessary for the verbalization of a text.", "It is responsible for the exact wording …and for the placement of the functional elements.", "\"As development of the GTVH progressed, a hierarchy of the KRs was established to partially restrict the options for lower-level KRs depending on the KRs defined above them.", "For example, a lightbulb joke (SI) will always be in the form of a riddle (NS).", "Outside of these restrictions, the KRs can create a multitude of combinations, enabling a researcher to select jokes for analysis which contain only one or two defined KRs.", "It also allows for an evaluation of the similarity or dissimilarity of jokes depending on the similarity of their labels.", "\"The GTVH presents itself as a mechanism … of generating or describing an infinite number of jokes by combining the various values that each parameter can take.", "… Descriptively, to analyze a joke in the GTVH consists of listing the values of the 6 KRs (with the caveat that TA and LM may be empty).\"", "This classification system provides a functional multi-dimensional label for any joke, and indeed any verbal humour." ], [ "Joke and humour research", "Many academic disciplines lay claim to the study of jokes (and other forms of humour) as within their purview.", "Fortunately, there are enough jokes, good, bad and worse, to go around.", "The studies of jokes from each of the interested disciplines bring to mind the tale of the blind men and an elephant where the observations, although accurate reflections of their own competent methodological inquiry, frequently fail to grasp the beast in its entirety.", "This attests to the joke as a traditional narrative form which is indeed complex, concise and complete in and of itself.", "It requires a \"multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and cross-disciplinary field of inquiry\" to truly appreciate these nuggets of cultural insight.=== Psychology ===Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud was one of the first modern scholars to recognise jokes as an important object of investigation.", "In his 1905 study ''Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious'' Freud describes the social nature of humour and illustrates his text with many examples of contemporary Viennese jokes.", "His work is particularly noteworthy in this context because Freud distinguishes in his writings between jokes, humour and the comic.", "These are distinctions which become easily blurred in many subsequent studies where everything funny tends to be gathered under the umbrella term of \"humour\", making for a much more diffuse discussion.Since the publication of Freud's study, psychologists have continued to explore humour and jokes in their quest to explain, predict and control an individual's \"sense of humour\".", "Why do people laugh?", "Why do people find something funny?", "Can jokes predict character, or vice versa, can character predict the jokes an individual laughs at?", "What is a \"sense of humour\"?", "A current review of the popular magazine ''Psychology Today'' lists over 200 articles discussing various aspects of humour; in psychological jargon, the subject area has become both an emotion to measure and a tool to use in diagnostics and treatment.", "A new psychological assessment tool, the Values in Action Inventory developed by the American psychologists Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman includes humour (and playfulness) as one of the core character strengths of an individual.", "As such, it could be a good predictor of life satisfaction.", "For psychologists, it would be useful to measure both how much of this strength an individual has and how it can be measurably increased.A 2007 survey of existing tools to measure humour identified more than 60 psychological measurement instruments.", "These measurement tools use many different approaches to quantify humour along with its related states and traits.", "There are tools to measure an individual's physical response by their smile; the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) is one of several tools used to identify any one of multiple types of smiles.", "Or the laugh can be measured to calculate the funniness response of an individual; multiple types of laughter have been identified.", "It must be stressed here that both smiles and laughter are not always a response to something funny.", "In trying to develop a measurement tool, most systems use \"jokes and cartoons\" as their test materials.", "However, because no two tools use the same jokes, and across languages this would not be feasible, how does one determine that the assessment objects are comparable?", "Moving on, whom does one ask to rate the sense of humour of an individual?", "Does one ask the person themselves, an impartial observer, or their family, friends and colleagues?", "Furthermore, has the current mood of the test subjects been considered; someone with a recent death in the family might not be much prone to laughter.", "Given the plethora of variants revealed by even a superficial glance at the problem, it becomes evident that these paths of scientific inquiry are mined with problematic pitfalls and questionable solutions.The psychologist has been very active in the research of humour.", "He has collaborated with the linguists Raskin and Attardo on their General Theory of Verbal Humour (GTVH) classification system.", "Their goal is to empirically test both the six autonomous classification types (KRs) and the hierarchical ordering of these KRs.", "Advancement in this direction would be a win-win for both fields of study; linguistics would have empirical verification of this multi-dimensional classification system for jokes, and psychology would have a standardised joke classification with which they could develop verifiably comparable measurement tools.=== Linguistics ===\"The linguistics of humor has made gigantic strides forward in the last decade and a half and replaced the psychology of humor as the most advanced theoretical approach to the study of this important and universal human faculty.\"", "This recent statement by one noted linguist and humour researcher describes, from his perspective, contemporary linguistic humour research.", "Linguists study words, how words are strung together to build sentences, how sentences create meaning which can be communicated from one individual to another, and how our interaction with each other using words creates discourse.", "Jokes have been defined above as oral narratives in which words and sentences are engineered to build toward a punchline.", "The linguist's question is: what exactly makes the punchline funny?", "This question focuses on how the words used in the punchline create humour, in contrast to the psychologist's concern (see above) with the audience's response to the punchline.", "The assessment of humour by psychologists \"is made from the individual's perspective; e.g.", "the phenomenon associated with responding to or creating humor and not a description of humor itself.\"", "Linguistics, on the other hand, endeavours to provide a precise description of what makes a text funny.Two major new linguistic theories have been developed and tested within the last decades.", "The first was advanced by Victor Raskin in \"Semantic Mechanisms of Humor\", published 1985.While being a variant on the more general concepts of the incongruity theory of humour, it is the first theory to identify its approach as exclusively linguistic.", "The Script-based Semantic Theory of Humour (SSTH) begins by identifying two linguistic conditions which make a text funny.", "It then goes on to identify the mechanisms involved in creating the punchline.", "This theory established the semantic/pragmatic foundation of humour as well as the humour competence of speakers.Several years later the SSTH was incorporated into a more expansive theory of jokes put forth by Raskin and his colleague Salvatore Attardo.", "In the General Theory of Verbal Humour, the SSTH was relabelled as a Logical Mechanism (LM) (referring to the mechanism which connects the different linguistic scripts in the joke) and added to five other independent Knowledge Resources (KR).", "Together these six KRs could now function as a multi-dimensional descriptive label for any piece of humorous text.Linguistics has developed further methodological tools which can be applied to jokes: discourse analysis and conversation analysis of joking.", "Both of these subspecialties within the field focus on \"naturally occurring\" language use, i.e.", "the analysis of real (usually recorded) conversations.", "One of these studies has already been discussed above, where Harvey Sacks describes in detail the sequential organisation in telling a single joke.", "Discourse analysis emphasises the entire context of social joking, the social interaction which cradles the words.=== Folklore and anthropology ===Folklore and cultural anthropology have perhaps the strongest claims on jokes as belonging to their bailiwick.", "Jokes remain one of the few remaining forms of traditional folk literature transmitted orally in western cultures.", "Identified as one of the \"simple forms\" of oral literature by André Jolles in 1930, they have been collected and studied since there were folklorists and anthropologists abroad in the lands.", "As a genre they were important enough at the beginning of the 20th century to be included under their own heading in the Aarne–Thompson index first published in 1910: Anecdotes and jokes.Beginning in the 1960s, cultural researchers began to expand their role from collectors and archivists of \"folk ideas\" to a more active role of interpreters of cultural artefacts.", "One of the foremost scholars active during this transitional time was the folklorist Alan Dundes.", "He started asking questions of tradition and transmission with the key observation that \"No piece of folklore continues to be transmitted unless it means something, even if neither the speaker nor the audience can articulate what that meaning might be.\"", "In the context of jokes, this then becomes the basis for further research.", "Why is the joke told right now?", "Only in this expanded perspective is an understanding of its meaning to the participants possible.This questioning resulted in a blossoming of monographs to explore the significance of many joke cycles.", "What is so funny about absurd nonsense elephant jokes?", "Why make light of dead babies?", "In an article on contemporary German jokes about Auschwitz and the Holocaust, Dundes justifies this research: A stimulating generation of new humour theories flourishes like mushrooms in the undergrowth: Elliott Oring's theoretical discussions on \"appropriate ambiguity\" and Amy Carrell's hypothesis of an \"audience-based theory of verbal humor (1993)\" to name just a few.In his book ''Humor and Laughter: An Anthropological Approach'', the anthropologist Mahadev Apte presents a solid case for his own academic perspective.", "\"Two axioms underlie my discussion, namely, that humor is by and large culture based and that humor can be a major conceptual and methodological tool for gaining insights into cultural systems.\"", "Apte goes on to call for legitimising the field of humour research as \"humorology\"; this would be a field of study incorporating an interdisciplinary character of humour studies.While the label \"humorology\" has yet to become a household word, great strides are being made in the international recognition of this interdisciplinary field of research.", "The International Society for Humor Studies was founded in 1989 with the stated purpose to \"promote, stimulate and encourage the interdisciplinary study of humour; to support and cooperate with local, national, and international organizations having similar purposes; to organize and arrange meetings; and to issue and encourage publications concerning the purpose of the society\".", "It also publishes ''Humor: International Journal of Humor Research'' and holds yearly conferences to promote and inform its speciality.=== Physiology of laughter ===Charles Darwin in his later yearsIn 1872, Charles Darwin published one of the first \"comprehensive and in many ways remarkably accurate description of laughter in terms of respiration, vocalization, facial action and gesture and posture\" (Laughter).", "In this early study Darwin raises further questions about who laughs and why they laugh; the myriad responses since then illustrate the complexities of this behaviour.", "To understand laughter in humans and other primates, the science of gelotology (from the Greek '''', meaning laughter) has been established; it is the study of laughter and its effects on the body from both a psychological and physiological perspective.", "While jokes can provoke laughter, laughter cannot be used as a one-to-one marker of jokes because there are multiple stimuli to laughter, humour being just one of them.", "The other six causes of laughter listed are social context, ignorance, anxiety, derision, acting apology, and tickling.", "As such, the study of laughter is a secondary albeit entertaining perspective in an understanding of jokes.=== Computational humour ===Computational humour is a new field of study which uses computers to model humour; it bridges the disciplines of computational linguistics and artificial intelligence.", "A primary ambition of this field is to develop computer programs which can both generate a joke and recognise a text snippet as a joke.", "Early programming attempts have dealt almost exclusively with punning because this lends itself to simple straightforward rules.", "These primitive programs display no intelligence; instead, they work off a template with a finite set of pre-defined punning options upon which to build.More sophisticated computer joke programs have yet to be developed.", "Based on our understanding of the SSTH / GTVH humour theories, it is easy to see why.", "The linguistic scripts (a.k.a.", "frames) referenced in these theories include, for any given word, a \"large chunk of semantic information surrounding the word and evoked by it ... a cognitive structure internalized by the native speaker\".", "These scripts extend much further than the lexical definition of a word; they contain the speaker's complete knowledge of the concept as it exists in his world.", "As insentient machines, computers lack the encyclopaedic scripts which humans gain through life experience.", "They also lack the ability to gather the experiences needed to build wide-ranging semantic scripts and understand language in a broader context, a context that any child picks up in daily interaction with his environment.Further development in this field must wait until computational linguists have succeeded in programming a computer with an ontological semantic natural language processing system.", "It is only \"the most complex linguistic structures which can serve any formal and/or computational treatment of humor well\".", "Toy systems (i.e.", "dummy punning programs) are completely inadequate to the task.", "Despite the fact that the field of computational humour is small and underdeveloped, it is encouraging to note the many interdisciplinary efforts which are currently underway.", "As this field grows in both understanding and methodology, it provides an ideal testbed for humour theories; the rules must firstly be clearly defined in order to write a computer program around a theory." ], [ "International Joke Day", "1 July is celebrated around the world as International Joke Day." ], [ "See also", "* List of humour research publications* Index of joke types" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Jacob Lawrence" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacob Armstead Lawrence''' (September 7, 1917 – June 9, 2000) was an American painter known for his portrayal of African-American historical subjects and contemporary life.", "Lawrence referred to his style as \"dynamic cubism,\" an art form popularized in Europe which drew great inspiration from West African and Meso-American art.", "For his compositions, Lawrence found inspiration in everyday life in Harlem.", "He brought the African-American experience to life using blacks and browns juxtaposed with vivid colors.", "He also taught and spent 16 years as a professor at the University of Washington.Lawrence is among the best known twentieth-century African-American painters, known for his modernist illustrations of everyday life as well as narratives of African-American history and historical figures.", "At the age of 23 he gained national recognition with his 60-panel ''The Migration Series'', which depicted the Great Migration of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North.", "The series was purchased jointly by the Phillips Collection in Washington, D.C., and the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York.", "Lawrence's works are in the permanent collections of numerous museums, including the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Whitney Museum, Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Brooklyn Museum, the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Reynolda House Museum of American Art, and the Museum of Northwest Art.", "His 1947 painting ''The Builders'' hangs in the White House." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===''Douglass argued against poor Negroes leaving the South''Jacob Lawrence was born September 7, 1917, in Atlantic City, New Jersey, where his parents had migrated from the rural south.", "They divorced in 1924.His mother put him and his two younger siblings into foster care in Philadelphia.", "When he was 13, he and his siblings moved to New York City, where he reconnected with his mother in Harlem.", "Lawrence was introduced to art shortly after that when their mother enrolled him in after-school classes at an arts and crafts settlement house in Harlem, called Utopia Children's Center, in an effort to keep him busy.", "The young Lawrence often drew patterns with crayons.", "In the beginning, he copied the patterns of his mother's carpets.Lawrence teaching school children at the Abraham Lincoln SchoolAfter dropping out of school at 16, Lawrence worked in a laundromat and a printing plant.", "He continued with art, attending classes at the Harlem Art Workshop, taught by the noted African-American artist Charles Alston.", "Alston urged him to attend the Harlem Community Art Center, led by the sculptor Augusta Savage.", "Savage secured a scholarship to the American Artists School for Lawrence and a paid position with the Works Progress Administration, established during the Great Depression by the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.", "Lawrence continued his studies as well, working with Alston and Henry Bannarn, another Harlem Renaissance artist, in the Alston-Bannarn workshop.", "He also studied at Harlem Art Workshop in New York in 1937.Harlem provided crucial training for the majority of Black artists in the United States.", "Lawrence was one of the first artists trained in and by the African-American community in Harlem.", "Throughout his lengthy artistic career, Lawrence concentrated on exploring the history and struggles of African Americans.The \"hard, bright, brittle\" aspects of Harlem during the Great Depression inspired Lawrence as much as the colors, shapes, and patterns inside the homes of its residents.", "\"Even in my mother's home,\" Lawrence told historian Paul Karlstrom, \"people of my mother's generation would decorate their homes in all sorts of color... so you'd think in terms of Matisse.\"", "He used water-based media throughout his career.", "Lawrence started to gain some notice for his dramatic and lively portrayals of both contemporary scenes of African-American urban life as well as historical events, all of which he depicted in crisp shapes, bright, clear colors, dynamic patterns, and through revealing posture and gestures.=== Career ===Toussaint at Ennery'', 1989At the very start of his career he developed the approach that made his reputation and remained his touchstone: creating series of paintings that told a story or, less often, depicted many aspects of a subject.", "His first were biographical accounts of key figures of the African diaspora.", "He was just 21 years old when his series of 41 paintings of the Haitian general Toussaint L’Ouverture, who led the revolution of the slaves that eventually gained independence, was shown in an exhibit of African-American artists at the Baltimore Museum of Art.", "This was followed by a series of paintings of the lives of Harriet Tubman (1938–39) and Frederick Douglass (1939–40).His teacher Charles Alston assesses Lawrence's work in an essay for an exhibition at the Harlem YMCA 1938:On July 24, 1941, Lawrence married the painter Gwendolyn Knight, also a student of Savage.", "She helped prepare the gesso panels for his paintings and contributed to the captions for the paintings in his multi-painting works.==== ''The Migration Series'' ====Lawrence completed the 60-panel set of narrative paintings entitled ''Migration of the Negro'' or ''And the Migrants Kept Coming'', now called the ''Migration Series'', in 1940–41.The series portrayed the Great Migration, when hundreds of thousands of African Americans moved from the rural South to the urban North after World War I.", "Because he was working in tempera, which dries rapidly, he planned all the paintings in advance and then applied a single color wherever he was using it across all the scenes to maintain tonal consistency.", "Only then did he proceed to the next color.", "The series was exhibited at the Downtown Gallery in Greenwich Village, which made him the first African-American artist represented by a New York gallery.", "This brought him national recognition.", "Selections from this series were featured in a 1941 issue of ''Fortune''.", "The entire series was purchased jointly and divided by the Phillips Collection in Washington, D.C., which holds the odd-numbered paintings, and New York's Museum of Modern Art, which holds the even-numbered.", "His early work involved general depictions of everyday life in Harlem and also a major series dedicated to African-American history (1940–1941).Another biographical series of twenty-two panels devoted to the abolitionist John Brown followed in 1941–42.When these pairings became too fragile to display, Lawrence, working on commission, recreated the paintings as a portfolio of silkscreen prints in 1977.In 1943, Howard Devree, writing in ''The New York Times'', thought Lawrence in his next series of thirty images had \"even more successfully concentrated his attention on the many-sided life of his people in Harlem\".", "He called the set \"an amazing social document\" and wrote:==== World War II ====In October 1943, during the Second World War, Lawrence was drafted into the United States Coast Guard and served as a public affairs specialist with the first racially integrated crew on the USCGC ''Sea Cloud'', under Carlton Skinner.", "He continued to paint and sketch while in the Coast Guard, documenting the experience of war around the world.", "He produced 48 paintings during this time, all of which have been lost.", "He achieved the rank of petty officer third class.====Lost works====In October and November 1944, MOMA exhibited all 60 migration panels plus 8 of the paintings Lawrence created aboard the ''Sea Cloud''.", "He posed, still in his uniform, in front of a sign that read: \"Jacob Lawrence, The Migration Series and Works Created in the US Coast Guard\".", "The Coast Guard sent the eight paintings to exhibits around the United States.", "In the disorder and personnel changes that came with demobilization at the end of the war they went missing.==== Post-war ====In 1945, he was awarded a fellowship in the fine arts by the Guggenheim Foundation.In 1946, Josef Albers recruited Lawrence to join the faculty of the summer art program at Black Mountain College.Returning to New York, Lawrence continued to paint but grew depressed; in 1949, he checked himself into Hillside Hospital in Queens, where he remained for eleven months.", "Painting there, he produced his Hospital Series, works that were uncharacteristic of him in their focus of his subjects' emotional states as an inpatient.Between 1954 and 1956 Lawrence produced a 30-panel series called \"Struggle: From the History of the American People\" that depicted historical scenes from 1775 to 1817.The series, originally planned to include sixty panels, includes references to current events like the 1954 Army-McCarthy hearings, and they sometimes explore relatively obscure or neglected aspects of American history, like a woman, Margaret Cochran Corbin, in combat or the wall built by unseen enslaved Blacks that protected the American forces at the Battle of New Orleans.", "Rather than traditional titles, Lawrence labeled each panel with a quote, either to add an individual voice to his work or inject weighted vocabulary.", "Patrick Henry's speech, famous for the phrase \"Give me liberty or give me death\", he captioned with a different passage: \"Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery.\"", "A panel showing Blacks fighting against the British is captioned with the words of a man who sued for emancipation from slavery in 1773: \"We have no property!", "We have no wives!", "No children!", "We have no city!", "No country!\"", "Three panels (Panels 14, 20 and 29) are lost, and three others were only located in 2017, 2020, and 2021.The fraught politics of the mid-1950s prevented the series from finding a museum purchaser, and the panels had been sold to a private collector who re-sold them as individual works.The Brooklyn Museum of Art mounted a retrospective exhibition of his work in 1960.In 1969, he was among 200 Black artists in a premier show sponsored by the Philadelphia School District and the Pennsylvania Civic Center Museum.", "The show featured some of the top names in the country, including Ellen Powell Tiberino, Horace Pippin, Nancy Elizabeth Prophet, Barbara Bullock, Jacob Lawrence, Benny Andrews, Roland Ayers, Romare Bearden, Avel de Knight, Barkley Hendricks, Paul Keene, Raymond Saunders, Louis B. Sloan, Ed Wilson, Henry Ossawa Tanner and Joshua Johnson.==== Publications ====Lawrence illustrated several works for children.", "''Harriet and the Promised Land'' appeared in 1968 and used the series of paintings that told the story of Harriet Tubman.", "It was listed as one of the year's best illustrated books by ''The New York Times'' and praised by the ''Boston Globe'': \"The author's artistic talents, sensitivity and insight into the black experience have resulted in a book that actually creates, within the reader, a spiritual experience.\"", "Two similar volumes based on his John Brown and Great Migration series followed.", "Lawrence created illustrations for a selection of 18 of Aesop's Fables for Windmill Press in 1970, and the University of Washington Press published the full set of 23 tales in 1998.==== Teaching and late works ====Lawrence taught at several schools after his first stint teaching at Black Mountain College, including the New School for Social Research, the Art Students League, Pratt Institute, and the Skowhegan School.", "He became a visiting artist at the University of Washington in 1970 and was professor of art there from 1971 to 1986.He was graduate advisor there to lithographer and abstract painter James Claussen.Shortly after moving to Washington state, Lawrence did a series of five paintings on the westward journey of African-American pioneer George Washington Bush.", "These paintings are now in the collection of the State of Washington History Museum.He undertook several major commissions in this part of his career.", "In 1980, he completed ''Exploration'', a 40-foot-long mural made of porcelain on steel, comprising a dozen panels devoted to academic endeavor.", "It was installed in Howard University's Blackburn Center.", "The ''Washington Post'' described it as \"enormously sophisticated yet wholly unpretentious \" and said:Lawrence produced another series in 1983, eight screen prints called the ''Hiroshima Series''.", "Commissioned to provide full-page illustrations for a new edition of a work of his choice, Lawrence chose John Hershey's ''Hiroshima'' (1946).", "He depicted in abstract visual language several survivors at the moment of the bombing in the midst of physical and emotional destruction.Lawrence's painting ''Theater'' was commissioned by the University of Washington in 1985 and installed in the main lobby of the Meany Hall for the Performing Arts.===Last years and death===The Whitney Museum of American Art produced an exhibition of Lawrence's entire career in 1974, as did the Seattle Art Museum in 1986.In 1999, he and his wife established the Jacob and Gwendolyn Lawrence Foundation for the creation, presentation and study of American art, with a particular emphasis on work by African-American artists.", "It represents their estates and maintains a searchable archive of nearly a thousand images of their work.Lawrence continued to paint until a few weeks before his death from lung cancer on June 9, 2000, at the age of 82." ], [ "Personal life", "Lawrence's wife, Gwendolyn Knight, survived him and died in 2005 at the age of 91." ], [ "Awards and honors", "* 1945: Awarded a fellowship in the fine arts by the Guggenheim Foundation* 1970: Awarded the Spingarn Medal by the NAACP for his outstanding achievements* 1971: Elected an associate member of the National Academy of Design* 1978: Elected a member of the National Academy of Design* 1983: Elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters* 1990: Awarded the U.S. National Medal of Arts* 1995: Elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences * 1996: The Meadows School of the Arts at Southern Methodist University awarded him the Algur H. Meadows Award for Excellence.", "* 1998: Awarded the highest honor of Washington state, The Washington Medal of MeritThe eighteen institutions that awarded Lawrence honorary degrees include Harvard University, Yale University, Howard University, Amherst College, and New York University." ], [ "Legacy", "''The New York Times'' described him as \"one of America's leading modern figurative painters\" and \"among the most impassioned visual chroniclers of the African-American experience.\"", "Shortly before his death he stated: \"...for me, a painting should have three things: universality, clarity and strength.", "Clarity and strength so that it may be aesthetically good.", "Universality so that it may be understood by all men.", "\"A retrospective exhibition of Lawrence's work, planned before his death, opened at the Phillips Collection in May 2001 and travelled to the Whitney Museum of American Art, the Detroit Institute of Fine Arts, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston.", "The exhibit was meant to coincide with the publication of ''Jacob Lawrence: Paintings, Drawings, and Murals (1935-1999), A Catalogue Raisonne''.", "His last commissioned public work, the mosaic mural ''New York in Transit'' made of Murano glass was installed in October 2001 in the Times Square subway station in New York City.In 2005, ''Dixie Café'', a 1948 brush-and-ink drawing by Lawrence, was selected to suggest The Civil Rights Act of 1964 in a U.S. postage stamp panel commemorating milestones of the Civil Rights Movement.", "The stamp sheet was called ''To Form A More Perfect Union.", "''In May 2007, the White House Historical Association purchased Lawrence's ''The Builders'' (1947) at auction for $2.5 million.", "The painting has hung in the White House Green Room since 2009.The Seattle Art Museum offers the Gwendolyn Knight and Jacob Lawrence Fellowship, a $10,000 award to \"individuals whose original work reflects the Lawrences' concern with artistic excellence, education, mentorship and scholarship within the cultural contexts and value systems that informed their work and the work of other artists of color.", "\"The Jacob Lawrence Gallery at the University of Washington School of Art + Art History + Design offers an annual Jacob Lawrence Legacy Residency.His work is in the permanent collections of numerous museums, including the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Smithsonian American Art Museum, the Museum of Modern Art, the Whitney Museum, the Phillips Collection, the Brooklyn Museum, the National Gallery of Art and Reynolda House Museum of American Art, the Art Institute Chicago, the Madison Museum of Contemporary Art, the Kalamazoo Institute of Arts, the Minneapolis Institute of Art, the Minnesota Museum of American Art, the Savannah College of Art and Design Museum, the Seattle Art Museum, the Birmingham Museum of Art, the Indianapolis Museum of Art, the University of Michigan Museum of Art, the North Carolina Museum of Art, the Princeton University Art Museum, the Musei Vaticani, the Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science and Engineering, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, the Saint Louis Art Museum, the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, the Studio Museum in Harlem, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Portland Art Museum, the Hudson River Museum, and The Walker Art Center in Minneapolis." ], [ "See also", "* List of African-American visual artists* List of Federal Art Project artists" ], [ "References", ";Further reading* Bearden, Romare, and Henderson, Harry.", "''A History of African-American Artists (From 1792 to the Present)'', pp.", "293–314, Pantheon Books (Random House), 1993, * Caro, Julie Levin, and Jeff Arnal, eds (2019).", "''Between Form and Content : Perspectives on Jacob Lawrence + Black Mountain College''.", "Asheville, N.C.: Black Mountain College Museum + Arts Center.", ".", "*Caro, Julie Levin and Storm Janse van Rensburg, ed.", "(2020).", "''Jacob Lawrence : Lines of Influence''.", "Zurich, Switzerland : Scheidegger & Spiess ; Savannah, Georgia : SCAD Museum of Art.", ".", "*Dickerman, Leah, Elsa Smithgall, Elizabeth Alexander, Rita Dove, Nikky Finney, Terrance Hayes, Tyehimba Jess, et al.", "(2015).", "''Jacob Lawrence : The Migration Series''.", "New York, New York: Museum of Modern Art.", ".", "*Driskell, David C, and Patricia Hills.", "(2008).", "''Jacob Lawrence : Moving Forward Paintings, 1936–1999''.", "New York: DC Moore Gallery.", ".", "*Hills, Patricia  (2019).", "''Painting Harlem Modern : The Art of Jacob Lawrence''.", "Berkeley, California: University of California Press.", "* * *Miles, J. H., Davis, J. J., Ferguson-Roberts, S. E., and Giles, R. G. (2001).", "''Almanac of" ], [ "External links", "* * \"Jacob Lawrence\", Queens Museum of Art website; includes reproductions of several prints from the ''John Brown'' series.", "* The Jacob and Gwendolyn Knight Lawrence Foundation website, works at Phillips Collection* Jacob Lawrence, ''Interior Scene'' (1937), Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "James Stewart" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Maitland \"Jimmy\"''' '''Stewart''' (May 20, 1908 – July 2, 1997) was an American actor and military officer.", "Known for his distinctive drawl and everyman screen persona, Stewart's film career spanned 80 films from 1935 to 1991.With the strong morality, which he portrayed both on and off the screen, he epitomized the \"American ideal\" in the mid-twentieth century.", "In 1999, the American Film Institute (AFI) ranked him third on its list of the greatest American male actors.", "He received numerous honors including the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1980, the Kennedy Center Honor in 1983, as well as the Academy Honorary Award and Presidential Medal of Freedom, both in 1985.Born and raised in Indiana, Pennsylvania, Stewart started acting while at Princeton University.", "After graduating, he began a career as a stage actor making his Broadway debut in the play ''Carry Nation'' (1932).", "He landed his first supporting role in ''The Murder Man'' (1935) and had his breakthrough in Frank Capra's ensemble comedy ''You Can't Take It with You'' (1938).", "Stewart went on to receive the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in George Cukor romantic comedy ''The Philadelphia Story'' (1940).", "His other Oscar-nominated roles were in ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' (1939), ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946), ''Harvey'' (1950) and ''Anatomy of a Murder'' (1959).", "Stewart played darker, more morally ambiguous characters in movies directed by Anthony Mann, including ''Winchester '73'' (1950), ''The Glenn Miller Story'' (1954), and ''The Naked Spur'' (1953), and by Alfred Hitchcock in ''Rope'' (1948), ''Rear Window'' (1954), ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' (1956), and ''Vertigo'' (1958).", "Stewart also starred in ''The Greatest Show on Earth'' (1952), ''The Spirit of St. Louis'' (1957), ''The Flight of the Phoenix'' (1965) as well as the Western films ''How the West Was Won'' (1962), ''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance'' (1962), and ''Cheyenne Autumn'' (1964).He enlisted in the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II, deputy commanding the 2nd Bombardment Wing and commanding the 703d Bombardment Squadron from 1941 to 1947.He later transferred to the Air Force Reserve, and held various command positions until his retirement in 1968 as a brigadier general.", "Stewart remained unmarried until his 40s and was dubbed \"The Great American Bachelor\" by the press.", "In 1949, he married former model Gloria Hatrick McLean.", "They had twin daughters, and he adopted her two sons from her previous marriage.", "The marriage lasted until McLean's death in 1994, and Stewart died of a pulmonary embolism three years later." ], [ "Early life and education", "The Stewart family in 1918Stewart (right) outside his family's hardware store, 1930With Joshua Logan (c.), 1930 James Maitland Stewart was born on May 20, 1908, in Indiana, Pennsylvania, the eldest child and only son born to Elizabeth Ruth (''née'' Jackson; 1875–1953) and Alexander Maitland Stewart (1872–1962).", "Stewart had two younger sisters, Mary (1912–1977) and Virginia (1914–1972).", "He was of Scottish and Scotch-Irish ancestry.", "The Stewart family had lived in Pennsylvania for many generations.", "Stewart's father ran the family business, the J. M. Stewart and Company Hardware Store, which he hoped Stewart would take over as an adult after attending Princeton University, as was the family tradition.", "Raised a Presbyterian by his deeply religious father, Stewart was a devout churchgoer for much of his life.Stewart's mother was a pianist, and music was an important part of family life.", "When a customer at the store was unable to pay his bill, Stewart's father accepted an old accordion as payment.", "Stewart learned to play the instrument with the help of a local barber.", "His accordion became a fixture offstage during his acting career.", "A shy child, Stewart spent much of his time after school in the basement working on model airplanes, mechanical drawings, and chemistry—all with a dream of going into aviation.", "He attended the Wilson Model School for primary school and junior high school.", "He was not a gifted student and received average to low grades.", "According to his teachers, this was not from a lack of intelligence, but due to being creative and having a tendency to daydream.Stewart began attending Mercersburg Academy prep school in the fall of 1923, because his father did not believe he would be accepted into Princeton (his father was a member of the class of 1898) if he attended public high school.", "At Mercersburg, Stewart participated in a variety of extracurricular activities.", "He was a member of the track team (competing as a high jumper under coach Jimmy Curran), the art editor of the school yearbook, a member of the glee club, and a member of the John Marshall Literary Society.", "To his disappointment, he was relegated to the third-tier football team due to his slender physique.", "Stewart also made his first onstage appearance at Mercersburg, as Buquet in the play ''The Wolves'' in 1928.During summer breaks, he returned to Indiana, working first as a brick loader and then as a magician's assistant.", "Due to scarlet fever that turned into a kidney infection, he had to take time out from school in 1927, which delayed his graduation until 1928.He remained passionate about aviation, with his interest enhanced by Charles Lindbergh's first solo transatlantic flight, but abandoned visions of becoming a pilot when his father steered him towards Princeton.Stewart enrolled at Princeton in 1928 as a member of the class of 1932, majoring in architecture and becoming a member of the Princeton Charter Club.", "He excelled academically but also became attracted to the school's drama and music clubs, including the Princeton Triangle Club.", "Upon his graduation in 1932, he was awarded a scholarship for graduate studies in architecture for his thesis on an airport terminal design, but chose instead to join University Players, an intercollegiate summer stock company performing in West Falmouth, Massachusetts, on Cape Cod." ], [ "Career", "===1932–1937: Theater and early film roles===Yellow Jack'', in which he starred on Broadway in 1934 and which garnered him critical praise.Stewart performed in bit parts in the University Players' productions in Cape Cod during the summer of 1932.The company's directors included Joshua Logan, Bretaigne Windust, and Charles Leatherbee, and amongst its other actors were married couple Henry Fonda and Margaret Sullavan, who became Stewart's close friends.", "At the end of the season, Stewart moved to New York with his Players friends Logan, Myron McCormick, and newly single Henry Fonda.", "Along with McCormick, Stewart debuted on Broadway in the brief run of ''Carry Nation'' and a few weeks later – again with McCormick – appeared as a chauffeur in the comedy ''Goodbye Again'', in which he had a walk-on line.", "''The New Yorker'' commented, \"Mr. James Stewart's chauffeur... comes on for three minutes and walks off to a round of spontaneous applause.\"", "Following the seven-month run of ''Goodbye Again'', Stewart took a stage manager position in Boston, but was fired after frequently missing his cues.", "Returning to New York, he then landed a small part in ''Spring in Autumn'' and a role in ''All Good Americans'', where he was required to throw a banjo out of the window.", "Brooks Atkinson of ''The New York Times'' wrote, \"Throwing a $250 banjo out of the window at the concierge is constructive abuse and should be virtuously applauded.\"", "Both plays folded after only short runs, and Stewart began to think about going back to his studies.Stewart was convinced to continue acting when he was cast in the lead role of ''Yellow Jack'', playing a soldier who becomes the subject of a yellow fever experiment.", "It premiered at the Martin Beck Theater in March 1934.Stewart received unanimous praise from the critics, but the play proved unpopular with audiences and folded by June.", "During the summer, Stewart made his film debut with an unbilled appearance in the Shemp Howard comedy short ''Art Trouble'' (1934), filmed in Brooklyn, and acted in summer stock productions of ''We Die Exquisitely'' and ''All Paris Knows'' at the Red Barn Theater on Long Island.", "In the fall, he again received excellent reviews for his role in ''Divided by Three'' at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre, which he followed with the modestly successful ''Page Miss Glory'' and the critical failure ''A Journey By Night'' in spring 1935.", "''After the Thin Man'' (1936)Soon after ''A Journey By Night'' ended, Stewart signed a seven-year contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), orchestrated by talent scout Bill Grady, who had been tracking Stewart's career since seeing him perform in Princeton.", "His first Hollywood role was a minor appearance in the Spencer Tracy vehicle ''The Murder Man'' (1935).", "His performance was largely ignored by critics, although the ''New York Herald Tribune'', remembering him in ''Yellow Jack'', called him \"wasted in a bit that he handles with characteristically engaging skill\".", "As MGM did not see leading-man material in Stewart, described by biographer Michael D. Rinella as a \"lanky young bumpkin with a hesitant manner of speech\" during this time, his agent Leland Hayward decided that the best path for him would be through loan-outs to other studios.Stewart had only a small role in his second MGM film, the hit musical ''Rose Marie'' (1936), but it led to his casting in seven other films within one year, from ''Next Time We Love'' to ''After the Thin Man''.", "He also received crucial help from his University Players friend Margaret Sullavan, who campaigned for him to be her leading man in the Universal romantic comedy ''Next Time We Love'' (1936), filmed right after ''Rose Marie''.", "Sullavan rehearsed extensively with him, boosting his confidence and helping him incorporate his mannerisms and boyishness into his screen persona.", "''Next Time We Love'' was a box-office success and received mostly positive reviews, leading Stewart to be noticed by critics and MGM executives.", "''Time'' stated that \"the chief significance of the film in the progress of the cinema industry is likely to reside in the presence in its cast of James Stewart\", and ''The New York Times'' called him \"a welcome addition to the roster of Hollywood's leading men\".Stewart and Wendy Barrie in ''Speed'' (1936)Robert Young, Tom Brown, and Stewart in ''Navy Blue and Gold'' (1937)Stewart followed ''Next Time We Love'' with supporting roles in two commercially successful romantic comedies, ''Wife vs. Secretary'' (1936) with Clark Gable and Myrna Loy and ''Small Town Girl'' (1936).", "In both, he played the betrayed boyfriend of the leading lady, portrayed by Jean Harlow and Janet Gaynor, respectively.", "Both films garnered him some good reviews.", "After an appearance in the short subject ''Important News'' (1936), Stewart had his first top-billed role in the low-budget \"B\" movie ''Speed'' (1936), in which he played a mechanic and speed driver competing in the Indianapolis 500.The film was a critical and commercial failure, although Frank Nugent of ''The New York Times'' stated that \"Mr. Stewart and the rest of the cast perform as pleasantly as possible.", "\"Stewart's last three film releases of 1936 were all box-office successes.", "He had only a bit part in ''The Gorgeous Hussy'', but a starring role in the musical ''Born to Dance'' with Eleanor Powell.", "His performance in the latter was not well-received: ''The New York Times'' stated that his \"singing and dancing will (fortunately) never win him a song-and-dance-man classification\", and ''Variety'' called \"his singing and dancing ... rather painful on their own\", although it otherwise found Stewart aptly cast in an \"assignment that calls for a shy youth\".", "Stewart's last film to be released in 1936, ''After the Thin Man'', features a shattering emotional climax rendered by Stewart.", "Kate Cameron of the ''New York Daily News'' wrote that he \"has one grand scene in which he demonstrates most effectively that he is something more than a musical comedy juvenile\".For his next film, the romantic drama ''Seventh Heaven'' (1937), Stewart was loaned to 20th Century-Fox to play a Parisian sewer worker in a remake of Frank Borzage's silent classic released a decade earlier.", "He and co-star Simone Simon were miscast, and the film was a critical and commercial failure.", "William Boehnel of the ''New York World-Telegram'' called Stewart's performance emotionless, and Eileen Creelman of ''The New York Sun'' wrote that he made little attempt to look or sound French.", "Stewart's next film, ''The Last Gangster'' (1937) starring Edward G. Robinson, was also a failure, but it was followed by a critically acclaimed performance in ''Navy Blue and Gold'' (1937) as a football player at the United States Naval Academy.", "The film was a box-office success and earned Stewart the best reviews of his career up to that point.", "''The New York Times'' wrote \"the ending leaves us with the conviction that James Stewart is a sincere and likable triple-threat man in the MGM backfield\" and ''Variety'' called his performance \"fine\".=== 1938–1941: Leading man ===Despite good reviews, Stewart was still a minor star, and MGM remained hesitant to cast him in leading roles, preferring to loan him out to other studios.", "After a well-received supporting part in ''Of Human Hearts'' (1938), he was loaned to RKO to act opposite Ginger Rogers in the romantic comedy ''Vivacious Lady'' (1938).", "The production was shut down for months in 1937 as Stewart recovered from an undisclosed illness, during which he was hospitalized.", "RKO initially wanted to replace Stewart, but eventually the project was canceled.", "However, Rogers' success in a stage musical caused the film to be picked up again.", "Stewart was recast in ''Vivacious Lady'' at Rogers' insistence and due to his performance in ''Of Human Hearts''.", "It was a critical and commercial success, and showed Stewart's talent for performing in romantic comedies; ''The New York Herald'' called him \"one of the most knowing and engaging young actors appearing on the screen at present\".Stewart's third film release of 1938, the First World War drama ''The Shopworn Angel'', saw him collaborate again with Margaret Sullavan.", "In his performance, Stewart drew upon his own feelings of unrequited love towards Sullavan, who was married to his agent, Leland Hayward.", "Although the film was otherwise well-received, critics were mixed about Stewart.", "Bland Johaneson of the ''New York Daily Mirror'' compared him to Stan Laurel in this melodramatic film, and ''Variety'' called his performance unfocused.", "Irene Thier of ''The New York Post'' wrote that his role was \"just another proof that this young man is one of the finest actors of the screen's young roster\".Stewart and Jean Arthur in Frank Capra's ''You Can't Take It with You'' (1938)Stewart became a major star when he was loaned out to Columbia Pictures to play the lead role in Frank Capra's ''You Can't Take It with You'' (1938) opposite Jean Arthur.", "Stewart played the son of a banker who falls in love with a woman from a poor and eccentric family.", "Capra had recently completed several well-received films and was looking for a new type of leading man.", "He had been impressed by Stewart's role in ''Navy Blue and Gold'' (1937).", "According to Capra, Stewart was one of the best actors ever to hit the screen, understood character archetypes intuitively, and required little directing.", "''You Can't Take It With You'' became the fifth highest-grossing film of the year and won the Academy Award for Best Picture.", "The film was also critically successful, but while ''Variety'' wrote that the performances of Stewart and Arthur garnered \"much of the laughs\", most of the critical acclaim went to Lionel Barrymore and Edward Arnold.In contrast to the success of ''You Can't Take It With You'', Stewart's first three film releases of 1939 were all commercial disappointments.", "In the melodrama ''Made for Each Other'' (1939), he shared the screen with Carole Lombard.", "Stewart blamed its directing and screenwriting for its poor box-office performance.", "Regardless, the film received favorable reviews, with ''Newsweek'' writing that Stewart and Lombard were \"perfectly cast in the leading roles\".", "The other two films, ''The Ice Follies of 1939'' and ''It's a Wonderful World'', were critical failures.Stewart in Frank Capra's ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' (1939)In Stewart's fourth 1939 film, he worked with Capra and Arthur again in the political comedy-drama ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington''.", "Stewart played an idealist thrown into the political arena.", "It garnered critical praise and became the third-highest-grossing film of the year.", "''The Nation'' stated \"Stewart takes first place among Hollywood actors...Now he is mature and gives a difficult part, with many nuances, moments of tragic-comic impact.\"", "Later, critic Andrew Sarris qualified Stewart's performance as \"lean, gangling, idealistic to the point of being neurotic, thoughtful to the point of being tongue-tied\", describing him as \"particularly gifted in expressing the emotional ambivalence of the action hero\".", "Stewart won the New York Film Critics Circle award and received his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor.Stewart's last screen appearance of 1939 came in the Western ''Destry Rides Again'', in which he portrayed a pacifist lawman alongside Marlene Dietrich, a saloon girl who falls in love with him.", "It was critically and commercially successful.", "''TIME'' magazine wrote, \"James Stewart, who had just turned in the top performance of his cinematurity as Jefferson Smith in ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'', turns in as good a performance or better as Thomas Jefferson Destry.\"", "Between films, Stewart had begun a radio career and had become a distinctive voice on the ''Lux Radio Theater'', ''The Screen Guild Theater'', and other shows.", "So well-known had his slow drawl become that comedians began impersonating him.Margaret Sullavan and Stewart in their third collaboration, ''The Shop Around the Corner'' (1940)Stewart and Sullavan reunited for two films in 1940.The Ernst Lubitsch romantic comedy ''The Shop Around the Corner'' starred them as co-workers who cannot stand each other but unknowingly become romantic pen-pals.", "It received good reviews and was a box-office success in Europe, but failed to find an audience in the US, where less-gentle screwball comedies were more popular.", "Director Lubitsch assessed it to be the best film of his career, and it has been regarded highly by later critics, such as Pauline Kael and Richard Schickel.The drama ''The Mortal Storm'', directed by Frank Borzage, featured Sullavan and Stewart as lovers caught in turmoil upon Hitler's rise to power.", "It was one of the first blatantly anti-Nazi films to be produced in Hollywood, but according to film scholar Ben Urwand, \"ultimately made very little impact\" as it did not show the persecution experienced by Jews or name that ethnic group.", "Despite being well received by critics, it failed at the box office.", "Ten days after filming ''The Mortal Storm'', Stewart began filming ''No Time for Comedy'' (1940) with Rosalind Russell.", "Critics complimented Stewart's performance; Bosley Crowther of ''The New York Times'' called Stewart \"the best thing in the show\", yet the film was again not a box-office success.Katharine Hepburn and Stewart in ''The Philadelphia Story'' (1940), for which he won his only Academy Award for Best ActorStewart's final film to be released in 1940 was George Cukor's romantic comedy ''The Philadelphia Story'', in which he played an intrusive, fast-talking reporter sent to cover the wedding of a socialite (Katharine Hepburn) with the help of her ex-husband (Cary Grant).", "The film became one of the largest box-office successes of the year and received widespread critical acclaim.", "''The New York Herald Tribune'' stated that \"Stewart...contributes most of the comedy to the show...In addition, he contributes some of the most irresistible romantic moments.\"", "His performance earned him his only Academy Award in a competitive category for Best Actor, beating out Henry Fonda, for whom he had voted and with whom he had once roomed, both almost broke, in the early 1930s in New York.", "Stewart himself assessed his performance in ''Mr.", "Smith'' to be superior and believed the academy was recompensing for not giving him the award the year prior.", "Moreover, Stewart's character was a supporting role, not the male lead.", "He gave the Oscar to his father, who displayed it at his hardware store alongside other family awards and military medals.Stewart next appeared in two comedies—''Come Live with Me'' (1941), which paired him with Hedy Lamarr, and ''Pot o' Gold'' (1941), featuring Paulette Goddard—that were both box-office failures.", "Stewart considered the latter to be the worst film of his career.", "His last film before military service was the musical ''Ziegfeld Girl'' (1941), which co-starred Judy Garland, Hedy Lamarr, and Lana Turner.", "It was a critical failure, but also one of the best box-office performers of the year.===1941–1947: Military service===Stewart became the first major American movie star to enlist in the United States Army to fight in World War II.", "His family had deep military roots: both of his grandfathers had fought in the Civil War, and his father had served during both the Spanish–American War and World War I.", "After first being rejected for low weight in November 1940, he enlisted in February 1941.As an experienced pilot, he reported for induction as a private in the Air Corps on March 22, 1941.Soon to be 33 years old, he was over the age limit for Aviation Cadet training—the normal path of commissioning for pilots, navigators and bombardiers—and therefore applied for an Air Corps commission as both a college graduate and a licensed commercial pilot.", "Stewart received his commission as a second lieutenant on January 1, 1942.Lieutenant James Stewart in ''Winning Your Wings'' (1942)After enlisting, Stewart made no new commercial films, although he remained under contract to MGM.", "His public appearances were limited to engagements for the Army Air Forces.", "The Air Corps scheduled him on network radio with Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy, and on the radio program ''We Hold These Truths'', a celebration of the United States Bill of Rights, which was broadcast a week after the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "Stewart also appeared in a First Motion Picture Unit short film, ''Winning Your Wings'', to help recruit airmen.", "Nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary in 1942, it appeared in movie theaters nationwide beginning in late May 1942 and resulted in 150,000 new recruits.Stewart was concerned that his celebrity status would relegate him to duties behind the lines.", "After spending over a year training pilots at Kirtland Army Airfield in Albuquerque, New Mexico, he appealed to his commander and in November 1943 was sent to England as part of the 703d Bomb Squadron to fly B-24 Liberators.", "He was based initially at RAF Tibenham, before moving to RAF Old Buckenham.Colonel Stewart receiving the alt=A military officer pinning an award to Stewart's decorated military jacket, among other uniformed soldiersStewart was promoted to major following a mission to Ludwigshafen, Germany, on January 7, 1944.He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for actions as deputy commander of the 2nd Bombardment Wing, the French Croix de Guerre with palm, and the Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters.", "Stewart was promoted to full colonel on March 29, 1945, becoming one of the few Americans to ever rise from private to colonel in only four years.", "At the beginning of June 1945, Stewart was the presiding officer of the court martial of a pilot and navigator who accidentally bombed Zürich, Switzerland.Stewart returned to the United States in early fall 1945.He continued to play a role in reserve of the Army Air Forces after the war and was also one of the 12 founders of the Air Force Association in October 1945.Stewart would eventually transfer to the reserves of the United States Air Force after the Army Air Forces split from the Army in 1947.During active-duty periods, he served with the Strategic Air Command and completed transition training as a pilot on the B-47 and B-52.Stewart was first nominated for promotion to brigadier general in February 1957; however, his promotion was initially opposed by Senator Margaret Chase Smith.", "At the time of the nomination, the ''Washington Daily News'' noted: \"He trains actively with the Reserve every year.", "He's had 18 hours as first pilot of a B-52.\"", "On July 23, 1959, Stewart was promoted to brigadier general, becoming the highest-ranking actor in American military history.", "During the Vietnam War, he flew as a non-duty observer in a B-52 on an Arc Light bombing mission in February 1966.He served for 27 years, officially retiring from the Air Force on May 31, 1968, when he reached the mandatory retirement age of 60.Upon his retirement, he was awarded the United States Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.", "Stewart rarely spoke about his wartime service but did appear in an episode of the British television documentary series ''The World at War'' (1974), commenting on the disastrous 1943 mission against Schweinfurt, Germany.=== 1946–1949: Early post-war films ===George Bailey and Travers as Clarence Odbody in ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946).", "Although only a moderate success at the time of its release, the film has later come to define Stewart's legacy.|alt=Travers stands behind a seated Stewart putting his hand on Stewart's shoulderAfter his experiences in the war, Stewart considered returning to Pennsylvania to run the family store.", "His former agent, Leland Hayward, had also left the talent business in 1944 after selling his roster of stars, including Stewart, to Music Corporation of America (MCA).", "Stewart decided not to renew his MGM contract and instead signed a deal with MCA.", "He later stated that he was given a new beginning by Frank Capra, who asked him to star in ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946), the first postwar film for both of them.", "Stewart played George Bailey, an upstanding small-town man who becomes increasingly frustrated by his ordinary existence and financial troubles.", "Driven to suicide on Christmas Eve, he is led to reassess his life by Clarence Odbody, an \"angel, second class\", played by Henry Travers.", "During filming, Stewart experienced doubts about his abilities and continued to consider retiring from acting.Although ''It's a Wonderful Life'' was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Stewart's third Best Actor nomination, it received mixed reviews and was only a moderate success at the box office, failing to cover its production costs.", "Several critics found the movie too sentimental, although Bosley Crowther wrote that Stewart did a \"warmly appealing job, indicating that he has grown in spiritual stature as well as in talent during the years he was in the war\", and President Harry S. Truman concluded that \"If my wife and I had a son we'd want him to be just like Jimmy Stewart in this film.\"", "In the decades since its release, ''It's a Wonderful Life'' has grown to define Stewart's film persona and is widely considered a Christmas classic, and according to the American Film Institute, is one of the 100 best American movies ever made.", "Andrew Sarris stated that Stewart's performance was underappreciated by critics of the time, who could not see \"the force and fury\" of it, and considered his proposal scene with Donna Reed, \"one of the most sublimely histrionic expressions of passion\".", "Stewart later named the film his personal favorite out of his filmography.In the aftermath of ''It's A Wonderful Life'', Capra's production company went into bankruptcy, while Stewart continued to have doubts about his acting abilities.", "His generation of actors was fading, and a new wave of actors, including Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift, and James Dean, would soon remake Hollywood.", "Stewart returned to making radio dramas in 1946; he continued this work between films until the mid-1950s.", "He also made a comeback on Broadway to star in Mary Coyle Chase's ''Harvey'' in July 1947, replacing the original star Frank Fay for the duration of his vacation.", "The play had opened to nearly universal praise in 1944 and told the story of Elwood P. Dowd, a wealthy eccentric, whose best friend is an invisible man-sized rabbit and whose relatives are trying to get him committed to a mental asylum.", "Stewart gained a following in the unconventional play, and although Fay returned to the role in August, they decided that Stewart would take his place again the next summer.", "Stewart's only film to be released in 1947 was the William A. Wellman comedy ''Magic Town'', one of the first films about the new science of public opinion polling.", "It was poorly received both commercially and critically.", "Stewart with Farley Granger and John Dall in ''Rope'' (1948), his first collaboration with Alfred Hitchcock.", "He was criticized for being miscast in the role of a cynical professor.Stewart appeared in four new film releases in 1948.", "''Call Northside 777'' was a critically acclaimed film noir, while the musical comedy ''On Our Merry Way'', in which Stewart and Henry Fonda played jazz musicians in an ensemble cast, was a critical and commercial failure.", "The comedy ''You Gotta Stay Happy'', which paired Stewart with Joan Fontaine, was the most successful of his post-war films up to that point.", "''Rope'', in which Stewart played the idolized teacher of two young men who commit murder to show their supposed superiority, began his collaboration with Alfred Hitchcock.", "Shot in long \"real-time\" takes, Stewart felt pressure to be flawless in his performance; the added stress led to him sleeping very little and drinking more heavily.", "''Rope'' received mixed reviews, and Andrew Sarris and Scott Eyman have later called him miscast in the role of a Nietzsche-loving philosophy professor.", "The film's screenwriter Arthur Laurents also stated that \"the casting of Stewart was absolutely destructive.", "He's not sexual as an actor.", "\"Stewart found success again with ''The Stratton Story'' (1949), playing baseball champion Monty Stratton opposite June Allyson.", "It became the sixth highest-grossing film of 1949 and was well received by the critics.", "''The New York Times'' noted, \"''The Stratton Story'' was the best thing that has yet happened to Mr. Stewart in his post-war film career...he gives such a winning performance that it is almost impossible to imagine any one else playing the role.\"", "Stewart's other 1949 release saw him reunited with Spencer Tracy in the World War II film ''Malaya'' (1949).", "It was a commercial failure and received mixed reviews.=== 1950–1959: Collaborations with Alfred Hitchcock and Anthony Mann ===Stewart with Shelley Winters in ''Winchester '73'', his first project with Anthony Mann.", "In the 1950s, Stewart redefined his career as a star of Western films.In the 1950s, Stewart experienced a career renewal as the star of Westerns and collaborated on several films with director Anthony Mann.", "The first of these was the Universal production ''Winchester '73'' (1950), which Stewart agreed to do in exchange for being cast in a screen adaptation of ''Harvey''.", "It also marked a turning point in Hollywood, as Stewart's agent, Lew Wasserman, brokered an innovative deal with Universal, in which Stewart would receive no fee in exchange for a percentage of the profits.", "Stewart was also granted authority to collaborate with the studio on casting and hiring decisions.", "Stewart ended up earning about $600,000 for ''Winchester '73'', significantly more than his usual fee, and other stars quickly capitalized on this new way of doing business, which further undermined the decaying studio system.Stewart chose Mann to direct, and the film gave him the idea of redefining his screen persona through the Western genre.", "In the film, Stewart is a tough, vengeful sharpshooter, the winner of a prized rifle that is stolen and passes through many hands, until the showdown between him and his brother.", "''Winchester '73'' became a box-office success upon its summer release and earned Stewart rave reviews.", "He also starred in another successful Western that summer, ''Broken Arrow'' (1950), which featured him as an ex-soldier and Native American agent making peace with the Apache.Stewart in ''Harvey'' (1950), the only film for which he received both an Academy Award nomination and a Golden Globe nominationStewart's third film release of 1950 was the comedy ''The Jackpot''; it received critical acclaim and was commercially successful, but was a minor film in his repertoire and has largely been forgotten by contemporary critics and fans.", "In December 1950, the screen adaptation of ''Harvey'' was released, directed by Henry Koster and with Stewart reprising his stage role.", "With critics comparing his performance with Fay's, Stewart's performance as well as the film itself received mixed reviews.", "Bosley Crowther of ''The New York Times'' wrote that \"so darling is the acting of James Stewart ... and all the rest that a virtually brand-new experience is still in store for even those who saw the play\", while ''Variety'' called him \"perfect\" in the role.", "John McCarten of the ''New Yorker'' stated that although he \"doesn't bring his part to the battered authority of Frank Fay...he nevertheless succeeds in making plausible the notion that Harvey, the rabbit, would accept him as a pal.\"", "Stewart later stated that he was dissatisfied with his performance, stating, \"I played him a little too dreamily, a little too cute-cute.\"", "Despite the film's poor box office performance, Stewart received his fourth Academy Award nomination as well as his first Golden Globe nomination.", "Similar to ''It's a Wonderful Life'', ''Harvey'' achieved popularity later, after frequent television showings.Stewart appeared in only one film released in 1951, playing a scientist in Koster's British production ''No Highway in the Sky'', which was one of the first airplane disaster films ever made.", "Filmed in England, it became a box office success in the United Kingdom, but failed to attract audiences in the United States.", "Stewart took a small supporting role as a troubled clown in Cecil B. DeMille's ''The Greatest Show on Earth'' (1952), which went on to win the Academy Award for Best Picture.", "Critics were curious why Stewart had taken such a small, out-of-character role; he responded that he was inspired by Lon Chaney's ability to disguise himself while letting his character emerge.", "In the same year, Stewart starred in a critically and commercially failed biopic, ''Carbine Williams'' (1952), and continued his collaboration with Mann in ''Bend of the River'' (1952), which was a commercial and critical success.John McIntire and Stewart in ''The Far Country'' (1955)Stewart followed ''Bend of the River'' with four more collaborations with Mann in the next two years.", "''The Naked Spur'' (1953) and ''The Far Country'' (1954) were successful with audiences and developed Stewart's screen persona into a more mature, ambiguous, and edgier presence.", "The films featured him as troubled cowboys seeking redemption while facing corrupt cattlemen, ranchers, and outlaws; a man who knows violence first-hand and struggles to control it.", "The Stewart–Mann collaborations laid the foundation for many of the Westerns of the 1950s and remain popular today for their grittier, more realistic depiction of the classic movie genre.", "In addition, Stewart starred in the Western radio show ''The Six Shooter'' for its one-season run from 1953 to 1954.He and Mann also collaborated on films outside the Western genre such as ''Thunder Bay'' (1953) and ''The Glenn Miller Story'' (1954), the latter a critically acclaimed biopic in which he starred opposite June Allyson.", "It earned Stewart a BAFTA nomination and continued his portrayals of 'American heroes'.Stewart with co-star Grace Kelly in ''Rear Window'' (1954), which allowed him to explore new depths of his screen personaStewart's second collaboration with Hitchcock, the thriller ''Rear Window'', became the eighth highest-grossing film of 1954.Hitchcock and Stewart also formed a corporation, Patron Inc., to produce the film.", "Stewart portrayed a photographer, loosely based on Robert Capa, who projects his fantasies and fears onto the people he observes out his apartment window while on hiatus due to a broken leg and comes to believe that he has witnessed a murder.", "Limited by his wheelchair, Stewart had to react to what his character sees with mostly facial responses.", "Like Mann, Hitchcock uncovered new depths to Stewart's acting, showing a protagonist confronting his fears and repressed desires.", "Although most of the initial acclaim for ''Rear Window'' was directed towards Hitchcock, critic Vincent Canby later described Stewart's performance in it as \"grand\" and stated that \"his longtime star status in Hollywood has always obscured recognition of his talent.\"", "1954 was a landmark year in Stewart's career in terms of audience success, and he topped ''Look'' magazine's list of the most-popular movie stars, displacing rival Western star John Wayne.Stewart continued his successful box-office run with two collaborations with Mann in 1955.", "''Strategic Air Command'' paired him again with June Allyson in a Cold War propaganda film geared to show audiences that extensive military spending was necessary.", "Stewart took a central role in its development, using his experiences from the air force.", "Despite criticism for the dry, mechanistic storyline, it became the sixth highest-grossing film of 1955.Stewart's final collaboration with Mann in the Western genre, ''The Man from Laramie'', one of the first Westerns to be shot in CinemaScope, was well received by the critics and audiences alike.", "Following his work with Mann, Stewart starred opposite Doris Day in Hitchcock's remake of his earlier film ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' (1956).", "The film was another success.", "Even though critics preferred the first version, Hitchcock himself considered his remake superior.Stewart's next film, Billy Wilder's ''The Spirit of St. Louis'' (1957), saw him star as his young adulthood hero, Charles Lindbergh.", "It was a big-budget production with elaborate special effects for the flying sequences, but received only mixed reviews and did not earn back its production costs.", "Stewart ended the year with a starring role in the Western ''Night Passage'' (1957), which had originally been slated as his ninth collaboration with Mann.", "During the pre-production, a rift developed between Mann and writer Borden Chase over the script, which Mann considered weak.", "Mann decided to leave the film and never collaborated with Stewart again.", "James Neilson replaced Mann, and the film opened in 1957 to become a box-office flop.", "Soured by this failure, Stewart avoided the genre and would not make another Western for four years.Stewart's last collaboration with Hitchcock was ''Vertigo'' (1958), in which he co-starred with Kim Novak.Stewart's collaboration with Hitchcock ended the following year with ''Vertigo'' (1958), in which he starred as an acrophobic former policeman who becomes obsessed with a woman (Kim Novak) he is shadowing.", "Although ''Vertigo'' has later become considered one of Hitchcock's key works and was ranked the greatest film ever made by the ''Sight & Sound'' critics' poll in 2012, it was met with unenthusiastic reviews and poor box-office receipts upon its release.", "Regardless, several critics complimented Stewart for his performance, with Bosley Crowther noting, \"Mr. Stewart, as usual, manages to act awfully tense in a casual way.", "\"alt=A Black and white closeup image of Stewart with an intense facial expressionHitchcock blamed the film's failure on Stewart being too old to convincingly be Novak's love interest: he was fifty years old at the time and had begun wearing a silver hairpiece in his movies.", "Consequently, Hitchcock cast Cary Grant in his next film, ''North by Northwest'' (1959), a role Stewart wanted; Grant was four years older than Stewart but photographed much younger.", "Stewart's second 1958 film release, the romantic comedy ''Bell, Book and Candle'' (1958), also paired him with Kim Novak, with Stewart later echoing Hitchcock in saying that he was miscast as 25-year-old Novak's romantic partner.", "The film and Stewart's performance received poor reviews and resulted in a box office failure.", "However, according to film scholar David Bingham, by the early 1950s, \"Stewart's personality was so credible and well-established\", that his choice of role no longer affected his popularity.Stewart ended the decade with Otto Preminger's realistic courtroom drama ''Anatomy of a Murder'' (1959) and the crime film ''The FBI Story'' (1959).", "The former was a box office success despite its explicit dealing with subjects such as rape, and garnered good reviews.", "Stewart received critical acclaim for his role as a small-town lawyer involved in a difficult murder case; Bosley Crowther called it \"one of the finest performances of his career\".", "Stewart won his first BAFTA, a Volpi Cup, a New York Film Critics Circle Award, and a Producers Guild of America Award, as well as earned his fifth and final Academy Award nomination for his performance.", "The latter film, in which Stewart portrayed a Depression-era FBI agent, was less well received by critics and was commercially unsuccessful.", "Despite the commercial failure of ''The FBI Story'', the film marked the close of the most commercially successful decade of Stewart's career.", "According to Quigley's annual poll, Stewart was one of the top money-making stars for ten years, appearing in the top ten in 1950, 1952–1959, and 1965.He topped the list in 1955.=== 1960–1970: Westerns and later career ===Stewart opened the new decade by starring in the war film ''The Mountain Road'' (1960).", "To his surprise, it was a box office failure, despite his claims that it was one of the best scripts he'd ever read.", "He began a new director collaboration with John Ford, making his debut in his films in the Western ''Two Rode Together'' (1961), which had thematic echoes of Ford's ''The Searchers''.", "The same year, he also narrated the film ''X-15'' for the USAF.", "Stewart was considered for the role of Atticus Finch in the 1962 film adaptation of Harper Lee's novel ''To Kill a Mockingbird'', but he turned it down, concerned that the story was too controversial.Stewart and Ford's next collaboration was ''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance'' (1962).", "A classic psychological Western, the picture was shot in black-and-white film noir style at Ford's insistence, with Stewart as an East Coast attorney who goes against his non-violent principles when he is forced to confront a psychopathic outlaw (Lee Marvin) in a small frontier town.", "The complex film initially garnered mixed reviews but became a critical favorite over the ensuing decades.", "Stewart was billed above John Wayne in posters and the trailers, but Wayne received top billing in the film itself.", "Stewart, Wayne, and Ford also collaborated for a television play that same year, ''Flashing Spikes'' (1962), for ABC's anthology series ''Alcoa Premiere'', albeit featuring Wayne billed with a television pseudonym, \"Michael Morris\", (also used for Wayne's brief appearance in the John Ford-directed episode of the television series ''Wagon Train'' titled \"The Colter Craven Story\") for his lengthy cameo.", "Next, Stewart appeared as part of an all-star cast—including Henry Fonda and John Wayne—in ''How the West Was Won'', a Western epic released in the United States in early 1963.The film went on to win three Academy Awards and reap massive box-office figures.With Bill Mumy in ''Dear Brigitte'' (1965)In 1962, Stewart signed a multi-movie deal with 20th Century Fox.", "The first two of these films reunited him with director Henry Koster in the family-friendly comedies ''Mr.", "Hobbs Takes a Vacation'' (1962) with Maureen O'Hara and ''Take Her, She's Mine'' (1963), which were both box-office successes.", "The former received moderately positive reviews and won Stewart the Silver Bear for Best Actor at the Berlin International Film Festival; the latter was panned by the critics.", "Stewart then appeared in John Ford's final Western, ''Cheyenne Autumn'' (1964), playing a white-suited Wyatt Earp in a long semi-comedic sequence in the middle of the movie.", "The film failed domestically and was quickly forgotten.In 1965, Stewart was given his first honorary award for his career, the Cecil B. DeMille Award.", "He appeared in three films that year.", "The Fox family-comedy ''Dear Brigitte'' (1965), which featured French actress Brigitte Bardot as the object of Stewart's son's infatuation, was a box-office failure.", "The Civil War film ''Shenandoah'' (1965) was a commercial success with strong anti-war and humanitarian themes.", "''The Flight of the Phoenix'' (1965) continued Stewart's series of aviation-themed films; it was well-received critically, but a box-office failure.For the next few years, Stewart acted in a series of Westerns: ''The Rare Breed'' (1966) with Maureen O'Hara, ''Firecreek'' (1968) with Henry Fonda, ''Bandolero!''", "(1968) with Dean Martin, and ''The Cheyenne Social Club'' (1970) with Henry Fonda again.", "In 1968, he received the Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award.", "Stewart returned on Broadway to reprise his role as Elwood P. Dowd in ''Harvey'' at the ANTA Theatre in February 1970; the revival ran until May.", "He won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Performance for it.=== 1971–1997: Television and semi-retirement ===In 1971, Stewart starred in the NBC sitcom ''The Jimmy Stewart Show''.", "He played a small-town college professor whose adult son moves back home with his family.", "Stewart disliked the amount of work needed to film the show each week and was relieved when it was canceled after only one season due to bad reviews and lack of audiences.", "His only film release for 1971, the comedy-drama ''Fools' Parade'', was more positively received.", "Robert Greenspun of ''The New York Times'' stated that \"the movie belongs to Stewart, who has never been more wonderful\".", "For his contributions to Western films, Stewart was inducted into the Hall of Great Western Performers at the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City in 1972.Hawkins'' (1973), which ran for one season.|alt=A sepia-toned headshot of a silver-haired Stewart in a suitStewart returned to television in ''Harvey'' for NBC's Hallmark Hall of Fame series in 1972 and then starred in the CBS mystery series ''Hawkins'' in 1973.Playing a small-town lawyer investigating mysterious cases—similar to his character in ''Anatomy of a Murder''—Stewart won a Golden Globe for his performance.", "Nevertheless, ''Hawkins'' failed to gain a wide audience, possibly because it rotated with ''Shaft'', which had a starkly conflicting demographic, and was canceled after one season.", "Stewart also periodically appeared on Johnny Carson's ''The Tonight Show'', sharing poems he had written at different times in his life.", "His poems were later compiled into a short collection, ''Jimmy Stewart and His Poems'' (1989).After performing again in ''Harvey'' at the Prince of Wales Theatre in London in 1975, Stewart returned to films with a major supporting role in John Wayne's final film, ''The Shootist'' (1976), playing a doctor giving Wayne's gunfighter a terminal cancer diagnosis.", "By this time, Stewart had a hearing impairment, which affected his ability to hear his cues and led to him repeatedly flubbing his lines; his vanity would not allow him to admit this or to wear a hearing aid.", "Stewart was offered the role of Howard Beale in ''Network'' (1976) but refused it due to its explicit language.", "Instead, he appeared in supporting roles in the disaster film ''Airport '77'' (1977) with Jack Lemmon, the remake of ''The Big Sleep'' (1978) with Robert Mitchum as Philip Marlowe, and the family film ''The Magic of Lassie'' (1978).", "Despite mixed reviews, ''Airport '77'' was a box-office success, but the two other films were commercial and critical failures.", "Harry Haun of ''New York Daily News'' wrote in his review of ''The Big Sleep'' that it was \"really sad to see James Stewart struggle so earnestly with material that just isn't there\".", "Stewart made a memorable cameo appearance on the final episode of ''The Carol Burnett Show'' in March 1978, surprising Burnett, a lifelong Stewart fan.Stewart's final live-action feature film was the critically panned Japanese film ''The Green Horizon'' (1980), directed by Susumu Hani.", "Stewart took the role because the film promoted wildlife conservation and allowed his family to travel with him to Kenya.", "In the 1980s, Stewart semi-retired from acting.", "He was offered the role of Norman Thayer in ''On Golden Pond'' (1981) but turned it down because he disliked the film's father-daughter relationship; the role went instead to his friend, Henry Fonda.", "Stewart filmed two television movies in the 1980s: ''Mr.", "Krueger's Christmas'' (1980), produced by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which allowed him to fulfill a lifelong dream to conduct the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, and ''Right of Way'' (1983), an HBO drama that co-starred Bette Davis.", "He also made an appearance in the historical miniseries ''North and South'' in 1986 and did voiceover work for commercials for Campbell's Soups in the 1980s and 1990s.", "Stewart's last film performance was voicing the character of Sheriff Wylie Burp in the animated movie ''An American Tail: Fievel Goes West'' (1991).Stewart remained in the public eye due to his frequent visits to the White House during the Reagan administration.", "The re-release of Hitchcock films gained him renewed recognition, with ''Rear Window'' and ''Vertigo'' praised by film critics.", "Stewart also received several honorary film industry awards at the end of his career: an American Film Institute Award in 1980, a Silver Bear in 1982, Kennedy Center Honors in 1983, an Academy Honorary Award in 1985, and National Board of Review and Film Society of Lincoln Center's Chaplin Award in 1990.The honorary Oscar was presented by former co-star Cary Grant \"for his 50 years of memorable performances, for his high ideals both on and off the screen, with respect and affection of his colleagues\".", "In addition, Stewart received the highest civilian award in the US, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, \"for his contributions in the fields of the arts, entertainment and public service\", in 1985.=== Posthumous work ===In December 2023, meditation app Calm announced that Stewart would be the latest narrator for its Sleep Story series, with an AI-generated voice of the actor reading an original story “''It’s a Wonderful Sleep Story''”.", "The project uses AI voice-cloning technology from Respeecher, and was conducted with the consent of Stewart's family and his estate." ], [ "Personal life", "===Romantic relationships===alt=Stewart and Sullavan sitting close and looking into each other's eyesAs a friend, mentor, and focus of his early romantic feelings, Margaret Sullavan had a unique influence on Stewart's life.They met while they were both performing for the University Players; he was smitten, and invited her on a date.", "Unfortunately for Stewart, she regarded him as a close friend and co-worker, so they never began a romantic relationship.", "Though Sullavan was always aware of his feelings, Stewart never directly revealed them to her.", "Sullavan loved Stewart, but not romantically.", "Rather, she felt protective and maternal towards him.The director of ''The Shopworn Angel'', H. C. Potter, suggested they might have married had Stewart been more forthcoming with his feelings.", "Instead, Sullavan became his acting mentor in Hollywood.", "According to director Edward H. Griffith, she \"made him a star\" by co-starring with him in four films: ''Next Time You Love'' (1936), ''The Shopworn Angel'' (1938), ''The Shop Around the Corner'' (1940) and ''The Mortal Storm'' (1940).Stewart did not marry until his forties, which attracted a significant amount of contemporary media attention; gossip columnist Hedda Hopper called him the \"Great American Bachelor\".", "Regardless, he had several romantic relationships prior to marriage.", "After being introduced by Henry Fonda, Stewart and Ginger Rogers enjoyed a relationship in 1935, while Fonda was dating Rogers' good friend Lucille Ball.During production of ''The Shopworn Angel'' (1938), Stewart dated actress Norma Shearer for six weeks.", "Afterward, he dated Loretta Young, but she wanted to settle down and Stewart did not.While filming ''Destry Rides Again'' (1939), Stewart had an affair with his co-star Marlene Dietrich, who was married at the time.", "Dietrich allegedly became pregnant, but it was quickly terminated.", "Stewart ended their relationship after the filming was completed.", "Hurt by Stewart's rejection, she barely mentioned him in her memoir and waved him off as a one-time affair.He dated Olivia de Havilland in the late 1930s and early 1940s and even proposed marriage to her, but she rejected the proposal, as she believed he was not ready to settle down.", "She ended the relationship shortly before he began his military service, as she had fallen in love with director John Huston.===War career as pilot (1941–1946)===A licensed civilian pilot, Stewart enlisted in the Army Air Forces early in 1941.In January 1944 at the rank of captain, he was assigned to the 453rd Bombardment Group, 2nd Combat Bombardment Wing, Eighth Air Force operating out of East Anglia, England.", "After seeing action in Europe during World War II, he attained the rank of colonel and received several awards for his service.", "He was made brigadier general in the Air Force Reserve in 1959.He retired from the service in 1968, at which time he was awarded the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.", "President Reagan recounted at a White House briefing that he was corrected by Stewart himself after Reagan incorrectly announced he was a major general at a campaign event.===Marriage and family===In 1942, while serving in the military, Stewart met singer Dinah Shore at the Hollywood Canteen, a club mainly for servicemen.", "They began a romantic relationship and were nearly married in Las Vegas in 1943, but Stewart called off the marriage before they arrived, citing cold feet.", "After the war, Stewart began a relationship with Myrna Dell while he was filming ''The Stratton Story'' (1949).", "Although gossip columnists made claims that they were planning to marry, Dell said this was not true.Stewart with his wife Gloria and their children in 1954Stewart's first interaction with his future wife, Gloria Hatrick McLean, was at Keenan Wynn's Christmas party in 1947.He had crashed the party and became inebriated, leaving a poor impression of himself with Hatrick.", "A year later, Gary Cooper and his wife, Veronica, invited Hatrick and Stewart to a dinner party, and the two began dating.", "A former model, Hatrick was divorced with two children.", "Stewart and Hatrick were married at Brentwood Presbyterian Church on August 9, 1949, and remained married until her death from lung cancer in 1994.The couple purchased a home in Beverly Hills in 1951, where they resided for the rest of their lives.", "They also owned the Winecup Gamble Ranch in Nevada from 1953 to 1957.Stewart adopted Gloria's two sons, Ronald (1944–1969) and Michael (born 1946), and with Gloria he had twin daughters, Judy and Kelly, on May 7, 1951.Ronald was killed in action in Vietnam on June 8, 1969, at the age of 24, while serving as a lieutenant in the Marine Corps.===Friendships, interests, and character===Stewart was guarded about his personal life and, according to biographer Scott Eyman, tended in interviews to avoid the emotional connection he was known for in his films, preferring to keep his thoughts and feelings to himself.", "He was known as a loner who did not have intimate relationships with many people.", "Director John Ford said of Stewart, \"You don't get to know Jimmy Stewart; Jimmy Stewart gets to know you.", "\"Stewart's 50-year friendship with Henry Fonda began in Manhattan when Fonda invited Stewart to be his third roommate (in addition to Joshua Logan and Myron McCormick) in order to make the rent.", "When Stewart moved to Hollywood in 1935, he again shared an apartment with Fonda, and the two gained reputations as playboys.", "Over their careers, they starred in four films together: ''On Our Merry Way'' (1948), ''How the West Was Won'' (1962), ''Firecreek'' (1968), and ''The Cheyenne Social Club'' (1970).", "Both Stewart's and Fonda's children later noted that their favorite activity when not working seemed to be quietly sharing time together while building and painting model airplanes, a hobby they had taken up in New York years earlier.", "Besides building model airplanes, Stewart and Fonda liked to build and fly kites, play golf, and reminisce about the \"old days\".", "After Fonda's death in 1982, Stewart's only public comment was \"I've just lost my best friend.\"", "Their friendship was chronicled in Scott Eyman's biography, ''Hank and Jim'' (2017).Aside from Fonda, Stewart's close friends included his former agent, Leland Hayward; director John Ford; photographer John Swope, Stewart's former roommate; and Billy Grady, the talent scout who discovered Stewart and also served as the best man at his wedding.", "Gary Cooper was another close friend of Stewart's.", "On April 17, 1961, Cooper was too ill (with cancer) to attend the 33rd Academy Awards ceremony, so Stewart accepted the honorary Oscar on his behalf.Brigadier General James Stewart, circa 1968In addition to his film career, Stewart had diversified investments, including real estate, oil wells, the charter-plane company Southwest Airways, and membership on major corporate boards; he became a multimillionaire.", "Already prior to his enlistment in the Air Corps, he had been an avid pilot, with a private pilot certificate and a commercial pilot license, as well as over 400 hours of flying time.", "A highly-proficient pilot, he entered a cross-country race with Leland Hayward in 1937 and was one of the early investors in Thunderbird Field, a pilot-training school built and operated by Southwest Airways in Glendale, Arizona.Stewart was also active in philanthropy over the years.", "He served as the national vice-chairman of entertainment for the American Red Cross's fund-raising campaign for wounded soldiers in Vietnam, as well as contributed donations for improvements and restorations to Indiana, his hometown in Pennsylvania.", "His signature charity event, \"The Jimmy Stewart Relay Marathon Race\", held annually since 1982, has raised millions of dollars for the Child and Family Development Center at St. John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California.Stewart was a lifelong supporter of scouting, having been a Second Class Scout as a youth and being awarded the Silver Buffalo Award for service to youth in 1958.He was also an adult Scout leader, and in the 1970s and 1980s, he made advertisements for the Boy Scouts of America, which led to his being incorrectly identified as an Eagle Scout.", "An award for Boy Scouts, \"The James M. Stewart Good Citizenship Award\" has been presented since 2003.Stewart was also a Life Member of the Sons of the Revolution in California.===Political views===Speaking at alt=An elderly Stewart standing in a tuxedo on a stage, holding a microphoneStewart was a staunch conservative Republican throughout his life.", "A political argument in 1947 reportedly led to a fistfight with friend Henry Fonda (a liberal Democrat), according to some accounts, but the two maintained their friendship by never discussing politics again.", "The fistfight may be apocryphal, as Jhan Robbins quotes Stewart as saying, \"Our views never interfered with our feelings for each other.", "We just didn't talk about certain things.", "I can't remember ever having an argument with him⁠—ever!", "\"In 1964, Stewart campaigned for the conservative presidential candidate Barry Goldwater and, according to biographer Marc Eliot, erred on the obsessive prior to the election.", "Stewart was a hawk on the Vietnam War and maintained that his son, Ronald, did not die in vain.", "Following the assassination of Senator Robert F. Kennedy in 1968, Stewart, Charlton Heston, Kirk Douglas, and Gregory Peck issued a statement calling for support of President Lyndon B. Johnson's Gun Control Act of 1968.Stewart actively supported Ronald Reagan's bid for the Republican presidential nomination in 1976.He attended Reagan's campaign rallies, in one speech assuring that he was more conservative than ever, regardless of the death of his son in the Vietnam War.", "In the last years of his life, he supported the re-election of Jesse Helms to the Senate in 1990 and also donated to the campaign of Bob Dole for the 1996 presidential election.In 1988, Stewart made a plea in Congressional hearings, along with Burt Lancaster, Katharine Hepburn, Ginger Rogers, film director Martin Scorsese, and many others, against Ted Turner's decision to 'colorize' classic black-and-white films, including ''It's a Wonderful Life''.", "Stewart stated, \"the coloring of black-and-white films is wrong.", "It's morally and artistically wrong and these profiteers should leave our film industry alone.", "\"In 1989, Stewart founded the American Spirit Foundation to apply entertainment-industry resources to developing innovative approaches to public education and to assist the emerging democracy movements in the former Iron Curtain countries." ], [ "Final years and death", "alt=A flat, bronze grave marker surrounded by grass and decorated with flowers and small American flagsStewart's wife Gloria died of lung cancer on February 16, 1994, aged 75.According to biographer Donald Dewey, her death left Stewart depressed and \"lost at sea\".", "Stewart became even more reclusive, spending most of his time in his bedroom, exiting only to eat and visit with his children.", "He shut out most people from his life, not only media and fans, but also his co-stars and friends.", "His friends Leonard Gershe and Gregory Peck said Stewart was not depressed or unhappy, but finally allowed to rest and be alone.Stewart was hospitalized after falling in December 1995.In December 1996, he was due to have the battery in his pacemaker changed but opted not to have that done.", "In February 1997, he was hospitalized for an irregular heartbeat.", "On June 25, a thrombosis formed in his right leg, leading to a pulmonary embolism one week later.", "Stewart died of a heart attack caused by the embolism at the age of 89, surrounded by his children at his home in Beverly Hills, on July 2, 1997.President Bill Clinton commented that America had lost a \"national treasure ... a great actor, a gentleman and a patriot\".", "He was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.", "More than 3,000 mourners attended his memorial service, including June Allyson, Carol Burnett, Bob Hope, Lew Wasserman, Nancy Reagan, Esther Williams, and Robert Stack.", "The service included full military honors and three volleys of musketry." ], [ "Acting style and screen persona", "According to biographer Scott Eyman, Stewart was an instinctive actor.", "He was natural and at ease in front of the camera, despite his shy off-screen personality.", "In line with his natural and conversational acting style, Stewart's co-stars found him easy to work with, as he was willing to improvise around any situation that arose while filming.", "Later in his career, Stewart began to resent his reputation of having a \"natural\" acting technique.", "He asserted that there was not anything natural about standing on a sound stage in front of lights and cameras while acting out a scene.Stewart had established early in his career that he was proficient at communicating personality and character nuances through his performances alone.", "He used an \"inside-out\" acting technique, preferring to represent the character without accents, makeup, and props.", "Additionally, he tended to act with his body, not only with his voice and face; for example, in ''Harvey'', Stewart portrays the main character's age and loneliness by slightly hunching down.", "He was also known for his pauses that had the ability to hold the audience's attention.", "Film critic Geoffrey O'Brien related that Stewart's \"stammering pauses\" created anxious space for the audience, leaving them in anticipation for the scene which Stewart took his time leading up to.Stewart himself claimed to dislike his earlier film performances, saying he was \"all hands and feet\", adding that he \"didn't seem to know what to do with either\".", "He mentioned that even though he did not always like his performances, he would not get discouraged.", "He said, \"But I always tried, and if the script wasn't too good, well, then, I just tried a little bit harder.", "I hope, though, not so hard that it shows.\"", "Former co-star Kim Novak stated of his acting style that for emotional scenes, he would access emotions deep inside of him and would take time to wind down after the scene ended.", "He could not turn it off immediately after the director yelled cut.Sample from ''The Man From Laramie'' trailer (1955) showcasing Stewart's recognizable drawlLana Turner and Stewart in ''Ziegfeld Girl'' (1941)Stewart was particularly adept at performing vulnerable scenes with women.", "Jack Lemmon suggested that Stewart's talent for performing with women was that he was able to allow the audience to see the respect and gentility he felt toward the women through his eyes.", "He showed that his characters needed them as much as their characters needed him.", "In connection to Stewart's screen persona with women, Peter Bradshaw said ''The Philadelphia Story'' is \"a film every school pupil should see\" due to Stewart's character's clear explanation of sexual consent after being accused of taking advantage of the main female character.Stewart's screen persona was that of an \"everyman\", an ordinary man placed in extraordinary circumstances.", "Audiences could identify with him, in contrast to other Hollywood leading men of the time, such as Cary Grant, who represented what the audience wanted to become.", "Stewart's screen persona has been compared to those of Gary Cooper and Tom Hanks.", "Eyman suggested that Stewart could portray several different characters: \"the brother, the sweetheart, and the nice guy next door with a bias toward doing the right thing: always decent but never a pushover\".", "In Stewart's early career, Louella Parsons described his \"boyish appeal\" and \"ability to win audience sympathy\" as the reasons for his success as an actor; Stewart's performances appealed to both young and old audiences.", "According to film scholar Dennis Bingham, Stewart's essential persona was \"a small-town friendly neighbor, with a gentle face and voice and a slim body that is at once graceful and awkward\".", "Unlike many actors who developed their on-screen persona over time, Stewart's on-screen persona was recognizable as early as ''Art Trouble'' (1934), his uncredited debut film role, where Stewart was relaxed and comfortable on screen.", "He portrayed this persona most strongly in the 1940s, but maintained a classic everyman persona throughout his career.Film scholar Dennis Bingham wrote that Stewart was \"both a 'personality' star and a chameleon\" who evoked both masculine and feminine qualities.", "Consequently, it was difficult for filmmakers to sell Stewart as the stereotypical leading man, and thus he \"became a star in films that capitalized on his sexual ambivalence\".", "Stewart's asexual persona as a leading man was unusual for the time period for an actor who was not mainly a comedian.", "However, during his career \"Stewart encompassed the furthest extremes of American masculinity, from Reaganite militarist patriotism to Hitchcockian perversity\".Stewart as news photographer Jeffries in ''Rear Window'' (1954)According to Roger Ebert, Stewart's pre-World War II characters were usually likable, but in postwar years directors chose to cast Stewart in darker roles, such as Jeffries in ''Rear Window''.", "Ebert put this into contemporary perspective by asking, \"What would it feel like to see Tom Hanks in a bizarre and twisted light?", "\", explaining that it is jarring to see a beloved everyman persona such as Stewart in dark roles.", "Furthermore, Jonathan Rosenbaum explained that since audiences were more interested in Stewart's \"star persona\" and \"aura\" than his characters, \"this makes it more striking when Anthony Mann and Alfred Hitchcock periodically explore the neurotic and obsessive aspects of Stewart's persona to play against his all-American innocence and earnestness.", "\"Janet Leigh and Stewart in Anthony Mann's ''The Naked Spur'' (1953)Film scholar John Belton argued that rather than playing characters in his films, Stewart often played his own screen persona.", "He had difficulty playing famous historical personages because his persona could not accommodate the historical character.", "Belton explained that \"James Stewart is more James Stewart than Glenn Miller in ''The Glenn Miller Story'' (1954) or Charles Lindbergh in ''The Spirit of St. Louis'' (1957).\"", "Moreover, Jonathan Rosenbaum continued that Stewart's \"pre-existing life-size persona\" in ''Winchester '73'' \"helped to shape and determine the impact of his character in this film\".", "On the other hand, Stewart has been described as a character actor who went through several distinct career phases.", "According to film scholar Amy Lawrence, the main elements of Stewart's persona, \"a propensity for physical and spiritual suffering, lingering fears of inadequacy\", were established by Frank Capra in the 1930s and were enhanced through his later work with Hitchcock and Mann.", "John Belton explained that \"James Stewart evolves from the naive, small-town, populist hero of Frank Capra's 1930s comedies to the bitter, anxiety-ridden, vengeance-obsessed cowboy in Anthony Mann's 1950s Westerns and the disturbed voyeur and sexual fetishist in Alfred Hitchcock's 1950s suspense thrillers.\"", "During his postwar career, Stewart usually avoided appearing in comedies, ''Harvey'' and ''Take Her, She's Mine'' being exceptions.", "He played many different types of characters, including manipulative, cynical, obsessive, or crazy characters.", "Stewart found that acting allowed him to express the fear and anxiety that he could not express during the war; his post-war performances were received well by audiences because they could still see the innocent, pre-war Stewart underneath his dark roles.", "According to Andrew Sarris, Stewart was \"the most complete actor-personality in the American cinema\"." ], [ "Work", "===Filmography==='''Selected credits''':===Theatre=== Year Production Role Venue Ref.", "1932 ''Carry Nation'' Constable Gano Biltmore Theatre, Broadway 1932–1933 ''Goodbye Again'' Chauffeur Theatre Masque, Broadway 1933 ''Spring in Autumn'' Jack BrennanHenry Miller's Theatre, Broadway 1934 ''All Good Americans'' Johnny Chadwick 1934 ''Yellow Jack'' Sgt.", "John O'Hara Martin Beck Theatre, Broadway 1934 ''Divided By Three'' Teddy Parrish Ethel Barrymore Theatre, Broadway 1934–1935 ''Page Miss Glory'' Ed Olsen Mansfield Theatre, Broadway 1935 ''A Journey By Night'' Carl Shubert Theatre, Broadway 1947''Harvey'' Elwood P. Dowd 48th Street Theatre, Broadway 1970 ANTA Theatre, Broadway 1975 ''A Gala Tribute to Joshua Logan'' Himself Imperial Theatre, Broadway ===Radio===Rosalind Russell and Stewart at CBS Radio in 1937 Year Program Episode Reference June 14, 1937 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''Madame X'' 1937 ''Good News of 1938'' As himself March 12, 1939 ''The Screen Guild Theater'' ''Tailored By Toni'' November 5, 1939 ''The Gulf Screen Guild Theater'' ''Going My Way'' February 11, 1940 ''The Gulf Screen Guild Theater'' ''Single Crossing'' September 29, 1940 ''Screen Guild Players'' ''The Shop Around the Corner'' November 10, 1945 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''Destry Rides Again'' February 21, 1946 ''Suspense'' Consequence March 10, 1947 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''It's A Wonderful Life'' December 15, 1947 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''Magic Town'' March 18, 1948 ''Reader's Digest Radio Edition'' ''One Way to Broadway'' January 17, 1949 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''You Gotta Stay Happy'' December 1, 1949 ''Suspense'' ''Mission Completed'' August 29, 1949 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''June Bride'' December 9, 1949 ''Screen Directors Playhouse'' ''Call Northside 777'' February 13, 1950 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''The Stratton Story'' February 26, 1951 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''When Johnny Comes Marching Home'' November 12, 1951 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''Winchester '73'' April 28, 1952 ''Lux Radio Theatre'' ''No Highway in the Sky'' March 1, 1953 ''Theatre Guild on the Air'' ''O'Halloran's Luck'' September 20, 1953 – June 24, 1954 ''The Six Shooter'' Starred as Britt Ponset ===Audiobooks=== Year Title Publisher Reference December 2023 ''It's A Wonderful Sleep Story'' Calm" ], [ "Legacy", "Stewart, Donna Reed and Karolyn Grimes in ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946)Stewart is remembered for portraying idealist \"everyman\" characters in his films.", "His heroism on screen and devotion to his family made him relatable and representative of the American ideal, leading Stewart to be considered one of the best-loved figures in twentieth-century American popular culture.", "According to film scholar Dennis Bingham, \"his ability to 'play'—even symbolize—honesty and 'American ideals' made him an icon into whose mold later male stars tried to pour themselves\".", "Similarly, film scholar James Naremore has called Stewart \"the most successful actor of the 'common man' in the history of movies\" and \"the most intensely-emotional leading man to emerge from the studio system\", who could cry on screen without losing his masculinity.", "David Thomson has explained Stewart's appeal by stating that \"we wanted to be him, and we wanted to be liked by him\", while Roger Ebert has stated that \"whether he played everyman, or everyman's hidden psyche, Stewart was an innately likable man whose face, loping gait and distinctive drawl became famous all over the world\".", "Among Stewart's most recognizable qualities was his manner of speaking with a hesitant drawl.", "According to film scholar Tim Palmer, \"Stewart's legacy rests on his roles as the nervous idealist standing trial for, and gaining stature from, the sincerity of his beliefs, while his emotive convictions are put to the test.\"", "Film critic David Ansen wrote about Stewart's appeal as a person in addition to his appeal as an actor.", "Ansen retold a story in which Jack Warner, upon being told about Ronald Reagan's presidential ambitions, said, \"No.", "Jimmy Stewart for president, Ronald Reagan for best friend.\"", "Ansen further explained that Stewart was the ultimate trustworthy movie star.In contrast to his popularly remembered \"all-American\" screen persona, film critics and scholars have tended to emphasize that his performances also showed a \"dark side\".", "According to film scholar Murray Pomerance, \"the other Jimmy Stewart ... was a different type altogether, a repressed and neurotic man buried beneath an apparently calm facade, but ready at any moment to explode with vengeful anxiety and anger, or else with deeply twisted and constrained passions that could never match up with cheery personality of the alter ego.\"", "Bingham has described him as having \"two coequal personas; the earnest idealist, the nostalgic figure of the homespun boy next door; and the risk-taking actor who probably performed in films for more canonical auteurs than any other American star\".", "According to him, it is this complexity and his ambiguous masculinity and sexuality with which he approached his roles that characterized his persona.", "Naremore has stated that there was a \"troubled, cranky, slightly-repressed feeling in Stewart's behavior\", and Thomson has written that it was his dark side that produced \"great cinema\".Stewart was one of the most sought-after actors in 1950s Hollywood, proving that independent actors could be successful in the film industry, which led more actors in Hollywood to forego studio contracts.", "According to Bingham, Stewart marked \"the transition between the studio period...and the era of free-lance actors, independent production, and powerful talent agents that made possible the \"new kind of star\" of the late 1960s\".", "Although Stewart was not the first big-name freelance actor, his \"mythic sweetness and idealism which were combined with eccentric physical equipment and capacity as an actor to enact emotion, anxiety, and pain\" enabled him to succeed in both the studio system, which emphasized the star as a real person, and the skeptical post-studio era.A number of Stewart's films have become classics of American cinema, with twelve of his films having been inducted into the United States National Film Registry as of 2019, and five—''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' (1939), ''The Philadelphia Story'' (1940), ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946), ''Rear Window'' (1954), and ''Vertigo'' (1958)—being featured on the American Film Institute's list of the 100 greatest American films of all time.", "Stewart and Robert DeNiro share the title for the most films represented on the AFI list.", "Stewart is also the most represented leading actor on the \"100 Greatest Movies of All Time\" list presented by ''Entertainment Weekly''.", "Two of his characters—Jefferson Smith in ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' (1939) and George Bailey in ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946)—made AFI's list of the one hundred greatest heroes and villains, and ''Harvey'' (1950) and ''The Philadelphia Story'' (1940) were included in their list of Greatest American Comedies.", "In 1999, the American Film Institute (AFI) ranked Stewart third on its list of the greatest American male actors.=== Awards and honors ===Hollywood Walk of Fame star at Hollywood and Vine (background Broadway Hollywood Building)In 1960, Stewart was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1700 Vine Street for his contributions to the film industry.", "In 1974, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.", "His Golden Plate was presented by Awards Council member Helen Hayes.", "In 1997, Princeton University, Stewart's alma mater, honored him with the dedication of the James M. Stewart Theater along with a retrospective of his films.", "Stewart has also been honored with his own postal stamp as part of the \"Legends of Hollywood\" stamp series.", "In 1999, a bust of Stewart was unveiled at the Eighth Air Force Heritage Museum in Georgia.", "The L. Tom Perry Special Collections Library at Brigham Young University houses his personal papers and movie memorabilia including letters, scrapbooks, recordings of early radio programs, and two of his accordions.", "Stewart donated his papers and memorabilia to the library after becoming friends with the curator of its arts and communications collections, James D'Arc.", "Year Association Category Nominated work Result1939 Academy Award Best Actor ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' 1940 ''The Philadelphia Story'' 1946 ''It's a Wonderful Life'' 1951 ''Harvey'' 1959 ''Anatomy of a Murder'' 1984 Academy Honorary Award 1955 BAFTA Awards Best Actor ''The Glenn Miller Story'' 1960 ''Anatomy of a Murder'' 1950 Golden Globe Award Best Actor in a Motion Picture - Drama ''Harvey'' 1962 Best Actor in a Motion Picture - Comedy/Musical ''Mr.", "Hobbs Takes a Vacation'' 1964 Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award 1973 Best Actor in a Television Series - Drama ''Hawkins'' 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Award Best Actor ''Mr.", "Smith Goes to Washington'' 1959 ''Anatomy of a Murder'' 1959 Venice International Film Festival Volpi Cup for Best Actor === Memorials ===Stewart's statue at his hometown of Indiana, PennsylvaniaStewart has several memorials in his childhood hometown, Indiana, Pennsylvania.", "On May 20, 1995, his 87th birthday, The Jimmy Stewart Museum was established.", "The museum is located near his birthplace, his childhood home, and the former location of his father's hardware store.", "The museum has six galleries that include photos, memorabilia, personal mementos, movie posters, props, scripts, costumes and much more.", "Stewart had contributed significant donations to his hometown, and had done it quietly as he didn't want the publicity.", "A large statue of Stewart stands on the lawn of the Indiana County Courthouse, and a plaque marks his birthplace.", "In 1983, Jimmy Stewart came back to Indiana to celebrate his 75th birthday and unveiled the statue along with getting a phone call from then President Ronald Reagan to congratulate him on his birthday.", "2011, the United States Post Office located at 47 South 7th Street in Indiana, Pennsylvania, was designated the \"James M. 'Jimmy' Stewart Post Office Building\".", "Additionally, the Indiana County–Jimmy Stewart Airport was named in his honor.", "His personal Cessna-310 airplane is refurbished and on display outside the airport that bears his name.", "His childhood home is still standing and overlooks his beloved hometown.=== Documentary ===* 2017: ''James Stewart/Robert Mitchum: The Two Faces of America'' directed by Gregory Monro" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===**** * Beaver, Jim.", "\"James Stewart.\"", "''Films in Review'', October 1980.", "******** Collins, Thomas W. Jr. \"Stewart, James\" .", "''American National Biography Online''.", "Retrieved February 18, 2007.", "**************** Houghton, Norris.", "''But Not Forgotten: The Adventure of the University Players''.", "New York: William Sloane Associates, 1951.", "*** Jackson, Kenneth T., Karen Markoe and Arnie Markoe.", "''The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives'' (5).", "New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998..************* * * Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds.", "\"Stewart, James.\"", "''International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers, 4th edition''.", "London: St. James Press, 2000..* Prendergast, Tom and Sara, eds.", "\"Stewart, James.\"", "''St.", "James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, 5th edition''.", "London: St. James Press, 2000..***************** Wright, Stuart J.", "''An Emotional Gauntlet: From Life in Peacetime America to the War in European Skies—A History of 453rd Bomb Group Crews''.", "Milwaukee, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004.." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Jimmy Stewart Museum* James Stewart interview on BBC Radio 4 ''Desert Island Discs'', December 23, 1983* Collections related to James Stewart at the L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jalalabad" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jalalabad''' (; Help:IPA/Persian|d͡ʒä.lɑː.lɑː.bɑːd̪) is the fifth-largest city of Afghanistan.", "It has a population of about 356,274, and serves as the capital of Nangarhar Province in the eastern part of the country, about from the capital Kabul.", "Jalalabad is located at the junction of the Kabul River and the Kunar River in a plateau to the south of the Hindu Kush mountains.", "It is linked by the Kabul-Jalalabad Road to the west and Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, to the east through Torkham and the Khyber Pass.Jalalabad is a leading center of social and trade activity because of its proximity with the Torkham border checkpoint and border crossing, away.", "Major industries include papermaking, as well as agricultural products including oranges, lemon, rice, and sugarcane, helped by its warm climate.", "It hosts Afghanistan's second largest educational institute, Nangarhar University.", "For centuries the city has been favored by Afghan kings and it has a cultural significance in Afghan poetry.", "During Timur Shah's reign of the Durrani Empire, Jalalabad served as the Afghan winter capital." ], [ "History", "===Ancient and medieval===Known at the time by names such as Nagarhara and Adinapur, Jalalabad was a major center of Greco-Buddhist culture during the late 1st millennium BCE, focused on sites such as Ahin Posh.The first surviving references to the city are in early 1st millennium CE accounts by visiting Chinese Buddhist monks.", "In or about 400 CE, Faxian visited \"Nagarhara\" and worshiped at sacred Buddhist sites, such as the \"Cave of the Buddha's Shadow” (佛影窟).", "In 630 CE, Xuan Zang, visited \"Adinapur\" and other locations nearby.The Buddhist era began to end after the region was conquered by Muslim forces during the late 1st Millennium.", "However, conversions to Islam evidently did not occur quickly.", "In ''Hudud-al-Alam'', written in 982 CE, there is reference to a village near Jalalabad where the local king had Muslim, Buddhist and Hindu wives.The Bagh-e Shahi palace and gardens, c. 1920.The Emir's gardens, pictured in the 19th century.The region became part of the Ghaznavid Empire in the 10th century.", "Sabuktigin annexed the land all the way west of the Neelum River in Kashmir.", "\"The Afghans and Khiljies who resided among the mountains having taken the oath of allegiance to Sabuktigin, many of them were enlisted in his army, after which he returned in triumph to Ghazni.\"", "The Ghurids succeeded the Ghaznavids and expanded the Islamic empire further into Hindustan.", "The region around Jalalabad later became part of the Khalji territory, followed by that of the Timurids.===Modern===It is said that the original name of Jalalabad was '''Adinapur'''.", "Jalalabad was named in honour of Mughal ruler Jalal-uddin in the last decade of the sixteenth century, the grandson of Babur.", "The modern city gained prominence during the reign of Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire.", "Babur had chosen the site for this city which was built by his grandson Jalal-uddin Mohammad Akbar in 1560.It remained part of the Mughal Empire until around 1738 when Nader Shah and his Afsharid forces defeated the Mughals.", "Nader Shah's forces were accompanied by the young Ahmad Shah Durrani and his 4,000-strong Afghan army from southern Afghanistan.", "In 1747, he founded the Durrani Empire (Afghan Empire) after re-conquering the area.", "The Afghan army has long used the city while going back and forth during their military campaigns into the Indian-subcontinent.In 1834, Dost Mohammad Khan subjugated Jalalabad in his campaign to Jalalabad.The British-Indian forces invaded Jalalabad in 1838, during the First Anglo-Afghan War.", "In the 1842 Battle of Jellalabad, Akbar Khan besieged the British troops on their way to Jalalabad.", "In 1878, during the Second Anglo-Afghan War, the British again invaded and set up camps in Jalalabad but withdrew two years later.Jalalabad is considered one of the most important cities of the Pashtun culture.", "Seraj-ul-Emarat, the residence of Amir Habibullah and King Amanullah was destroyed in 1929 when Habibullah Kalakani rose to power; the other sanctuaries however, retain vestiges of the past.", "The mausoleum of both rulers is enclosed by a garden facing Seraj-ul-Emart.", "The Sulemankhils, a Pashtun family famous for their scientific research, is from Jalalabad.", "Other celebrated Pashtun families originate from the villages near Jalalabad too.In the 1960s and 1970s, construction started on a new planned city called Reg-e Shamshad Khan.From 1978 to early 1990s, the city served as a strategic location for the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.", "In March 1989, two Mujahideen rebel factions backed by Pakistan and the U.S. assaulted the city during the Battle of Jalalabad.", "However government forces managed to drive them out within two months, which was a major setback to the resistance fighters and the ISI.", "The city was heavily bombarded and hundreds of civilians were killed.", "Many buildings, such as schools, hospitals and public buildings were destroyed during the 2-month battle.Aerial view of Jalalabad in 2012After the resignation of President Najibullah, Jalalabad quickly fell to mujahideen rebels of Yunus Khalis on April 19, 1992.On September 12, 1996, the Taliban took control of the city until they were toppled by the US-backed Afghan forces in late 2001.Al-Qaeda had been building terrorist training camps in Jalalabad.", "The city returned to Afghan government control under Hamid Karzai.The economy of Jalalabad gradually increased in the last decade.", "Many of the city's population began joining the Afghan National Security Forces.", "Construction has also increased.", "The Jalalabad Airport has long served as a military base for the NATO forces.", "In 2011, the U.S. Embassy in Kabul announced that it plans to establish a consulate in Jalalabad.", "In March 2007, US marines murdered 19 unarmed civilians and wounded 50 near Jalalabad, in an incident compared by the New York Times to the Haditha massacre.", "None of those responsible received any serious punishment.", "Many suicide attacks by jihadist insurgents have taken place, including in August 2013, April 2015, January 2018, July 2018, September 2018, October 2019 and August 2020.The groups responsible for the attacks include the Taliban, Haqqani Network, al-Qaeda, and ISIS (Daesh).On August 15, 2021, the Taliban again took control of the city.", "Its capture cut off the last highway from Kabul to the outside world, and the city fell later the same day.", "Three days later on August 18, protestors took down the Afghan Taliban flag and replaced it with a tricolor flag of the previous Afghan government." ], [ "Demographics", "The city population is estimated to be 280,685 in year 2021.It has six districts and a total land area of .", "The total number of dwellings in this city is 39,586.Nearly all residents of Jalalabad are Muslim, followers of Sunni Islam.", "Jalalabad is also a center of the country's Sikhs, although the community has dwindled in the city (and nationwide) since the wars began.", "Similarly it is also has a Hindu minority.=== Land use ===Jalalabad is the regional hub in eastern Afghanistan, close to the border with Pakistan.", "Agriculture is the predominant land use at 44%, higher density of dwellings is found in Districts 1–5 and vacant plots are largely clustered in District 6.Districts 1–6 all have a grid network of roads." ], [ "Climate", "View of the Spin Ghar range from the city of JalalabadView towards the city from the Kabul River banks to the northJalalabad's climate is hot desert (Köppen: BWh), and it is one of the hottest localities in Afghanistan.", "The city's climate has close resemblance to that of Arizona in the United States.", "It receives six to eight inches (152 to 203 mm) of rainfall per annum which are limited to winter and the months of spring.", "Frosts are not common, and during the summer, the temperature can reach a maximum of 120 °F (49 °C).The north and southwestern parts of the city which has lower elevation are welcoming places to winds from the north and west cooling the parts in summer months.", "Jalalabad has the highest relative humidity in summer compared to other Afghan cities.", "However the moderate temperatures of winter has led to various people down the history establishing their settlements in the city.", "Because of its warm temperature relative to most of Afghanistan, Jalalabad (alongside Peshawar) was often the \"winter capital\" of various Afghan rulers of the past centuries, while rich people would relocate to villas in Jalalabad to avoid the freezing temperatures in Kabul." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "Jalalabad is home to a large number of fruits.", "Various types of citrus fruits like orange, tangerine, grapefruit, lemon, lime grow in gardens as well as in orchards.", "The orange trees yield a crop only once in three years.", "The ''narindj'' variety of orange is the most common one which has yellow skin and its taste is a combination of orange and grapefruit.", "The grapefruits grown here have a diameter of eight or nine inches.", "Per year 1800 tonnes of pomegranates, 334 tonnes of grapes, and 7750 tonnes of mulberries are produced in Jalalabad.", "The fruits are either sold in local markets or transported to Kabul markets from where they are exported.", "The second most common crop is local ''vatani'' variety of sugarcane.", "It contains 15% sugar by weight.", "Jalalabad also has the largest date farm in Afghanistan." ], [ "Transportation", "Auto rickshaws in JalalabadThe Jalalabad Airport (also known as Nangarhar Airport) is located roughly southeast from the city's center.", "It is a domestic airport for civilian use.", "It serves the population of Nangarhar and neighboring provinces.There are proposals for the establishment of Afghanistan's rail network linking Jalalabad with Pakistan Railways, allowing for increased trade of goods, people and commerce between the two countries.Jalalabad is connected by main roads with the Afghan capital of Kabul, the city of Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, and several nearby Afghan cities and towns.", "All trade between Afghanistan and Pakistan passes through this city.", "The highway between Jalalabad and Kabul was resurfaced in 2006, reducing the transit time between these two important cities.", "This highway is considered to be one of the most dangerous in the world because of the large number of accidents.", "An improvement in the road networks between Jalalabad and Peshawar has also been proposed, with the intention of widening the existing road and improving security to attract more tourists and allow for safer passage of goods between to the two countries." ], [ "General places of interest", "The Ghazi Amanullah International Cricket Stadium is next to the Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town, which is about of driving distance southeast of Jalalabad.", "The people of Jalalabad go there not only for sports purposes but also for enjoyment and relaxation.", "This is especially during holidays or when they receive visiting family or friends from another place.", "It is also a popular hangout for those with cars.Mausoleum of King Amanullah Khan inside the Siraj-ul-Emarat ParkA shopping area next to Siraj-ul-Emarat Park*'''Hotels'''** Spinghar Hotel** Sultan Hotel and Restaurant** White House Hotel* '''Mosques'''** Akhunzada Mosque** Spin Mosque* '''Parks'''** Abdul Haq Park (located next to the city's main stadiums)** Amir Habibullah Khan Park (across the street from Siraj-ul-Emarat Park)** Aryan Park (located in the southwestern section of the city)** Farm Hada Park (located in southern part of the city)** Siraj-ul-Emarat Park (located next next to House of Governor)* '''Mausoleums'''** Mausoleum of King Amanullah Khan (Siraj-ul-Emarat Park)** Mausoleum of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan** Mausoleum of Mohammad Gul Khan Momand* '''Hospitals'''** Al Shifa Modern Hospital** Bakhtar Hospital** Baidara Hospital** Hassanzai Curative Hospital** Jalalabad Regional Hospital** Jalalabad Medical Complex** Khair-un-Nisa Medical Complex** Spingha Momand Hospital** Malalai Curative Hospital** Nangarhar Teaching Hospital** Naseri Hospital** Rokhan Hospital* '''Universities'''** Alfalah University** Ariana University** Khurasan University** Nangarhar University** Spinghar Higher Education Centre* '''Shopping centers'''** Hejaz Super Market** Jada Super Store** Nakamura Super Store" ], [ "Sports", "Nangarhar Football Stadium (during construction in 2011)The province is represented in domestic cricket competitions by the Nangarhar province cricket team.", "National team member Hamid Hasan was born in the province and he currently represents Afghanistan in international cricket.", "The Ghazi Amanullah International Cricket Stadium is the first international standard cricket stadium in Afghanistan.", "It is located in the Ghazi Amanullah Town, a modern suburb on the southeastern fringe of Jalalabad in Nangarhar Province.", "Construction on the stadium began in March 2010 when the foundation stone was laid by Minister of Finance and president of the Afghanistan Cricket Board, Omar Zakhilwal.", "The project, which was developed on 30 acres of land donated by the developer constructing the Ghazi Amanullah Town, cost up the first phase of construction $1.8 million.", "The first phase, which took one year to complete, included the completion of the stadium itself.", "The remainder of the phases will see the construction of a pavilion, accommodation for players and administrative buildings.", "The stadium, which has a capacity of 14,000, was completed before the national team and under-19 team left for Canada and the Under-19 Cricket World Cup Qualifier in Ireland respectively.", "The two sides inaugurated the stadium in a Twenty20 match.", "It is hoped that the stadium will be able to attract international teams to play Afghanistan, who currently have One Day International status until at least 2013.;Professional sports teams from Jalalabad Club League Sport Venue Established Nangarhar LeopardsAfghanistan Premier LeagueCricketSharjah Cricket Stadium2018 Speenghar Tigers Shpageeza Cricket League Cricket Ghazi Amanullah International Cricket Stadium 2013 De Spin Ghar Bazan F.C.", "Afghan Premier League Football Nangarhar Football Stadium 2012;Stadiums** Ghazi Amanullah International Cricket Stadium (around southeast from Jalalabad, next to Ghazi Amanullah Town)** Nangarhar Football Stadium (next to Abdul Haq Park and House of Governor)** Behsud Cricket Stadium (next to Abdul Haq Park and House of Governor)" ], [ "International sister cities", "*San Diego, California, United States" ], [ "Notable people", "* Rashid Khan, cricketer* Amanullah Khan, Emir and King of Afghanistan (1919–1929), buried in the city* Abdul Ghaffar Khan, buried in the city* Mohammad Gul Khan Momand, buried in the city* Tetsu Nakamura, lived and died in the city" ], [ "See also", "* List of cities in Afghanistan" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Published in the 19th century===* ===Published in the 20th century===*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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